Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning

Norbert M. Seel (Ed.)

With 312 Figures and 68 Tables Editor Prof. Dr. Norbert M. Seel Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences Department of Education University of Freiburg 79085 Freiburg Germany

ISBN 978-1-4419-1427-9 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-1428-6 DOI 10.1007/ 978-1-4419-1428-6 ISBN Bundle 978-1-4419-5503-6 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011934763

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Springer is part of Springer ScienceþBusiness Media (www.springer.com) Preface

Learning is existential, and so its study must be complex and interdisciplinary. Over the past centuries, researchers from different fields have posited many theories to explain how humans and animals learn and behave, i.e., how they acquire, organize, and deploy knowledge and skills. Basically, learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior and/or in mental associations due to experience. Learning is a response to environmental requirements and different from biological maturation, which, however, is a fundamental basis for learning. From a historical point of view, learning had been an issue of epistemology and philosophy since ancient times. Nevertheless, the twentieth century may be considered as the century of psychology of learning and related fields of interest, such as motivation, cognition, and metacognition. It is really fascinating to see the various currents of the twentieth century research in learning, remembering, and forgetting. And it is interesting to see that many basic assumptions of early theories have survived the paradigm shifts of psychology and epistemology that occurred during the twentieth century. Beyond folk psychology and naı¨ve theories of learning, psychological learning theories can be grouped into several basic categories, such as behaviorist and connectionist learning theories, cognitive learning theories, and social learning theories. However, learning theories are not limited to psychology and related fields but can be traced back to ancient philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. It is certainly true that the topic of learning also played a significant role in the philosophy of the Middle Ages (e.g., St. Thomas Aquinas), and in the modern era philosophers such as Descartes, Hume, Locke, Kant, and many others were interested in the topic. The same holds true for philosophers of the twentieth century, who were highly interested in learning. It is noteworthy that the so-called fathers of psychology as a discipline, Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) and William James (1842–1910), were both originally professors of philosophy. In the 1880s, Wundt began studying rote learning of lists of nonsense verbal items, and a short time later, James foreshadowed many aspects of modern neurobiology of learning and even connectionist theory. Whereas Wundt and James remained closely aligned with the field of philosophy and the application of introspective self-observation, Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) began studying human memory and higher cognitive processes (such as meaningful learning) by means of experimental methods. This transported the study of learning and remembering out of philosophy and into the realm of empirical research, providing valuable tools until today. Ebbinghaus’ seminal work on learning and remembering can be considered as the beginning of systematic psychological research on learning and remembering for the twentieth century. Another strong influence was Pavlov’s reflexology and his experiments with animals. This can be considered as the beginning of research on animal learning, which was also characteristic, to a large extent, of the emerging fields of associative psychology (e.g., Thorndike) and Gestalt psychology (e.g., Ko¨hler). At the beginning of the twentieth century, these two sources – associative psychology and reflexology – gave rise to connectionism and the idea of learning by trial and error, whose most prominent supporter became Thorndike (1874–1949). Clearly, the first half of this century was strongly influenced by connectionism (and behaviorism) and Gestalt psychology, whereas the second half can be considered as the period of the emergence of cognitive and constructivist conceptions of learning. Psychologists and biologists have studied learning in animals and humans within the realm of both paradigms. Nowadays, animal and human learning and cognition are separate but related fields of study within psychology and biology, each with an identifiable history that is often intertwined with the other. Beyond psychology and biology, disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, and education focused on the topic of human learning in the course of the past centuries. However, one of the most important innovations for research on learning resulted from the emerging computer sciences and their focus on machine learning. vi Preface

Informatics struck a chord in the second half of the twentieth century and machine learning became a most promising field of the sciences of learning in general. Briefly put, a machine learns whenever it changes its structure, program, or data in such a manner that its expected future performance improves. Machine learning usually refers to changes in systems that perform tasks associated with artificial intelligence (AI). Many techniques in machine learning are derived from the efforts of psychologists to make their theories of animal and human learning more precise through computational models. Conversely, it seems that the concepts and techniques being explored in the field of machine learning also illuminate certain aspects of the biology of learning. Accordingly, closely related to machine learning is also the study of human and animal learning in psychology, neuroscience, and related fields. Textbooks on psychology usually attribute central significance to the neurobiological foundations of learning and thinking and discuss them at length. The authors of these books expect neurobiology to provide conclusive answers to the questions of how the brain functions and how nerve cells produce thinking, learning, and acting. Indeed, the neurosciences have made tremendous progress in the past 20 years: For instance, new methodologies in magnetic resonance imaging have made it possible to measure processes which were formerly matters of pure speculation, such as how information is taken in by the senses and passed on to neural subsystems or how it is stored and retrieved. Neurobiologists are interested in the physical structure of the carrier organs responsible for learning and retaining, thinking, and acting, while psychologists study the physical functions of these phenomena. Accordingly, there are many parallels between human and animal learning on the one side and machine learning on the other side. However, it is easy to find some critical comments in the related literature to the effect that the contributions to machine learning from research on human learning are less relevant than those from statistics and computer science. Sometimes this is traced back to the insufficient state of research on human learning in general. As a final point of this introduction it must be emphasized that human and animal learning is always embedded in particular social contexts. Consequently, biological and psychological research on learning must be complemented by anthropological and sociocultural studies with their tradition of fieldwork-based research. Learning as seen from the various disciplines is evidently a multifaceted topic. However, the sciences of learning in general have become more specialized and complex, and the fields of interest are widely spread and separated from each other. As a consequence, there is no comprehensive overview on the learning sciences and their central theoretical concepts, methodologies, and research findings. In consequence, the mission of this project is to provide a unique and comprehensive reference work for the sciences of learning with a particular emphasis on animal, human, and machine learning from their beginnings until today. The content on learning from these fields of research will be comprehensive and well balanced because the overall objective of the encyclopedia is to produce a solid work of reference that provides the user with the established information in the particular field of interest. Usually, the areas of animal, human, and machine learning are separated from each other in the related literature. Thus, this encyclopedia will be the first reference work to cover the separate areas of the learning sciences. Accordingly, not only psychological theories and traditions will be at the center of this encyclopedia, but rather also theories and conceptions from biology, neurosciences, computer sciences, information science, communication research, philosophy, anthropology, and sociology, as well as particular fields of application such as instruction, psychiatry, and robotics. The Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning provides an up-to-date, broad, and authoritative coverage of theories and philosophies used in the sciences of learning and adjacent sciences from their very beginnings to the present. This modern compendium is an indispensable source of information for scientists, educators, engineers, and technical staff active in all fields related to the learning of animals, humans, or machines. More specifically, the encyclopedia provides fast access to the most relevant theoretical terms without the need to consult a lot of textbooks and edited volumes. It supplies clear and precise explanations of the theoretical terms, cross-references to related content, and up-to-date references to important research and publications; it also contains short biographical notes about scholars who have made substantial contributions to the sciences of learning. Preface vii

The entries are written by a distinguished panel of researchers in the various ﬁelds of the learning sciences; the contributions for each of the topics will have to be of the highest standard in order to ensure that the work becomes a “standard” for future research and theory construction. The Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning is the result of a long-term project initiated by Marie Sheldon, a former manager of Springer New York, and the editor-in-chief. For me it was a pleasure and inspiring experience to collaborate closely with Daniel Quinones (Springer Heidelberg) and his team – it was really great to work with them. It was also a great pleasure and source of inspiration to collaborate with a panel of distinguished researchers who contributed greatly to the success of the project as associate editors. Last but not least, my special thanks go to Jung Mi Lee, who served as my editorial assistant – and did a fantastic job of it. As a scientist of the twentieth century, I dedicate this encyclopedia to the generations of the twenty-ﬁrst century. I consider Jakob and Anna, Amira, and Elia to be excellent representatives of the future.

Norbert M. Seel Freiburg, Summer of 2011

Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Dr. Norbert M. Seel Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences Department of Education University of Freiburg 79085 Freiburg Germany

Associate Editors

The Associate Editors worked closely with the Editor-in-Chief to achieve the overall execution and success of the Encyclopedia.

Amy Adcock Professor of Instructional Design and Technology, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia - AAdcock@ odu.edu Section: Educational Psychology

Linda Bol Professor in the Educational Foundations and Leadership Department, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia - [email protected] Section: Educational Psychology xii Associate Editors

Philip Barker Professor of Applied Computing within the School of Computing and Mathematics at the University of Teesside, Middlesbrough, UK - [email protected] Section: Cognitive Psychology / Cognitive Science

Raja Chatila Professor and Director of Laboratory for Analysis and Architecture of Systems at CNRS, Toulouse, France - [email protected] Section: Robot Learning and Artiﬁcial Learning Associate Editors xiii

Michael Domjan Professor of Psychology, The University of Texas at Austin, College of Liberal Arts, Austin, TX - domjan@psy. utexas.edu Section: Comparative Psychology

Jan Elen Professor, Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology, Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium - [email protected] Section: Instructional Psychology and Information Technology xiv Associate Editors

Claude Frasson Director of GRITI, Inter-university Research Group in Intelligent Tutors, Director of the HERON laboratory, Informatique et Recherche Ope´rationnelle, University of Montreal; Centre-ville Montre´al, Que´bec, Canada - [email protected] Section: Informatics: Artiﬁcial Intelligence, Knowledge Engineering, and Intelligent Tutoring Systems

Jeremie Jozefowiez Instituto de Educac¸a˜o e Psicologia, Universidade do Minho, 4710 Braga, Portugal - [email protected] Section: Neurosciences, Neurophysiology, Neuropsychology Associate Editors xv

Andrei Podolskiy Professor, Department of Developmental Psychology, Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia - apodolskij@ mail.ru Section: Developmental Psychology, Social and cultural Psychology, Sociology and Anthropology

Zhanna Reznikova Professor, Head of laboratory of behavioural ecology of animal communities, Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals, Siberian Branch RAS, Head of Department of Comparative Psychology, Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia - [email protected] Section: Animal Learning xvi Associate Editors

J. Michael Spector Professor, Learning and Performance Support Laboratory University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia - mspector@ uga.edu Section: Philosophy and Epistemology

Janusz Wojtusiak II Professor, Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory, College of Health and Human Services, George Mason University - [email protected] Section: Informatics: Machine Learning Fundamental Chapters

Fundamental chapters History of the Sciences of Learning (Page 1433–1442) Seel, Norbert M. Analytical Psychology and Learning (Page 241–243) Matthews, Robert Samuel & Liu, Charlotte Animal Intelligence: Schemata for Ordering Learning Classes (Page 247–249) Reznikova, Zhanna Anthropology of Learning and Cognition (Page 255–261) Hasse, Cathrine Assessment in Learning (Page 316–321) Baker, Eva L. Biological and Evolutionary Constraints of Learning (Page 461–463) Domjan, Mike Comparative Psychology and Ethology (Page 658–661) Greenberg, Gary Development and Learning (Page 944–950) Podolskiy, Andrei Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning (Page 961–966) Anna Matejko & Daniel Ansari Discourse and the Production of Knowledge (Page 1001–1006) Teun A. van Dijk Evolution of Learning (Page 1188–1192) Papini, Mauricio Learning Technology (Page 1980–1981) Elen, Jan & Clarebout, Geraldine Machine Learning (Page 2082–2083) Wojtusiak, Janusz Naturalistic Epistemology (Page 2433–2435) Spector, J. Michael Neuropsychology of Learning (Page 2459–2468) Jozefowiez, Jeremie Philosophy of Learning (Page 2615–2621) Strasser, Anna & Friedland, Ellen Psychology of Learning (Page 2727–2731) Ormrod, Jeanne Robot Learning (Page 2869–2871) Sigaud, Olivier & Peters, Jan Overview chapters Methodologies of Learning Research: Overview (Page 2255–2259) Seel, Norbert M. Qualitative Learning Research – Overview (Page 2741–2744) Gla¨ser-Zikuda, Michaela

List of Contributors

HENK AARTS MAURO ADENZATO Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Utrecht University Center for Cognitive Science Utrecht University of Turin The Netherlands Turin Italy

KIRSTEN ABBOT-SMITH School of Psychology OLUWADAMILARE S. ADEYERI University of Kent Bowling Green State University Canterbury, Kent Bowling Green, OH UK USA

BRUCE ABERNETHY YAEL ADINI School of Human Movement Studies Department of Neurobiology The University of Queensland The Weizmann Institute of Science Brisbane Rehovot Australia Israel

HYO-SUNG AHN JULIAN ABICH Institute for Simulation and Training-3100 Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology Technology Buk-gu, Gwangju University of Central Florida Korea Orlando, FL USA KENNETH S. AIGEN Temple University Philadelphia, PA STE´PHANE ADAM USA Clinical Psychology of Aging Unit Department of Psychology University of Lie`ge MARY AINLEY Lie`ge Psychological Sciences Belgium University of Melbourne Melbourne, VIC Australia AMY ADCOCK Department of STEM Education and Professional Studies SARAH E. AINSWORTH Old Dominion University Darden College of Department of Psychology Education Florida State University Norfolk, VA Tallahassee, FL USA USA xx List of Contributors

SHAARON AINSWORTH DANIEL L. ALKON School of Psychology Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute University of Nottingham Rockville, MD Nottingham, Nottinghamshire USA UK and Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute NAZAR AKRAMI Morgantown, WV Department of Psychology USA Uppsala University Uppsala M L. ALLEN Sweden ELISSA Psychology Department Fylde College Lancaster University RIIKKA ALANEN Lancaster Centre for Applied Language Studies UK University of Jyva¨skyla¨ Jyva¨skyla¨

Finland REEM AL-MAHMOOD Melbourne Graduate School of Education D ALBERT IETRICH The University of Melbourne Knowledge Management Institute Melbourne, Victoria Graz University of Technology Australia Graz Austria JESU´ S ALONSO-TAPIA SABINE AL-DIBAN University Auto´noma of Madrid Institut fu¨rPa¨dagogische Psychologie und Madrid Entwicklungspsychologie Spain Technical University Dresden Dresden M AL-YAGON Germany ICHAL School of Education

CAROL R. ALDOUS Tel-Aviv University School of Education, Flinders University Tel-Aviv Adelaide, SA Israel Australia

MARIJE VAN AMELSVOORT M ALIAS AIZAM Tilburg center for Cognition and Communication Faculty of Technical Education (TiCC) Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia Tilburg University Johor Darul Takzim Tilburg Malaysia The Netherlands

FABIO ALIVERNINI Italian National Institute for the Evaluation of the CRAIG A. ANDERSON Education System (INVALSI) Iowa State University Frascati, Roma Ames, Iowa Italy USA List of Contributors xxi

HEIDI L. ANDRADE THOMAS ANTWI BOSIAKOH University at Albany Department of Sociology State University of New York University of Ghana Albany, NY Legon, Accra USA Ghana

ALBERT ANDRADE K APEL Siena College ENN Loudonville, NY School of Communication Science and Disorders USA Florida State University Tallahassee, FL USA MARCELO H. ANG,JR. Department of Mechanical Engineering

National University of Singapore GERHARD APFELTHALER Singapore School of Business California Lutheran University JOAQUIN A. ANGUERA Thousand Oaks, CA Departments of Neurology and Physiology USA University of California San Francisco, CA USA L. GREGORY APPELBAUM Center for Cognitive Neuroscience DANIEL ANSARI Duke University Department of Psychology Durham, NC The University of Western Ontario USA London Canada J. SCOTT ARMSTRONG

MARK H. ANSHEL The Wharton School University of Pennsylvania Department of Health and Human Performance Philadelphia, PA Middle Tennessee State University USA Murfreesboro, TN USA

JASON ARNDT M ANTHONY ARTIN Department of Psychology Department of Mathematics 5605 Middlebury College London School of Economics Middlebury, VT London USA UK

ALESSANDRO ANTONIETTI PAMELA L. ARNOLD Department of Psychology The Center for Educational Partnerships Cognitive Psychology Laboratory Darden College of Education Catholic University of the Sacred Heart Old Dominion University Milano Norfolk, VA Italy USA xxii List of Contributors

KARL-HEINZ ARNOLD MICHAL AYALON Department of Applied Educational Science Department of Science Teaching Institute of Education The Weizmann Institute of Science University of Hildesheim Rehovot Hildesheim Israel Germany ALADDIN AYESH Department of Informatics ARTUR ARSE´NIO De Montfort University Instituto Superior Te´cnico Leicester Technical University of Lisbon UK Lisbon Portugal JOHN J. B. AYRES Department of Psychology and Neuroscience University of Massachusetts M ATAIZI URAT Amherst, MA School of Communication USA Department of Communication

Anadolu University PAUL AYRES Eskisehir School of Education Turkey University of New South Wales Sydney Australia ADAM A. AUGUSTINE Department of Psychology ROGER AZEVEDO Washington University in St. Louis Department of Educational and Counselling St. Louis, MO Psychology USA McGill University Montreal, QC

JOSEPH L. AUSTERWEIL Canada Department of Psychology S AZIZI GHANBARI University of California HAHRAM Berkeley, CA Department of University Teaching and E-Learning USA International University Institute Zittau Zittau Germany NORSIMAH MAT AWAL School of Language Studies & Linguistics ROBERT BABUSKA Faculty of Social Sciences and Human Delft Center for Systems and Control Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Delft University of Technology Bangi, Selangor DE Delft, CD Malaysia The Netherlands

ERDOGAN BADA GERARDO AYALA Department of English Language Teaching Universidad de las Ame´ricas Puebla Cukurova University Puebla, Puebla Adana Me´xico Turkey List of Contributors xxiii

STEFANIE BADENHORST JASON D. BAKER Ego State Therapy Training Unit South Africa School of Education Strand, Western Cape Regent University South Africa Virginia Beach, VA USA

