Opportunities and Challenges for Diabetes Prevention at Two Community Health Centers
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Epidemiology/Health Services Research ORIGINAL ARTICLE Opportunities and Challenges for Diabetes Prevention at Two Community Health Centers 1 1 MILAGROS C. ROSAL, PHD STEPHENIE C. LEMON, PHD tients, guided this study. Within this 2 4 EVAN M. BENJAMIN, MD DOROTHEA VON GOELER, MD framework, we assessed quality-of-care 3 PENELOPE S. PEKOW, PHD domains from Donabedian’s Structure- Process-Outcome model (4) at the sys- tem level (system structure, including OBJECTIVE — Translating evidence-based diabetes prevention interventions to disadvan- health care resources) and at the provider taged groups is a public health priority that poses unique challenges. Community health centers level (processes related to technical ex- (CHCs) provide unequaled opportunities to prevent diabetes among poor and minority high- pertise and interpersonal relationships risk groups. This formative study sought to assess structural, processes-of-care (health care with patients). At the patient level, social quality domains), and patient factors that need to be considered for diabetes prevention at CHCs. cognitive theory (5) constructs (knowl- edge, attitudes, behaviors, and environ- RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS — A multimethod approach was implemented to assess system-, provider-, and patient-level factors at two large CHCs serving diverse urban mental influences) were assessed. communities. Institutional review board approval was obtained before study implementation. RESULTS — Medical chart audits (n ϭ 303) showed limited documentation of risks. Provider surveys (n ϭ 74) evidenced knowledge gaps regarding factors associated with increased diabetes Setting risk, efficacy of pharmacological interventions, and low perceived efficacy in promoting patient Two large CHCs that were affiliated with a behavior change. Patient focus groups (two groups) with at-risk Hispanics and African Ameri- tertiary referral academic medical center cans suggested mixed knowledge regarding whether diabetes can be prevented, some knowledge in Massachusetts and served urban Afri- gaps regarding factors related to risk, and multiple challenges for lifestyle change. can Americans (40%) and Hispanics CONCLUSIONS — Multiple and multilevel challenges to translating diabetes prevention (40%) participated in this study. Both interventions for the benefit of at-risk populations who seek care at CHCs were observed. CHCs used a resident-faculty practice model, with each patient being assigned a Diabetes Care 31:247–254, 2008 primary care physician (80% of visits are with the assigned primary care physi- ranslating evidence-based diabetes in the design and implementation of dia- cian). Nutrition counseling and inter- prevention interventions (1–3) to betes prevention efforts for the high-risk preter services were available at both T disadvantaged groups is a challeng- populations who seek health care at CHCs. ing public health priority. This study CHCs. sought to identify patient-, provider-, and Data sources system-level opportunities and chal- RESEARCH DESIGN AND This study involved three data sources: lenges to delivering diabetes prevention METHODS — An ecological frame- medical record audits, provider surveys, services in community health centers work (6), which recognizes the multiple and patient focus groups. Data collection (CHCs). This manuscript adds to current levels of influence on patients’ out- methods for each are described below. literature on structural, processes-of-care comes within health care settings, in- Medical records audit. A medical (health care quality domains) (4), and pa- cluding factors associated with the record audit form was systematically de- tient factors (5) that need to be considered health care system, providers and pa- signed and implemented to assess factors ●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●● related to diabetes prevention, including From the 1Division of Preventative and Behavioral Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Mas- documentation of factors related to diabe- sachesetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts; the 2Division of Health Care Quality, Department of tes risk (7) (family history of diabetes, hy- Medicine, Baystate Medical Center and Tufts University School of Medicine, Springfield, Massachusetts; the pertension, hyperlipidemia, history of 3Center for Quality and Safety Research, Division of Health Care Quality, Baystate Medical Center and School 4 gestational diabetes, and obesity). A prob- of Public Health and Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts; and the Divi- lem checklist, lab values, text notes, and sion of Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, Baystate