DOCSLIB.ORG

The Wiswesser-Loschmidt Connection *

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Wiswesser-Loschmidt Connection * ll, t. Chem. 22 (1998) 2 j THE WISWESSER-LOSCHMIDT CONNECTION * Alfrd dr, Ml, WI Wll ph Wr (48 [. ] rd td fr hh Unvrt th .S. n htr n 6 nd rvd n hnrr .S. fr tht ntt tn n 4. pld b rl, th rjn dr Cpn, th tnn Arnl, th Cpr Unn, Wlln rdt, th U.S. Ar t rt tr, nd fnll b th Arltrl rh Srv f th U.S..A., n ntrtd thrht h vrd rr n plfn hl trtr drptn, h d vlpd th Wr n ttn (W, hh d pbl th nlln dptn f vr l l, n ttr h pltd. rh rnz r 2. Josef Loschmidt tn n th 80 hd lln f W rrd n thr ptr. h Aldrh Chl Cpn vn f frd t tl n W. Wr lrnd bt th hl r f f hdt (828 [. 2] fr Mrtz Khn ppr n th Journal of Chemical Education (1), hh bd n hrd Anhütz ppr (2 nd rprnt ( f hdt 86 vl (4. flt tht h hd d rt rdvr, l blvn tht th ht br ht th frrnnr f th W nd h ntd th rld t n bt t. r I. Wll . Wr 22 Bull. Hist. Chem. 22 (1998) He submitted a manuscript to the present author (A.B.) he had been invited, and then at chemical society meet- for the Aldrichimica Acta, which at the time was being ings and in chemistry departments, and finally by pub- distributed to over 200,000 scientists worldwide. Al- lishing several papers (7). All of these lectures and pa- though the initial response was one of reluctance, I be- pers were based on Wiswesser's seminal paper in the came enthusiastic about the subject after reading Aldrichimica Acta (5). I have been greatly helped in Loschmidt's book (3) and some letters, in particular one these efforts by Professor Christian R. Noe, formerly at by Wiswesser to Linus Pulling (see Ref. 16), and col- Loschmidt's alma mater, the Technical University in laborated to expand the paper, which appeared in Vienna, and now at the J.W. Goethe University in Frank- Aldrichimica Acta in 1989 (5). furt. Wiswesser described Loschmidt's chemical firsts: Our papers have been attacked quite sharply by two 1. The first correct cyclic structure of benzene and historians of chemistry, Professors A.J. Rocke (8) and of many aromatic chemicals, 121 in all. G.P. Schiemenz (9). Rocke presents three main argu- 2. The first representation of the allyl moiety. ments: 3. The first representation of the vinyl moiety and (1) "Loschmidt clearly believed that the most prob- of many others. able structure for benzene (Schema 182) was a 4. The first representation of cyclopropane, 21 formula constructed from multiple fused years before it was made by Freund. cyclopropyl rings, using only single bonds. (8)" 5. The first picture book of molecules, containing graphic displays with atomic domains, rather than abstract bond lines. 6. The first double- and triple-bond marks (within the overlaps). 7. The first realistic displays of atomic sizes and bond distances (largest overlap with triple bonds). Sh 82 8. The first set of diagrams with correct C = 12, N = 14, O = 16 formulas. However, all of Loschmidt's more than 100 aro- 9. The first textbook use of atomic-group symbols. matic compounds are based on Schema 185 as the basic 10. The first use of the valence prime marks on benzene structure. these and atomic symbols ("Valenz" was intro- duced by Wichelhaus in 1868, 7 years later). 11. The first LINE-FORMULA NOTATIONS ("ra- tional formulas"). 12. The first revelations of hexavalent and tetrava- lent sulfur. Sh 8 The article also outlined Loschmidt's life and work, based largely on the biography Richard Anschütz pub- lished with the 1913 reprint. Wiswesser also prepared (2 "... Kekulé himself did not recognize Loschmidt indices of Loschmidt and Anschütz citations, by author as a predecessor for the benzene structure be- and subject. He translated Loschmidt's chemical names cause he cited Loschmidt's benzene proposal into English and collated structures with page numbers. in his first paper on the subject. If Kekulé had On the occasion of our last meeting in Reading, consciously taken the idea for benzene from this PA, Wiswesser gave me a great deal of his material on obscure source, or regarded the Loschmidt Loschmidt, even copies of the original plates, which he structure as similar to his own, the last thing he had hand-colored Expressing concern about his own would have wanted to do was to draw attention failing health, he urged me to continue his work on to it. (8)" Loschmidt. I remember his pleasure upon receiving the Kekulé did not "cite" Loschmidt's proposal. All