FRANZ BAERISWYL FRANCESC BALAGUE´ Universita¨t Freiburg/Schweiz Universitat de Barcelona Regina Mundi Barcelona Fribourg Spain Switzerland

MICHELA BALCONI FRANK BAEYENS Department of Psychology Center for the Psychology of Learning and Catholic University of Milan Experimental Psychopathology Milan Department of Psychology Italy University of Leuven Leuven MARIA TERESA BALDASSARRE Belgium Department of Informatics University of Bari Bari ALINA BAKALA Italy The Kingswood Centre Central and North West London NHS Foundation CHRISTIAN BALKENIUS Trust London Cognitive Science UK Lund University Lund Sweden AARON BAKER University of California LINDEN J. BALL Los Angeles, CA Department of Psychology USA Lancaster University Lancaster UK RYAN SHAUN JOAZEIRO DE BAKER Department of Social Science and Policy Studies MARIA BANNERT Worcester Polytechnic Institute Instructional Media Worcester, MA University of Wuerzburg USA Wuerzburg Germany

EVA L. BAKER National Center for Research on Evaluation, PHILIP BARKER Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST) School of Computing University of California Teesside University Los Angeles, CA Middlesbrough, Cleveland USA UK xxiv List of Contributors

RACHEL BARR MARTINE BATT Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Georgetown University University of Nancy Washington, DC Nancy, Cedex USA France

ANN MARIE BARRY BENJAMIN B. BECK Department of Communication Great Ape Trust Boston College Des Moines, IA Chestnut Hill, MA USA USA and Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute ROBERT J. BARRY Washington, DC School of Psychology USA University of Wollongong and Wollongong, NSW Iowa State University Australia Ames, IA USA

ROMAN BARTA´ K Faculty of Mathematics and Physics DANNY R. BEDGOOD,JR Charles University in Prague School of Agricultural and Wine Sciences Prague Charles Sturt University Czech Republic Wagga Wagga, NSW Australia BENJAMIN K. BARTON Department of Psychology & Communication GREGORY Z. BEDNY Studies Essex County College University of Idaho Essex, NJ Moscow, ID USA USA SIAN L. BEILOCK MICHAEL D. BASIL Department of Psychology University of Lethbridge University of Chicago Lethbridge, AB Chicago, IL Canada USA

ELLEN J. BASS MARC BEKOFF Department of Systems and Information Engineering Ecology and Environmental Biology University of Virginia University of Colorado Charlottesville, VA Boulder, CO USA USA

W. ROBERT BATSELL,JR. BARBARA BELFI Department of Psychology The Education and Training Research Group Kalamazoo College K.U. Leuven Kalamazoo, MI Leuven USA Belgium List of Contributors xxv

RAYMOND ANGELO BELLIOTTI JONTE BERNHARD Department of Philosophy Engineering Education Research Group, ITN SUNY Fredonia Linko¨ping University Fredonia, NY Norrko¨ping USA Sweden

DANIEL M. BERNSTEIN A G. BENNETT NDREW Department of Psychology Center for Quantitative Education Kwantlen Polytechnic University Department of Mathematics Surrey, BC Kansas State University Canada Manhattan, KS USA KIRSTEN BERTHOLD Department of Psychology

MICHAEL J. BERAN University of Bielefeld Language Research Center Bielefeld Georgia State University Germany University Plaza R A. BEVINS Atlanta, GA ICK USA Department of Psychology University of Nebraska-Lincoln Burnett 19A Lincoln, NE ZANE L. BERGE USA Department of Education University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC) NATHALIE BIER Baltimore, MD School of Rehabilitation and Research Center of the USA Montreal Geriatric University Institute University of Montreal Montreal, QC M BERNASCONI ICHELE Canada Department of Economics

University “Ca’ Foscari” Venice JOHN BIGGS Venice University of Hong Kong Italy Hong Kong China

EVA BERNAT A BILLARD School of Education, Goodsell 109 UDE The University of New South Wales LASA laboratory Sydney, New South Wales EPFL – Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne Australia Lausanne Switzerland

SANDRA BERNEY STEPHEN BILLETT TECFA - FPSE School of Education and Professional Studies University of Geneva Grifﬁth University Geneva 4, GE Mount Gravatt, QLD Switzerland Australia xxvi List of Contributors

PARVIZ BIRJANDI NAOMI BLOCH Department of Applied Linguistics Graduate School of Library and Information Science Islamic Azad University University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Science & Research Branch Champaign, IL Tehran USA Iran

JACOB J. BLOOMBERG JENNIFER L. BITTNER Neuroscience Laboratories Department of Psychology Human Adaptation and Countermeasures Division, Indiana University NASA/Johnson Space Centre Bloomington, IN Houston, TX USA USA

AARON P. BLAISDELL JEFFREY W. BLOOM Department of Psychology Department of Teaching and Learning University of California College of Education Los Angeles, CA Northern Arizona University USA Flagstaff, AZ USA

EMMANUEL G. BLANCHARD Department of Computer Science and Operations SUSAN BLUCK Research Department of Psychology University of Montreál University of Florida Montreál, QC Gainesville, FL Canada USA and Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology (ECP) PATRICK BLUMSCHEIN McGill University Department of School Education Montreál, QC University of Education Canada Freiburg Germany

PAUL BLENKIRON Hull-York Medical School OTMAR BOCK Bootham Park Hospital German Sport University York, North Yorkshire Institute of Physiology and Anatomy UK Ko¨ln Germany

ELIZA BLISS-MOREAU Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences OTMAR LEO BOCK California National Primate Research Center, Deutsche Sporthochschule Ko¨ln University of California Institut fu¨r Physiologie und Anatomie Davis, CA Ko¨ln USA Germany List of Contributors xxvii

ALEXANDER BODEN MICHAEL BORICH Information Systems and New Media University of British Columbia University of Siegen Vancouver, BC Siegen Canada Germany

JAN BORN RICCARDO BOERO Department of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Department of Economics and Public Finance “G. Neurobiology Prato” University of Tu¨bingen Universita` di Torino Tu¨bingen Turin Germany Italy

PAUL BOUCHARD JIN BO Department of Education Educational Studies and Psychology Department Adult Education Eastern Michigan University Concordia University Ypsilanti, MI Montreal, QC USA Canada

LINDA BOL Y-LAN BOUREAU Educational Foundations and Leadership Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences Old Dominion University New York University Norfolk, VA New York USA USA and TREVOR G. BOND INRIA – Willow project–team (INRIA/ENS/CNRS UMR School of Education 8548) James Cook University Paris Townsville, Qld France Australia

MARK E. BOUTON MIMI BONG Department of Education Department of Psychology Korea University University of Vermont, College of Arts and Sciences Anam-dong Burlington, VT Seoul USA South Korea LARA BOYD

JAN BOOM University of British Columbia Department of Developmental Psychology Vancouver, BC University of Utrecht Canada Utrecht The Netherlands DAVID W. BRAITHWAITE ROONGRASAMEE BOONDAO Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences Ubon Ratchathani University Indiana University Warinchamrap, Ubon Ratchathani Bloomington, IN Thailand USA xxviii List of Contributors

SERGE BRAND GENE BREWER Psychiatric Hospital of the University of Basel Department of Psychology Basel, CH The University of Georgia Switzerland Athens, GA USA SASKIA BRAND-GRUWEL

Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies GERHARD BREWKA Open Universiteit Nederland Computer Science Department DL Heerlen Institut fu¨r Informatik The Netherlands University of Leipzig Leipzig ELIZABETH M. BRANNON Germany Center for Cognitive Neuroscience

Duke University JESSYE BRICK Durham, NC Department of Psychology USA Washington University Saint Louis, MO D A. BRAUN ANIEL USA Computational and Biological Learning Lab,

Department of Engineering SVEND BRINKMANN University of Cambridge Department of Communication and Psychology Cambridge Aalborg University UK Aalborg Denmark ISABEL BRAUN Department of Educational Science NATALIE BRITO University of Freiburg Department of Psychology Freiburg Georgetown University Germany Washington, DC

PAVEL B. BRAZDIL USA LIAAD-INESC Porto L.A. D R. BRODBECK Faculdade de Economia AVID Universidade do Porto Department of Psychology Porto Algoma University Portugal Sault Ste. Marie, ON Canada

CATERINA BREITENSTEIN Department of Neurology ERIN M. BRODHAGEN University of Muenster Department of Educational Psychology Muenster University of Wisconsin-Madison Germany Madison, WI USA JOOST BREUKER Leibniz Center for Law JOOST BROEKENS Universit of Amsterdam Delft University of Technology Amsterdam Delft Netherlands The Netherlands List of Contributors xxix

RAINER BROMME IVAR BRA˚TEN Institute of Psychology Department of Educational Research University of Muenster University of Oslo Muenster Oslo Germany Norway

CYRIL BROM BERTRAM C. BRUCE Department of Software and Computer Science Graduate School of Library and Information Science Education University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Charles University in Prague Champaign, IL Prague 1 USA Czech Republic GIANNI BRUNO GEORGIA C. BROOKE Department of Informatics University at Albany, State University of New York University of Bari Albany, NY Bari USA Italy

SIMON P. BROOKS MIREILLE BE´TRANCOURT Brain Repair Group TECFA - FPSE Cardiff University University of Geneva Cardiff, Wales Geneva 4, GE UK Switzerland

D. CODY BROOKS MONICA BUCCIARELLI Department of Psychology Center for Cognitive Science and Department of Denison University Psychology Granville, OH University of Turin USA Turin Italy ADAM BROWN School of Education BARBARA C. BUCKLEY Elementary Education WestEd St. Bonaventure University Redwood City, CA St. Bonaventure, NY USA USA DEBORAH ELY BUDDING JAMIE BROWN Private Practice Department of Experimental Psychology Manhattan Beach, CA University of Cambridge USA Cambridge UK THOMAS BUGNYAR Department of Cognitive Biology, Konrad Lorenz SOLLY BROWN Research Station & Department of Neurobiology and School of Computer Science and Engineering Cognition Research The University of New South Wales University of Vienna Sydney Vienna Australia Austria xxx List of Contributors

GORDON M. BURGHARDT GEORGE W. BURNS Departments of Psychology and Ecology & Milton H Erickson Institute of Western Australia Evolutionary Biology Darlington, WA University of Tennessee Australia Knoxville, TN USA MIKHAIL S. BURTSEV

JOHN BURGOYNE Department of Non–linear Dynamics Department of Management Learning and Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics of RAS Leadership Moscow Lancaster University Management School Russian Federation Lancaster University and Lancaster, Lancashire Department of Systems Development UK Anokhin Institute of Normal Physiology of RAMS Moscow JOHN R. BURI Russian Federation Department of Psychology and University of St. Thomas Department of Neuroscience Saint Paul, MN Kurchatov NBIC–Centre USA Moscow Russian Federation CHRISTIAN BURKE School of Medicine JEROME R. BUSEMEYER University of California San Francisco Psychological and Brain Sciences San Francisco, CA Indiana University USA Bloomington, IN

PAMELA BURNARD USA Faculty of Education

University of Cambridge MICHELYN C. BUTLER Cambridge Department of Educational Psychology UK University of Wisconsin-Madison Madison, WI BERNARD BURNES USA Manchester Business School University of Manchester Manchester MARTIN V. BUTZ UK Department of Cognitive Psychology III University of Wu¨rzburg PAUL C. BURNETT Wu¨rzburg Queensland University of Technology Germany Brisbane, QLD Australia and LYNDA BYRD-POLLER Division of Research and Commercialisation Darden College of Education Queensland University of Technology Old Dominion University Kelvin Grove, QLD Norfolk, VA Australia USA List of Contributors xxxi

LISA A. BYRGE JOHN CAMPBELL Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences University of Canberra Indiana University Canberra Bloomington, IN Australia USA ANGELO CANGELOSI

ANDREW BYRNE Centre for Robotics and Neural Systems University of Plymouth Family Health Centers of San Diego Plymouth San Diego, CA UK USA

MARK D. CANNON DANILO CAIVANO Department of Leadership, Policy, and Organizations Department of Informatics Vanderbilt University University of Bari Nashville, TN Bari USA Italy ELIAS G. CARAYANNIS

LAWRENCE G. CALHOUN Global and Entrepreneurial Finance Research Department of Psychology Institute (GEFRI) University of North Carolina at Charlotte School of Business Charlotte, NC George Washington University USA Washington, DC USA

HASAN CALISKAN RONAN CARBERY School Of Communication Sciences Department of Personnel and Employment Relations Anadolu University Kemmy Business School, University of Limerick Eskisehir Limerick Turkey Ireland

AIMEE A. CALLENDER JAIME CARBONELL Department of Psychology Language Technologies Institute Auburn University Carnegie Mellon University Auburn, AL Pittsburgh, PA USA USA

VINCENZA CARCHIOLO JOSEP CALL Department of Electric Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Electronic and Informatics Engineering (DIEEI) Leipzig University of Catania Germany Catania Italy MARTIN CAMMAROTA Memory Center, Brain Institute AMILCAR CARDOSO Pontiﬁcal Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul University of Coimbra Porto Alegre, RS Coimbra Brazil Portugal xxxii List of Contributors

ROBERT M. CARINI GONZALO DELALUIS CASA Department of Sociology Department of Experimental Psychology University of Louisville University of Seville Louisville, KY Seville USA Spain

GUSTAVO CARLO SERGIO LUIS CASTILLO Department of Psychology Circuito Arco Sur S/N University of Nebraska-Lincoln Universidad Ana´huac Xalapa Lincoln, NE Xalapa, Veracruz USA Me´xico

JOHN S. CARLSON ANDRE´S CATENA College of Education Erickson Hall Departamento de Psicologı´a Experimental Michigan State University Universidad de Granada East Lansing, MI Granada USA Spain

RICHARD A. CARLSON RICHARD CATRAMBONE Department of Psychology School of Psychology The Pennsylvania State University Georgia Institute of Technology University Park, PA Atlanta, GA USA USA

MALINDA CARPENTER RICARDO A. CATTAFI Department of Developmental and Comparative Universidad Central de Venezuela Psychology Caracas Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Venezuela Leipzig Germany TRISTAN CAZENAVE

SHANA K. CARPENTER LAMSADE Department of Psychology Universite´ Paris-Dauphine Iowa State University Paris, Cedex 16 Ames, IA France USA KATHERINE S. CENNAMO

VIVIENNE B. CARR Department of Learning Sciences and Technologies College of Education and Human Services School of Education, Virginia Tech Seton Hall University Blacksburg, VA South Orange, NJ USA USA STEFANO A. CERRI ANNEMAREE CARROLL Montpellier Laboratory of Informatics School of Education Robotics and Microelectronics (LIRMM) The University of Queensland University Montpellier2 & CNRS Brisbane, QLD Montpellier Cedex 5 Australia France List of Contributors xxxiii

SOUMAYA CHAFFAR YI-CHUN CHEN School of Information Technology and Engineering Graduate Institute of Science Education University of Ottawa National Taiwan Normal University Ottawa, ON Taipei Canada Taiwan

HELEN L. CHEN REBECCA A. CHANDLER Stanford Center for Innovations in Learning (SCIL) University of Oxford Wallenberg Hall, Ofﬁce of the Registrar Oxford Stanford University UK Stanford, CA USA STEVE CHANDLER

Department of English YANGQUAN CHEN University of Idaho Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Moscow, ID Center for Self-Organizing and Intelligent Systems USA (CSOIS) Utah State University Logan, UT

HENRY W. CHASE USA School of Psychology S CHERNOVA University of Nottingham ONIA Nottinghamshire, Nottingham Worcester Polytechnic Institute UK Worcester, MA USA

MOHAMED AMINE CHATTI JESSIE CHIN Informatik 5 Department of Educational Psychology RWTH Aachen University University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Aachen Urbana-Champaign, IL Germany USA

JENNIFER S. CHEAVENS HOON CHOI Department of Psychology Boston University The Ohio State University Boston, MA Columbus, OH USA USA METTE KROGH CHRISTENSEN Institute of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics WENLI CHEN University of Southern Denmark National Institute of Education Odense M Nanyang Technological University Denmark Singapore

RUSSELL M. CHURCH WENLI CHEN Department of Psychology National Institute of Education Brown University Nanyang Technological University Providence, RI Singapore USA xxxiv List of Contributors

GABRIELE CIERNIAK HAMISH COATES Knowledge Media Research Centre Higher Education Research Program Tu¨bingen Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) Germany Camberwell, VIC Australia

FIORELLA DE CINDIO

Department of Informatics and Communication JOSEPHINE COCK University of Milan Department of Psychology Milan University of Bern Italy Bern Switzerland

GERALDINE CLAREBOUT Department of Educational Sciences M H. COEN Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology, ICHAEL Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Departments of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics; Leuven Computer Sciences; and Zoology Belgium University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Medicine and Public Health, 6785 Medical Sciences Center (MSC) ROY B. CLARIANA Madison, WI Instructional Systems USA Dept. of Learning + Performance Systems College of Education The Pennsylvania State University DANIEL COHEN University Park, PA Department of Neurology USA Berenson-Allen Center for Non-invasive Brain Stimulation Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center H M. CLAYPOOL EATHER Harvard Medical School Department of Psychology Boston, MA Miami University USA Oxford, OH USA

DANIELLE C. COLAS-ZELIN

NICOLA S. CLAYTON Department of Psychology, Program in Behavioral Department of Experimental Psychology Neuroscience University of Cambridge Rutgers University Cambridge Piscataway, NJ UK USA

MELISSA W. CLEARFIELD SINDY COLE Department of Psychology School of Psychology Whitman College University of New South Wales Walla Walla, WA Sydney, NSW USA Australia List of Contributors xxxv