Medical Center and Tufts University School of Medicine, Springfield, Massachusetts. documentation of height and weight were Address correspondence and reprint requests to Milagros C. Rosal, PhD, University of Massachusetts searched. Medical School, 55 Lake Ave. North, S7-755, Worcester, MA 01655. E-mail: milagros.rosal@umassmed. We obtained administrative records edu. of all clinic visits of patients aged 25–60 Received for publication 17 July 2007 and accepted in revised form 25 October 2007. Published ahead or print at http://care.diabetesjournals.org on 5 November 2007. DOI: 10.2337/dc07- years for the prior year at each of the clin- 0746. ics. Patients with a diagnosis code indicat- Additional information for this article can be found in an online appendix at http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/ ing diabetes care were removed from the dc07-0746. file. Retaining one record per subject, we Abbreviations: CHC, community health center. selected a simple random sample from © 2008 by the American Diabetes Association. The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby each of four strata defined by clinic and marked “advertisement” in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact. sex. Administrative records did not dis- DIABETES CARE, VOLUME 31, NUMBER 2, FEBRUARY 2008 247 Diabetes prevention at community health centers Table 1—Summary of medical records audit* Hispanic race/ethnicity, 2) age Ն25 years, 3) English or Spanish speaking, 4)no Chart audit data known diagnosis of diabetes, and 5) clas- sified as at high risk for developing type 2 Medical record eligibility (n) diabetes based on either of the following Total number of records registered 450 criteria: 1) had at least three of five meta- Total records available and eligible 303 bolic syndrome criteria (e.g., BMI Ն25 Patient characteristics kg/m2, triglycerides Ն150 mg/dl, low Age (years) 42.6 Ϯ 10.0 sex-specific HDL cholesterol, blood pres- Female sex (%) 50 sure Ͼ130/Ͼ85 mmHg, and fasting glu- Ethnicity (%) cose Ͼ110 but Ͻ126 mg/dl) or 2) had a Hispanic 41 history of gestational diabetes or a first- African American 29 degree relative with diagnosed diabetes White 27 plus met at least one of the criteria for Marital status (not married) (n)73metabolic syndrome (listed above). Weight (lb) 186.2 Ϯ 46.5 (n ϭ 262) Convenience samples of patients Height (in) 67.7 Ϯ 5.3 (n ϭ 38) were recruited from both CHCs. Over a Type of primary care provider (%) 1-week period, providers screened eligi- Resident 75 ble patients at the time of their clinic visit Attending 22 and obtained verbal consent from eligible Nurse practitioner/physician assistant 4 patients to be contacted by a study coor- Documented factors related to diabetes risk (%) dinator. Two groups were facilitated by Family history 17 two experienced qualitative researchers: Hypertension 17 an African-American facilitator (assisted Hyperlipidemia 13 by a Caucasian researcher) led a group History of gestational diabetes 0.3 composed of African-American patients, Obesity 11 and a Hispanic facilitator (assisted by an- Screening tests recommendations (%) other Hispanic researcher) led a group of Lipids (ever) 46 Hispanic patients. This group was con- Fasting blood glucose (ever) 1.3 ducted in Spanish. Oral glucose tolerance test (ever) 0.3 A semistructured interview guided Random blood glucose (ever) 40 the discussions. Topics included A1C (ever) 3 knowledge about diabetes and diabetes Behavior change recommendations (%) prevention, attitudes toward diabetes Weight loss prevention, and previous efforts to Ever 7.3 modify dietary and physical activity Past 3 years 0 habits and to lose weight. Patients’ pref- Exercise erences for program development were Ever 13 also assessed. Past 3 years 74 Patients provided written consent Diet and completed a brief survey (demo- Ever 11 graphics and health care history). The 90- Past 3 years 0 min discussions were audiotaped and Referrals to a nutritionist 2 transcribed. Participants received a $25 Pharmacological prescriptions for reduction 5 incentive. of a known diabetes risk factor Data are means Ϯ SD unless otherwise indicated. *Measurement tool is available from the corresponding Analyses author. Quantitative (provider survey and medi- cal record audit) analysis included fre- tinguish between registered clinic pa- reported practices related to diabetes quencies, proportions with 95% CIs, and tients and one-time walk-in patients. prevention was designed, pretested for cross-tabulations. Focus group tran- Thus, we deliberately sampled a larger relevance and understandability, and scripts were analyzed using the constant number of records, taking into consider- then mailed to providers with an intro- comparative method (8). Results were ation that only records of established pa- ductory letter