A Study of the Warring States Graphs: Structural Discrepancies Between the Chu Area and Qin State
A STUDY OF THE WARRING STATES GRAPHS: STRUCTURAL DISCREPANCIES BETWEEN THE CHU AREA AND QIN STATE
by
YUKIKO NAGAKURA
B.A., University of Alberta, 1995
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
(Department of Asian Studies)
We accept this thesis as conforming to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
October 2000
© Yukiko Nagakura, 2000 In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission.
The University of British Columbia Vancouver, Canada
Date /OsJ. J.0 ^OnS)
DE-6 (2/88) Abstract
Chinese graphical forms of the Warring States period have traditionally been characterized as varying by region. This thesis investigates discrepancies observable in the scripts of the
Warring States Chu and Qin regions, as extant in inscriptions and epigraphy on a variety of media. With the postulate that the Warring States graphical forms were part of a continuous evolution of guwen from the Shang period to the Script Reform that followed the Qin Unification, these discrepancies are treated as the accumulations of a common diachronic process. To define this process, the two-step formation of semanto-phonetic graphs is adopted as jiajie augmented with semantic determiners, and evolutionary modifications tending to induce graphical divergence are classified for simple and multi-element graphs, based on the work of Boodberg,
Boltz, Chen, Qiu, He, Gao and others. A table of graphs is constructed to allow for diachronic evaluation of the process of formation and evolutionary modification, and for synchronic comparison of Chu and Qin forms, using the Baoshan bamboo slips as the primary source, supplemented with material from the Shuihudi bamboo slips, the antecedent Shang oracle bones and Western Zhou bronzes, and other sources. Discrepancies observable in simple and multi-element graphs are discussed in detail, placed in the appropriate category of formation or evolutionary modification, and, if possible, assigned the period of genesis (Shang, Western
Zhou, or Warring States). The 12,472 total Baoshan bamboo-slip graphs are placed into the
1,473 entries in this table. 154 cases of discrepancies are discussed, of which the genesis of 33 can be dated, with 7 originating in the Warring States period and 26 in the Shang and Western
Zhou periods. A high degree of homogeneity in the Chu and Qin Warring States script is thus confirmed. Notwithstanding that the scarcity of source material precludes definite conclusions, it is suggested as a possibility for further study that graphical discrepancies were not at all a feature of the Warring States period exclusively, but should be traced to earlier times as accumulating throughout entire period when guwen were used. TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ii Table of contents iii List of Tables vi List of abbreviations and notational conventions viii Acknowledgment ix
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER ONE Terminology and Literature Review 4
1.1. Terminology 5
1.1.1 Liushu 7\ • 'the six types of script' 5 1.1.2 Terms used in this thesis 6 1. 2. The earliest process for formation of the Chinese script 8 1.2.1 The three stages of the early graphical development (Boodberg and Boltz) 8 1.2.2 The three stages of the early graphical development (Chen and Qiu) 11 1. 2. 3 The features of HY graph or "ideographic" compound graph 15 1.2.3. 1. The existence of HY as a multi-element graph formation principle 15 1.2.3.2. The principles of the HY graph formation 17 1. 2. 4 The features of xingsheng (SP) graphs 18 1. 2. 4. 1. Thejiajie and yinshen" 18 1. 2. 4. 2. The principles of the SP graph formation 19 1. 2. 4. 3. The alternate readings of graphs 20 1. 2. 4. 4. PEs and SEs consisting of multiple elements 21 1. 2. 4. 5. The relative positions of a PE and an SE within a single graph 22 1.3. The old script (guwen i?X)'- From the Shang to the Warring States period 23 1.3.1 The chronological division of the Pre-Qin writing (guwen jr_) 23 1.3.2 The Shang writing 24
iii 1.3.3 The Western Zhou writing 26 1.3.4 Writing of the Spring and Autumn period 27 1.3.5 Writing of the Warring States period 27 1.3.6. The graphical evolution of guwen 30 1.3.6. 1. The orthodox and vulgar forms of the script 30 1. 3. 6. 2. Simplification and elaboration 31 1.3.7. The graphical features of the Warring States graphs 33 1.3.8. The Script Reform at the Qin Unification 40 1. 4. Formulation of the development of guwen adopted in this thesis 41
CHAPTER TWO Material and Methodology 43
2. 0. Introduction 43 2.1. The table 43 2.1.1 The arrangement of the horizontal line of the table 43 2.1.2. The vertical order of the table 48 2. 1. 3. The design of the table 48 2. 2. The main material: the Baoshan bamboo-slip graphs 48 2. 3. Procedures for analysis of structural discrepancies 49 2. 3. 1. Transcription into modern forms and treatment of variants 49 2. 3. 2. Principles for analysis of the structural discrepancies 51
CHAPTER THREE Simple Graphs 54
3. 0. Introduction 54 3.1. Definition of simple and multi-element graphs 54 3. 2. Types of discrepancies between the Chu and Qin simple graphs 56 3.3. Tables of simple graphs 57 3. 4. Commentaries on discrepancies between the Chu and Qin simple graphs... 68
CHAPTER FOUR Multi-element Graphs 70
4. 0. Introduction 70 4. 1. Types of discrepancies between the Chu and Qin multi-element graphs 70 4. 2. Structural discrepancies present during the process of formation 72 4.2.1. SP graphs 72 4. 2. 1. 1. Divergent usage of jiajie graphs 72 4.2. 1. 2. Divergent usage of semantic determiners 73
iv 4. 2. 1.3. Chu augmentation of jiajie with semantic determiners 76 4. 2. 1. 4. Different graphemes used at SP formation 78 4. 2. 1. 5. Different usage of semantographs 79 4. 2. 1. 6. Different usage of semantographs and PEs 80 4. 2. 2. HY graphs 80 4. 3. Divergent structural modifications of SP graphs 81 4. 3. 1. Omission of SP grapheme 81 4. 3. 2. Replacement of SP grapheme 82 4.3.3. Augmentation of SP with extra PE 88 4.3.4. Augmentation of SP with extra SE 90 4. 3. 5. Augmentation of SP with grapheme of unknown function 93 4. 4. Different structural modifications of HY graphs 94 4. 4. 1. Omission of HY grapheme 94 4. 4. 2. Replacement of HY grapheme 95 4. 4. 3. Transformation of HY to SP 97 4.4.4. Augmentation of HY with extra SE 100 4. 4. 5. Augmentation of HY with grapheme of unknown function 104 4. 5. Divergent evolutionary changes from and misrecognition of earlier forms 106 4. 6. Unclassifiable structural discrepancies 114 4.6. 1. Cases in which ancestors cannot be determined 114 4.6.2. Cases of unclassifiable graphs and modifications 118 4. 7. Discrepancies existing in the earlier times 119 4. 8. Summary of modifications discussed 122 4. 9. Tables of multi-element graphs 127
CHAPTER FIVE Conclusion and Implication 144
Bibliography 146
Appendix I Table: The Comparison of the Chu and Qin WS Graphs 160
Appendix II List of Graphs from the Western Zhou Bronze Vessels 227 Appendix III List of the Western Zhou Bronze Vessels 232 Appendix IV List of the Chu Bronze Vessels 234 Appendix V List of the Qin Bronze Vessels 240
v List of Tables
Table 1. 1 25 Table 1.2 33 Table 3. 3. 1. 1. Omission of strokes 58 Table 3. 3. 1. 2. Addition of strokes 58 Table 3. 3. 1.3. Executional discrepancies 60 Table 3. 3. 2. Simple graphs with structural discrepancies 61 Table 3.3.3. Unclassifiable discrepancies 61 Table 3.3.4. Adoption of different oracle-bone variants 61 Table 3.3.5. Simple graphs exhibiting no divergence 62 Table 3.3.6. Graphs which do not have the Qin counterpart graphs 67
Table 4. 1. 1. Graphs discussed in Chapter 4 123 Table 4. 1.2. Graphs which underwent multiple divergent processes 124 Table 4. 2. 1. 1. Divergent usage ofjiajie graphs 127 Table 4. 2. 1. 2. Divergent usage of semantic determiners 127 Table 4. 2. 1.3. Chu augmentation of jiajie with semantic determiners 128 Table 4. 2. 1. 4. Different graphemes used at SP formation 129 Table 4. 2. 1. 5. Different usage of semantographs 129
Table 4. 2. 1. 6. Different usage of semantographs and PEs 129
Table 4. 2. 2. HY graphs 129
Table 4. 3. 1. Omission of SP grapheme (A) Chu graphs 130
Table 4. 3. 2. Replacement of SP grapheme (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs 130 (A) Chu graphs 130
(B) Qin graphs 131
Table 4. 3. 3. Augmentation of SP with extra PE (A) Chu graphs 132 (B) Qin graphs 132
Table 4. 3. 4. Augmentation of SP with extra SE (A) Chu graphs 132 (B) Qin graphs 133
vi Table 4. 3. 5. Augmentation of SP with grapheme of unknown function
(A) Chu graphs 133 (B) Qin graphs 133 Table 4. 4. 1. Omission of HY grapheme (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs 134 (A) Chu graphs 134 (B) Qin graphs 134 Table 4. 4. 2. Replacement of HY grapheme (A) Chu graphs 134
(B) Qin graphs 134 Table 4. 4. 3. Transformation of HY to SP (A) Chu graphs 135 (B) Qin graphs 136 Table 4.4.4. Augmentation of HY with extra SE (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs 136 (A) Chu graphs 137 (B) Qin graphs 137 Table 4. 4. 5. Augmentation of HY with grapheme of unknown function (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs 138 (A) Chu graphs 138 (B) Qin graphs 138 Table 4. 5. Divergent evolutionary changes from and misrecognition of earlier forms 138 Table 4. 6. 1. Cases in which ancestors cannot be determined 141 Table 4. 6. 2 Cases of unclassifiable graphs and modifications 142
Table 4. 7. Discrepancies existing in the earlier times 142
vii List of Abbreviations Used in the Text
HY huiyi "semantic compound" (huiyi JWB Jinwen bian ^tjcWs JWG Jinwen gulin 'jkjCifcJfa JGWG Jiaguwen gulin ^ •jf' %. OBG oracle-bone graph OBI oracle-bone inscription(s) (Jiaguwen ^ # jc) PE phonetic element SA Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu :#-$0 SE semantic element SP semanto-phonetic (xingsheng $ l£) SW Shuowen jiezi 1$L%f%'¥ WS Warring States (Zhanguo |fc EH) wz Western Zhou (Xizhou^M) WZG Western Zhou bronze graph
Notational Conventions
Italic : the Chinese pronunciation of a character or word.