CHRISTIAN COLLET W. TIMOTHY COOMBS Center of Research and Innovation in Sport Nicholson School of Communication University Claude Bernard Lyon 1 – University of Central Florida University of Lyon Orlando, FL Laboratory of the Mental, Motor and Material USA Performance Villeurbanne France RICHARD P. COOPER Department of Psychological Sciences Birkbeck BARBARA COLOMBO University of London Department of Psychology London Cognitive Psychology Laboratory Catholic University UK of the Sacred Heart Milan Italy SHERVA ELIZABETH COORAY The Kingswood Centre HANS COLONIUS Central and North West London NHS Foundation Department of Psychology Trust Carl von Ossietzky Universita¨t Oldenburg London Oldenburg UK Germany and Department of Medicine Imperial College MARCIA CONNER London Bricolrs UK Staunton, VA USA

DANYA M. CORKIN VITO NICOLA CONVERTINI Department of Educational Psychology Department of Informatics University of Houston University of Bari Houston, Texas Bari USA Italy

JEFFREY H. D. CORNELIUS-WHITE CHRISTOPHER M. CONWAY Department of Counseling, Leadership, and Special Department of Psychology Education 222 Shannon Hall Saint Louis University Missouri State University St. Louis, MO Springﬁeld, MO USA USA

DAVID A. COOK Ofﬁce of Education Research FREDERIK CORNILLIE College of Medicine ITEC-IBBT Mayo Clinic K.U.Leuven Kulak Rochester, MN Kortrijk USA Belgium xxxvi List of Contributors

ERIK DE CORTE JACQUELYN CRANNEY Department of Education School of Psychology Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology University of New South Wales (CIP&T), Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Sydney, NSW Leuven Australia Belgium MICHELLE G. CRASKE Department of Psychology CHRIS L. S. CORYN UCLA Anxiety Disorders Research Center The Evaluation Center University of California Western Michigan University Los Angeles, CA Kalamazoo, MI USA USA SUSAN CRAW IDEAS Research Institute J C. COULTAS ULIE Robert Gordon University Department of Psychology Aberdeen University of Sussex UK Brighton, Sussex UK FABIO CRESTANI University of Lugano

JULIEN COURTIN Lugano INSERM U862 Neurocentre Magendie Switzerland Bordeaux France THOMAS S. CRITCHFIELD Psychology Department Illinois State University PATRICIA A. COUVILLON Normal, IL Department of Psychology & Be`ke`sy Laboratory of USA Neurobiology

Paciﬁc Biosciences Research Center KATHERINE A. CRONIN University of Hawaii at Manoa Comparative Cognitive Anthropology Group Honolulu, HI Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics USA Nijmegen The Netherlands

NELSON COWAN Department of Psychological Sciences EMILY S. CROSS University of Missouri-Columbia Department of Psychology Columbia, MO Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive & Brain USA Sciences Leipzig Germany SCOTTY D. CRAIG and Department of Psychology/IIS Department of Social & Cultural Psychology The University of Memphis Radboud University Nijmegen Memphis, TN Nijmegen USA The Netherlands List of Contributors xxxvii

WIM E. CRUSIO NEGIN DAHYA Centre de Neurosciences Inte´gratives et Cognitives Faculty of Education UMR5287 York University Universite´ de Bordeaux and CNRS Toronto, ON Talence Canada France BENITO PEREIRA DAMASCENO Department of Neurology, Medical School JEAN COˆ TE´ State University of Campinas (UNICAMP) Cidade School of Kinesiology and Health Studies Universita´ria “Zeferino Vaz” Queen’s University Campinas, SP Kingston, ON Brazil Canada

JAN VAN DAMME

PATRICK K. CULLEN The Education and Training Research Group Kent State University K.U. Leuven Kent, OH Leuven USA Belgium

DAVID DANKS DARA CURRAN Department of Philosophy Computer Science Department Carnegie Mellon University Cork Constraint Computation Centre (4C) Pittsburgh, PA University College Cork USA Cork and Ireland Institute for Human & Machine Cognition Pensacola, FL USA JESSE D. CUSHMAN

Department of Psychology BHASKAR DASGUPTA University of California Department of Computer Science Los Angeles, CA University of Illinois USA Chicago, IL USA

ILARIA CUTICA A D’ASPREMONT Department of Geography and Human LEXANDRE Environmental Sciences Department of Operations Research and Financial University of Milan Engineering ORFE Milan Princeton University Bendheim Center for Finance Italy Princeton, NJ USA

ANDREAS DAFFERTSHOFER FRANK M. DATTILIO Research Institute MOVE Department of Psychiatry VU University Amsterdam Harvard Medical School Amsterdam Boston, MA The Netherlands USA xxxviii List of Contributors

EDDY J. DAVELAAR JAN DE HOUWER Department of Psychological Sciences Ghent University Birkbeck College Ghent University of London Belgium London UK BERT DE SMEDT Parenting and Special Education Research Group, Department of Educational Sciences K DAVIS ATIE Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Harvard Graduate School of Education Leuven Cambridge, MA Belgium USA

ERICA DE VRIES

HUGH C. DAVIS Laboratory for Educational Sciences Web and Internet Science group, Electronics and Pierre-Mende`s-France University of Grenoble II Computer Science Grenoble, Cedex 9 University of Southampton France Southampton J DECOSTER UK AMIE Institute for Social Science Research University of Alabama MICHAEL DAVISON Tuscaloosa, AL Department of Psychology USA The University of Auckland Auckland JU¨ RGEN DEEG New Zealand Chair of Business Administration, Leadership & Organization University of Hagen F DAVOLI RANCO Hagen National Inter-University Consortium for Germany Telecommunications (CNIT)/DIST-University of

Genova DONALD D. DESHLER Genova Department of Special Education Italy University of Kansas Lawrence, KS

CHRISTOPHER DAY USA School of Education P DESMET University of Nottingham IET Jubilee Campus ITEC-IBBT Nottingham K.U.Leuven Kulak UK Kortrijk Belgium

ERIC ANTHONY DAY DONALD A. DEWSBURY Department of Psychology Department of Psychology University of Oklahoma University of Florida Norman, OK Gainesville, FL USA USA List of Contributors xxxix

NANCY DIB ROBERTO G. DOMIŃGUEZ Department of Psychology Department of Languages Queens College and The Graduate Center University of Guantańamo Flushing, NY Guantańamo USA Cuba

WEI DONG ADELE DIEDERICH Jacobs University Bremen Computer Science and Human Factors Bremen University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Germany Urbana-Champaign, IL USA

JUSTIN DILLON WIM VAN DOOREN Department of Education & Professional Studies Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology, King’s College London Department of Educational Sciences London Katholieke Universiteit Leuven UK Leuven Belgium IVO D. DINOV

UCLA Statistics JON LOUIS DORBOLO University of California Los Angeles Oregon State University SOCR Resource Corvallis, OR Los Angeles, CA USA USA MICHELE M. DORNISCH

SIDNEY D’MELLO School of Education University of Memphis Long Island University C. W. Post Campus Memphis, TN Brookville, NY USA USA

BARBARA ANNE DOSHER RAY DOLAN Department of Cognitive Science Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging University of California London Irvine, CA UK USA

STEPHEN J. DOLLINGER KAREN E. DOYLE Department of Psychology, Department of Psychology Southern Illinois University Carbondale Kent State University Life Sciences II Kent, OH Carbondale, IL USA USA

HENDRIK DRACHSLER MICHAEL DOMJAN Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies Department of Psychology (CELSTEC) The University of Texas at Austin Open University of the Netherlands Austin, TX Heerlen, DL USA The Netherlands xl List of Contributors

LEE C. DRICKAMER JENNIFER G. DY Department of Biological Sciences Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Northern Arizona University Northeastern University Flagstaff, AZ Boston, MA USA USA

V´ITOR DUARTE TEODORO KLAUS P. EBMEIER Faculdade de Cieˆncias e Tecnologia University Department Universidade Nova de Lisboa Warneford Hospital Caparica University of Oxford Portugal Oxford UK CURT DUDLEY-MARLING

Lynch School of Education AMY C. EDMONDSON Boston College Harvard University Chestnut Hill, MA Boston, MA USA USA

REUVEN DUKAS MICHAEL EID Department of Psychology, Neuroscience & Department of Education & Psychology Behaviour Freie Universita¨t Berlin Animal Behaviour Group Berlin McMaster University Germany Hamilton, ON Canada DOROTHEA EISENHARDT

ILHAN DULGER Department of Biology/Chemistry/Pharmacy Institut fu¨r Biologie - Neurobiologie, Freie Universita¨t Middle East Technical University (METU) Berlin Ankara Berlin Turkey Germany

STEPHEN B. DUNNETT F EISNER Brain Repair Group RANK Cardiff University Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics Cardiff, Wales Nijmegen UK The Netherlands

CARL J. DUNST NAOMI EKAS Orelena Hawks Puckett Institute University of Miami Asheville, NC Coral Gables, FL USA USA

MARWAN A. DWAIRY BO EKEHAMMAR Oranim Academic College, and Emek Yezreel Department of Psychology Academic College Stockholm University Nazerat Ellit Stockholm Israel Sweden List of Contributors xli

JAN ELEN WIM VAN DER ELST Department of Educational Sciences Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology, Maastricht University Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Maastricht Leuven The Netherlands Belgium

MAGNUS ENQUIST SHAWN ELL Centre for the Study of Cultural Evolution & Department of Psychology Department of Zoology Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Stockholm University University of Maine Stockholm Orono, ME Sweden USA

NOEL J. ENTWISTLE A J. ELLIOT NDREW University of Edinburgh Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Ormiston, East Lothian Psychology Scotland University of Rochester Rochester, NY KIMMO ERIKSSON USA School of Education, Culture and Communication Ma¨lardalen University JULIAN GEORGE ELLIOTT Va¨stera˚s School of Education Sweden Durham University Durham RUHAMA EVEN UK Department of Science Teaching The Weizmann Institute of Science JOHN ELLIOTT Rehovot School of Education and Lifelong Learning Israel Centre for Applied Research in Education University of East Anglia S D. H. EVERGREEN Norwich TEPHANIE UK The Evaluation Center Western Michigan University

SHAWN ELL Kalamazoo, MI USA Department of Psychology Maine Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Maine D. ERIK EVERHART Orono, ME Department of Psychology USA East Carolina University Greenville, NC

EYVIND ELSTAD USA Department of Teacher Education and School Development CHARLES FADEL University of Oslo 21st Century Learning LLC Blindern, Oslo Boston, MA Norway USA xlii List of Contributors

HANMING FANG HENNING FERNAU Department of Economics Abteilung Informatik und Wirtschaftsinformatik, University of Pennsylvania Universita¨t Trier Philadelphia, PA Trier USA Germany

GUILLE´N FERNA´ NDEZ MICHAEL S. FANSELOW Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour Department of Psychology Radboud University Nijmegen University of California Nijmegen Los Angeles, CA The Netherlands USA and Department of Cognitive Neuroscience Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre JOAN M. FARRELL Nijmegen Indiana University School of Medicine The Netherlands Schema Therapy Institute – Midwest Indianapolis Center D FIDISHUN Indianapolis, IN OLORES USA University Libraries and Scholarly Communications and Great Valley School of Graduate Professional Studies JO´ ZSEF BALA´ ZS FEJES Pennsylvania State University Institute of Education Malvern, PA University of Szeged USA Szeged Hungary ANDREW FINCH Department of English Education Kyungpook National University Teachers’ College D F. FELDON AVID Daegu City Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Republic of Korea Education University of Virginia DAVID J. FINTON Charlottesville, VA Boeing Research & Technology USA The Boeing Company Seattle, WA

ROGER FELTMAN USA Department of Clinical and Social Sciences in Psychology RICKY FINZI-DOTTAN University of Rochester The Louis and Gabi Weisfeld School of Social Work Rochester, NY Bar–Ilan University USA Ramat Gan Israel and NICK FELTOVICH The Child & Adolescence Outpatient Clinic University of Aberdeen Business School Geha Mental Health Center Aberdeen Petah Tiqva UK Israel List of Contributors xliii

MOIRA FISCHBACHER-SMITH J. D. FLETCHER Department of Management Science and Technology Division University of Glasgow Business School Institute for Defense Analyses Glasgow, Scotland Alexandria, VA UK USA

DENIS FISCHBACHER-SMITH R ˘ V. FLORIAN Department of Management AZVAN University of Glasgow Business School Center for Cognitive and Neural Studies (Coneural) Glasgow, Scotland Romanian Institute of Science and Technology UK Cluj-Napoca Romania

CHRISTOPHER FISCHER

The Center for Educational Partnerships SOON FOOK FONG Old Dominion University School of Educational Studies Norfolk, VA University Sains Malaysia USA Gelugor, Penang Malaysia SHALOM M. FISCH MediaKidz Research and Consulting Teaneck, NJ JAIME R. S. FONSECA USA Higher Institute for Social and Political Sciences, Centre for Public Administration and Policies MICHAEL FITZGERALD Technical University of Lisbon Department of Psychiatry Lisbon Trinity College Dublin (TCD) Portugal Dublin 2 Ireland MICHAEL J. FORD

ANDREAS FLACHE Department of Instruction and Learning Department of Sociology, ICS University of Pittsburgh University of Groningen Pittsburgh, PA TG Groningen USA The Netherlands

STEPHEN B. FOUNTAIN M FLANAGAN ARY Department of Psychology Clare Family Learning Project Kent State University Adult Education Centre Kent, OH Ennis, Co. Clare USA Ireland

TIMOTHY M. FLEMMING DOROTHY FRAGASZY Department of Psychology & Language Research Behavioral and Brain Sciences Program Center Psychology Department Georgia State University University of Georgia Atlanta, GA Athens, GA USA USA xliv List of Contributors

AMY L. FRAHER RU¯ SIN¸Sˇ FREIVALDS Applied Aeronautics Department Institute of Mathematics and Computer Science San Diego Miramar College University of Latvia San Diego, CA Riga USA Latvia

BIEKE DE FRAINE H FRETWELL The Education and Training Research Group EATHER K.U. Leuven Department of Psychiatry Leuven Indiana University School of Medicine Belgium Indianapolis, IN USA

JOHN M. FRANCISCO

School of Education H. HARALD FREUDENTHALER University of Massachusetts Department of Psychology Amherst, MA University of Graz USA Graz Austria BRIAN FRANCIS Department of Psychology and the ERSC National Centre for Research Methods ELLEN FRIDLAND Lancaster University Berlin School of Mind and Brain Lancaster Humboldt-Universita¨t zu Berlin UK Berlin Germany

SARAH A. FRASER Department of Psychology J N. FRITZ Centre de recherche de l’institut universitaire de ENNIFER ge´riatrie de Montreál School of Human Science and Humanities Universite´ du Que´bec a` Montreál University of Houston – Clear Lake Montreál, Que´bec Houston, TX Canada USA

CLAUDE FRASSON JOHANNES FU¨ RNKRANZ De´partement d’Informatique et de Recherche Knowledge Engineering Group Ope´rationnelle TU Darmstadt Universite´ de Montre´al Darmstadt Montreal, QC Germany Canada

DAYNE FREITAG SEAN A. FULOP Artiﬁcial Intelligence Center Department of Linguistics SRI International California State University San Diego, California Fresno, CA USA USA List of Contributors xlv

C. VICTOR FUNG THOMAS N. GARAVAN Center for Music Education Research Department of Personnel and Employment Relations School of Music Kemmy Business School MUS 101, College of The Arts University of Limerick University of South Florida Limerick Tampa, FL Ireland USA

FRANCESCA GARBARINI JOACHIM FUNKE Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Center for Cognitive Science, University of Turin Heidelberg University Turin Heidelberg Italy Germany

ARTUR D’AVILA GARCEZ WAI-TAT FU Department of Computing Computer Science and Human Factors City University London University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign London Urbana-Champaign, IL UK USA

JOANNA K. GARNER ATHANASIOS GAGATSIS Berks College Department of Psychology Department of Education The Pennsylvania State University University of Cyprus Reading, PA Nicosia USA Cyprus

ANTONELLA GASBARRI MATTEO MARIA GALIZZI Department of Biomedical Sciences and Department of Economics Technologies University of Brescia University of L’Aquila Brescia L’Aquila Italy Italy

CHARLES R. GALLISTEL M. GARETH GASKELL Cognitive Science and Behavioral Neuroscience Department of Psychology Rutgers University University of York New Brunswick, NJ Heslington, York USA UK

PABLO GARAIZAR JAMES R. GAVELEK DeusTo Tech, Departamento de Telecomunicaciones Department of Curriculum and Instruction Universidad de Deusto University of Illinois at Chicago Bilbao Chicago, IL Spain USA xlvi List of Contributors

DAVID C. GEARY POL GHESQUIE`RE Department of Psychological Sciences Department of Educational Sciences University of Missouri Parenting and Special Education Research Group Columbia, MO Leuven USA Belgium

PETER GEIBEL JENNIFER M. GIDLEY Fakulta¨t IV - Elektrotechnik und Informatik Global Cities Research Institute Sekr. FR 5-8 RMIT University Technische Universita¨t Berlin Melbourne, VIC Berlin Australia Germany

VINCENT GEIGER DANIEL GILBERT School of Education Principal, Learning Innovations, Inc Australian Catholic University Omaha, NE Brisbane, QLD USA Australia

PAUL GINNS BILAL GENC Department of English Language Teaching The University of Sydney Inonu University Sydney, NSW Malatya Australia Turkey

CHRISTOPHE GIRAUD-CARRIER A GESKE NDREJS Department of Computer Science Faculty of Education and Psychology Brigham Young University University of Latvia Provo, UT Riga USA Latvia and Sciences MARK GIROD University of Latvia Western Oregon University Riga Monmouth, OR Latvia USA

MARIBETH GETTINGER STEVEN GLAUTIER Department of Educational Psychology School of Psychology University of Wisconsin-Madison Southampton University Madison, WI Southampton USA UK