Acta containing his article, just a few days before he he said in one footnote in French (10) and one in Ger- died. man (11) was, "I prefer my structure to those of Since then, I have been trying to continue his work, Loschmidt and Crum Brown." Aside from these deni- by giving many lectures, first at the Boston American 0grating 0 footnotes - not citations - and one brief abstract Chemical Society meeting in April 1990 (6), to which (12), there were no references to Loschmidt's book in Bull. Hist. Chem. 22 (1998) 23 the entire 19th century. Rocke points to the Dictionary This misunderstanding that Loschmidt's benzene of Scientific Biography, where more space is devoted to structures might symbolize a monocyclic formula was Loschmidt than to Kekulé. Loschmidt was indeed well already discussed by E. Rey in 1965, who aptly com- known in the 19th century, but as a physicist, not a chem- mented that one must lnterpret the circular symbol as what it really means and not as what it could be, ist. Not until Anschütz's first paper (2) was Loschmidt and hence not as a circular array of six carbon atoms. recognized as a highly competent chemist. The argument also holds true for all of Loschmidt's (3) "Even if Loschmidt had suggested a cyclical formulae (by the way, there were not 386!) which benzene structure in 1861, I would argue for its may have some superficial resemblance with mod- insignificance, because no empirical evidence em molecular models. To date molecular modeling could then be adduced to support the idea. (8)" back to I861 is just anachronistic. This is the kind of argument that can be made Schiemenz's English summary of his longest paper states against much purely theoretical work. (9c): Schiemenz criticized Wiswesser inter alia for claim- ing that Loschmidt was the first to consider a 6-carbon In 1989, W. J. Wiswesser claimed that the correct, monocyclic structure for benzene, and also for stating monocyclic structure of benzene was not conceived that Loschmidt's book of 1861 was practically unknown in 1865 by A. Kekulé, but already in 1861 by J. and that he was "a shy and self-effacing man." Loschmidt. It is shown that this view is neither cor- rect nor new. As a symbol for the benzene nucleus "Die Idee einer monocyclischen Anordnung der sechs C 6 , Loschmidt used a circle which Wiswesser be- C-Atome des Benzols kommt nach allem bei lieved to stand for a cyclic array of the six carbon Loschmidt auch nicht andeutungsweise vor. (9a, 9c)" atoms. In fact, this circle represents, in the two-di- ("hr thr n hdt b vn th mensionality of the printed page, a sphere. Similar, lhtt hnt f nl rrnnt f th 6 but smaller 'circles' (.. spheres) represent hydro- rbn t n bnzn."( gen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur atoms. Their sizes are chosen so that the volumes of the corre- But consider the following structures to represent aro- sponding spheres reflect the respective atomic matic compounds aniline, benezenesulfonic acid, ben- weights (72 for C 6). This meaning soon passed into zoic acid, and cinnamic acid. oblivion. As a consequence, gradually a misinter- pretation developed which culminated in Wiswesser's view which recently has been popularized by C.R Noe and A. Bader. The most telling indication that Loschmidt thought of a monocyclic structure is in his Schema 229 for p-phe- nylenediamine (13): Aniline nznlfn Ad Shn dr Anbl d Sh zt d Mölht vn rn Mdftnn. ["Just looking at Schema 229 shows the possibility of isomeric modi- fications."] Sh 22 Cnn Ad Schiemenz counters (9d): Auch eine Anmerkung hdt zum In a letter to Chemistry and Industry, Schiemenz wrote 'Semibenzidam'='Azophenylamin' (9b): (Phenylendiamin), Schema 229, gehört hierher: 'Schon der Anblick des Schema zeigt die Möglichkeit 24 Bull. Hist. Chem. 22 (1998) von isomeren Modificationen' (Loschmidt (1861), wir Isomerie im engern Shine nennen. Solche 34). Entgegen der Auffassung von Noe and Bader Isomerie findet statt zwischen Milchsäure und (Chemistry in Britain 29 (1993) 402, Corrigendum: Paramilchsäure, zwischen Alphatoluolsäure und S.573; vlg, dies., in Wotiz (1993), 233) einer Inter- Betatoluolsäure. Die anderen Arten der Isomerie pretation als o-, m-, p- Positionsisomerie noch nicht im weiteren Sinne sind: erstens jene Fälle, wo zwei zugänglich (Anschütz (1913), I32), kann diese Substanzen denselben Kern und dieselben Aufsatz- Bemerkung nur im Sinne einer