* : indicates a reconstructed Old Chinese pronunciation.
' ' : encloses a word, and a translation of the immediately preceding Chinese expression.
« » : encloses a certain object the preceding graph originally depicted.
" " : encloses a direct quote, and a word or phrase which is emphasized.
viii Acknowledgment
During my efforts to complete this thesis, which have been taken three years and ten months, I have received continuous direct and indirect support from a number of individuals and several institutions. To all of them I express my gratitude and appreciation.
Professor Ken'ichi Takashima, my thesis advisor, has not only taught me the subject of palaeography, but has disciplined the fundamental attitude towards my studies, emphasizing thoroughness, carefulness and conscience. In addition to giving me generous permission to use his computer facilities, he has allowed me to use for my table his drawings of the oracle-bone graphs in his concordance, Kokotsumoji jishaku soran ? •$X%-!¥(edited with Dr.
Matsumaru). For this, I am particularly grateful.
Professor Edwin Pulleyblank kindly and patiently read my draft and gave me several crucial suggestions and opinions fundamental to the study of palaeography. Especially valuable was his incisive criticisms of my faults in logic and in phonology, which have considerably helped improve the content of my thesis: I thank him.
I thank Professor Ross King, who made a number of suggestions and revisions to improve my thesis. His feedback and support helped me keep going.
I also express my gratitude and respect to all the scholars, classical and modern, whose profound achievements have enabled me to pursue my humble goal.
I would like to express my gratitude to the librarians at the Asian Library and other
UBC libraries, and the secretaries in the Department of Asian Studies, all of whom always showed willingness to help my research and graduate life.
Thanks also go to many others, who offered constant help and encouragement: Mr.
Zhao, Professor Yeh, Miss Suzuki, Miss Tokumoto and others, near and afar.
Lastly, I would like to thank my husband, Alex Shetsen, for his understanding, encouragement, and help in proofreading, given to me unfailingly all through the last five years.
ix Introduction
This thesis analyzes Chinese characters used during the Waning States period (5th
century BC-221BC)1 in two geographical areas: (1) the vicinity of the ancient Chu (ft) state
area, including several smaller political entities, such as Cai and Huang and (2) the
Qin # state. The primary focus will be placed on the Chu area characters found on the
Baoshan % iii bamboo slips that were excavated in Hubei Mit Province in 1986.2
The writing of the Warring States period has collectively been called the characters of the Warring States (Zhanguo wenzi l&MX^r)- One of the most notable epigraphic
characteristics of that time is that the scripts varied locally. During the Latter Han % era, Xu
Shen fJI in his postface to the Shuowen jiezi ifaXffl^- (100 AD) described the variations in the script before the Qin period as follows.3
After the country was broken up into seven states, farming fields were measured
using various units, different widths between the wheels were used, different
laws and ordinances were put into force; different styles of clothes and hats
were worn, words varied in pronunciation, and graphs varied in form.4
After the unification of the writing system imposed by the Founding Emperor of Qin (Qin shi huangdi Jl '$•), the non-Qin varieties previously current in other states (liuguo wenzi
1 The beginning of the Warring States period has been variously set by several old books of historical records: 481 BC (the 39th year of King Jing $c of the Zhou) by Lii Zuqian g 4^ in Dashiji A^IE; 475 BC (the first year of King Yuan % of the Zhou) by Shiji jfe. IE: Liuguo nianbiao-fc US 468 BC (the first year of King Zhending |i %i of the Zhou) by Lin Chunpu #•:#•># in Zhanguo biannian ffc H $&^; 403 BC (23rd year of King Weilie fa fi of the Zhou) by Sima Guang ^ mZizhi tongjian it'JaM.$t, according to Cihai^%. In this thesis, "5th century" is used for the beginning of the WS period.
2 Hubei Provincial Jingmen-Shashi Railway Archaeological Team 1991, 5.
3 Hereafter quoted as SW.
4 This translation is based on the Japanese translation of the postface to the SW, by Fukumoto Masakazu H^H- (1977,33).
1 7\ HI X "the Characters of the Six States") vanished.5 The generations born during Han times are said to have lost the ability to read them (Li Xueqin 1990, 138). Until the middle of the twentieth century, therefore, and the excavation of a number of objects that were found to bear inscriptions dating from the period of the Warring States, tradition held that varied sets of writing had existed at that time, all of which, except that of the Qin, had been lost.
Today, as more and more materials that carry writing of the Warring States period are being unearthed, the characters of the Warring States, period are being intensively studied.
Essentially, two features have been acknowledged by most scholars: (1) considerable regional disparities can be clearly observed; (2) the characters of all areas had ultimately descended from the Shang period, through an intermediate stage found in the Western Zhou
(Xizhou WJH) script.
This thesis pursues two objectives: (1) a detailed and encompassing presentation of the Warring States graphs from the Chu and Qin areas, and of the graphical discrepancies between the two regional scripts during the Warring States period, in the context of the antecedent historical development of Chinese writing.,
The reasons for these graphical discrepancies are beyond the scope of this thesis to examine in detail, but will be discussed briefly when they are explicitly discernible, or when necessary for data analysis.
The Chu and the Qin graphs are appropriate choices of topic, for they represent the greatest contrast between the regional scripts that existed in the Warring States period. The
Qin graphs were the basis for the line of Chinese writing, unbroken from the Shang dynasty to the present time, since they were the exclusive single set of state writing used after the Qin unification of China (221 BC). The Qin graphs maintained the strongest Western Zhou graphical tradition during the Warring States period. Compared with the Qin graphs, the graphs of the remaining states, the six major Eastern states, or liuguo 7\ HI 'six states', which
5 Liuguo 7\ S refers to six states (Qi Chu ft, Yan #j, Han Wei f|, Zhao j$Q which are also called "the Eastern States", as opposed to Qin which was located in the west. In the Warring States period, these seven states were called qi xiong 4j$| "the Seven Powerful States".
2 Wang Guowei iE S $1 ([1921] 1956, vol. 7, 79) called collectively liuguo wenzi 7\
'six-states graphs', appear to have diverged more from their antecedents.6 The Chu graphs, which were used by one of the most powerful states of the liuguo, and the state most abundant in excavated materials, is representative of these liuguo wenzi. The Chu and the
Qin graphs, therefore, constitute the most appropriate set of the Warring States graphs for the investigation of the discrepancies between the different regional scripts.
The regional graphical divergences during the Warring States period will be illustrated through a comparison of these two sets of graphs. To this end, a table has been constructed in which the individual Chu and Qin graphs are compared in a one-to-one manner. The same table also exhibits their common antecedents, the earliest known graphs, as found on the
Shang oracle-bone inscriptions and the Western Zhou bronzes, so as to demonstrate the antecedent-descendent relationship between the two sets of regional graphs.
Chapter 1 is an examination of the fundamental nature of Chinese writing and the historical development of guwen (the old Chinese script prior to the Qin Unification) as studied by Chinese and Western scholars, and attempts to set the bases for the analyses of the structural discrepancies between the two regional graphs. Chapter 2 presents the materials and methodology employed. Chapter 3 attempts to characterize the simple graphs of the Chu and Qin. Chapter 4 discusses the differences between the multi-element graphs of the Chu and Qin. The last chapter, Chapter 5, is a conclusion in which I also consider the implications of my analyses.
6 Already in the middle of 20th century, when excavated materials carrying the Warring State graphs were still scarce, the prominent Chinese scholar Wang Guowei (1877-1927) observed the distinction between the Qin writing and that of the other eastern states, the liuguo A IS 'six states'. Tang Lan MM ([1949] 1963), as presented later in § 1.3.1, divided the writing of the Warring States into the Qin and the eastern states graphs,
3 Chapter 1
Terminology and Literature Review
The two sets of graphs used in the Chu and Qin regions in the Warring States period belong to the category of the old graphs, commonly referred to as guwen, current in China's ancient era before the Qin Unification (221 BC).7 During this period, Chinese graphs were vigorously formed, and modified rapidly. Given the scarcity of extant materials and their remoteness from out time, a full picture of this development is yet wanting. To gain the proper context for a study of the variations observable in Warring States writing, we must first attempt to understand the basic principles by which the Chinese script was formed, and the resulting internal structure of multi-element graphs and then the principles by which the evolution of the script resulted in the divergences observable in the Warring States period.
After the terms are defined (Section 1. 1), we will first review four theoretical studies of the formation and development of Chinese graphs (Section 1. 2). Of the two modern formulations of Chinese graphical formation, the first was presented by Peter A. Boodberg
(1937), and elaborated upon by William G. Boltz (1994), and the second was espoused by
Chen Mengjia (1956) and Qiu Xigui :£(1988, 2000) who provided empirical support for his notions of early graphical formation and development.
We will then present a historical treatment of Chinese graphs (Section 1. 3), concentrating on the following issues:
(1) The chronological division of guwen from the Shang to the Warring States period adopted in our table, with a brief description of scriptural characteristics during each phase and of the materials from each period used in this thesis;
(2) The graphical evolution during the guwen period, and the graphical variation during the
WS period.
We conclude (Section 1. 4) with a particular view of the development of Chinese
7 Actually, the period and type of the script referred to by guwen or guwenzi varies slightly among scholars. In this thesis, guwen is used to refer to the graphs which were used before the Qin Script Reform, and the "guwen period" corresponds to the Pre-Qin period.
4 writing during the guwen period that has been adopted for the work presented in this thesis.
1.1. Terminology
We begin with Xu Shen's classification of Chinese graphs, liushu j\ # 'the six types of script', the origin of several terms used in this thesis.8 A series of definitions for the terms that will be used follows. When a term is used mostly in studies published in a Western language, it is given in English with a corresponding Chinese term; when a term is used mostly in studies published in Chinese, it is given in Chinese with an English translation or its equivalent.
1.1.1. Liushu 7\# 'the six types of script'9
\)Zhishi ^jf 3ft 'indicates things' characters which symbolizes concepts or
objects not depictable by a simple picture.