RONNY GEVA Department of Psychology JUDITH GLU¨ CK The Gonda Brain Research Center Institut fu¨r Psychologie Bar Ilan University Alpen-Adria Universita¨t Klagenfurt Ramat Gan Klagenfurt Israel Austria List of Contributors xlvii

MICHAELA GLA¨ SER-ZIKUDA ADAM M. GOODMAN Department of Education Department of Psychology Institute for Educational Science Auburn University Friedrich-Schiller University of Jena Auburn, AL Jena USA Germany USHA C. GOSWAMI Centre for Neuroscience in Education FERNAND GOBET University of Cambridge Department of Psychology Cambridge School of Social Sciences UK Centre for the Study of Expertise Brunel University DANIEL A. GOTTLIEB Uxbridge, Middlesex Department of Psychology UK Sweet Briar College Sweet Briar, VA USA TAMARA VAN GOG

Institute of Psychology KRISTY GOULD Erasmus University Rotterdam Luther College Rotterdam Decorah, IA The Netherlands USA

THOMAS J. GOULD AYTAC GOGUS Center for Substance Abuse Research and Director of Center for Individual and Academic Development the Neuroscience Program Sabanci University Temple University Area of Psychology Istanbul Weiss Hall Philadelphia, PA Turkey USA

ROLAND H. GRABNER ANU A. GOKHALE Department of Technology Institute for Behavioral Sciences Illinois State University Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich Normal, IL Zu¨rich USA Switzerland

DAMIAN GRACE

ROBERT L. GOLDSTONE Department of Government and International Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences Relations Indiana University The University of Sydney Bloomington, IN Sydney USA Australia

SABINE GRAF CECILIA GONZALEZ-CAMPO School of Computing and Information Systems INSERM U862 Neurocentre Magendie Athabasca University Bordeaux Edmonton, AB France Canada xlviii List of Contributors

MELVA R. GRANT PHILIP GRISE´ Darden College of Education The College of Communication and Information Old Dominion University Studies Norfolk, VA Florida State University USA Tallahassee, FL USA

JAMES GRAU STEFAN N. GROESSER Department of Psychology Institute of Management Texas A&M University University of St. Gallen College Station, TX St. Gallen USA Switzerland and System Dynamics Group GARY GREENBERG Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Psychology Cambridge Wichita State University USA Wichita, KS USA DANIEL GROLLMAN LASA laboratory KAROL GREGOR EPFL – Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences Lausanne New York University Switzerland New York USA TIMOTHY J. GROULX Department of Music University of Evansville THOMAS L. GRIFFITHS Evansville, IN Department of Psychology USA University of California, Berkeley

Berkeley, CA WAYNE A. GROVE USA Department of Economics Le Moyne College Syracuse, NY ELENA L. GRIGORENKO USA Department of Psychology Department of Epidemiology & Public Health H GRUBER Child Study Center ANS Yale University Institute of Educational Science New Haven University of Regensburg USA Regensburg, Bavaria Germany

ANDRIS GRINFELDS MARCELLO GUARINI Faculty of Education and Psychology Department of Philosophy University of Latvia University of Windsor Riga Windsor, Ontario Latvia Canada List of Contributors xlix

ERIC GUERCI JOHANNES GURLITT G.R.E.Q.A.M, Centre de la Vieille Charite´ Department of Educational Science Marseille University of Freiburg France Freiburg Germany

FRANK GUERIN

Department of Computing Science THOMAS R. GUSKEY University of Aberdeen College of Education Aberdeen, Scotland University of Kentucky UK Lexington, KY USA

NATALIE GUERRERO Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience M A. GUZEL Pomona College EHMET Claremont, CA School of Psychology USA University of Southampton Southampton UK NICOLAS GUE´GUEN CRPCC-LESTIC University of South Brittany JOSE PRADOS GUZMAN Lorient School of Psychology France University of Leicester Leicester UK AYMERIC GUILLOT Center of Research and Innovation in Sport

University Claude Bernard Lyon 1 – University of MARIE¨TTE DE HAAN Lyon Langeveld Institute for the Study of Education and Laboratory of the Mental, Motor and Material Development in Childhood and Adolescence Performance Utrecht University Villeurbanne Utrecht, CS France The Netherlands

MATTHEW J. GULLO D J. HACKER Institute of Psychology, Health and Society OUGLAS University of Liverpool Department of Educational Psychology Eleanor Rathbone Building University of Utah Liverpool Salt Lake City, UT UK USA

AMY GUNTY LESTER HADSELL Department of Psychology Department of Economics University of Minnesota SUNY-College at Oneonta Minneapolis, MN Oneonta, NY USA USA l List of Contributors

ALLYSON F. HADWIN MAUREEN T. HALLINAN Department of Educational Psychology and Center for Research on Educational Opportunity Leadership Studies University of Notre Dame University of Victoria Notre Dame, IN Victoria, BC USA Canada

GEOFFREY HALL PAUL J. HAGER Department of Psychology University of Technology, Sydney University of York Broadway, NSW York Australia UK and School of Psychology KAZUHIKO HAGIWARA University of New South Wales School of Languages and Linguistics Australia Grifﬁth University Nathan, QLD Australia ULRIKE HALSBAND Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology University of Freiburg BRIAN D. HAIG Freiburg Department of Psychology Germany University of Canterbury Christchurch R HAMILTON New Zealand ICHARD School of Teaching, Learning and Development University of Auckland S HAI-JEW HALIN Auckland Information Technology Assistance Center (iTAC) New Zealand Kansas State University Manhattan, KS FRED H. HAMKER USA Department of Artiﬁcial Intelligence Faculty of Computer Science KYLA HAIMOVITZ Chemnitz University of Technology Department of Psychology Chemnitz Reed College Germany Portland, OR USA A˚ SA HAMMAR Department of Biological and Medical Psychology, LYNNE HALL Clinical Neuropsychology University of Sunderland University of Bergen Sunderland, Tyne & Wear Bergen UK Norway

MARC HALL NOBUYUKI HANAKI University of Sunderland G.R.E.Q.A.M, Centre de la Vieille Charite´ Sunderland, Tyne & Wear Marseille UK France List of Contributors li

ULRIKE HANKE GILBERT HARMAN Department of Educational Science Department of Philosophy University of Freiburg Princeton University Freiburg Princeton, NJ Germany USA

JOSEPH A. HARRIS MICHAEL J. HANNAFIN Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Department of Educational Psychology & Duke University Instructional Technology Durham, NC University of Georgia USA Athens, GA USA RODRIGO HARRISON Instituto de Economı´a Pontiﬁcia Universidad Cato´lica de Chile J LYNNE HANNA UDITH Macul, Santiago University of Maryland Chile College Park, MD

USA CATHERINE A. HARTLEY Department of Psychology New York University MINNA M. HANNULA-SORMUNEN New York, NY Department of Teacher Education and Centre for USA Learning Research University of Turku PITOYO HARTONO Turku Department of Mechanics and Information Finland Technology Chukyo University

POUL KYVSGAARD HANSEN Toyota, Aichi Center for Industrial Production Japan Aalborg University T HASCHER Aalborg Oest INA Denmark Department of Educational Research University of Salzburg Salzburg GERRI HANTEN Austria Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory Dept. of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation MARK HASELGROVE Baylor College of Medicine School of Psychology Houston, TX The University of Nottingham USA Nottingham UK

ILONCA HARDY CRAIG HASSED Department of Education Department of General Practice Goethe-University Frankfurt Monash University Frankfurt Notting Hill, VIC Germany Australia lii List of Contributors

CATHRINE HASSE JENNIFER HENDERLONG CORPUS Department of Learning Department of Psychology The Danish School of Education Reed College University of Aarhus Portland, OR Copenhagen, NV USA Denmark

RICHARD N. A. HENSON

STEFFI HEIDIG (NE´E DOMAGK) MRC Cognition and Brain Science Unit Learning and Interactive Media University of Cambridge Department of Education Cambridge University of Erfurt UK Erfurt

Germany ALICIA HERAZ University of Montreal

JANNICA HEINSTRO¨ M Montre´al, Que´bec Department of Information Studies Canada A˚bo Akademi University Turku MICHAEL HERCZEG Finland Institute for Multimedia and Interactive Systems (IMIS) University of Luebeck JU¨ RGEN HELLER Luebeck Department of Psychology Germany University of Tu¨bingen Tu¨bingen Germany DIRK HERMANS Center for the Psychology of Learning and Experimental Psychopathology J HELLER ACK Department of Psychology School of Music University of Leuven University of South Florida Leuven Tampa, FL Belgium USA

PATRICK HERNLY SCOTT H. HEMENOVER Center for Music Education Research Western Illinois University School of Music Macomb, IL College of The Arts, University of South Florida USA Tampa, FL USA

BARBARA HEMFORTH Laboratoire de Psychologie et de Neuropsychologie ESTHER HERRMANN Cognitives Department of Developmental and Comparative UFR Institut de Psychologie CNRS Psychology Universite´ Paris Descartes Max Planck Institute for evolutionary Anthropology Boulogne-Billancourt, Cedex Leipzig France Germany List of Contributors liii

THOMAS HERRMANN JANETTE R. HILL Information and Technology Management Lifelong Education, Administration, and Policy Institute for Applied Work Sciences University of Georgia University of Bochum Athens, GA Bochum USA Germany ELI HINKEL

CYRIL HERRY Department of Anthropology INSERM U862 Neurocentre Magendie Seattle University Bordeaux Seattle, WA France USA

EYKE HU¨ LLERMEIER PETRA HERZMANN Institute of General Didactics and School Research Philipps-Universita¨t Marburg University Cologne Marburg Cologne Germany Germany IMRAN HO-ABDULLAH

MARIEKE VAN HEUGTEN School of Language Studies & Linguistics Faculty of Social Sciences and Human Department of Psychology Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia University of Toronto at Mississauga Bangi, Selangor DE Mississauga, ON Malaysia Canada

BOBBY HOFFMAN GAIL D. HEYMAN Department of Educational Studies Department of Psychology University of Central Florida University of California, San Diego Orlando, FL La Jolla, CA USA USA

MEGAN L. HOFFMAN E JONES HIGGINS RIN Department of Psychology Psychology Department Language Research Center University of Illinois Georgia State University Champaign, IL Atlanta, GA USA USA

PHILIP A. HIGHAM GALIT HOFREE School of Psychology Department of Psychology University of Southampton University of California Southampton La Jolla, CA UK USA

SII CHING HII KAREN L. HOLLIS School of Educational Studies Department of Psychology University Sains Malaysia Mount Holyoke College Gelugor, Penang South Hadley, MA Malaysia USA liv List of Contributors

IAN D. HOLLOWAY HOLGER HORZ Department of Psychology Department of Psychology University of Western Ontario Educational Psychology and Head of London, ON Interdisciplinary College of University Didactics Canada Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Frankfurt

ROBERT C. HONEY Germany School of Psychology Cardiff University STEPHEN HOUGHTON Cardiff, Wales Graduate School of Education UK The University of Western Australia Nedlands, WA

SIMON HOOPER Australia College of Education Pennsylvania State University ROBERT W. HOWARD University Park, PA School of Education USA University of New South Wales Sydney

SIMON R. HOOPER Australia Instructional Systems Dept. of Learning + Performance Systems NADY HOYEK College of Education Center of Research and Innovation in Sport The Pennsylvania State University University Claude Bernard Lyon 1 – University of University Park, PA Lyon USA Laboratory of the Mental, Motor and Material Performance

H. ULRICH HOPPE Villeurbanne University of Duisburg-Essen France Duisburg Germany CHUNG-YUAN HSU Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education

SHERRI L. HORNER National Taiwan University of Science and Bowling Green State University Technology Bowling Green, OH Taipei USA Taiwan

JUDY TZU HUANG AIDAN J. HORNER Institute of Cognitive Neurology and Dementia National Open University Research, Otto–von–Guericke University Magdeburg New Taipei City Magdeburg Taiwan Germany and LUDWIG HUBER Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University Department of Cognitive Biology College London University of Vienna London Vienna UK Austria List of Contributors lv

THEO HUG FRANCES IHLE Institute of Psychosocial Intervention and Department of Special Education Communication Studies University of Kansas University of Innsbruck Lawrence, KS Innsbruck USA Austria

KAZUSHI IKEDA JUDI HUMBERSTONEWOEI HUNG College of Education and Human Development Graduate School of Information Science University of North Dakota Nara Institute of Science and Technology Grand Forks, ND Ikoma, Nara Prefecture USA Japan

WOEI HUNG KNUD ILLERIS College of Education and Human Development Department of Learning University of North Dakota The Danish University School of Education Grand Forks, ND Aarhus University USA Copenhagen NV Denmark R. REED HUNT Department of Psychology University of Texas San Antonio YUKIKO INOUE San Antonio, TX School of Education USA University of Guam Mangilao, Guam ALMUT HUPBACH USA Department of Psychology Lehigh University P ISERBYT Bethlehem, PA ETER USA Research Centre for Movement Education and Sport Pedagogy

JOHN HURST Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Monash University Leuven Melbourne, VIC Belgium Australia

AZAHARI ISMAIL S HUTCHINSON TEVEN Department of Professional Development and Department of Psychology Continuing Education University of Maine Universiti Putra Malaysia Orono, ME Serdang, Selangor USA Malaysia

DIRK IFENTHALER Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences, LUIS R. IZQUIERDO Department of Education Departamento de Ingenierı´a Civil University of Freiburg University of Burgos Freiburg Burgos Germany Spain lvi List of Contributors

SEGISMUNDO S. IZQUIERDO MATTHIAS JARKE University of Valladolid Informatik 5 Valladolid RWTH Aachen University Spain Aachen Germany IVAN IZQUIERDO Memory Center Brain Institute ALLAN JEONG Pontiﬁcal Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul Educational Psychology & Learning Systems Porto Alegre, RS Florida State University Brazil Tallahassee, FL USA BEVERLEY JACKLING School of Accounting and Finance

Victoria University LI JIANMING Melbourne, VIC Data Storage Institute Australia Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A-STAR) M JACKSON ICHAEL Singapore Department of Government and International Relations The University of Sydney RAU´ L JIME´NEZ Sydney Departamento de Estadı´stica Australia Universidad Carlos III de Madrid Getafe LANITA JACOBS Spain Department of Anthropology University of Southern California Los Angeles, CA P JIN USA UTAI School of Education

ISA JAHNKE The University of New South Wales Department of Applied Educational Science Sydney, NSW Interactive Media and Learning (IML)Umea˚ University Australia Umea˚ Sweden BIRGER JOHANSSON

MARK A. JAMES Cognitive Science Department of English Lund University Arizona State University Lund Tempe, AZ Sweden USA

KAROLINA JANACSEK ELIZABETH JOHNSON Institute of Psychology Department of Psychology University of Szeged University of Toronto at Mississauga Szeged Mississauga, ON Hungary Canada List of Contributors lvii

TRISTAN E. JOHNSON ELS JOOS Learning Systems Institute & Department of Center for the Psychology of Learning and Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, Experimental Psychopathology College of Education Department of Psychology University of Leuven Florida State University Leuven Tallahassee, FL Belgium USA

HELEN JOSSBERGER Center for Learning Sciences and Technologies JELLE JOLLES (CELSTEC) VU University Amsterdam Open Universiteit Amsterdam Heerlen The Netherlands The Netherlands

DAVID H. JONASSEN JEREMIE JOZEFOWIEZ School of Information Science and Learning Escola de Psicologia Technologies Universidade do Minho University of Missouri Braga Columbia, MO Portugal USA

SANNA JA¨ RVELA¨ Department of Educational Sciences and Teacher SARA J. JONES Education Department of Educational Psychology University of Oulu The University of Texas at Austin Oulu Austin, TX Finland USA

KAMARUZAMAN JUSOFF MATT JONES Faculty of Forestry University of Colorado Universiti Putra Malaysia Boulder, CO Serdang, Selangor USA Malaysia

CECILIA KA YUK CHAN MICHAEL L. JONES Centre for the Enhancement of Teaching and Faculty of Commerce Learning University of Wollongong University of Hong Kong Wollongong, NSW Hong Kong Australia China

TON DE JONG ERKKI KAILA Faculty of Behavioral Sciences Department of Information Technology University of Twente University of Turku Enschede Turku The Netherlands Finland lviii List of Contributors

CHARLES KALISH KENNETH A. KAUFMAN Department of Educational Psychology Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory University of Wisconsin-Madison George Mason University Madison, WI Fairfax, VA USA USA

SLAVA KALYUGA KORAY KAVUKCUOGLU School of Education Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences University of New South Wales New York University Sydney, NSW New York Australia USA

MARJAANA KANGAS MATT C. KEENER Department of Teacher Education Department of Educational Psychology University of Helsinki University of Utah Helsinki Salt Lake City, UT Finland USA

THEMIS N. KARAMINIS E. JAMES KEHOE Department of Psychological Sciences School of Psychology Birkbeck College University of New South Wales University of London Sydney, NSW London Australia UK

JOHN M. KELLER AVI KARNI Department of Human Biology & The E.J. Safra Brain Instructional Systems Program (Emeritus), Research Center for the Study of Learning and Department of Educational Psychology & Learning Learning Disabilities Systems University of Haifa Florida State University Mt Carmel Tallahassee, FL Israel USA

JULIE DERGES KASTNER STEVE W. KELLY College of Music Department of Psychology Michigan State University University of Strathclyde East Lansing, MI Glasgow, Scotland USA UK

JEFFREY S. KATZ SEBASTIAN KEMPERT Department of Psychology Department of Educational Sciences Auburn University Goethe-University Frankfurt Auburn, AL Frankfurt am Main USA Germany List of Contributors lix