Konstitutionsisomerie Atome haben, wo aber die letzteren zu anderen verstanden werden (vgl. Loschmidt (1861): Isomerie, Aufsatzelementen gruppiert sind. So haben S.8-1I). Mithin muß bereits Loschmidt, der anderswo Nitrotoluol und Benzaminsäure [i.e., aminobenzoic N-N- und auch 0-0-Bindungen hat (Schema acid] nicht nur dieselbe Zusammenstellung C 7NH7O 2 , 176,178), an die Atomverknüpfung des Phenylhydrazins sondern auch denselben Kern C 7VIII und dieselben gedacht haben. Aufsatzatome NH 7 O 2 ." [Emphasis added] Thus, Schiemenz dismisses this argument by claiming Schiemenz points out that Loschmidt did think of six- that Loschmidt must have been thinking of an isomer atom monocycles such as his Schema 237, 1,4- like phenylhydrazine (which had not yet been made).
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Blackbody Radiation: (Vibrational Energies of Atoms in Solid Produce BB Radiation)
    Independent study in physics The Thermodynamic Interaction of Light with Matter Mirna Alhanash Project in Physics Uppsala University Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................................ 3 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Blackbody Radiation: (vibrational energies of atoms in solid produce BB radiation) .................................... 4 Stefan-Boltzmann .............................................................................................................................................................. 6 Wien displacement law..................................................................................................................................................... 7 Photoelectric effect ......................................................................................................................................................... 12 Frequency dependence/Atom model & electron excitation .................................................................................. 12 Why we see colours ....................................................................................................................................................... 14 Optical properties of materials: ..................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Ludwig Boltzmann Was Born in Vienna, Austria. He Received His Early Education from a Private Tutor at Home
    Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906) Ludwig Boltzmann was born in Vienna, Austria. He received his early education from a private tutor at home. In 1863 he entered the University of Vienna, and was awarded his doctorate in 1866. His thesis was on the kinetic theory of gases under the supervision of Josef Stefan. Boltzmann moved to the University of Graz in 1869 where he was appointed chair of the department of theoretical physics. He would move six more times, occupying chairs in mathematics and experimental physics. Boltzmann was one of the most highly regarded scientists, and universities wishing to increase their prestige would lure him to their institutions with high salaries and prestigious posts. Boltzmann himself was subject to mood swings and he joked that this was due to his being born on the night between Shrove Tuesday and Ash Wednesday (or between Carnival and Lent). Traveling and relocating would temporarily provide relief from his depression. He married Henriette von Aigentler in 1876. They had three daughters and two sons. Boltzmann is best known for pioneering the field of statistical mechanics. This work was done independently of J. Willard Gibbs (who never moved from his home in Connecticut). Together their theories connected the seemingly wide gap between the macroscopic properties and behavior of substances with the microscopic properties and behavior of atoms and molecules. Interestingly, the history of statistical mechanics begins with a mathematical prize at Cambridge in 1855 on the subject of evaluating the motions of Saturn’s rings. (Laplace had developed a mechanical theory of the rings concluding that their stability was due to irregularities in mass distribution.) The prize was won by James Clerk Maxwell who then went on to develop the theory that, without knowing the individual motions of particles (or molecules), it was possible to use their statistical behavior to calculate properties of a gas such as viscosity, collision rate, diffusion rate and the ability to conduct heat.