Jl shang 'up', "F- xia 'down'10
2)Xiangxing 'imitates form' characters that picture objects
fl yue 'the moon', 0 ri 'the sun'
2>)Xingsheng 'form and sound' characters composed of a graph which serves as
semantic and a graph which serves as phonetic
indicator: jpf he, %L ji&ng 'river',
This liushu 7n # 'the six types of script' appears in the postface to the SW. Traditionally, Chinese characters have been analyzed as belonging to liushu.
9 Xu Shen's classification exclusively dominated Chinese palaeographical studies from the time it was promulgated in the first century AD to the early twentieth century. While still exerting great influence, his categories have recently been questioned and criticized. Zhuanzhu and jiajie exhibit character usage that should be accounted for separately from the other four classes, which are concerned with the internal structure of graphs. In particular, zhuanzhu has been redefined by many scholars (for example, Serruys (1957), see footnote 12), but has also been recently contested, as by Chao Yuen Ren (1968) and Qiu Xigui (1988). Whether the huiyi category is counterfactual has been debated: several of theories will be discussed in § 1.2.3. The definitions of xingsheng and huiyi graphs adopted in this thesis are given in the ensuing section.
10 The pronunciation is given in the modern standard Chinese pronunciation alone, unless an earlier reconstructed pronunciation is required for discussion. Li Fang-kuei's #^F# ([1971] 1980) reconstruction is used if the Old Chinese pronunciation is required for discussion. The language of the Warring States period was Old Chinese.
5 4) Huiyi itM 'combines meanings'11 characters formed by combination, with
meanings of the constituents adding up to
provide the meaning of the whole.
^ wu 'martial', it xin 'confidence'
5) Zhuanzhu ^y± 'develops meaning' characters grouped by related meaning.
#Mo, £ lao 'old'
6) Jiajie -fg.# 'loan' characters supplied for another word of
identical or similar sound
4^ ling 'to order'; ling 'order, command',1
-ft: chdng 'long';zAang 'elder'
1.1. 2. Terms used in this thesis
Graph, character, wenzi zi a unit written as an independent entity representing a
word in the context in which the graph appears.
Simple graph, single-element graph, dutizi # If ^: A graph that cannot be analyzed into
subunits that can stand as independent graphs. A single graph can be used to form a
compound or multi-element graph, functioning as a phonetic or a signific.14
Multi-element graph or compound graph/character, hetizi ^ft^: a graph that is composed
of more than one grapheme, such as a semanto-phonetic graph or huiyi graph. A
11 Tang Lan ([1949] 1963, 71) denounced Xu's definition of huiyi principle as bi lei heyiyijianzhi hui thU \sJLMt$it$b 'to represent what [the graph] is designed to refer to, by juxtaposing two elements and combining their meanings' (Translation is based on Fukumoto (1977)). Tang asserted that no Pre-Qin graphs were formed according to such principle, explained by Xu with the example wu ^ denoting "valiant' by suggesting 'to stop armed force' with ge 'dagger-axe' and jh zhi 'to stop'. Only graphs postdating the Warring States period have been thus elucidated.
12 Because Xu's definition of zhuanzhu was totally obscure, numerous scholars have tried to redefine it. Having examined previous studies aa zhuanzhu, Serruys (1957, 151-152) proposes that zhuanzhu graphs consists of a pair of graphs with a common graphic element that are similar in sound and one of which is "a natural 'continuation or extension', a semantic 'development' of the other": for example, kao 4f" and lao The translation of this term is made by me, based on the interpretations of Atsuji Tetsuji HxtHf (1985).
13 These two characters given in the SW have been denounced by scholars, such as Tang ([1949] 1963, 72), Qiu (2000, 161) or Chen Shihui Bfc-irjl? and Tang Yuhui (1988, 54), as incorrect examples not actually used as phonetic loans. For example, the graph 4s which was used to write ling 'to order' was not used as a loan for the word ling 'order', but was employed to write two etymologically related meanings.
14 As we will examine in Chapter 4, there are constituents whose functions are unknown to us. 6 multi-element graph can also be used to form a compound or multi-element graph,
functioning as a phonetic or a signifie.
Element: refers to part of a simple graph, or a simple graph within a multi-element graph.
Constituent: refers to a simple graph within a multi-element graph.
Grapheme: refers to a part of a multi-element graph. It is either a unit which can stand as a
graph or that which originally depicted an independent concrete object but which
could not stand alone as a graph.15
Phonetic, phonetic element (PE), y/n/w shengfu ^$F: a constituent that carries the
sound of the word represented by the graph of which the given constituent is a part.
Signifie, semantic element (SE), yifu %$,yifu $,$': a constituent that carries the semantic
category to which the meaning of the word (represented by the graph of which the
given constituent is a part) belongs.
Determiner, determinative: a graph added to another graph that represents several words to
specify the word intended. It can be phonetic or signifie.
Xiangxingzi "Pictograph": a graph that depicts the visual shape of the object.
Semanto-phonetic (SP) graph, xingshengzi ffi graph that includes both (1) an element
indicating the sound of the word and (2) an element indicating the semantic category
of the word. Its meaning is carried by the whole, not the phonetic or signifie alone.
"Ideographic" graph : As applied to Chinese characters, originally referred to a graph that
was believed to render an object or thing, not the word, to the mind of the reader.16
Later it has been used to refer to a graph whose constituent(s) is (are all) related to the
meaning of the word represented, for example, huiyi graph.17
Huiyizi itM%-, huiyi (HY) graph, "semantic compound": a graph composed of several
semantic elements that denote the meaning of the word represented.18
15 The definition of a grapheme is also presented in § 3.1.
16 This concept had prevailed in the West in the 18th century, but was later denounced, originally by Du Ponceau (1838).
17 Herrlee Glessner Creel (1936) used "ideographic" to refer to huiyi graphs, the constituents of which do not indicate the sound of the word represented.
18 In some cases of this class, constituent parts may not be able to stand alone as a simple graph. For example, an upper object which is held by the hand in the graph f or \ (shi ^ 'to serve') was not used as a 7 Biaoyizi "semantograph": a graph the form of which is related to the meaning of the
word represented.
Polyphony, yixing duoyong "use one graph for many [words]": the phenomenon
of a single graph being used for several words related in meaning but different in
sound.
Polysemy: (1) the phenomenon of a single graph being used to express several words unrelated
in meaning but identical or nearly identical in sound, namely phonetic loan. In
Chinese this phenomenon is associated with the usage of a loan graph, jiajie i&'fik
"loan".19
(2) the phenomenon of a single graph being adopted from one word to another
that is semantically related and has similar pronunciation to it.
Paronomastic writing, the rebus, rebus writing, jiajie M'ft: the usage of a graph representing
one word to write another word that does not have a written form. Typically both
words are (nearly) homophonous, but not related semantically.
Zhouwen refers to a form of Chinese script traditionally believed to have been compiled
in the fifteen-volume Shi Zhou pian jfc. If ^ (now lost) by the WZ official Zhou $|
during King Xuan's (%) reign (827-782 BC).
SW guwen refers to a form of script which Xu Shen included in the SW, traditionally
believed to have been taken from the books; immured in the walls of the house in
which Confucius had lived. The term "SWguwen" is used in this thesis to distinguish
this script from guwen or Pre-Qin writing in general.
Xiaozhuan /\s |£ "small seal": refers to the formal script form as used during the Qin dynasty.
1.2. The earliest process for formation of the Chinese script 1. 2.1. The three stages of the early graphical development (Boodberg and Boltz)
Peter A. Boodberg ([1937] 1979, 363-406) proposed a systematic formulation of the earliest stages in the formation and development of the Chinese script, simple graph.
19 Traditionally, the term jiajie has also been used to refer to a usage of graphs in which one graph is used to write another homophonous word that has its own writing form. In this thesis, the term jiajie only refers to usage in which one graph is employed to write another homophonous word that does not have its own graph.
8 Boodberg's study illuminated the relation between graph and sound. He speculated that the true moment of genesis of the writing system, given a period of conventional and habitual association between graphs on the one hand, and their associated semantic and phonetic values on the other, the graphs conjoin to become elements in a written language.
When this association has been firmly cemented by long-term usage, Boodberg asserted, the conventional associations of graph and phoneme are so tight that their abandonment is difficult, although not necessarily impossible.20
As is characteristic as "in all logographic writing, particularly in its first pictographic- symbolic stage" (Boodberg [1937] 1979, 367), the usage of graphs was enlarged as follows.
1. Graph A stands for basic Semanteme (S) 1: Phoneme (P) 1. E.g., 'two'
2. Graph A stands for dialectical, morphological derivative, S1:P2.
E.g., 'twain'
3. Graph A stands for a cognate word, S2:P2. E.g., 'twin'
4. Graph A stands for S2:P1. (the rebus usage) E.g., 'too'
5. Graph B stands for two completely different words due to its graphic ambiguity.
E.g., 'head' (S1:P1) and 'hair' (S2:P2)
6. Graph A and Graph C both stand for S1 :P 1.21
The third step of the graphical formation, he asserted, proceeded as follows.
1. Graph A (S1 :P 1) remains as it had been.
2. Graph A (Sl :P2) + Graph E (phonetic indicator) = semanto-phonetic graph
3. Graph A (S2:P2) + Graph F (phonetic indicator) = semanto-phonetic graph
4. Graph A (S2:P1) + Graph G (semantic indicator) = semanto-phonetic graph
5. Graph A stands for the original word (Sl:P1); Graph C becomes associated with
another word, or becomes a specialized or technical representation of the original
word(S3:P3).
20 Boodberg used the term "phoneme" to refer to a single syllable that coincided with the reading of a single graph. Boodberg did not stipulate the phase of graphical development at which this firm association between graph and semanteme/phoneme is to have been achieved.
21 The phenomenon by which a single word had more than one graphic representation has been widely acknowledged (for example, Todo Akiyasu (1965)). The simple cause was that characters were not necessarily created in a single place and time.
9 Boodberg's succinct scheme has furnished us with an essential framework for an account of the early development of Chinese writing; Based on Boodberg's study, William
G. Boltz (1994) has developed an elaborate account of the early evolution of the Chinese script. He delineates three stages. (1994, 59-70)
Step 1. Graphs representing the names of objects were created by drawing pictures of the
objects. Each graph was associated with its pronunciation and meaning. Undepictable
notions, such as 'to come', remained outside the range of graphical representation
allowed by this method.