MICHAEL J. KENNEDY EVAN KIDD Department of Special Education School of Psychological Sciences University of Kansas University of Manchester Lawrence, KS Manchester USA UK

WILLIAM G. KENNEDY DOROTHE KIENHUES Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study Institute of Psychology George Mason University University of Muenster Fairfax, VA Muenster USA Germany

SUNGHO KIM ELIZABETH A. KENSINGER Department of Psychology Department of Electronic Engineering Boston College Yeungnam University Chestnut Hill, MA Gyeongsan-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do USA South Korea

CHANMIN KIM GABRIELE KERN-ISBERNER The Department of Educational Psychology & Department of Computer Science Instructional Technology TU Dortmund The University of Georgia Dortmund Athens, GA Germany USA

ANDREAS KERREN SUNG-IL KIM School of Computer Science, Physics and Department of Education Mathematics (DFM) Brain and Motivation Research Institute Linnaeus University Korea University Va¨xjo¨ Seoul Sweden South Korea

MARLIEKE T. R. VAN KESTEREN JAMES E. KING Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour University of Arizona Radboud University Nijmegen Tucson, AZ Nijmegen USA The Netherlands and HEATHER KING Department of Anatomy Department of Education & Professional Studies Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre King’s College London Nijmegen London The Netherlands UK

LIESBETH KESTER KINSHUK Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies School of Computing and Information Systems Open University in the Netherlands Athabasca University Heerlen Athabasca, AB The Netherlands Canada lx List of Contributors

OLIVER KIRCHKAMP ANDREW KITCHENHAM Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Fakulta¨t School of Education, College of Arts, Social, and Universita¨t Jena Health Sciences Jena University of Northern British Columbia Germany Prince George, BC Canada

R. KIRK MAULDIN Department of Sociology JAMES A. KITTS Lake Superior State University Graduate School of Business Sault Sainte Marie, MI Columbia University USA New York, NY USA

JAMIE KIRKLEY C KLAASSEN Information in Place Inc. EES Indiana University Research Park Department of Sociology Bloomington, Indiana Radboud University USA Nijmegen The Netherlands

FEMKE KIRSCHNER PAUL A. KLACZYNSKI Institute of Psychology Department of Psychological Sciences Erasmus University Rotterdam University of Northern Colorado Rotterdam Greeley, CO Netherlands USA

PAUL A. KIRSCHNER STEFAN KNECHT Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies Neurocenter at Scho¨n Klinik Hamburg Eilbek (CELSTEC) Scho¨n Klinik Hamburg-Eilbek Open University of the Netherlands Hamburg Heerlen, DL Germany The Netherlands

SUSANNE KOERBER DAVID H. KIRSHNER Department of Psychology Department of Educational Theory, Policy, and University of Education Freiburg Practice Freiburg Louisiana State University Germany Baton Rouge, LA USA ALICE Y. KOLB Organization Behavior Department, Weatherhead STEPHAN KIRSTEIN School of Management Honda Research Institute Europe GmbH Case Western Reserve University Offenbach Cleveland, OH Germany USA List of Contributors lxi

DAVID A. KOLB WENDELIN KU¨ PERS Organization Behavior Department, Weatherhead School of Management & International Business School of Management Massey University (Albany Campus) Case Western Reserve University Auckland Cleveland, OH New Zealand USA LINDA KRAGELUND

INGO KOLLAR National Centre of Competence Development Department of Psychology The Danish School of Education University of Munich Aarhus University Munich Copenhagen, NV Germany Denmark

EMIEL KRAHMER AILING KONG Department of Teacher Education Tilburg center for Cognition and Communication Saint Joseph’s University (TiCC) Philadelphia, PA Tilburg University USA Tilburg The Netherlands

FRE´DE´RIC KORICHE JOHN H. KRANZLER LIRMM, CNRS UMR 5506 College of Education Universite´ Montpellier II University of Florida Montpellier Gainesville, FL France USA

NATE KORNELL JOHN KRATUS Department of Psychology College of Music, Michigan State University Williams College East Lansing, MI Williamstown, MA USA USA

HERMANN KO¨ RNDLE L KEE KOR IEW Psychology of Learning and Instruction Department of Mathematical Sciences TU Dresden Universiti Teknologi MARA Malaysia Dresden Merbok, Kedah Darulaman Germany Malaysia

GEERT-JAN M. KRUIJFF TIM KOVACS Language Technology Lab Department of Computer Science German Research Center for Artiﬁcial Intelligence University of Bristol Saarbru¨cken Bristol Germany UK NATALIA N. KUDRYAVTSEVA LEONARD F. KOZIOL Neurogenetics of Social Behavior Sector Fielding Graduate Institute Institute of Cytology and Genetics SD RAS Santa Barbara, CA Novosibirsk USA Russia lxii List of Contributors

ONDRˇEJ KUZˇELKA SUSANNE P. LAJOIE Faculty of Electrical Engineering Department of Educational and Counselling Czech Technical University Psychology (ECP) Prague McGill University Czech Republic Montreal, QC Canada

JONAS KUHN JANEEN LAMB Institut fu¨r Maschinelle Sprachverarbeitung School of Education Universita¨t Stuttgart Australian Catholic University Stuttgart Brisbane, QLD Germany Australia

SANJEEV KULKARNI LUIS C. LAMB Department of Electrical Engineering Institute of Informatics Princeton University Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul Princeton, NJ Porto Alegre, RS USA Brazil

SHUI-FONG LAM ALEKSANDRA KUPAVSKAYA LITE College Department of Psychology London University of Hong Kong UK Hong Kong China

SIMONE KURT SUSAN M. LAND University of Ulm, Institute of Neurobiology Education Instructional Systems Program, The Ulm Pennsylvania State University Germany University Park, PA USA IN SO KWEON Department of Electrical Engineering FRANCO LANDRISCINA Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology Allianz Daejeon E-Learning South Korea Trieste Italy

MIKKO-JUSSI LAAKSO PETER C. R. LANE Department of Information Technology School of Computer Science, University of University of Turku Hertfordshire Turku Hatﬁeld, Hertfordshire Finland UK

JOHAN N. M. LAGERLO¨ F H. CHAD LANE Department of Economics Institute for Creative Technologies University of Copenhagen University of Southern California København K Los Angeles, CA Denmark USA List of Contributors lxiii

INES LANGEMEYER YANN LECUN InterMedia, Faculty of Education Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences University of Oslo New York University OSLO New York Norway USA

ANNIE LANG JUNGMI LEE Department of Telecommunications Department of Educational Science Indiana University University of Freiburg Bloomington, IN Freiburg USA Germany

KENNON A. LATTAL JAE MU LEE Department of Psychology Department of Computer Education West Virginia University University of Busan National University of Education Morgantown, WV Busan USA South Korea

ROBERT A. LAVINE Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, and of LISA J. LEHMBERG Neurology (ret.) Department of Music & Dance The George Washington University School of University of Massachusetts Medicine and Health Sciences Amherst, MA Washington, DC USA USA and CHERYL LEMKE Reston Psychological Center Metiri Group Reston, VA Culver City, CA USA USA

NATHALIE LAZARIC ALES LEONARDIS CNRS – GREDEG University of Ljubljana University of Nice Sophia Antipolis Ljubljana Valbonne, Sophia Antipolis Slovenia France

ERIC LE BOURG DOROTHEA C. LERMAN Research Center on Animal Cognition School of Human Science and Humanities University of Toulouse University of Houston – Clear Lake Toulouse, Cedex 9 Houston, TX France USA

DAVID B. LEAKE JAMES LESTER School of Informatics and Computing Department of Computer Science Indiana University North Carolina State University Bloomington, IN Raleigh, NC USA USA lxiv List of Contributors

DETLEV LEUTNER SOH-LEONG LIM Instructional Psychology Marriage and Family Therapy Program School of Education, Duisburg-Essen University Department of Counseling and School Psychology Essen San Diego State University Germany San Diego, CA USA DORIS LEWALTER

TUM School of Education CHAP SAM LIM Fachgebiet Gymnasialpa¨dagogik School of Educational Studies Technical University Munich Universiti Sains Malaysia Munich Minden, Penang Germany Malaysia

STEPHAN LEWANDOWSKY J LIND School of Psychology OHAN The University of Western Australia Centre for the Study of Cultural Evolution & Crawley, WA Department of Zoology Australia Stockholm University Stockholm

CHARLIE N. LEWIS Sweden Department of Psychology and the ERSC National Centre for Research Methods SHANE LINDSAY Lancaster University Department of Psychology Lancaster University of York UK Heslington, York UK RICHARD S. LEWIS

Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience STEFANIE LINDSTAEDT Pomona College Division Manager Knowledge Services Claremont, CA Know-Center & Knowledge Management Institute, USA Graz University of Technology Graz R LEYENDECKER AMON Austria University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany P. ALEX LINLEY Centre of Applied Positive Psychology

CHUNYUAN LIAO The Venture Centre FX Palo Alto Laboratory Coventry West Midlands Palo Alto, CA UK USA CLAS LINNMAN Q. VERA LIAO Department of Psychiatry Computer Science and Human Factors Harvard Medical School & Massachusetts General University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Hospital Urbana-Champaign, IL Charlestown, MA USA USA List of Contributors lxv

KAREN M. LIONELLO-DENOLF DERONG LIU University of Massachusetts Medical School Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Shriver Center University of Illinois Worcester, MA Chicago, IL USA USA

HONGLI LI QING LIU Department of Educational Policy Studies Behavioral and Brain Sciences Program Georgia State University Psychology Department Atlanta, GA University of Georgia USA Athens, GA USA KAREN Z. H. LI Department of Psychology ZHENG LIU Center for Research in Human Development, Accenture Concordia University China Montre´al, Que´bec Canada QIONG LIU FX Palo Alto Laboratory ALEXANDRA LIST Palo Alto, CA Department of Human Development USA University of Maryland College Park, MD KAY LIVINGSTON USA School of Education University of Glasgow JORDAN A. LITMAN College of Social Sciences Psychology Department Glasgow, Scotland University of South Florida UK Saint Petersburg, FL USA JENNIFER LONG Department of Psychology DANIEL R. LITTLE Ohio State University Psychological Sciences Columbus, OH The University of Melbourne USA Parkville, Victoria Australia ALESSANDRO LONGHEU Department of Electric MICHAEL LITTMAN Electronic and Informatics Engineering (DIEEI) Computer Science Department University of Catania Rutgers University Catania Piscataway, NJ Italy USA RICHARD W. LONGMAN CHARLOTTE HUA LIU Department of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Education Columbia University The Fu Foundation School of University of Canberra Engineering & Applied Science Canberra, ACT New York, NY Australia USA lxvi List of Contributors

CHEE-KIT LOOI ZHONG-LIN LU National Institute of Education Departments of Psychology Nanyang Technological University University of Southern California Singapore Los Angeles, CA Singapore USA

JANET LOONEY HAYDE´E LUGO Vital Insight Departamento de Economı´a Paris Universidad Complutense de Madrid France Madrid Spain SUSANA LO´ PEZ ORNAT

Dpto. Psicologı`aBa´sica II MAIKE LUHMANN Facultad de Psicologı`a Universidad Complutense de Department of Psychology Madrid University of Chicago Madrid Chicago, IL Spain USA

BRADLEY C. LOVE SHI LUPING Department of Psychology Data Storage Institute The University of Texas at Austin Agency for Science, Technology and Research Austin, TX (A-STAR) USA Singapore

RICHARD LOWE ZHONG-LIN LU School of Education Departments of Psychology Curtin University of Technology University of Southern California Bentley, WA Los Angeles, CA Australia USA

RENAE LOW M LUSIGNAN School of Education ICHAEL University of New South Wales Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy Sydney, NSW University of Chicago Australia Chicago, IL USA

ROBERT E. LUBOW Department of Psychology WOLFRAM LUTTERER Tel Aviv University Department of Education Ramat Aviv University of Freiburg Israel Freiburg Germany ELLIOT A. LUDVIG Princeton Neuroscience Institute KOEN LUWEL 3-N-12 Green Hall Center for Educational Research and Development Princeton University Hogeschool–Universiteit Brussel Princeton, NJ Brussels USA Belgium List of Contributors lxvii and SUSAN R. MADSEN Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology Woodbury School of Business Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Utah Valley University Leuven Orem, UT Belgium USA

BEA MAES SHERRY D. LYONS Continuing & Professional Studies - English Parenting and Special Education Research Group Language Institute Catholic University of Leuven University of Maryland Baltimore County (UMBC) Leuven Baltimore, MD Belgium USA CARLO MAGNO Counseling and Educational Psychology Department TG.NOR RIZAN TG.MOHD.MAASUM De La Salle University Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Manila Bangi, Selangor Philippines Malaysia

JOHN F. MAGNOTTI MARGARET MACDOUGALL Department of Psychology Centre for Population Health Sciences Auburn University University of Edinburgh Medical School Auburn, AL Teviot Place, Edinburgh USA UK CAROLYN A. MAHER

LUIS MACEDO Graduate School of Education University of Coimbra Rutgers University Coimbra New Brunswick, NJ Portugal USA

TIAGO V. MAIA COLIN M. MACLEOD Department of Psychiatry Department of Psychology Columbia University and New York State Psychiatric University of Waterloo Institute Waterloo, ON New York, NY Canada USA

MICHAEL WALTON MACY CARMINE MAIELLO Department of Sociology Research and Study Center for Education Cornell University Social Dynamics Laboratory FSP University of Basel Ithaca, NY Basel USA Switzerland

W. T. MADDOX ANTONIO MALDONADO Department of Psychology Departamento de Psicologı´a Experimental University of Texas Universidad de Granada Austin, TX Granada USA Spain lxviii List of Contributors

MICHELE MALGERI and Department of Electric, Electronic and Informatics School of Social Studies Engineering (DIEEI) Peres Academic Center University of Catania Rechovot Catania Israel Italy DANIEL MARGOLIASH Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy JOHN C. MALONE University of Chicago Department of Psychology Chicago, IL University of Tennessee USA Knoxville, TN USA CARRIE MARK Special Education GUY MANASTER Department of Special Education Educational Psychology Department University of Kansas The University of Texas at Austin Lawrence, KS Austin, TX USA USA ZDRAVKO MARKOV Central Connecticut State University GIUSEPPE MANGIONI New Britain, CT Department of Electric, Electronic and Informatics USA Engineering (DIEEI) University of Catania HENRY MARKOVITS Catania Department of Psychology Italy Universite´ du Que´bec a` Montre´al Montreal, QC NIPAN J. MANIAR Canada School of Creative Technologies University of Portsmouth SANDRA P. MARSHALL Portsmouth, Hampshire Department of Psychology UK San Diego State University San Diego, CA USA ELIO MARCHIONE CRESS: Centre for Research in Social Simulation, JEFF C. MARSHALL Department of Sociology Moore School of Education University of Surrey Clemson University Guildford, Surrey Clemson, SC UK USA

MALKA MARGALIT BIRGIT MARTE School of Education Department of Psychology Tel–Aviv University University of Graz Tel–Aviv Graz Israel Austria List of Contributors lxix

GARRY L. MARTIN ANDREW MATTARELLA-MICKE St. Paul’s College University of Manitoba Department of Psychology Winnipeg, MB University of Chicago Canada Chicago, IL USA ANDREW J. MARTIN Faculty of Education and Social Work ROBERT SAMUEL MATTHEWS University of Sydney School of Education Sydney University of Adelaide Australia Adelaide, South Australia Australia

ANGE´LIQUE MARTIN K MATTOCK CRPCC-LESTIC AREN University of South Brittany Department of Psychology Lorient Lancaster University France Lancaster UK

DOMINIC W. MASSARO WHITNEY MATTSON Perceptual Science Laboratory University of Miami University of California- Santa Cruz Social Sciences II Coral Gables, FL Santa Cruz, CA USA USA

HELENA MATUTE GIANLUCA MASSEI Departamento de Fundamentos y Me´todos de la National Inter-University Consortium for Psicologı´a Telecommunications (CNIT) Universidad de Deusto Naples Bilbao Italy Spain

JULIE J. MASTERSON LOUIS D. MATZEL Department of Communication Sciences and Department of Psychology Disorders Program in Behavioral Neuroscience Missouri State University Rutgers University Springﬁeld, MO Piscataway, NJ USA USA

MARGO A. MASTROPIERI RICHARD E. MAYER College of Education and Human Development Department of Psychology George Mason University University of California Fairfax, VA Santa Barbara, CA USA USA

ANNA MATEJKO MATTHEW T. MCCRUDDEN Department of Psychology School of Educational Psychology and Pedagogy The University of Western Ontario Victoria University London Wellington Canada New Zealand lxx List of Contributors

MARK A. MCDANIEL JAN VAN DER MEIJ Department of Psychology Faculty of Behavioral Sciences Washington University University of Twente Saint Louis, MO Enschede USA The Netherlands

FIONA MCDONALD ROGER L. MELLGREN School of Psychology Department of Psychology University of New South Wales University of Texas at Arlington Sydney, NSW Arlington, TX Australia USA

DENNIS M. MCINERNEY CHRISTOPH MENGELKAMP Educational Psychology Psychological Studies Department of General and Educational Psychology Department, Block D1, 2Fl, Room 15 University of Koblenz-Landau The Hong Kong Institute of Education Landau Tai Po Germany Hong Kong

LINGQI MENG BRUCE M. MCLAREN Penn State Berks Carnegie Mellon University Reading, PA Pittsburgh, PA USA USA

TAMARYN MENNEER GAVAN P. MCNALLY School of Psychology School of Psychology University of Southampton University of New South Wales Southampton Sydney, NSW UK Australia

RANDOLF MENZEL JORGE H. MEDINA Departamento de Fisiologia Department of Biology/Chemistry/Pharmacy Universidad de Buenos Aires Institut fu¨r Biologie - Neurobiologie, Freie Universita¨t Buenos Aires Berlin Argentina Berlin Germany