    [Show full text]
  • The Philosophy and Physics of Time Travel: the Possibility of Time Travel
    University of Minnesota Morris Digital Well University of Minnesota Morris Digital Well Honors Capstone Projects Student Scholarship 2017 The Philosophy and Physics of Time Travel: The Possibility of Time Travel Ramitha Rupasinghe University of Minnesota, Morris, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.morris.umn.edu/honors Part of the Philosophy Commons, and the Physics Commons Recommended Citation Rupasinghe, Ramitha, "The Philosophy and Physics of Time Travel: The Possibility of Time Travel" (2017). Honors Capstone Projects. 1. https://digitalcommons.morris.umn.edu/honors/1 This Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Scholarship at University of Minnesota Morris Digital Well. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Capstone Projects by an authorized administrator of University of Minnesota Morris Digital Well. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Philosophy and Physics of Time Travel: The possibility of time travel Ramitha Rupasinghe IS 4994H - Honors Capstone Project Defense Panel – Pieranna Garavaso, Michael Korth, James Togeas University of Minnesota, Morris Spring 2017 1. Introduction Time is mysterious. Philosophers and scientists have pondered the question of what time might be for centuries and yet till this day, we don’t know what it is. Everyone talks about time, in fact, it’s the most common noun per the Oxford Dictionary. It’s in everything from history to music to culture. Despite time’s mysterious nature there are a lot of things that we can discuss in a logical manner. Time travel on the other hand is even more mysterious.
    [Show full text]
  • Josiah Willard Gibbs
    GENERAL ARTICLE Josiah Willard Gibbs V Kumaran The foundations of classical thermodynamics, as taught in V Kumaran is a professor textbooks today, were laid down in nearly complete form by of chemical engineering at the Indian Institute of Josiah Willard Gibbs more than a century ago. This article Science, Bangalore. His presentsaportraitofGibbs,aquietandmodestmanwhowas research interests include responsible for some of the most important advances in the statistical mechanics and history of science. fluid mechanics. Thermodynamics, the science of the interconversion of heat and work, originated from the necessity of designing efficient engines in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Engines are machines that convert heat energy obtained by combustion of coal, wood or other types of fuel into useful work for running trains, ships, etc. The efficiency of an engine is determined by the amount of useful work obtained for a given amount of heat input. There are two laws related to the efficiency of an engine. The first law of thermodynamics states that heat and work are inter-convertible, and it is not possible to obtain more work than the amount of heat input into the machine. The formulation of this law can be traced back to the work of Leibniz, Dalton, Joule, Clausius, and a host of other scientists in the late 17th and early 18th century. The more subtle second law of thermodynamics states that it is not possible to convert all heat into work; all engines have to ‘waste’ some of the heat input by transferring it to a heat sink. The second law also established the minimum amount of heat that has to be wasted based on the absolute temperatures of the heat source and the heat sink.
    [Show full text]
  • Episode 1: Phis Wants to Be a Physicist
    Episode 1: Phis wants to be a physicist Illustration: Xia Hong Script: Xia Hong 12/2012 Phis is 14 years old. Like most kids of her age, she’s a bit anxious about finding the person inside her… She tried singing. Hmm… “You are very talented, Phis!” Her best friend Lizzy told her. Sports are also not her cup of tea… Episode 1: Phis wants to be a physicist 1 “I wish I could But why I’m short, but does height I’m very be as confident She’s smart. She’s pretty. matter?! confident! as Lizzy!” Phis And she is told her little taller than me! sister Chemi. No wonder she’s “Then I would so confident! know what I can do.” “Who says size doesn’t matter?” Phis is not convinced. “Just read the newspaper…” “It’s always good to be either really small or really big, not in between!” Even her name sounds sharp — it is the same as the Lizzy in Pride and Prejudice ! Chemi, don’t you think our names are a bit strange? Episode 1: Phis wants to be a physicist 2 Phis’s self-search reached a conclusion after a monthly Science Day event in school hosted by Ms. Allen. What I’ll show you today is the It is our fascinating pleasure world of to have quantum Prof. Lee mechanics. here. Imagine, we live in the quantum world. Quantum We have to comply to its rules, and behave very We no longer have a differently from certain answer for things our normal life.