Step 2. The scope of graphical representation was extended in two directions:
(1) paronomastic writing (rebus or jiajie 'fH'ft), and (2) parasemantic writing.
(1) In paronomastic writing, a word representing an undepictable idea is written with an existing graph used for a homophonous or near-homophonous word. For example, the graph
% xiang 'elephant' was used to represent the abstract homophonous word xiang 'image, apparition'. Such a graph, representing several words phonetically similar but semantically varying, can be called polysemic.
(2) In parasemantic writing, an abstraction is rendered with an existing graph whose "depictive quality" is able to suggest the meaning of the word intended, regardless of the potential phonetic or cognate relations between the two words. For example, the graph P kou
'mouth' was used to represent the word abstract and semantically related word ming 'name, to call'.22 Such a graph as D, representing several words semantically related but phonetically varying, can be termed polyphonic.
While these two "multivalent" usages of established pictographs are efficient in making easier the enormous task of memorizing a large number of unrelated graphs, the one-to-many relationships are inherently ambiguous.
Step 3. This shortcoming was solved by adding another existing graph to specify the word
intended. In this way were formed the so-called semanto-phonetic graphs (xingshengzi
22 It should be noted that, as will be discussed in § 1.2.4.3, there is no direct evidence that the graph kou D was used for the word ming 'to call, name', and that this usage of the graph kou D has remained hypothetical.
10 (1) In the case of the paronomastic usage (jiajie) of the graph used for both xiang
'elephant' and xiang 'image', the word intended can be elucidated by the addition of the required semantic value. For 'image', the graph A ren 'man' was added to specify its meaning.23 This type of attached graph is called a semantic determinative.
(2) If a graph is used parasemantically, the specification of the phonetic values is more effective than that of the semantic, for the meanings of two words may be too nearly congruent. For example, the graph D was used for kou 'mouth' and ming 'to call, name'.
To specify the usage ming 'to call, name' the graph & representing the word ming 'dark' was added, eliminating the possible representation for the word kou 'mouth'.24 Boltz calls this added graph a phonetic determinative.
Traditionally, Boltz (1994, 63-64) states, paronomastic writing (jiajie) alone had been recognized as a precept for the development of Chinese script. Parasemantic writing, another important principle, had been overlooked, but "it appears to have been widespread in the formative stages of waiting in China" (Boltz 1994, 64).
1. 2.2. The three stages of the early graphical development (Chen and Qiu)
We shall examine the other formulation of three-stage development, as proposed by
Chen Mengjia (1956, 77-80) and refined by Qiu Xigui (1988, 2000). Chen delineated the development of the Chinese script in the following terms:
X.Xiangxingzi "pictographs",
2. Jiajiezi lUMlr ^ "phonetic-loan graphs"
3. Xingshengzi"pictophoneticgraphs"25
23 Although the semantic relation between the graph ren A and the word 'image' cannot be definitively elucidated, this graph can be considered a semantic determiner, because the addition of this graph distinguished the meaning intended from the other.
24 Boodberg ([1937] 1979, 376) pointed out that the SW implied the reading of the graph *> as the sameas^ wmg'dark' in "cong kdu congxi xizhe mingys %k U.$t&^^^-tfe" which Boltz (1994,) interprets that the graph was "derived from'mouth ' and from & "as for fr, it is ming < *ming 'dark'" (Boltz 1994, 105).
25 "Pictophonetic" is used for the English translation of Chen Mengjia's term "xingsheng graph". Chen used the term "pictograph" for the constituents of the xingsheng graphs.
11 Xiangxingzi H^fy^-, the 'pictographs', came into existence first. The need to record concepts inexpressible by shape alone was satisfied in two ways: (1) by using the pictograph for another word which was "semantically extended" (yinshen ?|#) 26 from the word the graph represented, such as H ri 'sun' which was used to write 'day'; and (2) by using the pictograph for another word which was pronounced identically or similarly (jiajie). Ambiguities were created, however, when many such jiajiezi "phonetic loan graphs", came into use, especially when a single graph was borrowed for more than one word. Xingshengzi or
"pictophonetic graphs" were therefore devised by juxtaposing in a single graph a phonetic loan graph with another pictograph that acted as the "signific" for the word being expressed.
Originally, xingshengzi "pictophonetic graphs" were used to distinguish the multiple uses of a single graph, but later they came to be the main principle for the invention of new graphs.
Qiu Xigui's account (1988, 2000) of the early development of the Chinese script is more detailed, supported by his close analysis of the graphs. Qiu's conception of the development can also be divided into three stages.
1. Pictorial graphs were created first. He proposes to use the term biaoyizi
'semantographs' to include all the graphs, the constituents of which implicitly relate to and convey the meanings of the words represented, — zhishi ^jf , xiangxing fUffr, and huiyi t oftheSW(1988, ll).27
2. The second stage of development (1988,4-7; 154):
(1) Jiajie 'fH'ft (paronomastic writing): An existing graph was used to write a homophonous or near-homophonous word which could not be expressed by drawing pictures.28
Qiu, unlike Chen, does not stipulate the usage of the graph for another word whose
26 The Chinese term "yinshen" can be literally translated "semantically extended". Whether or not the relationship between the two words or meanings that are described by the term yinshen is actually "semantic extension", however, is debatable. We will discuss this usage of graphs and attempt to determine the meaning of this terminology in § 1.2.4.1.
27 Qiu does not explicitly include multi-element biaoyizi in this stage, but he gives jft she 'to shoot with bow' as one of examples of this stage (Qiu 2000,4).
28 Qiu surmises that phonetic loan graphs (jiajie) appeared soon after the creation of biaoyizi, or indeed simultaneously (1988,4-5). 12 meaning is related (yinshen) to the word the graph represents together with the jiajie as the
second stage of early graphical development (1988, 1-8). In the third stage of graphical
development (the semanto-phonetic graph formation), however, he distinguishes between jiajie graphs and graphs used to write etymologically related words (1988, 154). It can
therefore be understood that he holds the usage of graphs for etymologically related words
separate from jiajie at the second stage of the early graphical development.
(2) The usage of the graph for the word whose meaning was "extended" (yinsheri) from the
word the graph originally represents: A single graph became attached to another word somehow
derived from the original word the graph represented29; for example, q& 'to take' which
was used for a word #w,'to take a wife'.
(3) Yixing duoyong — fyfyffi 'use of a graph for many [words]': A single graph represented
several words in meaning related to the form of the graph but differing in pronunciation
(1988, 5). This usage is identical to Boltz's "parasemantic writing". For example, the
oracle-bone graph j\ (^c) was earlier used to write the two words Jn 'adult male' and da
'big'.
During the early stage of development, in some of these cases, for example, j\ which
was used to write two wordsJu 'adult male' and da 'big', and ]) which was used to writeyue
'moon' and xi 'evening', different forms of the graph were used to resolve differences in
meanings, as ^ ju 'adult male' and j\ da 'big',}yue 'moon' and ]) xi 'evening' (1988, 5-7).
This is calledfenhua ^M-fc 'differentiation'.
Z.Xingshengzi ^ "semanto-phonetic graphs" are formed by the addition of a semantic
determiner to graphs used in jiajie and those used to write etymologically related words
(yinshen), of a phonetic element to a biaoyizi (to indicate the reading), or of a semantic
element to a semantograph (to clarify or emphasize its meaning). Although Qiu surmises
that semanto-phonetic graphs could also be formed by adding phonetic elements to yixing
duoyong — graphs, or parasemantic writing, as in the graph # bi 'nose', he does not
consider this path to the formation of xingsheng graphs to have been major.
29 This usage will be discussed in § 1.2.4.1.
13 4. Huiyi itM%-
In addition to the formation of semanto-phonetic graphs, Qiu (1988,122-139) stipulates another multi-element graph formation principle, huiyi, which renders a meaning produced by multiple semantic elements.30
The four major studies of the graphical development during the guwen period fundamentally agree that early development of Chinese script consists of three principal stages. The last two stages can also be considered as a 2-step process of SP graph formation.
Stage 1: Creation of pictorial graphs
Stage 2: Multivalent usage of pictorial graphs: first step of SP graph formation (Step 1)
Stage 3: Formation of SP graphs by adding another graph: second step of SP graph formation
(Step 2)
There are three points on which the four scholars do not completely agree:
(1) the existence of huiyi as a formation principle stipulated by Chen, Qiu and many other scholars was not accepted by Boodberg and Boltz, although Boltz admits the difficulty of its verification (see Section 1.2.3);
(2) the existence of "parasemantic writing" ("polyphony"), as advocated by Boodberg and
Boltz, has not been incorporated into Chen and Qiu's processes of graphical development, probably because of the latter's strictly empirical approach to the subject (see Section 1.2.4.3);
(3) Boltz does not stipulate in the stage 2 (multivalent usage of graphs) the usage of a graph for an etymologically related word (traditionally termed a "yinshen" word by Chinese scholars) without a written form of its own (see Section 1.2.4.1).
In the ensuing sections, "Stage 2" and "Stage 3" refer to the last two stages in the three stages of the entire early development of Chinese script, and "Step 1" and "Step 2" refer to the 2-step process of SP formation.
Since the compound graphs are the principal material used in this thesis to investigate the nature of structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin graphs, the following two
30 Huiyizi will be discussed in § 1.2.3.
14 sections examine in detail the huiyi (HY) and the semanto-phonetic (SP) graphs.
1.2.3. The features of HY graph or "ideographic" compound graph
This section will present:
1) the existence of HY as a multi-element graph formation method;
2) the principles of the HY graph formation.
1.2.3.1. The existence of HY as a multi-element graph formation principle
This thesis accepts huiyi as a principle of multi-element graph formation despite the difficulties inherent in this notion. Herrlee Glessner Creel (1936, 98-104), a strong advocate of the "ideographic" nature of Chinese writing, strongly believed in the existence of HY;
Peter A. Boodberg (1979, 378-383) posed important counter-arguments.
Creel gave the following examples of HY graph formation.
1. The graph jt£ xian was formed by combining two genetically similar graphs, & yu 'fish'
and ydng 'sheep', to represent the word 'fresh'.