BRAD MEHLENBACHER Department of Leadership, Policy and Adult and J. G. VAN JEROEN MERRIE¨NBOER Higher Education FHML, Department of Educational Development and North Carolina State University Research Raleigh, NC Maastricht University USA Maastricht The Netherlands BEAT MEIER Department of Psychology DANIEL S. MESSINGER University of Bern University of Miami Bern Coral Gables, FL Switzerland USA List of Contributors lxxi

GIORGIO METTA MARCELO MILRAD Department of Robotics, Brain and Cognitive Center for Learning and Knowledge Technologies Sciences (CeLeKT) Italian Institute of Technology School of Computer Science Genoa Physics and Mathematics Italy Linnaeus University Va¨xjo¨ CHRISTIANE METZNER Sweden Universidad Central de Venezuela Caracas T R. MINOR Venezuela HOMAS Department of Psychology

THIERRY MEULEMANS UCLA, University of California Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Cognitive Los Angeles, CA Science USA University of Lie`ge

Lie`ge NATHALIE MULLER MIRZA Belgium Institute of Psychology University of Lausanne M ME´HEUT ARTINE Lausanne University Paris Est Cre´teil Switzerland Brest France BELINDA B. MITCHELL J. MICHAEL SPECTOR Special Education, Department of Special Education Learning and Performance Support Laboratory University of Kansas University of Georgia Lawrence, KS Athens, GA USA USA

MICHAEL C. MITCHELMORE MOHAMMED R. MILAD Department of Psychiatry Department of Education Harvard Medical School & Massachusetts General Macquarie University Hospital Sydney, NSW Charlestown, MA Australia USA

KATI HELENA MA¨ KITALO-SIEGL M F. MILLER ARIEL Finnish Institute for Educational Research Department of Educational Psychology and University of Jyva¨skyla¨ Leadership Studies Finland University of Victoria Victoria, BC Canada NOTGER G. MU¨ LLER Department of Neurology RALPH R. MILLER University of Magdeburg & German Center for SUNY-Binghamton Neurodegenerative Diseases Binghamton, NY Magdeburg USA Germany lxxii List of Contributors

IDA MOADAB KONRAD MORGAN Department of Psychology University of Mauritius University of Oregon Reduit Eugene, OR Mauritius USA CLAYTON T. MORRISON NOORIZAH MOHD.NOOR Department of Computer Science Gould-Simpson Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia The University of Arizona Bangi, Selangor Tucson, AZ Malaysia USA

KRISZTINA MOLNAR DAVID B. MORRIS Department of Economics Department of Educational Studies Norwegian School of Economics and Business St. Mary’s College of Maryland Administration St. Mary’s City, MD Bergen USA Norway J. BRUCE MORTON MARIE-H. MONFILS Department of Psychology Department of Psychology The University of Western Ontario The University of Texas at Austin London, ON Austin, TX Canada USA MAHENDRENATH MOTAH GIANLUIGI MONGILLO School of Business, Management and Finance Laboratory of Neurophysics and Physiology UTM CNRS UMR8119 Pointe aux Sables Paris Descartes University Mauritius Paris France RENATE MOTSCHNIG Computer Science Didactics and Learning Research ALFONSO MONTUORI Center Department of Transformative Inquiry University of Vienna California Institute of Integral Studies Vienna San Francisco Austria USA BRADFORD MOTT KEVIN L. MOORE Department of Computer Science Colorado School of Mines North Carolina State University Golden, Colorado Raleigh, NC USA USA

ERIN MORAN VALE´RIE ME´RINDOL College of Education Erickson Hall CERNA Michigan State University Ecole des Mines East Lansing, MI Paris USA France List of Contributors lxxiii

MICHAEL MA¨ S JAMES S. NAIRNE Department of Sociology/ICS Department of Psychological Sciences University of Groningen Purdue University Groningen West Lafayette, IN The Netherlands USA

ETIENNE MULLET L NAISMITH Ethics and Work Laboratory AURA Institute of Advanced Studies (EPHE) Department of Educational and Counselling Paris Psychology (ECP) France McGill University Montreal, QC

VERA S. MUNDE Canada Department of Special Needs Education and Child

Care HEDIEH NAJAFI University of Groningen Department of Curriculum Groningen Teaching and Learning The Netherlands Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto D LACOURSE MUNTEANU ANA Toronto, ON Ohio State University at Newark Canada Newark, OH USA KAYVAN NAJARIAN BRENDAN D. MURRAY Department of Computer Science Department of Psychology Virginia Commonwealth University Boston College Richmond, Virginia Chestnut Hill, MA USA USA

MINORU NAKAYAMA JOY MURRAY School of Physics Tokyo Institute of Technology University of Sydney Meguro, Tokyo Sydney, NSW Japan Australia

HAN NAKKEN R CHARIKLIA NAGEL OSEMARIE Department of Special Needs Education and Child Department of Economics Care Universitat Pompeu Fabra University of Groningen Barcelona Groningen Spain The Netherlands

SOM NAIDU Learning & Teaching Quality Enhancement and VICKI S. NAPPER Evaluation Services Department of Teacher Education Charles Sturt University Weber State University Albury, NSW Ogden, UT Australia USA lxxiv List of Contributors

SUSANNE NARCISS ALJOSCHA C. NEUBAUER Psychology of Learning and Instruction Department of Psychology Technische Universitaet Dresden University of Graz Dresden Graz Germany Austria

NA’ILAH SUAD NASIR DELIA NEUMAN Graduate School of Education & Department of College of Information Science and Technology African American Studies Drexel University University of California, Berkeley Philadelphia, PA Berkeley, CA USA USA ALLEN NEURINGER

MATTHIAS NU¨ CKLES Department of Psychology Department of Educational Science Reed College University of Freiburg Portland, OR Freiburg USA Germany RUI GOMES NEVES ˆ HEINZ NEBER Faculdade de Ciencias e Tecnologia Universidade Nova de Lisboa University of Munich (LMU) Caparica Munich Portugal Germany

EUGENIA M. W. NG J. RON NELSON Department of Mathematics and Information Department of Special Education and Technology Communication Disorders The Hong Kong Institute of Education University of Nebraska-Lincoln Hong Kong SAR Lincoln, NE China USA

NOE¨L NGUYEN J B. NELSON AMES Laboratoire Parole et Langage University of the Basque Country Universite´ de Provence & CNRS San Sebastian, Gipuzkoa Aix en Provence Spain France

DEZSO NEMETH HELMUT M. NIEGEMANN Institute of Psychology Department of Education University of Szeged University of Erfurt Szeged Erfurt Hungary Germany

BERNHARD NETT KLAUS NIELSEN Information Systems and New Media Department of Psychology University of Siegen Aarhus University Siegen Aarhus C Germany Denmark List of Contributors lxxv

MARY NIEMCZYK LIN S. NORTON Department of Technological Entrepreneurship & Faculty of Education Innovation Management Liverpool Hope University Arizona State University Liverpool, England Mesa, AZ UK USA

MARCO NOVARESE

HANNELE NIEMI Centre for Cognitive Economics – Dipartimento di Institute of Behavioural Sciences Scienze Giuridiche ed Economiche University of Helsinki Universita` del Piemonte Orientale Amedeo Helsinki Avogadro Finland Alessandria Italy

RUTH E. NIEUWENHUIS-MARK LESLIE NOVOSEL Department of Medical Psychology and Special Education, Department of Special Education Neuropsychology University of Kansas Tilburg University Lawrence, KS Tilburg USA The Netherlands

TEREZINHA NUNES ANA ACEVEDO NISTAL Department of Education Education and Training Research Group University of Oxford Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology Oxford, Oxfordshire Katholieke Universiteit Leuven UK Leuven

Belgium JOHN A. NUNNERY Darden College of Education, Old Dominion

JUAN P. NU´ N˜ EZ PARTIDO University Department of Psychology Norfolk, VA Comillas University USA Madrid Spain ANDREW M. NUXOLL Department of Computer Science University of Portland N NOORDIN OOREEN Portland, OR Department of Language Education and Humanities USA Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang, Selangor L NYBERG Malaysia ARS Department of Integrative Medical Biology, physiology HANS M. NORDAHL Department of Radiation Sciences, Radiology Department of Psychology UFBI (Umea˚ centre for Functional Brain Imaging) Norwegian University of Science and Technology Umea˚ University Trondheim Umea˚ Norway Sweden lxxvi List of Contributors

BENJAMIN D. NYE KEVIN OLIVER Electrical and Systems Engineering Department Department of Curriculum & Instruction University of Pennsylvania North Carolina State University Philadelphia, PA Raleigh, NC USA USA

TIM OATES ANDREAS OLSSON University of Maryland Baltimore County Division of Psychology Baltimore, MD Department of Clinical Neuroscience USA Karolinska Institutet Stockholm EILEEN OBERWELLAND Sweden Leiden University The Netherlands C.-J. OLSSON Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, FERGAL O’BRIEN section for Sports Medicine Department of Accounting and Finance UFBI (Umea˚ centre for Functional Brain Imaging) Kemmy Business School Umea˚ University University of Limerick Umea˚ Limerick Sweden Ireland

STELLAN OHLSSON ALESSANDRO OLTRAMARI Department of Psychology Department of Psychology University of Illinois at Chicago Carnegie Mellon University Chicago, IL Pittsburgh, PA USA USA

ZUHAL OKAN JAMIE O’MALLY ELT Department Department of Psychology C¸ ukurova University University of Alabama Balcali, Adana Tuscaloosa, AL Turkey USA

SANDRA Y. OKITA MARIA OPFERMANN Dept. of Mathematics, Science and Technology Teachers College Instructional Psychology Columbia University School of Education, Duisburg-Essen University New York, NY Essen USA Germany

LORI OLAFSON JOHN E. OPFER Department of Educational Psychology Department of Psychology University of Nevada-Las Vegas The Ohio State University Las Vegas, NV Columbus, OH USA USA List of Contributors lxxvii

MARKAY ORGILL SAMI PAAVOLA Department of Chemistry Institute of Behavioral Sciences University of Nevada, Las Vegas University of Helsinki Las Vegas, NV Helsinki USA Finland

JEANNE ELLIS ORMROD TRACY PACKIAM ALLOWAY School of Psychological Sciences (Emerita) Centre for Memory University of Northern Colorado University of Stirling Greeley, CO Stirling USA UK

DANIEL OSHERSON SE´BASTIEN PACTON Department of Psychology LPNCog/CNRS Princeton University Universite´ Paris-Descartes Princeton, NJ Paris USA France

PIERRE-YVES OUDEYER MARJORY F. PALIUS INRIA Graduate School of Education Talence Rutgers University France New Brunswick, NJ USA HARRIET OVER Department of Developmental and Comparative D C. PALMER Psychology AVID Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Psychology Department Leipzig Smith College Germany Northampton, MA USA

YONCA OZKAN Department of English Language Teaching MARILYN PANAYI Cukurova University City University Adana London Turkey UK and The School Room Paediatric Neurosciences FRED PAAS King’s College Hospital Institute of Psychology London Erasmus University Rotterdam UK Rotterdam Netherlands and JOSEFA N. S. PANDEIRADA Institute of Psychology Department of Education University of Wollongong University of Aveiro Wollongong Aveiro Australia Portugal lxxviii List of Contributors

CAROLYN P. PANOFSKY KAI PATA Department of Educational Studies Center for Educational Technology, Institute of Rhode Island College Informatics Providence, RI Tallinn University USA Tallinn Estonia

ANDREAS PAPASALOUROS

Department of Mathematics JEAN-LUC PATRY University of the Aegean Department of Education Karlovassi, Samos University of Salzburg Greece Salzburg Austria

MAURICIO R. PAPINI

Department of Psychology CHARLES PATTON Texas Christian University Center for Technology in Learning Fort Worth, TX SRI International USA Menlo Park, California USA LYNNE E. PARKER Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer JOSEPH J. PEAR Science Department of Psychology University of Tennessee University of Manitoba Knoxville, TN Winnipeg, MB USA Canada

ALVARO PASCUAL-LEONE S PEDERSEN Department of Neurology USAN Berenson-Allen Center for Non-invasive Brain Department of Educational Psychology Stimulation Texas A&M University Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard College Station, TX Medical School USA Boston, MA

USA TRYPHENIA B. PEELE-EADY College of Education, Department of Language, VARVARA PASIALI Literacy & Sociocultural Studies Department of Music Therapy University of New Mexico, Albuquerque Queens University of Charlotte Albuquerque, NM Charlotte, NC USA USA

PHILIPPE PEIGNEUX DON PASSEY UR2NF (Neuropsychology and Functional Department of Educational Research Neuroimaging Research Unit) Lancaster University Universite´ Libre de Bruxelles Lancaster Bruxelles UK Belgium List of Contributors lxxix

REINHARD PEKRUN JAN PETERS Department of Psychology Department of Scho¨lkopf University of Munich Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics Munich Tu¨bingen Germany Germany

IRENE M. PEPPERBERG K. V. PETRIDES Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Harvard University, William James Hall University College London (UCL) Cambridge, MA London USA UK

CRISTIAN PERABONI MARK V. PEZZO Department of Informatics and Communication Psychology Department University of Milan University of South Florida Milan Saint Petersburg, FL Italy USA

JOSE C. PERALES GIOVANNI PEZZULO Departamento de Psicologı´a Experimental Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale “Antonio Universidad de Granada Zampolli”, National Research Council Granada Pisa Spain Italy and FILIPO STUDZINSKI PEROTTO Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie della Cognizione, Constructivist Artiﬁcial Intelligence Research Group National Research Council Toulouse Roma France Italy

LEONID I. PERLOVSKY ELIZABETH A. PHELPS Harvard University and The Air Force Research Department of Psychology Laboratory New York University Boston, MA New York, NY USA USA and NICOLE L. M. PERNAT Department of Neural Science Kwantlen Polytechnic University New York University Surrey, BC New York, NY Canada USA

PIERRE PERRUCHET DENIS C. PHILLIPS LEAD/CNRS School of Education and Department of Philosophy Universite´ de Bourgogne Stanford University Dijon Stanford, CA France USA lxxx List of Contributors

SUSANNA PIETROPAOLO BERTRAM O. PLOOG Centre de Neurosciences Inte´gratives et Cognitives Department of Psychology UMR5287 Center for Developmental Neuroscience Universite´ de Bordeaux and CNRS College of Staten Island, and Graduate School of Talence CUNY France Staten Island, NY USA

ARJA PIIRAINEN-MARSH TRACI N. PLUMB Department of Languages University of Jyva¨skyla¨ Department of Psychology Jyva¨skyla¨ UCLA, University of California Finland Los Angeles, CA USA

AYALA M. PINES ANDREY I. PODOLSKIY Department of Business Administration Department of Developmental Psychology Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Moscow State University Beer-Sheva Moscow Israel Russia

PABLO N. PIRNAY-DUMMER DMITRY PODOLSKIY Department of Educational Science, Institut fu¨r Moscow State University Erziehungswissenschaft Moscow Albert-Ludwigs-Universita¨t Freiburg Russia Freiburg Germany OLEG PODOLSKIY Moscow State University

JAN L. PLASS Moscow Russia Consortium for Research and Evaluation of Advanced Technologies in Education (CREATE) R POLI New York University OBERTO New York Department of Sociology and Social Research USA University of Trento Trento Italy DARIUSZ PLEWCZYNSKI

ICM, Interdisciplinary Centre for Mathematical and DANIEL T. POLLITT Computational Modelling Special Education, Department of Special Education University of Warsaw University of Kansas Warsaw Lawrence, KS Poland USA

ROLF PLOETZNER ANN N. PONCELET Institute of Media in Education School of Medicine University of Education University of California San Francisco Freiburg San Francisco, CA Germany USA List of Contributors lxxxi

CHI-SANG POON ANNA PRUDENTE Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and School of Education, Elementary Education Technology St. Bonaventure University Massachusetts Institute of Technology St. Bonaventure, NY Cambridge, MA USA USA JOSEPH PSOTKA Basic Research Unit BE´NE´DICTE POULIN-CHARRONNAT US ARMY Research Institute for the Behavioral and LEAD/CNRS Social Sciences Universite´ de Bourgogne Arlington, VA Dijon USA France KIRAN PURANDARE The Kingswood Centre S PREDIGER USANNE Central and North West London NHS Foundation IEEM – Institute for Development and Research in Trust Mathematics Education London TU Dortmund University UK Dortmund

Germany JESSE E. PURDY Department of Psychology Southwestern University SHANA PRIBESH Georgetown, TX The Center for Educational Partnerships USA Old Dominion University Norfolk, VA JOHANNA PO¨ YSA¨ -TARHONEN USA Finnish Institute for Educational Research University of Jyva¨skyla¨

DOMINIC R. PRIME´ Jyva¨skyla¨ Counseling Psychology Finland Arizona State University M RAAB Tempe, AZ ELINDA USA Orelena Hawks Puckett Institute Asheville, NC USA ROBERT W. PROCTOR Department of Psychological Sciences CAROLINE R. RABY Purdue University Department of Experimental Psychology West Lafayette, IN University of Cambridge USA Cambridge UK

ANTJE PROSKE ALI RADLOFF Psychology of Learning and Instruction Higher Education Research Program TU Dresden Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) Dresden Camberwell, VIC Germany Australia lxxxii List of Contributors

HENRY RAILO MARC’AURELIO RANZATO Department of Psychology Courant Institute of the Mathematical Sciences University of Turku New York University Turku New York Finland USA and TEEMU RAJALA Computer Science Department of Information Technology University of Toronto University of Turku Toronto, ON Turku Canada Finland