    [Show full text]
  • Lecture 6: Entropy
    Matthew Schwartz Statistical Mechanics, Spring 2019 Lecture 6: Entropy 1 Introduction In this lecture, we discuss many ways to think about entropy. The most important and most famous property of entropy is that it never decreases Stot > 0 (1) Here, Stot means the change in entropy of a system plus the change in entropy of the surroundings. This is the second law of thermodynamics that we met in the previous lecture. There's a great quote from Sir Arthur Eddington from 1927 summarizing the importance of the second law: If someone points out to you that your pet theory of the universe is in disagreement with Maxwell's equationsthen so much the worse for Maxwell's equations. If it is found to be contradicted by observationwell these experimentalists do bungle things sometimes. But if your theory is found to be against the second law of ther- modynamics I can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to collapse in deepest humiliation. Another possibly relevant quote, from the introduction to the statistical mechanics book by David Goodstein: Ludwig Boltzmann who spent much of his life studying statistical mechanics, died in 1906, by his own hand. Paul Ehrenfest, carrying on the work, died similarly in 1933. Now it is our turn to study statistical mechanics. There are many ways to dene entropy. All of them are equivalent, although it can be hard to see. In this lecture we will compare and contrast dierent denitions, building up intuition for how to think about entropy in dierent contexts. The original denition of entropy, due to Clausius, was thermodynamic.
    [Show full text]
  • Ht2009-88060
    Proceedings HT 2009 2009 ASME Summer Heat Transfer Conference July 19-23, 2009, San Francisco, California USA HT2009-88060 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE T4 RADIATION LAW John Crepeau University of Idaho Department of Mechanical Engineering PO Box 440902 Moscow, ID 83844-0902 USA ABSTRACT he combined his Displacement Law with the T4 law to give a Since the 1700s, natural philosophers understood that heat blackbody spectrum which was accurate over some ranges, but exchange between two bodies was not precisely linearly diverged in the far infrared. dependent on the temperature difference, and that at high Max Planck, at the University of Berlin, built on temperatures the discrepancy became greater. Over the years, Wien’s model but, as Planck himself stated, “the energy of many models were developed with varying degrees of success. radiation is distributed in a completely irregular manner among The lack of success was due to the difficulty obtaining accurate the individual partial vibrations...” This “irregular” or discrete experimental data, and a lack of knowledge of the fundamental treatment of the radiation became the basis for quantum mechanisms underlying radiation heat exchange. Josef Stefan, mechanics and a revolution in physics. of the University of Vienna, compiled data taken by a number This paper will present brief biographies of the four of researchers who used various methods to obtain their data, pillars of the T4 radiation law, Stefan, Boltzmann, Wien and and in 1879 proposed a unique relation to model the Planck, and outline the methodologies used to obtain their dependence of radiative heat exchange on the temperature: the results.
