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Properties, Pitfalls, Payoffs, and Promises

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Properties, Pitfalls, Payoffs, and Promises B. Scott Gaudi Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics Outline: Star and Planet Formation Migrating Planets Basic Properties of Planet Transits Challenges in Transit Surveys The Menagerie of Transit Surveys Field Searches – Properties and Implications Cluster Searches – Properties and Future Prospects Extrasolar Earths Collaborators Chris Burke (OSU) Darren DePoy (OSU) Susan Dorsher (OSU) Andrew Gould (OSU) Joel Hartman (CfA) Matt Holman (CfA) Gabriela Mallen-Ornelas (CfA) Joshua Pepper (OSU) Sara Seager (DTM) Kris Stanek (CfA) Jargon AU – Astronomical Unit. AU =1.50×1013cm Mean Earth-Sun Distance pc = 3.09×1018 cm pc – “Parallax Second” Distance at which an object’s parallax would subtend one second of arc Metallicity Mass fraction of elements above He Main Sequence/Giant Star Constants 33 10 M Sun =1.99×10 g RSun = 6.96×10 cm 30 −3 9 M J =1.90×10 g ≈10 M Sun RJ = 7.15×10 cm ≈ 0.1RSun 27 −6 8 M ⊕ = 5.97×10 g ≈ 3×10 M Sun R⊕ = 6.38×10 cm ≈ 0.01RSun Star Formation 101 Molecular Cloud Cores Collapse Ignition/Outflow Protoplanetary Disk Planetary System Hogerheijde 1998 Planet Formation 101 Core-accretion Model Dust Æ Planetesimals (non G) Planetesimals Æ Protoplanets Protoplanets Æ Gas Giants (Outer Solar System) Protoplanets Æ Terrestrial Planets (Inner Solar System) Predictions Three types of Planets Terrestrial Planets Gas Giants Ice Giants Segregation in Mass/Separation (Ida & Lin 2004) Predictions Three types of Planets Terrestrial Planets Gas Giants Ice Giants Segregation in Mass/Separation Reality Close-In Planets Æ ‘Hot Jupiters’ Cannot have formed in situ How did they acquire their strange real estate? Migration Four Classes of Migration: Type 0 – Grains • Gas Drag • PR Drag • Yarkovsky Drag Type I – Protoplanets • Disk-Planet Torque Type II – Planets – Gap • Accretion Type III – Frederic Masset Planets – Partial Gap Open Questions What halts planetary migration? Which types of migration are most important? Migration ÅÆ Formation Migration ÅÆ Physical Properties Close-In Planets Pile-Up at P ~ 3 days Dearth of Planets with P < 3 days Lack of High-Mass, Close-In Planets ‘Hot Neptunes’ with P < 3 days Massive, very close-in ‘Very Hot Neptunes’ Transits - Observables Given a small transit signature, what can we learn? Can we tell that it’s a planet? Can we measure its radius, separation (semi- major axis)? Transits - Fractional Photometric Deviation O bservables Duration Time = t T Depth = δ Transits - Fractional Photometric Deviation O bservables Period Time = P Transits – Parameters •Depth Measure 2 Infer ⎛ Rp ⎞ δ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ R* ⎠ δ ,tT , P •Duration RP ,a θ* 2 tT ≅ 2 1− b µ* R* P 2 = 1− b µ* a π bθ* •Period 2π 3/ 2 P = a θ* GM * Stars 101 Main Sequence H Burning 7 / 2 R* ∝ M , L* ∝ M Giants Exhausted H Burning He or H in shell L,T Æ M,R,density Flux, Color Æ L,T Need d, extinction. Spectrum Æ (T,g) Cluster Æ d,extinction Transits – Parameters 2 ⎛ R p ⎞ δ = ⎜ ⎟ ⎝ R* ⎠ Measure