DAVID N. RAPP KIRUTHIKA RAMANATHAN School of Education and Social Policy Data Storage Institute Department of Psychology Agency for Science, Technology and Research Northwestern University (A-STAR) Evanston, IL Singapore USA Singapore

RICHARD RAMSEY INGVILL RASMUSSEN School of Psychology InterMedia University of Nottingham University of Oslo Nottingham Oslo UK Norway and Department of Psychology Universite´ catholique de Louvain GE´RALDINE RAUCHS Louvain–La–Neuve Inserm-EPHE-University of Caen Basse-Normandie Belgium Research unit U923, GIP Cyceron Caen CHRISTOPH RANDLER France University of Education Heidelberg, Biology and

Didactics OLGA M. RAZUMNIKOVA Heidelberg Cognitive Physiology Lab, Department of Pedagogy Germany and Psychology Research Institute of Physiology SB RAMS, CLINT RANDLES Novosibirsk State Technical University Center for Music Education Research Novosibirsk School of Music Russia College of The Arts, University of South Florida, MUS 101 Tampa, FL RIM RAZZOUK USA Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, College of Education, Learning Systems NEELIMA RANJITH Institute Union Christian College Florida State University – Learning Systems Institute Aluva, Ernakulam, Kerala Tallahassee, FL India USA List of Contributors lxxxiii

N. SANJAY REBELLO JAMES REGGIA Department of Physics, Physics Education Research Department of Computer Science Group University of Maryland Kansas State University College Park, MD Manhattan, KS USA USA RONAN G. REILLY Department of Computer Science EDWARD S. REDHEAD NUI (National University of Ireland) Maynooth School of Psychology Maynooth, Co., Kildare University of Southampton Ireland Southampton

UK GABI REINMANN Learning and Teaching with Media Universita¨t der Bundeswehr Munich T REDMOND HERESA Germany Department of Curriculum and Instruction

Reich College of Education THOMAS G. REIO,JR. Appalachian State University Department of Leadership and Professional Studies Boone, NC Florida International University USA Miami, FL USA

STEPHEN K. REED BIRGIT REISENHOFER Department of Psychology Department of Science Education and Teacher San Diego State University Training San Diego, CA University of Salzburg USA Salzburg and Austria Center for Research in Math & Science Education San Diego State University R REISENZEIN San Diego, CA AINER USA University of Greifswald Greifswald Germany

ROBERT A. REEVE Developmental Psychology, Psychological Sciences ROBERT A. REISER University of Melbourne Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Melbourne, VIC Systems Australia Florida State University Tallahassee, FL USA THOMAS C. REEVES Department of Educational Psychology and NEELE REISS Instructional Technology Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy College of Education, University of Georgia University Medical Center Mainz Athens, GA Mainz USA Germany lxxxiv List of Contributors

STEVEN REISS DAVID C. RICCIO Department of Psychology Kent State University The Ohio State University Kent, OH Columbus, OH USA USA

NICHOLA RICE COHEN ALEXANDER RENKL Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Volen Center for Complex Systems, Brandeis University of Freiburg University Freiburg Waltham, MA Germany USA

K. ANN RENNINGER SABINE RICHTER Department of Educational Studies University of Freiburg Swarthmore College Freiburg Swarthmore, PA Germany USA SCOTT RICK

CLAUS RERUP Department of Marketing Organizational Behavior Area Group, Richard Ivey University of Michigan School of Business Ann Arbor, MI University of Western Ontario USA North London, Ontario Canada ANGELIKA RIEDER-BU¨ NEMANN English Department WILMA C. M. RESING University of Vienna Department of Psychology Vienna Department of Developmental and Educational Austria Psychology Leiden University CLARE RIGG Leiden School of Business and Humanities The Netherlands Institute of Technology Tralee Tralee, County Kerry

REBECCA REVIERE Ireland Department of Sociology and Anthropology Howard University MARK RIJPKEMA Washington, DC Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour USA Radboud University Nijmegen Nijmegen

ZHANNA REZNIKOVA The Netherlands Laboratory of Behavioural Ecology of Animal Communities LANCE J. RIPS Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals, Psychology Department Siberian Branch RAS and Novosibirsk State University Northwestern University Novosibirsk Evanston, IL Russia USA List of Contributors lxxxv

EDWIN ROBERTSON BRIAN H. ROSS Department of Neurology Psychology Department Berenson-Allen Center for Non-invasive Brain University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Champaign, IL Harvard Medical School USA Boston, MA USA BRIAN J. ROSS Department of Computer Science Brock University D H. ROBINSON ANIEL St. Catharines, ON Department of Educational Psychology Canada The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX WILLIAM J. ROTHWELL USA College of Education The Pennsylvania State University

PETER ROBINSON University Park, PA Department of English USA Aoyama Gakuin University D ARI-EVEN ROTH Tokyo APHNE Japan Department of Communication Disorders The Stanley Steyer School of Health Professions Tel Aviv University ANTHONY ROBINS Tel-Hashomer Department of Computer Science Israel University of Otago Dunedin CAROLYN ROVEE-COLLIER New Zealand Department of Psychology Rutgers University Piscataway, NJ D EDWARD ROSE AVID USA Philosophical Studies

Newcastle University JONATHAN ROWE Newcastle upon Tyne Department of Computer Science UK North Carolina State University Raleigh, NC USA JONAS ROSE The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory D M. ROY Massachusetts Institute of Technology AVID Cambridge, MA London USA UK

WIED RUIJSSENAARS CLAUS ANDREAS FOSS ROSENSTAND Department of Special Needs Education and Child Department of Communication and Psychology Care Aalborg University University of Groningen Aalborg Groningen Denmark The Netherlands lxxxvi List of Contributors

DIRK J. RUITER MAURICIO SALGADO Department of Anatomy CRESS: Centre for Research in Social Simulation, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre Department of Sociology Nijmegen University of Surrey The Netherlands Guildford, Surrey UK

DUANE M. RUMBAUGH Departments of Psychology and Biology MICHAEL MARTIN SALING Language Research Center Department of Psychological Sciences Georgia State University The University of Melbourne Atlanta, GA Melbourne, Victoria USA Australia

HELI RUOKAMO JEAN SALLANTIN Centre for Media Pedagogy LIRMM: Laboratory of Informatics, Robotics and University of Lapland Microelectronics Rovaniemi University Montpellier & CNRS Finland Montpellier Cedex 5 France

HENRIK SAALBACH Institute for Behavioral Sciences, Research on CARLO SALVATO Learning and Instruction Management Department ETH Zurich University L. Bocconi Zurich Milano Switzerland Italy

DOV SAGI SITI AKMAR ABU SAMAH Department of Neurobiology University Publication Centre The Weizmann Institute of Science Universiti Teknologi MARA Rehovot Shah Alam Israel Malaysia

YASUAKI SAKAMOTO CLAUDE SAMMUT Howe School of Technology Management School of Computer Science and Engineering Stevens Institute of Technology The University of New South Wales Hoboken, NJ Sydney USA Australia

TAPIO SALAKOSKI MOHD AMIR MAT SAMSUDIN Department of Information Technology College of Business University of Turku Universiti Utara Malaysia Turku Sintok, Kedah Finland Malaysia List of Contributors lxxxvii

MAXI SAN MIGUEL TONY SAVAGE IFISC, Instituto de Fı´sica Interdisciplinbdar y Sistemas School of Psychology Complejos (CSIC-UIB) The Queens University Palma de Mallorca Belfast Spain North Ireland

DOUGLAS J. SCATURO DEANNA SANDMAN Department of Psychology Syracuse VA Medical Center University of Nebraska-Lincoln State University of New York Upstate Medical Lincoln, NE University, Syracuse University USA Syracuse, NY USA

NADIA SANSONE ANNEKATHRIN SCHACHT Department of Psychology CRC “Text Structures” University Aldo Moro of Bari University of Go¨ttingen Taranto Go¨ttingen Italy Germany

ROWENA SANTIAGO PAUL VAN SCHAIK California State University San Bernardino School of Computing San Bernardino, CA Teesside University USA Middlesbrough, Cleveland UK PAULO E. SANTOS Departamento de Engenharia Ele´trica SAE SCHATZ Centro Universita´rio da FEI Institute for Simulation and Training-3100 S. Paulo Technology Brazil University of Central Florida Orlando, FL

F. H. SANTOS USA Department of Experimental Psychology THOMAS J. SCHEFF UNESP, Sa˜o Paulo State University Department of Sociology Assis, Sa˜o Paulo University of California at Santa Barbara Brazil Santa Barbara, CA USA KWAKU FREDERICK SARFO

Department of Educational Leadership OLIVER SCHEUER University of Education, Winneba - Kumasi Campus Saarland University Kumasi-Ashanti Saarbru¨cken Ghana Germany

RAJIV SARIN ULRICH SCHIEFELE Department of Economics Department of Psychology Texas A&M University University of Potsdam College Station, TX Potsdam USA Germany lxxxviii List of Contributors

KARL H. SCHLAG DAVID M. SCHNYER Department of Economics Department of Psychology SEA 5.246 University of Vienna University of Texas at Austin Vienna Austin, TX Austria USA

FRANZ SCHOTT JULIA SCHU¨ LER Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Technical University Dresden University of Zurich Dresden Zurich Germany Switzerland

GREGORY SCHRAW NESTOR A. SCHMAJUK Department of Educational Psychology Department of Psychology and Neuroscience University of Nevada-Las Vegas Duke University Las Vegas, NV Durham, NC USA USA ULRIK SCHROEDER

SUSANNE SCHMID Lehr- und Forschungsgebiet Informatik 9 Anatomy and Cell Biology RWTH Aachen University Schulich School of Medicine & Dentistry Aachen London, ON Germany Canada MATTHEW J. SCHUELKE Department of Psychology R SCHMIDT OBERT University of Oklahoma Department of Psychology Norman, OK University of Michigan USA Ann Arbor, MI

USA ROGER W. SCHVANEVELDT Applied Psychology MAREN SCHMIDT-KASSOW Arizona State University Institute of Medical Psychology Mesa, AZ Frankfurt am Main USA Germany CAROLYN E. SCHWARTZ DeltaQuest Foundation, Inc. JAMES R. SCHMIDT Tufts University Medical School Ghent University Concord, MA Ghent USA Belgium

RUTH N. SCHWARTZ MICHAEL SCHNEIDER Consortium for Research and Evaluation of Institute for Behavioral Sciences Advanced Technologies in Education (CREATE) ETH Zurich New York University Zurich New York Switzerland USA List of Contributors lxxxix

JUDAH L. SCHWARTZ ERIN SEIF Department of Education & Department of Physics Michigan State University and Astronomy East Lansing, MI Tufts University USA Medford, MA

USA AARON R. SEITZ Department of Psychology JASON SCOFIELD University of California – Riverside Department of Human Development and Family Riverside, CA Studies USA College of Human Environmental Sciences,

University of Alabama MOHAMAD HISYAM SELAMAT Tuscaloosa, AL College of Business USA Universiti Utara Malaysia Sintok, Kedah THOMAS E. SCRUGGS Malaysia College of Education and Human Development George Mason University ANDREW J. SELTZER Fairfax, VA Department of Economics USA Royal Holloway, University of London Egham WINSTON K.G. SEAH UK School of Engineering and Computer Science Victoria University of Wellington STEVEN SEMKEN Wellington School of Earth and Space Exploration New Zealand Arizona State University Tempe, Arizona NORBERT M. SEEL USA Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences, Department of Education PRATIM SENGUPTA University of Freiburg Department of Teaching and Learning, Peabody Freiburg College Germany Vanderbilt University Nashville, TN

SCOTT SEIDER USA Curriculum and Teaching Department School of Education, Boston University DONG-OH SEO Boston, MA Department of Psychology USA The University of Texas at Austin Austin, TX

RACHAEL D. SEIDLER USA Department of Psychology, School of Kinesiology, Neuroscience Program, and Institute of Gerontology PETER SEOW University of Michigan National Institute of Education Ann Arbor, MI Nanyang Technological University USA Singapore xc List of Contributors

BEN SEYMOUR ROBERT SHUMAKER Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging Indianapolis Zoo London Indianapolis, IN UK USA and

ANNA SFARD Drake University Des Moines, IA Department of Mathematics Education USA University of Haifa Haifa O SIGAUD Israel LIVIER Institut des Syste`mes Intelligents et de Robotique (CNRS UMR 7222) A SHABAN-NEJAD RASH Universite´ Pierre et Marie Curie McGill Clinical & Health Informatics, Department of Paris Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health France McGill University Montreal, QC BARRY G. SILVERMAN Canada Electrical and Systems Engineering Department University of Pennsylvania KATRIN SHAMSHIRI Philadelphia, PA Department of Language Education and Humanities USA Universiti Putra Malaysia Serdang, Selangor VASILIKI K. SIMINA Malaysia University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology (UMIST) CAIFENG SHAN Manchester Philips Research UK Eindhoven and The Netherlands Thessaloniki Greece

ALASTAIR SHARP ROBERT-JAN P. SIMONS Department of English Utrecht University, IVLOS Lingnan University Utrecht Hong Kong Netherlands China

ALI SIMSEK C SHEAHAN LARE Institute of Communication Sciences Clare Family Learning Project Anadolu University Adult Education Centre Eskisehir Ennis, Co. Clare Turkey Ireland

EYLEM SIMSEK JUDITHE SHEARD Department of Communication Monash University Anadolu University Melbourne, VIC Eskisehir Australia Turkey List of Contributors xci

PARMJIT SINGH LINDA B. SMITH University Technology MARA Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and Shah Alam, Selangor Cognitive Science Program Malaysia Indiana University Bloomington, IN USA VIT SISLER Institute of Information Studies and Librarianship K SMITH Charles University in Prague ENNY Prague 5 Linguistics and English Language, School of Czech Republic Philosophy, Psychology and Language Sciences University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, Scotland

DANIJEL SKOCAJ UK University of Ljubljana

Ljubljana ROBERT EMERY SMITH Slovenia Stanford Center for Innovations in Learning (SCIL) Wallenberg Hall, Ofﬁce of the Registrar Stanford University R SKOUSEN OYAL Stanford, CA Department of Linguistics and English Language USA Brigham Young University Provo, UT USA CARLOS SOARES LIAAD-INESC Porto L.A., Faculdade de Economia Universidade do Porto JAMES D. SLOTTA Porto Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Portugal Ontario Institute for Studies in Education University of Toronto H -JEONG SO Toronto, ON YO Canada National Institute of Education Nanyang Technological University Singapore

BERT DE SMEDT

Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology, HANNU SOINI Department of Educational Sciences Department of Educational Sciences and Teacher Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Education Leuven University of Oulu Belgium Oulu Finland

ANDREW D. M. SMITH Literature and Languages, School of Arts and FRIEDRICH T. SOMMER Humanities Redwood Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, University of Stirling University of California Stirling Berkeley UK USA xcii List of Contributors

WERNER SOMMER MANDYAM V. SRINIVASAN Department of Psychology Queensland Brain Institute, School of Information Humboldt-Universita¨t zu Berlin Technology and Electrical Engineering Germany University of Queensland St. Lucia, QLD FABIAN A. SOTO Australia Department of Psychology and Delta Center, University of Iowa Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Iowa City, IA Vision Science USA University of Queensland St. Lucia, QLD

PAOLA FRANCESCA SPADARO Australia Department of Psychology B STANGL University Aldo Moro of Bari RIGITTE Bari Institute for Tourism and Leisure Studies Italy University of Economics and Business WU Vienna

JESSE R. SPARKS Vienna Austria School of Education and Social Policy Northwestern University ROBIN STARK Evanston, IL Institute of Education and Educational Psychology USA Saarland University Saarbru¨cken MARCUS SPECHT Germany Center for Learning Sciences and Technology

Open Universiteit Nederland TATIANA STEFANENKO Heerlen Department of Social Psychology The Netherlands Moscow State University Moscow Russia MICHAEL J. SPECTOR

Learning and Performance Support Laboratory CHRISTINA M. STEINER University of Georgia Knowledge Management Institute Athens, GA Graz University of Technology USA Graz Austria MAARTEN SPEEKENBRINK

Cognitive, Perceptual and Brain Sciences NIGEL STEPP University College London CESPA London University of Connecticut UK Storrs, CT USA GREGORY SPILLERS Department of Psychology JOHN C. STEVENSON The University of Georgia Grifﬁth University-Mt Gravatt Campus Athens, GA Brisbane, QLD USA Australia List of Contributors xciii

MARY E. STEWART PETER STURMEY Applied Psychology Department of Psychology School of Life Sciences, Heriot-Watt University Queens College and The Graduate Center Edinburgh, Scotland Flushing, NY UK USA

CIARA L. STIGEN Department of Psychology EUGENE SUBBOTSKY The Ohio State University Department of Psychology Columbus, OH University of Lancaster Fylde College USA Lancaster UK

GREGOR STIGLIC University of Maribor H K. SUEN Maribor OI Slovenia The Pennsylvania State University University Park, PA

ARMIN STOCK USA Adolf-Wu¨rth-Center for the History of Psychology University of Wu¨rzburg ELKE SUMFLETH Wu¨rzburg University of Duisburg-Essen Germany Essen Germany ANNA STRASSER Berlin School of Mind and Brain ¨ Humboldt-Universitat zu Berlin CYNTHIA S. SUNAL Berlin College of Education Germany The University of Alabama Tuscaloosa, AL S STRAUSS IDNEY USA School of Education Tel Aviv University

Tel Aviv RON SUN Israel Cognitive Science Department Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute HELEN STREET Troy, NY School of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, USA M521, Graduate School of Education, M428 University of Western Australia Crawley, WA MIAO-KUN SUN Australia Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute Rockville, MD HELGE I. STRØMSØ USA Department of Educational Research and University of Oslo Blanchette Rockefeller Neurosciences Institute Oslo Morgantown, WV Norway USA xciv List of Contributors