    [Show full text]
  • 03. Entropy: Boltzmann, Gibbs, Shannon
    03. Boltzmann Entropy, Gibbs Entropy, Shannon Information. I. Entropy in Statistical Mechanics. • Goal: To explain the behavior of macroscopic systems in terms of the dynamical laws governing their microscopic consituents. - In particular: To provide a micro-dynamical explanation of the 2nd Law. 1. Boltzmann's Approach. • Consider different "macrostates" of a gas: Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906) • Why does the gas prefer to be in the Thermodynamic equilibrium macrostate = constant thermodynamic properties equilibrium macrostate (last one)? (temperature, volume, pressure, etc.) • Suppose the gas consists of N identical particles governed by Hamilton's equations of motion (the micro-dynamics). Def. 1. A microstate X of a gas is a specification of the position (3 values) and momentum (3 values) for each of its N particles. Let Ω = phase space = 6N-dim space of all possible microstates. Let ΩE = region of Ω that consists of all microstates with constant energy E. • Ω • E • Hamiltonian dynamics • maps initial microstate • • X to final microstate X . • • i f Xf Xi • Can 2nd Law be • explained by recourse to • • • this dynamics? • • Def. 2. A macrostate Γ of a gas is a specification of the gas in terms of macroscopic properties (pressure, temperature, volume, etc.). • Relation between microstates and macrostates: Macrostates supervene on microstates! - To each microstate there corresponds exactly one macrostate. - Many distinct microstates can correspond to the same macrostate. • So: ΩE is partitioned into a finite number of regions corresponding to macrostates, with each microstate X belonging to one macrostate Γ(X). • • • ΩE microstates • • Γ(X) • • • • macrostate • X • • • • • • • • • Boltzmann's Claim: The equilibrium macrostate Γeq is vastly larger than any other macrostate (so it contains the vast majority of possible microstates).
    [Show full text]
  • Jožef Stefan, Master of Transport Phenomena
    JOŽEF STEFAN MASTER OF TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I J. Strnad - Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenija - DOI: 10.1051/epn/2011201 Jožef Stefan is famous primarily for the Stefan-Boltzmann radiation law. But this remarkable physicist made original contributions in all fields of physics: fluid flow, mechanical oscillations, polarization of light, double refraction, interference and wavelength measurements. He also measured the heat conductivity of gases. He was among the few physicists who promoted Maxwell's electrodynamics theory. n Stefan's life there are two distinct periods. gymnasium and in 1853 he went to the University of ᭡ Jožef stefan During the first Stefan followed many interests Vienna to study mathematics and physics. In his youth he (1835-1893) including literature, whilst the second was devoted loved to sing and took part in choirs which he also organi - I entirely to physics. Stefan was a Slovenian who zed. Under the tutorship of his teacher and together with achieved his scientific successes in Vienna as a citizen of his schoolmates he founded a hand-written Slovenian Austria (aer 1867 Austria-Hungary). literary journal. He wrote poems for it, which were later Jožef Stefan (Fig. 1) was born on March 24, 1835 at St. published in Slovenian journals appearing in Austria. He Peter, nowadays part of Celovec (Klagenfurt) [1]-[5]. His did not overestimate the value of his poems, but he could teachers soon noticed his talents. In 1845 he entered the well have become a Slovenian poet had he not chosen ᭤ Article available at http://www.europhysicsnews.org or http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epn/2011201 EPN 42/2 17 History JoŽEf stEfaN ᭤ fig.
    [Show full text]
  • The Scientific Community of Chemists and Physics in the Nineteenth- Century Habsburg Monarchy
    The Scientific Community of Chemists and Physics in the Nineteenth- Century Habsburg Monarchy Alois Kernbauer Professor History of Science and Technology University of Vienna July 1995 Working Paper 95-4 © 1997 by the Center for Austrian Studies. Permission to reproduce must generally be obtained from the Center for Austrian Studies. Copying is permitted in accordance with the fair use guidelines of the US Copyright Act of 1976. The the Center for Austrian Studies permits the following additional educational uses without permission or payment of fees: academic libraries may place copies of the Center's Working Papers on reserve (in multiple photocopied or electronically retrievable form) for students enrolled in specific courses: teachers may reproduce or have reproduced multiple copies (in photocopied or electronic form) for students in their courses. Those wishing to reproduce Center for Austrian Studies Working Papers for any other purpose (general distribution, advertising or promotion, creating new collective works, resale, etc.) must obtain permission from the Center. In 1838 the famous chemist Justus von Liebig published his treatise, "The Condition of Chemistry in Austria"(1) (Der Zustand der Chemie in Österreich) in his renowned journal, The Annals of Chemistry and Pharmacy (Annalen der Chemie und Pharmazie). After analyzing and criticizing contemporary Austrian chemists, he concluded that chemistry as conducted in Austria could not be termed scientific. When, some twenty years later, Ernst Mach began studying physics at the University of Vienna, he told one of his professors that he would like to become a scientist and enter a university career. The professor advised Mach to chose another field because physics as a science was finished.