Infer R P t = * 1− b T a π 2π 3/ 2 δ ,tT , P 0 P = a GM * δ ,tT , P,b ρ*;(M*, R*);Rp ,a (Accurate LC, M-R Relation) δ ,tT , P;(T, g) (M*, R*);Rp ,a (Spectroscopic Data) Transits – RV Follow-Up Low Mass Æ High Mass Æ Degeneracy Ideal Gas + Ion Pressure Pressure H-burning Limit R ∝ M −1/3 R ∝ M Pont et al. 2005 Need to measure mass of the planet – Radial Velocity −1/3 −2/3 28.4m/s ⎛ M sin i ⎞⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ M ⎞ K = ⎜ p ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ * ⎟ 2 1/ 2 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ (1− e ) ⎝ M J ⎠⎝1yr ⎠ ⎝ M sun ⎠ Transits – Detection What is required to detect a planet orbiting a star via transits? What is the probability of detecting a planet around a star? How precise to my measurements need to be? How many stars to I need to look at? How long do I have to look at these stars? Transits – Detection P = PT PQ PW Gaudi (2000) Probability that Planet Transits PT PQ Probability of Exceeding S/N Requirement Probability of Transit(s) Occurring in Window PW Transits – Detection P = PT PQ PW a i cos imin d (cos i) ∫ R + R R P = 0 = * p ≈ * T 1 a a ∫ d (cos i) 0 Transits – Detection P = PT PQ PW S/N = Signal to Noise Ratio Must exceed some threshold σ S δ = N 1/ 2 δ N t σ Transits – Detection P = PT PQ PW 2 ⎛ Rp ⎞ δ = ⎜ ⎟ ≤1% ⎝ R* ⎠ S −1/2 2 −3/2 1/2 −1 R* Nt = Ntot ∝ a R R L d πa N p * * σ ∝ F −1/ 2 ∝ L−1/ 2d Transits – Detection P = PT PQ PW “Window” Probability- probability that 2 transits occur during the observation windows. < P > 19 nights 10× W 3−11 10 nights N < PW >3−11 R Duty Cycle= * ≤ 5% πa Transits – Detection P = PT PQ PW PT ≈ 8% (3d<P<11d, logarithmic) P =1.6% PQ ≈1 PW ≈ 20% (3d<P<11d, logarithmic) ⎛ P ⎞⎛ N* ⎞⎛ fa<0.1AU ⎞ Ndet = fN*P ≈1⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎝1.6% ⎠⎝104 ⎠⎝ 0.5% ⎠ Transits – Requirements Confirmation and Parameter Estimation Accurate Light Curves Follow-up Spectroscopic Radial Velocity Detection Many Stars Accurate Photometry Lots of Observing Time Why Bother? Possible Using Small Telescopes Distant Targets Large Fields of View + Dense Stellar Fields Rare Objects, Distinct Populations Transits – Flavors Bright Targets • RV Follow-up • All-Sky Amenable to Follow-up Intermediate Targets RV, Oblateness, Atmospheres, •Large FOV Rings, Moons, etc. STARE, Vulcan, WASP Faint Targets • Field Stars (Galactic Disk) Not Amenable to Follow-up EXPLORE, OGLE Primaries too faint for detailed follow-up •Clusters Masses and Radii only. PISCES, EXPORT, STEPSS Why? Statistics! Radial Velocity Surveys −1/3 −2/3 ~3000 FGKM Stars 28.4m/s ⎛ M sin i ⎞⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ M ⎞ K = ⎜ p ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ * ⎟ 2 1/ 2 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 123 Planets Found (1− e ) ⎝ M J ⎠⎝1yr ⎠ ⎝ M sun ⎠ One Planet with P<3: P = 2.55d Single Measurement Precision K =1m/s − 3m/s Complete to K ≈ 20m/s M p sin i ≥ 0.2M J for P < 9d Field Surveys - OGLE 5 4 Planets Found by OGLE Discovered Very Hot Jupiters P ≈1d Radial Velocity vs. Transits Very Hot Jupiters: Round 1 Very Hot Jupiters: 1 3 Hot Jupiters: Hot Jupiters: 15 1 r =1/15 ≈ 