2. The graph jft hdolhao was formed by combining ;two graphs nfl 'woman' with -f- zi
'child', using the mother-child relationship to render 'to love, to like; good'.
3. The graph^. dong 'east' can be analyzed as the sun ri 0 positioned behind a tree mu to
indicate its direction.
Though Creel's analysis of semantic compounding in these three cases appears reasonable, two of his examples can be shown to be false.
That xian ^ is a HY graph was denied by Boodberg ([1937] 1979, 383) who quoted the SW's elucidation that the right element ^ *rang(*zjang) 'sheep' in the graph ^ *sjan
(*s;an) 'fresh' is an abbreviated form of the graph j^j? *shan (*sian) 'smell of sheeps' which serves as phonetic element.31 The HY status of the graph $L dong 'east', which Creel quoted from the SW, has been invalidated by the form of the oracle-bone graph $, which has been deciphered as $L dong 'east'.32
31 In this section, Old Chinese pronunciations reconstructed by Li Fang-kuei are provided, followed by Boodbergs' in parentheses.
32 The shape of the oracle bone graph does not appear to represent the sun behind a tree. The current
15 Boodberg ([1937] 1979, 379-383) argued that the strength of the established association between a graph on one hand, and a semanteme and phoneme on the other, should be so strong that to create a new compound graph from two established graphs and to assign this new graph to a new semanteme and phoneme completely different from those of the components would be a violation of the fundamental laws of economy inherent in the development of any script. He asserted that the formation of "ideographic" graphs (that is, the combination of two or more existing graphs with a reassignment of meaning and sound) cannot exist as a linguistic category:33 On the contrary, Boodberg ([1937] 1979, 378-379) proposed that knowledge of polyphony allows the identification of one of the components as a phonetic: for example, the graph Vfi *mjiang (*miwDng) 'bright', supposedly an "ideographic" compound, contains a phonetic element H ri 'sun' that as a polyphone represents the etymonic sound for
'bright' related to but distinct from the known reading *njit (*rjiiet) 'sun'.34
These arguments render the status of HY graphs precarious. To classify a compound graph as HY hinges on whether or not a constituent phonetic element can be found; the connection of the meaning represented individually by every constituent to the meaning of the word represented by the compound graph tends to obscure a phonetic constituent.
For two reasons, however, to accept the existence of HY as a principle of formation would appear legitimate: (1) proposed forgotten alternate readings of graphs which might be serving as phonetic elements in HY graphs remain hypothetical; (2) many graphs without any apparent phonetic element can be elucidated by the HY principle. Qiu uses this formulation, examined in the next section. In the treatment this thesis gives to multi-element graphs, therefore, it will often be the case that a given graph will contain no grapheme related to its reading. explanation is that $, originally used as pictograph for the word "bag" tuo %, by representing the shape of a bag with both ends tied, was adopted for the word "east" as a phonetic loan (jiajie). Ding Shan T LU (JGWG V.4: 3010-3011) introduced Xu Zhongshu's ^"f $T explanation that the OBI graph $ dong 'east' was the original graph for ^ tuo 'bag'. Ding explained that graph % tuo (j& *tagh) 'bag', which had the same initials as dchg(%.$ *tung) 'east' (tuoyu dong weishuangsheng^&JUfa^tQ), was aphonetic loan graph for 'east'.
33 Boltz (1994, 64-66, 71-72), too, insists that there existed no compound graphs without phonetic element (the classic category huiyi), and that all so-called HY graphs include a phonetic the sound of which has been forgotten.
34 Boodberg's explanation of the graph ming ty remains hypothetical because the alternative reading *mjiang (*miwong) of the graph ri B has not been verified. 16 1.2.3.2. The principles of the HY graph formation
We shall examine several Qiu's empirical principles for the formation of huiyi (Qiu
1988, 122-139). The examples he provides for HY graphs appear to support the existence of this category.
(1) Combination of graphs to depict two objects rendering the action or situation described,
(Sp ji ; L: food served in a container; R: a kneeling person)35 'to engage in,
undertake', and (# gong; T: an object; B: a pair of hands)36 'together'.
(2) Combination of graphs with the relative positions of the components conveying the
meaning intended, e.g., ^ (it zhi; T: foot; B: a line which is the position where one
remains)' to stop'
(3) Combination of a man or animal with a certain organ of the body, to render the organ's
function, e.g., f f (Ji wang; T: an eye; B: a standing figure) 'to look at something
distant', and ^ (^ xiuT: nose; B: dog) 'to sniff.
(4) Duplication of elements to denote a collection (in the mathematical sense of the word),
e.g., /jd\ (#• lin; L: tree; R: tree) 'forest'
(5) A combination of two (or occasionally more) graphs as an inference of a more general
meaning, e.g., $j lie 'inferior' which is rendered by 'J? shao 'little' and jj li 'strength'.37
(6) A combination of graphs which cannot be categorized into any of the above. For
example, sao # means 'to sweep' and is symbolized by a hand carrying a whisk. In this
case, because the sounds of #• sao 'whisk' and,# sao 'to clean' are very similar, the
graph # can be regarded as huiyi jian xingsheng itM$fc3&$£ '[being] HY and SP [at
the same time]'. This thesis will treat such graphs as SP.38
35 L stands for the left element of the graph, and R for the right element of the graph.
36 T stands for the top element of the graph, and B for the bottom element of the graph.
37 This graph appear to be formed, however, after the Warring States period (Qiu 2000, 54).
38 Huiyi jian xingsheng '[being] HY and SP [at the same time]' refers to a phenomenon by which the meaning of the word expressed by the graph can be elucidated based on the semantic roles of constituent graphemes with at least one of them also acting phonetically. Qiu categorizes this example as one type of HY graphs, but also acknowledges it as SP graph. Others such as Chen and Tang (1988, 46) recognize them as SP graphs.
17 1. 2.4. The features of xingsheng (SP) graphs The following features of semanto-phonetic graph formation are relevant for the analysis of graphical discrepancies to be presented in this thesis. 1) Jiajie and "yinshen"; 2) the principles of the SP graph formation; 3) alternate readings of graphemes; 4) multi-element PEs and SEs; 5) the position of a PE and an SE within a single graph.
1. 2.4.1. The jiajie and "yinshen" As mentioned in Section 1. 2. 2, Boltz, unlike Chen and Qiu, does not include in his formulation of early development the following path of SP formation: Step 1: the usage of an established graph representing a given word (A) to write its etymologically related, or ''yinshen" word (B): Step 2: the augmentation of another graph to form a SP graph which was exclusively assigned to the word (B). We shall briefly discuss this SP formation path with Qiu's example.
Step 1: f% jie 'to untie' was used for a word 'to relax (psychologically)'39, related meaning of the word 'to untie'.
Step 2: The graph ffl was augmented with a semantic determiner f (i^) xw 'heart' to form the SP graphxie % which exclusively represented the word 'to relax'. This example illustrates that the usage of the graph jie %• for the word 'to relax' is not paronomastic usage if the paronomastic usage is defined as the usage of the graph to write another homophonous but semantically unrelated word (such as in the case in which the graph %. xiang 'elephant' was used to write xiang 'image'). This case in Step 1 can be considered as the multivalent usage of the graphs for the semantically or etymologically related words. Since it is difficult to define the semantic relationship between this type of
39 The meanings of these words are adopted from Chinese Writing (Qiu 2000, 250) in which this example appears.
18 paired words, and it is not within the scope of this thesis, we will not use the term yinshen'''' or "semantically extended", but the term "etymologically related" for the relationship between such pairs of words.
In our analysis of the processes resulting in the structural discrepancies between the
Chu and Qin graphs, cases of (1) paronomastic writing (jiajie) and (2) the usage of the graph described above will be treated together as the first step of SP graph formation, and an augmentation of semantic determiners to the graphs used in the two principles will be treated together as the second step of 2-step SP graph formation. The first category occupies the majority of SP formation cases, but the case which is indisputably the case (2) will be so labelled.
1. 2.4. 2. The principles of the SP graph formation
We will adopt Qiu's categories of semanto-phonetic graph formation, the most
exhaustive treatment given to relation between the graph and the word (Qiu 1988, 151-156).
The first four operations produce new SP graphs, and the remaining two processes are modifications, more particularly, an augmentation of phonetic element to existing semantic
graphs.
(1) A semantic determiner is added to a graph which has been loaned from a homophonous
word. This is the primary formation principle stipulated as the third stage (an augmentation
of semantic determiners) of the early graphical development.
W yi 'wing' + 0 ri 'sun, day' =Q$yi 'tomorrow'
(2) A signifie is added to a graph which has been used to write two semantically related
words to form the graph which represent one of the two.
JU Hang 'a pair'+ jfc si 'silk thread' = jgf Hang 'a pair of [shoes]' (1988, 230)
(3) A signifie is added to a semantograph to clarify the meaning of the word represented.40
qidng «bed» +&.mii 'tree' =jj^. chuang 'bed'
40 Theoretically, graphs that consist of a semantograph and a semantic determiner are not SP graphs. The original semantographs were recognized as phonetic elements, after a semantic determiner was added to these graphs, and thus the augmented graphs were taken to be SP graphs. This phenomenon occurred with many semantographs , for example; ca i 'to pick up [from trees]' which was augmented with shou and zhengjL 'to go on an expedition' which was augmented with chi %.
19 (4) An extra phonetic is added to a graph for the etymologically related word the graph
represents.
(6) A part of the semantograph is altered into a phonetic element to indicate its reading.
A graph Jr. xiu 'to offer food [in the ancestral temple]' first consisted of ydng 'sheep'
and X you «to hold in hand», but later S chou «to grasp by hand», 'the second of the
twelve Earthly Branches', which was closer to its reading, replaced you X-
The first three of these principles of SP graph formation were the most commonly used (Qiu 1988, 156).
1. 2. 4.3. The alternate readings of graphs
We shall briefly discuss Boltz's "parasemantic usage of graphs".
Boltz (1994, 63-64) states that parasemantic writing, another important principle, had been overlooked since the presence of such polyphony could be only temporary. For example, the fact that the graph D was used for the word ming 'to call, name' and the association between the graph P and the word ming 'to call, name' sank into oblivion when it was compounded with the graph & to form the graph % which was exclusively assigned to the word ming to call, name'.