QI SUN SANDOR SZEDMAK Adult and Post Secondary Education Institute fu¨r Informatik Department of Professional Studies Leopold Franzens University of Innsbruck College of Education, University of Wyoming Innsbruck Laramie, WY Austria USA

BETTY TABLEMAN DANIEL D. SUTHERS School of Social Work Baker Hall Department of Information and Computer Sciences Michigan State University University of Hawaii at Manoa East Lansing, MI Honolulu, HI USA USA

JESSICA TALLET M D. SVINICKI ARILLA PRISSMH-LAPMA, EA 4561 Department of Educational Psychology Universite´ Paul Sabatier – UFR STAPS University of Texas at Austin Toulouse, Cedex 9 Austin, TX France USA

CATHERINE TANG RICHARD A. SWANSON Educational Consultant Human Resource Development and Adult Education Sandy Bay University of Minnesota Tasmania Minneapolis, MN USA KEOW NGANG TANG

JOHN SWELLER School of Educational Studies Universiti Sains Malaysia School of Education Minden, Penang University of New South Wales Malaysia Sydney, NSW Australia STEPHANIE E. TANNINEN

EDWARD L. SWING Department of Psychology Iowa State University Algoma University Ames, Iowa Sault Ste. Marie, ON USA Canada

UMAR SYED DANIEL J. TAYLOR Department of Computer and Information Science Department of Educational Psychology University of Pennsylvania University of Houston Philadelphia, PA Houston, TX USA USA

KATERYNA SYNYTSYA RICHARD TEDESCHI International Research and Training Center for Department of Psychology Information Technologies and Systems University of North Carolina at Charlotte Kiev Charlotte, NC Ukraine USA List of Contributors xcv

MARK TENNANT WILLIAM TIMBERLAKE University of Technology Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences Sydney Indiana University Australia Bloomington, IN USA

JENS C. THIMM Department of Psychology THANASSIS TIROPANIS Norwegian University of Science and Technology Web and Internet Science Group, Electronics and Trondheim Computer Science Norway University of Southampton and Southampton Psychiatric centre UK Helgeland Hospital Trust Mo i Rana

Norway FREDERICK TOATES Department of Life Sciences MICHAEL S. C. THOMAS The Open University Department of Psychological Sciences Milton Keynes Birkbeck College UK University of London London UK TRAVIS P. TODD Department of Psychology University of Vermont, College of Arts and Sciences ROGER K. THOMAS Burlington, VT Department of Psychology USA The University of Georgia Athens, GA

USA CARLOS TOMAZ Department of Physiological Sciences, Laboratory of CLARISSA A. THOMPSON Neurosciences and Behavior, Institute of Biology Department of Psychology University of Brası´lia The University of Oklahoma Brası´lia, DF Norman, OK Brazil USA

LOWELL DEAN TONG LAURA THOROGOOD School of Medicine EHLE Project University of California San Francisco Padova San Francisco, CA Italy USA

CLAUDIA THURNER-SCHEUERER Knowledge Services FRANC¸ OIS TONNEAU Know-Center & Platform Knowledge Management Escola de Psicologia (Plattform Wissensmanagement) Universidade do Minho Graz Braga Austria Portugal xcvi List of Contributors

THOMAS C. TOPPINO ALAIN M. TROGNON Department of Psychology Department of Psychology Villanova University University of Nancy Villanova, PA Nancy, Cedex USA France

JOKE TORBEYNS DENISE L. TROMBINO Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology, Military Career Transition Program, Darden College Department of Educational Sciences of Education Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Old Dominion University GROEP T - Leuven Education College Norfolk, VA Leuven USA Belgium

JENNIFER S. TRUEBLOOD CHONG TOW CHONG Psychological and Brain Sciences Data Storage Institute Indiana University Agency for Science, Technology and Research Bloomington, IN (A-STAR) USA Singapore

REBECCA C. TRUEMAN ANDREA S. TOWSE Brain Repair Group Department of Psychology and the ERSC National Cardiff University Centre for Research Methods Cardiff, Wales Lancaster University UK Lancaster UK CHIN-CHUNG TSAI Graduate Institute of Digital Learning and Education TERENCE J. G. TRACEY National Taiwan University of Science and Counseling Psychology Technology Arizona State University Taipei Tempe, AZ Taiwan USA

CHRISTINE D. TSANG KIRAN TREHAN Department of Psychology Department of Management Learning and Huron University College at the University of Western Leadership Ontario Lancaster University Management School London, ON Lancaster Canada UK

MISHA TSODYKS BERNIE TRILLING Department of Neurobiology 21st-Century Learning Consultant The Weizmann Institute of Science Palo Alto, CA Rehovot USA Israel List of Contributors xcvii

DON M. TUCKER THOMAS A. ULRICH Department of Psychology Department of Psychology & Communication University of Oregon Studies Eugene, OR University of Idaho USA Moscow, ID and USA Electrical Geodesics, Inc Eugene, OR USA NASH UNSWORTH Department of Psychology BETTY K. TULLER The University of Georgia National Science Foundation Athens, GA Arlington, VA USA USA

NICHOLAS B. TURK-BROWNE Department of Psychology ELLEN L. USHER Princeton University Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology Princeton, NJ University of Kentucky USA Lexington, KY USA

DAVID TZURIEL School of Education

Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology WICHAI UTSAHAJIT (JCEP) School of Human Resource Development Bar Ilan University National Institute of Development Administration Ramat, Gan (NIDA) Israel Bangkapi, Bangkok Thailand MONIQUE A. R. UDELL Department of Psychology University of Florida Gainesville, FL MIGUEL A. VADILLO USA Departamento de Fundamentos y Me´todos de la Psicologı´a Universidad de Deusto LORNA UDEN Bilbao Faculty of Engineering, Computing and Technology Spain Staffordshire University Stafford UK

MIGUEL A. VADILLO ALICE UDVARI-SOLNER Departamento de Fundamentos y Me´todos de la Department of Curriculum and Instruction Psicologı´a University of Wisconsin-Madison Universidad de Deusto Madison, WI Bilbao USA Spain xcviii List of Contributors

XENIA VAMVAKOUSSI SIMINA VASILACHE Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology Department of Computer Science Catholic University of Leuven Virginia Commonwealth University Leuven Richmond, Virginia Belgium USA and University of Athens FERNANDO VEGA-REDONDO Athens European University Institute Greece Florence Italy TEUN A. VAN DIJK Department of Translation and Language Sciences GEORGE VELETSIANOS Pompeu Fabra University Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Barcelona Instructional Technology Spain College of Education Austin, TX

RICHARD VAN ECK USA Department of Teaching and Learning, College of H VELING Education and Human Development ARM University of North Dakota Department of Psychology Grand Forks, ND Utrecht University USA Utrecht The Netherlands

TAMARA VAN GOG KALPANA VENGOPAL Institute of Psychology Regional Institute of Education Erasmus University Rotterdam Mysore, Karnataka Rotterdam India The Netherlands

TOM VERGUTS M VANDERVELDT ICHELLE Department of Psychology Department of Elementary and Bilingual Education Ghent University California State University Ghent Fullerton, CA Belgium USA

DAVID W. VERSAILLES HELEEN VANDROMME PHARE Center for the Psychology of Learning and University Paris I Panthe´on Sorbonne, I-Space Experimental Psychopathology Institute Department of Psychology University of Leuven Paris Leuven France Belgium LIEVEN VERSCHAFFEL MARCO VASCONCELOS Education and Training Research Group, Centre for Department of Zoology Instructional Psychology and Technology University of Oxford Katholieke Universiteit Leuven Oxford Leuven UK Belgium List of Contributors xcix

BRAM VERVLIET TYLER VOLK University of Amsterdam Department of Biology Amsterdam New York University The Netherlands New York, NY and USA University of Leuven Leuven HANSJO¨ RG VON BREVERN Belgium School of Informatics/Centre for Human Computer Interaction Design R VILALTA ICARDO City University Department of Computer Science London University of Houston UK Houston, TX USA THOMAS VON REKOWSKI

MAURICIO G. VILLENA Information Systems and New Media Escuela de Negocios University of Siegen Universidad Adolfo Ibań˜ez Siegen Penãloleń, Santiago Germany Chile GEORGE VOUROS JULIEN VITAY Department of Information and Communication Department of Artificial Intelligence Systems Eng. Faculty of Computer Science University of the Aegean Chemnitz University of Technology Karlovassi, Samos Chemnitz Greece Germany

KIM-PHUONG L. VU C VLASKAMP ARLA Department of Psychology Department of Special Needs Education and Child California State University Long Beach Care Long Beach, CA University of Groningen USA Groningen The Netherlands ERICA VAN DE WAAL

JENNIFER J. VOGEL-WALCUTT Centre for Social Learning and Cognitive Evolution, Institute for Simulation and Training-3100 and Scottish Primate Research Group Technology School of Psychology University of Central Florida University of St-Andrews Orlando, FL St-Andrews, Scotland USA UK

JANE S. VOGLER MICHAEL R. WALDMANN Department of Educational Psychology Department of Psychology University of Texas at Austin University of Go¨ttingen Austin, TX Go¨ttingen USA Germany c List of Contributors

KRISTINA WALKUP ALLISON C. WATERS Drake University Department of Psychology Des Moines, IA University of Oregon USA Eugene, OR USA and MAIK WALPUSKI Electrical Geodesics, Inc Leuphana University of Lu¨neburg Eugene, OR Lu¨neburg USA Germany

MATTHEW WAXER HAI WANG Department of Psychology Saint Mary’s University The University of Western Ontario Halifax, NS London, ON Canada Canada

SHOUHONG WANG MARK WEAL Charlton College of Business Web and Internet Science Group, Electronics and University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Computer Science Dartmouth, MA University of Southampton USA Southampton UK

JANNA WARDMAN

University of Auckland STUART A. WEBB Auckland Central School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies New Zealand Victoria University of Wellington Wellington

DAVID A. WASHBURN New Zealand Department of Psychology & Language Research Center ROBERTO WEBER Georgia State University Department of Economics Atlanta, GA University of Zurich USA Zu¨rich Switzerland

EDWARD A. WASSERMAN Department of Psychology GERHARD WEBER Delta Center Department of Psychology University of Iowa University of Education Freiburg Iowa City, IA Freiburg USA Germany

TAKEO WATANABE ELIZABETH A. WEBSTER Boston University University of Victoria Boston, MA Victoria, BC USA Canada List of Contributors ci

PETER R. WEBSTER MICHAEL J. WENGER Department of Music Studies Department of Psychology Henry and Leigh Bienen School of Music, The University of Oklahoma Northwestern University Norman, OK Evanston, IL USA USA

HEIKO WERSING N Y. WEEKES ICOLE Honda Research Institute Europe GmbH Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience Offenbach Pomona College Germany Claremont, CA USA SIEGLINDE WEYRINGER Department of Education SCOTT WEEMS University of Salzburg Center for Advanced Study of Language Salzburg University of Maryland Austria College Park, MD USA STEVE WHEELER

ALFRED WEINBERGER University of Plymouth Department of Education Plymouth, Devon University of Salzburg UK Salzburg Austria PAUL WHITE and Australian Catholic University Private University of Education of the Diocese of Linz Strathﬁeld, NSW Linz Australia Austria

SU WHITE NORMAN M. WEINBERGER Web and Internet Science Group, Electronics and Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Computer Science Memory University of Southampton University of California Southampton Irvine, CA UK USA

SCOTT WEINSTEIN CYNTHIA J. WHITE Department of Philosophy School of Linguistics & International Languages University of Pennsylvania Massey University Philadelphia, PA Palmerston North USA New Zealand

STANLEY J. WEISS NICOLA WHITTON Department of Psychology Education and Social Research Institute American University Manchester Metropolitan University Washington, DC Didsbury, Manchester USA UK cii List of Contributors

PER-OLOF WICKMAN IAN K. WILSON Department of Mathematics and Science Education Woodbury School of Business Stockholm University Utah Valley University Stockholm Orem, UT Sweden USA

PIOTR WINKIELMAN K WIELAND RISTINA Department of Psychology Department of Education University of California University of Freiburg La Jolla, CA Freiburg USA Germany

ANDREW S. WINSTON

ANUSHA WIJERATNE Department of Psychology The Kingswood Centre University of Guelph Central and North West London NHS Foundation Guelph, ON Canada Trust London J E. WITNAUER UK AMES State University of New York at Brockport Brockport, NY FONS WIJNHOVEN USA Faculty of Management & Governance University of Twente JANUSZ WNEK Enschede Science Applications International Corporation Netherlands Rockville, MD USA

ARIANE S. WILLEMS JANUSZ WOJTUSIAK TUM School of Education Machine Learning and Inference Laboratory ¨ Fachgebiet Gymnasialpadagogik College of Health and Human Services Technical University Munich George Mason University Munich Fairfax, VA Germany USA

KERSTIN WOLF DOUGLAS WILLIAMS Psychology Department Institute of Psychology University of Winnipeg University of Education Karlsruhe Winnipeg, MB Karlsruhe Canada Germany

DANIEL M. WOLPERT ANDY J. WILLS Computational and Biological Learning Lab, Psychology Department of Engineering University of Exeter University of Cambridge Exeter Cambridge UK UK List of Contributors ciii

JULIE A. WOLTER YING WU Department of Communicative Disorders and Deaf EECS Department Education Northwestern University Utah State University Chicago, IL Logan, UT USA USA GABRIELE WULF CHRISTOPHER A. WOLTERS Department of Kinesiology and Nutrition Sciences Department of Educational Psychology University of Nevada University of Houston Las Vegas, NV Houston, TX USA USA VOLKER WULF LUNG-HSIANG WONG Information Systems and New Media National Institute of Education University of Siegen Nanyang Technological University Siegen Singapore Germany Singapore MICHAEL WUNDER STEPHANIE V. WORMINGTON Computer Science Department Department of Psychology Rutgers University Reed College Piscataway, NJ Portland, OR USA USA XIAOLI WU MARCEL WORRING Centre for Instructional Psychology and Technology Intelligent Systems Lab Amsterdam Katholieke Universiteit Leuven University of Amsterdam Leuven Amsterdam Belgium The Netherlands YULUNG WU JAMES B. WORTHEN Department of Digital Content and Technology College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences National Taichung University of Education Southeastern Louisiana University TaiChung Hammond, LA Taiwan, ROC USA CLIVE D. L. WYNNE ANTHONY A. WRIGHT Department of Psychology Neurobiology and Anatomy University of Florida University of Texas Medical School at Houston Gainesville, FL Houston, TX USA USA FRITZ WYSOTZKI VIVIAN H. WRIGHT Fakulta¨t IV - Elektrotechnik und Informatik, College of Education Sekr. FR 5-8 The University of Alabama Technische Universita¨t Berlin Tuscaloosa, AL Berlin USA Germany civ List of Contributors

JIAN-XIN XU CHEN YU Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, and National University of Singapore Cognitive Science Program Singapore Indiana University Bloomington, IN USA CHARLES YANG

Department of Linguistics & Computer Science SANDRO ZAPPATORE University of Pennsylvania National Inter-University Consortium for Philadelphia, PA Telecommunications (CNIT)/DIST-University of USA Genoa Genova F -YING YANG ANG Italy Graduate Institute of Science Education National Taiwan Normal University F Zˇ ELEZNY´ Taipei ILIP Taiwan Faculty of Electrical Engineering Czech Technical University

LIU YANG Prague School of Computer Science Machine Learning Czech Republic Department Carnegie Mellon University MOHAMED A. ZEIDAN Pittsburgh, PA Department of Psychiatry USA Harvard Medical School & Massachusetts General Hospital AYSE YARALI Charlestown, MA Behavioral Genetics USA Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology

Martinsried DAGMAR ZEITHAMOVA Germany Center for Learning and Memory The University of Texas at Austin Y -CHU YEH U Austin, TX Institute of Teacher Education, Research Center for USA Mind, Brain and Learning, Center for Creativity and Innovation Studies M S. ZELENAK National Chengchi University ICHAEL Taipei, Wenshan Center for Music Education Research, School of Taiwan Music MUS 101, College of The Arts

WAKO YOSHIDA University of South Florida Wellcome Trust Centre for Neuroimaging Tampa, FL London USA UK THOMAS R. ZENTALL MICHAEL YOUNG Department of Psychology Southern Illinois University at Carbondale University of Kentucky Carbondale, IL Lexington, KY USA USA List of Contributors cv

BAOHUI ZHANG ALEXANDER ZIMPER National Institute of Education School of Economic and Business Sciences Nanyang Technological University University of the Witwatersrand Singapore Johannesburg, Gauteng South Africa QI ZHANG

Sensor System Inc TANIA ZITTOUN Madison, WI Institute of Psychology and Education USA University of Neuchaˆtel Neuchaˆtel JUANJUAN ZHANG Switzerland Sloan School of Management Massachusetts Institute of Technology ZOYA A. ZORINA Cambridge, MA Department of Biology USA Lomonosov Moscow State University Moscow RUI ZHANG Russia Harbin Institute of Technology, School of Humanities and Social Sciences KLAUS ZUBERBU¨ HLER Nangang District Harbin China School of Psychology University of St Andrews

YIMIN ZHU St Andrews, Fife, Scotland Department of Construction Management UK College of Engineering and Computing Florida International University JOERG ZUMBACH Miami, FL Department of Science Education and Teacher USA Training University of Salzburg LEILY ZIGLARI Salzburg Department of Applied Linguistics Austria Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Branch Tehran JANET MANNHEIMER ZYDNEY Iran Curriculum & Instruction: Instructional Design and Technology MONICA ZILIOLI University of Cincinnati Department of Psychology Cincinnati, OH University of Maine USA Orono, ME USA