0.07 r = 3/1 = 3 Inconsistency? Very Hot Jupiters not real? Transit Surveys Bogus? Different Populations? Sensitivity of a S/N-Limited Survey 3 Ωdmax N = Pt fnVmax = Pt fn 3 dmax Transit Probability R P = * ∝ P−2/3 t a Signal-to-Noise S −1/ 2 −1 −1/3 −1 n ∝ a d ∝ P d N At Limiting Signal-to-Noise: −1/3 −2/3 dmax ∝ P and Pt ∝ P Sensitivity of a S/N-Limited Survey d ∝ P−1/3 P ∝ P−2/3 max and t dmax (P1) 3 N ∝ Pt fdmax dmax (P2 ) 3 −5/3 N ∝ f (P)Pt dmax ∝ f (P)P Transit surveys are ~6 times more sensitive to 1 day period planets than 3 day period planets! Radial Velocity vs. Transits Very Hot Jupiters: Round 2 Very Hot Jupiters: 1 3 Hot Jupiters: Hot Jupiters: 15 1 r =1/15 ≈ 0.07 r = 3/(1×6) = 0.5 Still Inconsistent? Radial Velocity vs. Transits Round 3 Poisson Distribution e−M M N P(N | M ) = N! +0.10 +1.5 r = 0.07−0.05 r = 0.5−0.3 Radial Velocity vs.Transits Relative Frequency of VHJ to HJ is ~ 10-20% Gaudi, Seager, & Mallen-Ornelas 2005 Radial Velocity vs. Transits Additional Biases Implications • VHJ ~ transiting HJ • One in ~500-1000 FGK Stars has a VHJ • VHJs more massive? 2 x R • RV VHJ? (HD 73256b) oc he L • Different (mass-dependent) imit parking mechanisms? • Neptune-mass planets? (influenced by companions?) Searches toward Stellar Systems Advantages: Disadvantages: •Primaries have common properties •Relatively Faint Stars Explore the effects of: Follow-up difficult Stellar Density •Small Number of Stars Age Difficult to probe f<5% Metallicity [Fe/H]>0 •Primaries have known properties Requirements: Statistics easy. •Many (20) Consecutive Nights Avoid many false positives. •Relatively Large FOV •Compact systems •Modest Aperture Point-and-shoot Survey for Transiting Extrasolar Planets in Stellar Systems (STEPSS) (Open Clusters) Setup •MDM 1.3m & 2.4m •8192x8192 4x2 Mosaic CCD •25x25 arcmin^2 •0.18”/pixel NGC1245 •19 nights •1 Gyr •[Fe/H]~0.0 Members: Chris Burke, S.G., Darren DePoy, Rick Pogge Searches toward Stellar Systems •4-5 minute sampling •15 nights with data •9 full nights •0 photometric nights Burke et al., in prep Searches toward Stellar Systems •Sensitive to Jupiters for G0 K0 K5 M0 G0-M0 primaries ~1000 cluster members S ∝ a −1/ 2 R 2 R −3/ 2 L1/ 2d −1 N p * * Main-Sequence Stars 7 / 2 R* ∝ M , L* ∝ M At Fixed a, R p , d S ∝ R −3/ 2 L1/ 2 ∝ M 1/ 4 N * * * Searches toward Stellar Systems Searches toward Stellar Systems Period = 2.77 days, Depth ~ 4% Grazing Binary Searches toward Stellar Systems NGC 1245 Efficiency Calculation Underway <5% VHJ, <30% HJ. NGC 2099 37 nights ~3000 Stars Improved Statistics NGC 2682 (M67) 20 nights ~2000 Stars Future 1-2 More Clusters Future Prospects – Hot Neptunes? Future Prospects – Hot Neptunes? Hot Neptunes R ≈ 0.04R N Sun 1.2m δ ≈ 2×10−3 <0.1% Photometry Large Telescopes MMT 6.5m r te 6.5m pi NGC 6791 Ju Better than 0.1% ne tu ep N Joel Hartman, Kris Stanek, Matt Holman, S.G Future Prospects – Hot Neptunes? Jupiter Neptune Joel Hartman , Kris Stanek, Matt Holman, S.G Future Prospects – Hot Neptunes? Very Hot Neptune Search Cluster Selection ~20 Nights on MMT (or 6m Telescope) Rising Mass Function? Conclusions: Transiting planets can tell us about migration Æ planet formation.