It is possible that while the rebus usage of graphs may have been practiced throughout the history of the graphical development, the parasemantic usage of a graph should be considered minor because it can be considered to have occurred for only a limited number of simple graphs. Furthermore, as Boodberg ([1937] 1979, 367) perceived, parasemantic usage existed only at the earliest stages of graphical development, when graphs still maintained their pictorial quality.
Boltz (1994, 103-105) has proposed the jiajie representation of words homophonous to an alternate reading of the graph, and, upon addition of a semantic determiner, development into SP. Such alternate readings of graphs are highly supported when several graphs are found to contain a given simple graph and the readings of those graphs all belong to the same 20 rhyme group. The following is an example:
The graph D represented two words: (1) kou 'mouth'; (2) ming 'name, to call'.41
The graph P standing for the word ming 'to call, name' was augmented with a phonetic determiner & ,42
The graphs D standing for the word ming 'bird-call' was augmented with a semantic determiner niao
The graph P was added to the graph 4" ting 'order, command' which was used to write the word ming 'fate' to specify its usage by adding P as a phonetic determiner.
The resulting SP graphs are:
% ming'name, to call'; p,| ming 'bird-call'; $r ming 'fate'.43
Pursuing this line of investigation may yield more examples of the parasemantic usage of graphs, and the discovery of obliterated alternate readings of graphs might in turn contribute to the reclassification of some HY graphs as SP graphs, rather than as compound graphs of semantic elements alone. It should nevertheless be acknowledged that the proposed alternate readings of graphs yielded by this process presently remain hypothetical, without concrete evidence.
1. 2.4.4. PEs and SEs consisting of multiple elements
It has been noted that SP graphs may contain multiple SEs and/or PEs. Boltz (1994,
70-71) observes that this is the result of the recursion of Step 2 {jiajie, or paronomastic usage of a graph) and 3 (an addition of a semantic determiner). An SP graph that had completed its evolution through all three stages could be re-used as a loan graph for another homophonous word and could be augmented with another semantic determiner. However, Boltz (1994, 71) surmises, the multiple constituents of a given graph sometimes result from "an aesthetic
41 That the graph P represented ming 'name, to call' is not attested, and its modern reading is given here as Boltz surmises.
42 As for the reading of the graph ft as ming, see footnote 24 above.
43 The SW explains ming »,| and ming % as HY graphs. Duan elucidated that ling 4" serves as PE in the graph/n/ng 4fr. The possibility of the alternative reading of the graph D in the meaning 'to utter, name' as mingwas originally proposed by Boodberg ([1937] 1979, 376).
21 sensitivity to graphic balance and elegance".44 Tang Lan ([1949] 1963, 107-108) and Qiu
(1988, 157-160) also hold that there should be only one SE and PE in a single character at its formation. In SW, for example, bao 'treasure' had been analyzed as consisting of the 3
SEs midn 'roof, 5 yu 'jade' and M. bei 'cowry', and the 1 phonetic -& fou 'earthern vessel'; $| bo 'beam connecting pillars', of the 4 SEs 7fc mil 'tree', cao 'grass', 5 shui
'water' and ~f cun 'unit of measurement', and the 1 phonetic element, ^ Jn 'to begin'. But
Tang and Qiu both insist that the compounding must necessarily have used exactly one of each. In most cases of multiple SEs, Qiu argues, a huiyi graph can be detected. Thus $ bao
'treasure' possessed a single SE that combined the graphs ^ midn 'roof, 3. yu 'jade' and
K bei 'cowry' and is attested in the oracle-bone graph Tang sees a series of distinct compounding steps to yield apparently multiple PEs: Jn 'b', as a PE of ^./u 'to spread, throughout (the land)', itself used as a PE in :J$ pn 'to spread, throughout (the land)', which is then used as a PE of 3$ bo 'grass field', which is used as a PE in $$ bo 'beam connecting pillars'. Thus there is exactly one PE and one SE used at each step. Qiu also speculates that double PEs in a single SP graph occurred in rare cases by repeated addition of further PEs to an expanding SP graph.
1. 2. 4. 5. The relative positions of a PE and an SE within a single graph
The relative positions of PE and SE within a given SP graph have been classified into
8 cases45
1. left SE: right PE yX j&ng '(Yangzi) river'
2. left PE: right SE j% jfn 'dove'
3. top SE: bottom PE Jft cao 'grass'
4. top PE: bottom SE |j» po 'old woman'
5. periphery SE: inside PE HI pu 'field'
6. periphery PE: inside SE $f yan '(river) to flow'
44 Boltz does not, however, provide an example of the use of multiple elements used for aesthetic purposes.
45 Tang ([1949] 1963,104) gave thefirst 6 types , and Qiu (1988, 166) added the last two. Examples for 1- 6 are Tang's, and those for 7 and 8 are Qiu's.
22 7. PE in the corner fang 'room'
8. SE in the corner $ zai 'to load'
The "left SE: right PE" type is the most common combination of phonetic and semantic elements in a single graph. In analyzing the function of the constituents of a compound graph, however, we need not consider their position.
1. 3. The old script (guwen From the Shang to the Warring States period
Having gained an understanding of the processes observable in the formation of graphs, we will now trace their orthographic evolution during the guwen period, and the media upon which they are found. The following topics will be covered.
1) Chronological divisions of Pre-Qin writing
The Shang writing: oracle-bone graphs
The Western Zhou writing: bronze graphs
Writing of the Spring and Autumn period: bronze graphs
Writing of the Warring States period: graphs on bronze, bamboo, stone, wood
and silk manuscript
2) The graphical evolution of guwen
the orthodox and vulgar forms of the script
simplification and elaboration
3) The graphical features of the Warring States graphs
4) The Script Reform at the Qin Unification
5) Formulation of the development oi guwen adopted in this thesis
1.3.1. The chronological division of the Pre-Qin writing (guwen isjQ
The approximately 1100 years of graphical evolution covered in the table of graph given in Appendix-I have been divided into 4 historical periods based on Tang Lan's historical classification ([1935] 1965, 4-5). Instead of the traditional classification of old writing according to the medium on which it appears (for instance, bronze vessel, pottery, seal, and so forth), Tang proposed that guwen should be classified by their forms during the accepted periods of Chinese history. He described three historical phases for the ancient script, with 23 distinctions during the last phase, the Warring States period. His categories are as follows.
1. Shang graphs (Yin-Shangxi wenzi Shang period
2. Graphs of Western and Eastern Zhou (UangZhouxi wenzi Ji] % X ^):
from Western Zhou to the end of the Spring and Autumn period
3. Graphs of the Six States (liuguoxi wenzi js HI % X the Warring States period
4. Graphs of the Qin state (Qinxi wenzi X*¥)'- the Warring States period
Despite certain criticisms, Tang's classification has gained widespread acceptance.46
We have adopted it for the construction of our table, separating the Autumn and Spring period from the Western Zhou period. This division has been introduced to reduce the quantities of the data from each period to a manageable level, and also because several sample writings from various states appear to indicate discrepancies among the Warring
States graphs from the middle of the Autumn and Spring era onwards (He 1989, 2).
The following sections briefly discuss the features of the writing during each phase, providing the necessary historical background.
1.3.2 The Shang writing
The earliest extant samples of Chinese script are graphs incised primarily on turtle plastrons and bovine scapulas.47 This writing is usually called jiaguwen f itX 'turtle-shell and bone inscription', and, in English, "oracle-bone inscriptions", for their content chiefly concerns divination. The majority of such inscriptions have been found at Xiaotun Village
(/jNTfc#), Anyang City (;£|#"rfr), Henan Province These writings can be dated between around middle to the end of thirteenth century BC, the beginning of King Wuding's reign, and around middle to the end of eleventh century BC, the fall of the Shang dynasty.47
Most of the writings have been incised with a sort of engraver (kedao M 77), but occasionally
46 For instance, Qiu (1988), although adopting Tang's classification, observes that characteristics of the script during each period are not strictly confined by dynastic breaks. Characters of the late Shang, for example, are similar to those of the early Western Zhou. Chen and Tang (1988) continue to accept the classification of old writings by the medium of the inscriptions, such as bronze or bamboo slips.
47 The beginning of the King Wuding's reign has been dated from 1339 BC (Dong 1945, vol. 2, 2) to approximately 1200 BC (Keightley 1978, 228). The fall of the Shang dynasty has been dated from 1127 BC to 1018 BC (see Shaughnessy 1991,219). Intermediate approximate dates for the beginning and fall of the Shang dynasty are given in this thesis.
24 they were written in ink with a brush.48 About 5000 graphs have been found in total, of which approximately one-third have been deciphered49
Although conspicuously pictographic, the objects which the graphs depict are not always clear, even when the graphs can be deciphered and transcribed into modern equivalents, e.g., f J? , yu -f- 'to . .'. Comparison of the early and late oracle-bone graphs shows that evolution abstracted their pictorial features (Qiu 1988, 42-43). Pictographs came to be also used as phonetic loan graphs, and there are multi-element graphs in which one pictographic element indicates sound.
To obtain an overall sense of this writing system, it is useful to introduce some statistics. Li Xiaoding (1968, 1993) has analyzed the 1225 oracle-bone graphs whose form, sound and meaning have been deciphered, and has grouped them according to the traditional Six Categories.
Table 1.1. Category of Graphs Number of Graphs ( % )
Pictographs 276 ( 22.53 % )
Zhishi Graphs 20 ( 1.63 % ) Huiyi Graphs 396 ( 32.33 % ) Phonetic Loan Graphs 129 ( 10.53 % )
Semanto-Phonetic Graphs 334 (27.27 % )
Others (Unknown) 70 ( 5.71 % )
Total 1225 ( 100 % )
As we can see, the Shang writing had already reached the third stage of graphical development, namely the formation of SP graphs; but semantic graphs, i.e., pictographs and huiyi graphs, were still dominant, and SP graphs had at that time barely surpassed phonetic
48 A small number of graphs on pottery, stone, jade, and horns have been found.
49 Jiaguwen bian f #;>t $t (1965), a major compilation of oracle-bone graphs, lists 4672 graphs (except for hewen "compounded phrase"), although Kokotsumojijishaku soran ? if ^ ^ # ^ IE (1994) points out that more than 70 graphs have multiple entries. Kokotsumojijishaku soran also lists 476 graphs not included in the Jiaguwen bian, although the number of attested graphs is somewhat less than 476, because some of them have been provided by some specialists without actually ascertaining their original sources. The number of known oracle-bone graphs is therefore about 5000.