    [Show full text]
  • In Praise of Clausius Entropy 01/26/2021
    In Praise of Clausius Entropy 01/26/2021 In Praise of Clausius Entropy: Reassessing the Foundations of Boltzmannian Statistical Mechanics Forthcoming in Foundations of Physics Christopher Gregory Weaver* Assistant Professor of Philosophy, Department of Philosophya Affiliate Assistant Professor of Physics, Department of Physicsb Core Faculty in the Illinois Center for Advanced Studies of the Universeb University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Visiting Fellow, Center for Philosophy of ScienceC University of Pittsburgh *wgceave9@illinois [dot] edu (or) CGW18@pitt [dot] edu aDepartment of Philosophy 200 Gregory Hall 810 South Wright ST MC-468 Urbana, IL 61801 bDepartment of Physics 1110 West Green ST Urbana, IL 61801 CCenter for Philosophy of Science University of Pittsburgh 1117 Cathedral of Learning 4200 Fifth Ave. Pittsburgh, PA 15260 1 In Praise of Clausius Entropy 01/26/2021 Acknowledgments: I thank Olivier Darrigol and Matthew Stanley for their comments on an earlier draft of this paper. I thank Jochen Bojanowski for a little translation help. I presented a version of the paper at the NY/NJ (Metro Area) Philosophy of Science group meeting at NYU in November of 2019. I’d like to especially thank Barry Loewer, Tim Maudlin, and David Albert for their criticisms at that event. Let me extend special thanks to Tim Maudlin for some helpful correspondence on various issues addressed in this paper. While Professor Maudlin and I still disagree, that correspondence was helpful. I also presented an earlier draft of this work to the Department of Physics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in January 2020. I thank many of the physics faculty and graduate students for their questions and objections.
    [Show full text]
  • Translation of Ludwig Boltzmann's Paper
    Entropy 2015, 17, 1971-2009; doi:10.3390/e17041971 OPEN ACCESS entropy ISSN 1099-4300 www.mdpi.com/journal/entropy Article Translation of Ludwig Boltzmann’s Paper “On the Relationship between the Second Fundamental Theorem of the Mechanical Theory of Heat and Probability Calculations Regarding the Conditions for Thermal Equilibrium” Sitzungberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Mathematisch-Naturwissen Classe. Abt. II, LXXVI 1877, pp 373-435 (Wien. Ber. 1877, 76:373-435). Reprinted in Wiss. Abhandlungen, Vol. II, reprint 42, p. 164-223, Barth, Leipzig, 1909 Kim Sharp * and Franz Matschinsky E. R. Johnson Foundation, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; E-Mail: [email protected] * Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-215-573-3506; Fax: +1-215-898-4217. Academic Editor: Kevin H. Knuth Received: 22 December 2014 / Accepted: 27 March 2015 / Published: 2 April 2015 Abstract: Translation of the seminal 1877 paper by Ludwig Boltzmann which for the first time established the probabilistic basis of entropy. Includes a scientific commentary. Keywords: Ludwig Boltzmann; second law of thermodynamics; entropy 1. Introduction Barely any of Boltzmann’s original scientific work is available in translation. This is remarkable given his central role in the development of both equilibrium and non-equilibrium statistical mechanics, his statistical mechanical explanation of entropy, and our understanding of the Second Law of thermodynamics. What Boltzmann actually wrote on these subjects is rarely quoted directly, his methods Entropy 2015, 17 1972 are not fully appreciated, and key concepts have been misinterpreted.
    [Show full text]