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    Draft version September 6, 2021 Typeset using LATEX twocolumn style in AASTeX63 The Detectability of Nightside City Lights on Exoplanets Thomas G. Beatty1 1Department of Astronomy and Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721; [email protected] ABSTRACT Next-generation missions designed to detect biosignatures on exoplanets will also be capable of plac- ing constraints on the presence of technosignatures (evidence for technological life) on these same worlds. Here, I estimate the detectability of nightside city lights on habitable, Earth-like, exoplan- ets around nearby stars using direct-imaging observations from the proposed LUVOIR and HabEx observatories. I use data from the Soumi National Polar-orbiting Partnership satellite to determine the surface flux from city lights at the top of Earth's atmosphere, and the spectra of commercially available high-power lamps to model the spectral energy distribution of the city lights. I consider how the detectability scales with urbanization fraction: from Earth's value of 0.05%, up to the limiting case of an ecumenopolis { or planet-wide city. I then calculate the minimum detectable urbanization fraction using 300 hours of observing time for generic Earth-analogs around stars within 8 pc of the Sun, and for nearby known potentially habitable planets. Though Earth itself would not be detectable by LUVOIR or HabEx, planets around M-dwarfs close to the Sun would show detectable signals from city lights for urbanization levels of 0.4% to 3%, while city lights on planets around nearby Sun-like stars would be detectable at urbanization levels of & 10%. The known planet Proxima b is a particu- larly compelling target for LUVOIR A observations, which would be able to detect city lights twelve times that of Earth in 300 hours, an urbanization level that is expected to occur on Earth around the mid-22nd-century.
  • Epsilon Eridani's Planetary Debris Disk: Structure and Dynamics Based on Spitzer and Caltech Submillimeter Observatory Observa

    Epsilon Eridani's Planetary Debris Disk: Structure and Dynamics Based on Spitzer and Caltech Submillimeter Observatory Observa

    The Astrophysical Journal,690:1522–1538,2009January10 doi:10.1088/0004-637/690/2/1522 c 2009. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved. Printed in the U.S.A. ! EPSILON ERIDANI’S PLANETARY DEBRIS DISK: STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS BASED ON SPITZER AND CALTECH SUBMILLIMETER OBSERVATORY OBSERVATIONS D. Backman1,M.Marengo2,K.Stapelfeldt3,K.Su4, D. Wilner2,C.D.Dowell3, D. Watson5,J.Stansberry4, G. Rieke4,T.Megeath2,6,G.Fazio2,andM.Werner3 1 Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy & SETI Institute, 515 North Whisman Road, Mountain View, CA 94043, USA 2 Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA 3 Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, 4800 Oak Grove Drive, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA 4 Steward Observatory, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA 5 Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA Received 2008 May 25; accepted 2008 September 8; published 2008 December 22 ABSTRACT Spitzer and Caltech Submillimeter Observatory images and spectrophotometry of ! Eridani at wavelengths from 3.5 to 350 µmrevealnewdetailsofitsbrightdebrisdisk.The350µmmapconfirmsthepresenceofaring at r 11""–28""(35–90 AU), observed previously at longer sub-mm wavelengths. The Spitzer mid-IR and far- IR images= do not show the ring, but rather a featureless disk extending from within a few arcsec of the star across the ring to r 34"" (110 AU). The spectral energy distribution (SED) of the debris system implies acomplexstructure.AmodelconstrainedbythesurfacebrightnessprofilesandtheSEDindicatesthatthe∼ sub-mm ring emission is primarily from large (a 135 µm) grains, with smaller (a 15 µm) grains also present in and beyond the ring.