25 loan graphs in their proportion, though they were later to form the overwhelming majority of graphs.50
The vocabulary is limited to specific matters of divination: important future events, such as sacrificial ceremonies, military campaigns, hunting expeditions, agriculture, sickness, or general queries about disasters during the night or day, and during a ten-day period, etc.
(Keightley 1978, 33-35)51
1. 3. 3. The Western Zhou Writing
The extant writing of the ensuing Western Zhou period (middle to end of eleventh century -771 BC) is found primarily on bronze vessels manufactured mostly for ancestral rites of devotion, for the commemoration of deeds, and as imperial gifts from members of the
Royal House, nobles, vassals and officials. These are usually referred to as jinwen 'the bronze-vessel inscriptions' or 'the bronze inscriptions'.52 Although there is no doubt about the genetic relationship between the writing system of the Shang era and that of the Western
Zhou period, scripts on bronze vessels do not necessarily exhibit traits of palaeographic evolution more advanced than those found on the oracle-bones.53 Western Zhou writing has been generally considered uniform (Guo 1972; Tang 1986), although some graphical variation has been observed (Gao 1987, 146-180). The most notable tendencies of evolution during this period are not structural but stylistic in nature: xiantiaohua the "linearization" of pictorial execution, and pingzhihua -f-jl^t, the "streamlining" of curvilinear lines of graphs
(Qiu 1988,46).54
It must be noted that the Western Zhou bronzes attest only a small subset of the
50 A table of comparative sample oracle-bone and SW forms from each category is given in § 1.3.6.2.
51 In addition to the above, Keightley enumerated weather, childbirth, distress or troubles, dreams, settlement building, orders, tribute payments, divine assistance or approval, and requests addressed to ancestral or nature powers.
52 Bronze products that carry inscriptions are conventionally called "bronze vessels". In this thesis, "bronze vessels" is used for them collectively, and "bronze artifact" refers individually to a bronze product not properly a vessel, such as a sword or a set of bells.
53 This point will be discussed later (§ 1.3.6.1).
54 The stylistic features will not be treated in this thesis.
26 graphs in use during the Western Zhou period.55
1.3.4. Writing of the Spring and Autumn period
The political power of the Zhou gradually declined. Three hundred and fifty years after the overthrow of the Shang, King You & was killed by the Rong & "western barbarians" in 771 BC. The capital was moved from Hao H (south-west of present-day Xian city,
Shanxi Pro v. (r^.W^W^^W#)to Luoyi {§, (present-day Luoyang, Henan Pro v. j5f^
% %• W)- One of the powerful feudal states, the Qin state, which was originally located in present-day Shanxi Prov.,56 began to expand eastward, and eventually occupied the former capital of Zhou.
The Royal House of Zhou remained as the nominal Imperial Court, but real power alternated among several "vassal" states. This age is called the Spring and Autumn period.
The surviving writing of this period is chiefly seen on bronze vessels, bells and weapons.
The production of bronze artifacts was no longer monopolized by the central Zhou House, as political and economic power shifted to various feudal lords who began producing bronze artifacts in their own foundries.
Divergence among the various feudal states during this period is recognized only in stylistic features, although some minor structural discrepancies are also observable.57
1. 3. 5 Writing of the Warring States period
The Warring States era no longer had the unifying central political power formerly provided by the Zhou Royal House. The various states, as independent political entities,
55 For example, Bernhard Karlgren (1936, 158-159) believed that many more characters must have been in use during the Western Zhou era. Jinwen bian (1985. 4th ed.), a compilation of bronze graphs, lists 1416 different graphs.
56 Traditionally, Xu Guang's (#• Jlc) explanation that the Qin was originally located in Huaili H JL (present-day Shanxi RfeW Prov.) has been accepted, although an alternative location in present-day Gansu Jfr Prov. has been proposed (Lin 1981, 33-34). Xu's explanation was collected in Shijijijie ji IE which was compiled by Pei Yin |||B during the Song 3fc time, 420-479 AD (Zhonghua Shuju 1972, 177).
57 Qiu (1988,47) speculates that variations of bronze graphs among various states were mostly stylistic rather than structural. As will be examined in § 1.3.6.2, minor structural changes, such as the addition of one or two strokes of no significance, took place during the SA period (e:g. iZ > zheng 'to go on a campaign').
27 competed for supremacy. With the rapid economic and societal developments, writing also became popularized.
Writing from this period has been found on a wider variety of materials such as seals, stones, currency, pottery, bamboo slips, and silk cloth, in addition to bronze objects, with a greater variety of content than that of previous periods.
He Linyi (1989, 78-169) has divided the entire "Chinese" area into five regions which can be classified according to their homogeneous graphic features of the
Warring States period.
Qi fl?- area Graphs: Includes Qi ($-), Lu (#), Zhu ($), Teng (0), Xue
($i), and other small states
Yan ^ area Graphs: The Yan(^) state
Jin -ff- area Graphs: Includes Jin (£•), Han (#), Zhao (&), Wei (K0,
Zhongshanguo (4" dl Hi), Eastern Zhou (JUM), Zheng
(IP), Wei (flr)
4. Chu ft area Graphs: Includes Chu (ft), Wu (&), Yue (ft), Xu (fr), Cai
(H), Song (5jc), and other small states
5. Qin 0- area Graphs: The Qin (#) state
The Chu and Qin, the two geographical areas whose writing will be examined in this thesis, were located adjacent to one another, in the south and west of the whole area, respectively. The Records of the Historian (Shiji jfc. f£) states that, king Wu of Chu (ca.
740-690 BC) identified his state as "barbarian" (manyi & J|),58 Nevertheless, with its Chinese writing system and presumably its spoken language, the Chu state appears to have been within the sphere of Chinese civilization during the Warring States era. The Qin region, originally the home of a small western tribe, but also with Chinese language and writing, had by the fourth century BC emerged as a strong Chinese state.59 Although it is possible that
58 Shiji 40 (Yoshida 1979,412).
59 Although the state of Qin was described to be a western or northern barbarian tribe (for example, by the Qin prime minister Shang Yang ft ft (390-338BC) in Shiji, 68 (Mizusawa 1997, 214)), its ethnic origin is ambiguous.
28 various original native (non-Chinese) languages persisted in these regions, there is no question that the educated classes from the various areas communicated in the standard language, yayan fill" 'proper [-ly pronounced] language'.60 Several historical records point to this.
For example, Xunzi JUj^- (ca. 313-238 BC) was born in Zhao went to Qi jf- to study, and lived in Chu ft where he engaged in literary and educational work. Su Qin 0#, who was born in the Eastern Zhou capital and studied under the Qi literati, visited and successfully persuaded six states into allying together against the Qin state.61 There were seven Chu literati who served as Qin prime ministers.62 A fundamental question related to the theme of this thesis thus arises. To what extent did the standard language used in different regions during the Warring State period vary, particularly with respect to pronunciation? The question is crucial, for deviation in pronunciation affects the efficiency of the phonetic element of a given graph, which might then be changed; regional variations in pronunciation may lead to divisions or weakening of the phonological system. Ih addition to what the historical records mentioned above tell us, we can find another clue to the answer in the Chuci ft ^, a collection of a type of poems largely composed by the Chu literati-official Qu Yuan JS M-
(ca. 340-278 BC) whose rhymes are basically confined to the standard rhymes of the Shijing
H H .63 This thesis postulates that: 1) there may have been regional, dialectal, characteristics in pronunciation of words, a matter to be kept in mind; and 2) regardless of any regional variation in pronunciation of words, the underlying phonological system remained the same
60 The commentator Zheng Xuan IP (127-200 AD) interpreted yayan Sll" as 'to speak with proper pronunciation'. This annotation can be found inLunyu jijie tafffcompiled by He Yan "f»T#? during Wei H time (220-265 AD) (Zheng 1981, 112,396).
61 Shiji 69 (Mizusawa 1997,224-265). Su Qin lived around in the early third century BC.
62 Gan Mao # Qu Gai B £, Xiang Shou fa# , Wei!Ran #fc#, Mi Rong^, Chang Ping jun g and Li Si all served as prime minister of Qin between 309 and 208 BC (Ma Feibai 1985, 187-195). There is also an anecdote describing the quality of standard language of the Chu literati. Mencius (jfe^?-) described the Chu literati Xu Xing frff as a southern barbarian who speaks like a shrike (butcherbird) (Mengzi "Tengwengong zhangju shang" A). It is not clear, however, whether the implication is that yayan as spoken by the Chu literati was deviant, or whether Mencius merely offered a pungent criticism of Xu by playing up Xu's origin in the region of a different dialect. This incident appears insufficient to prove that the standard language spoken by the Chu people was different from that of the other regions.
63 There are not many differences between the rhymes of the Shijing and Chuci: for example, the graphs belonging to geng # rhyme group and the graphs belonging to zhen % rhyme group rarely rhyme together in the Shijing, but more often in the Chuci (Luo and Zhou 1958, 81).
29 across the regions.
1. 3. 6. The graphical evolution of guwen
We now turn to the individual graphs to determine the general tendency of graphical evolution. We shall trace their development from the Shang era to the Warring States time, and then examine the characteristics of the graphical divergences of the Warring States period.
1. 3. 6.1. The orthodox and vulgar forms of the script
Any discussion of the evolution of individual graphs during the historical period considered in this thesis must take into consideration the two guwen traditions then current.
Qiu (1988, 42-69; 1989, 81-120) has distinguished these traditions as the formal or orthodox form (zhengti lEH), and the vulgar form (suti #11), and has expounded a theory of their relationship. The orthodox form was more intricate in its shapes and more meticulous in its execution than the vulgar form. Orthodox writing was used for official or some dignified purposes, and was by its nature conservative. The vulgar form was, in contrast, simplified and rough, and tended to evolve very quickly. At each period, the two systems existed side by side. Shang oracle-bone graphs, for example, are carved in the vulgar script; most of the bronze inscriptions are in the orthodox form, the exceptions tending to be placed during the late Shang. Throughout the guwen stage, the rapidly evolving vulgar script acted as a catalyst for the evolution of the formal one. The influence of the vulgar script on the formal,
Qiu asserts, was already present in the late Shang bronze and strengthened during the subsequent
Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods.64 During the Warring States period, the vulgar script came to supplant altogether the orthodox;form in the eastern regions, particularly in the Chu. In the Qin state, on the other hand, both the well-ordered and balanced orthodox form and the vulgar form developed from it generally maintained their distinct uses until the end of the guwen period, although occasional vulgar writing is sometimes found on the Qin
64 For example, the forms of the graphs on the Jin # state bronze vessel, Luanshu fou HI?-fir, was different from that of other bronze graphs produced during the SA period, probably under the influence of the vulgar forms.
30 bronzes, for example, the Shang Yang maodun $j ft^^fc.
In our table, the "vulgar" oracle-bone graphs precede the "orthodox" Western Zhou bronze graphs as the earlier of the two forms. Orthodox writing being the more conservative, however, the oracle-bone graphs do not necessarily preserve a more archaic shape of script than the later bronze inscriptions. Is it correct, then, to treat OBI graphs as the attested ur-sample of the Chinese writing system? I would answer this question in the affirmative.
Qiu has observed that, although the forms of the OBI script may in some ways be more evolved than those of their orthodox Shang bronze-vessel counterparts, that two forms from the Shang period onward tended not to diverge, but indeed to converge under the influence of the vulgar form. The partitioning of the time scale into active periods of development approximately 250 to 300 years in length allows us to note, moreover, that the vulgar form of any given period does not appear much more evolved than the orthodox script of the period following. It is therefore valid to treat the oracle-bone graphs as being not only temporarily but systemically the earliest samples of Chinese writing, although the coexistence of and interaction between the two traditions should always be kept in mind.
1.3. 6. 2. Simplification and elaboration
Two opposing tendencies can be observed in the diachronic graphical evolution of individual simple graphs throughout the guwen phase: they are (1) primarily simplification and abstraction of the pictorial forms, jianhua HHt, and (2) secondarily elaboration, fanhua
$Ht (Qiu 1988, 28-30, 42-47; 2000, 45, 70).
Simplification for the ease of writing takes three forms: (a) xiantiaohua jS&IHt,
"linearization of pictorial forms", in which the thickness of lines is made uniform and a solid square or round part of a graph is replaced with a line, as in i > f wdng 'king'; (b) pingzhihua^-'M.i^, "streamlining of graphic forms" in which a curvilinear, uneven line is straightened or separate lines are connected, as in |f ma 'horse'; and (c) bihuahua %E
H. It, "segmentation of graphs into several strokes" as in %> ^ si 'silk'.65
The elaboration of simple graphs adds one or two strokes to classify the graphical
65 The first two examples are given by Qiu (1988,46-47). The third one is found on the Baoshan bamboo slips.
31 representation and to avoid formal ambiguity, as in ^ > _h shang 'above', and J > 5 yu
'jade', "f > fi\ rbu 'meat' (Qiu 1988, 29). Unfunctional elaboration (just adding strokes without any purpose or function) can also be observed during the Spring and Autumn period: for example, ^ > ^ tian 'heaven, sky', and lj£ > U£ zheng 'to go on a campaign' (Qiu
1988,29).66 The simple graphs do on the whole become simplified, diminishing their pictorial value as well when they act as constituents in multi-element graphs.
Another type of elaboration was the augmentation of a given simple graph with another simple graph. This type of elaboration of existing graphs must be distinguished from the combinational processes used to form new graphs. There are several examples of mere graphical elaboration without a simultaneous change of narrowing of meaning, such as ^> >
JE M.feng 'phoenix' (Qiu 1988, 6).
The favored principle for graphical formation also shifted during the guwen period, from semantic graphs (such as HY) to SP graphs. It can be surmised that initially creation was exclusively pictographic. After all of the basic graphical formation principles had appeared, the formation of SP graphs became more common than purely semantic compounding
(Qiu 1988, 32). The proportion of the biaoyizi & "express-meaning graphs" decreased for two reasons: (1) simplified and abstracted simple graphs no longer carried sufficiently strong visible evidence of their meaning to function efficiently in semantic combinations; (2) existing biaoyizi were transformed into SP graphs by the addition of phonetic indicators. The shift of the commonly used principle of formation is manifest from the comparison of the statistics for each category.67 The first column below gives the numbers for the oracle-bone graphs, and the second one, for those Qin dynasty graphs (221-202 BC) categorized as xiaozhuan %. in the SW.68
66 Although Qiu gives ^ tmn 'heaven, sky' as an example of unfunctional elaboration, which can also be observed during the Spring and Autumn period, this graph can be found on the oracle bone inscriptions.
67 One of the OBI graphs' categories, "unknown", and the ambiguous traditional category zhuanzhu used ioxxiaozhuan graphs were labeled as "other".
68 The OBI figures are taken from Li Xiaoding (1993,91-95); the SW figures, from Zhu Zhunsheng &%kM (1788-1858) mLiushu Yaolie is^^f\ mShuowen tongxun dingsheng IfoXftMfeM-
32 Table 1.2.
Category of Graphs OBI SW
Pictographs 276 (22.53 %) 364 ( 3.84%)
Zhishi Graphs 20 ( 1.63 %) 125 ( 1.32%)
Huiyi Graphs 396 (32.33 %) 1167 (12.32 %)
Phonetic Loan Graphs 129 (10.53 % ) 115 ( 1.21 %)
Semanto-phonetic Graphs 334 (27.27 % ) 7697 (81.24%)
Other 70 ( 5.71 %) 7 ( 0.07 % )
Total 1225 ( 100 %) 9475 ( 100 %)
The above data suggest that the formation of SP graphs became the primary method of formation toward the end of the guwen phase.
1. 3. 7. The graphical features of the Warring States graphs
This section describes the classification of the processes that contributed to regional structural graphical discrepancies. He Linyi (1989, 184) postulates that the principles of graphical development during the Shang and WZ periods carried over to the WS period. He
(1989, 184-223) focuses on three major phenomena in the evolution of WS individual graphs: simplification, elaboration and alteration. We shall separate his examples of simple and multi-element graphs.
1. Simple graphs
Simplification of simple graphs is the omission of a stroke or strokes, and the abstraction of form: as in W > ^ rna 'horse'.69 It must be noted that each such case may be a particular scribe's momentary abbreviation, not a conventionalized form, particularly if examples are rare. In Chapter 3, we will examine complication of simple graphs as a regional feature of the writing, although He gives no examples. Variations in execution, such as % > 1[ chB
69 The former graph is from the Baoshan bamboo slips, and the latter is a Qin graph appearing on the Shuihudi Hifeiifc bamboo slips.
33 'car, are not treated in this thesis.'
2. Multi-element graphs
1) Simplification
Simplification of multi-element graphs ranges from the omission of a stroke or strokes,
to the abstraction of a grapheme, to the omission of an entire grapheme. Omitted graphemes may be an SE and a PE of an SP graph, an SE of an HY graph, or a grapheme of a multi-element SE or PE .71
For example:
\ )^ye 'leaf, generation'
(PE # shl 'thirty, generation' in an SP graph 31 .ye 'leaf is omitted)72
ii) ^a«'peaceful' (SE A
midn 'roof in a HY graph ^ an 'peaceful' is omitted)73
iii) ^ chu 'Chu (state name)'
(one of the two identical elements mu 'tree' is omitted).74
As an example in iii) shows, duplication of graphemes is sometimes eliminated.
However, simplification must in some cases be treated cautiously. SP graphs that
show apparent abbreviation, such as the loss of PE or SE, may in fact have been yet unaugmented
semantographs or jiajie graphs respectively, still in the second stage of their formation. It is
possible that such retarded development was specific to a given region. If the antecedent of a
given graph is unaugmented, the unaugmented graph used in the WS period cannot be called 70 Both graphs appear on the Zhongshanguo'f Jj H (Pingshan (ty\k) county, Hebei (jf ^h) Prov.) bronze belonging to the Jin -fr script region. (He 1989, 217) The first graph can be found on xiao ding/h #(f (small cauldron),_/a«gz«o dou jjlM.3- (a ritual vessel with a square base) and others. The second graph appears onpinggai dou tyj | fi (a ritual vessel with a flat lid). 71 Since graphs, in their next evolutional step, were augmented with semantic or phonetic elements. The omission of semantic or phonetic elements might stem fromthei r usage in the previous stage (He 1989, 185-191).
72 This graph appears on the funerary object (Zhangjia^^.) from the Zhongshanguo tomb (He 1989, 189). Although it is an example of omission of a PE from an SP graph found on a bronze vessel, He states that this type of omission was rare, and that the currenciy of the WS period mostly carries graphs of this case.
73 This graph appears in the bronze bell Zhedaozhong;#i?J$t (He 1989, 188).
74 This graph appears on the Chu bronze cauldron Yinyue ding^ $ jfjj (He 1989, 189). As this example shows, duplication of graphemes is sometimes omitted.
34 simplified, unless dating makes clear that the graph had passed through an augmented stage.
2) Elaboration
Elaboration of multi-element graphs is the addition of a stroke or strokes, or of a grapheme, without a change in the meaning of the word represented by the multi-element graph. The addition of a grapheme, according to He, seems in some cases to be motivated by phonetic or semantic reasons, and in others without apparent motivation. On occasion, however, it may be quite difficult to determine the function of such graphemic augmentation,
a) Non-functional augmentation
The following are He's examples of non-functional graphemic augmentation:
iv) % shi 'room': H contains two identical graphemes J (5 zhi 'to reach'), by
duplication;75
V ) $L qin 'close, parent': Ipf is augmented with the element ^ midn 'roof);76
vi) W bing 'the third of the ten Heavenly Stems': § is augmented with the grapheme
d(P kou 'mouth').77
He (1989, 196-198) enumerates the following 10 simple graphs that, when added to existing graphs, produced no change of meaning in the compound, and indeed assumed no apparent function (such as to indicate, the pronunciation). In parentheses are shown examples of graphs to which the grapheme in question was added, and the material on which the augmented graph appears.78
1) F hdn 'cliff (%_huan 'to turn round'; ZS)
2) midn 'roof ($§, qin 'close, parent'; Wangshan H iJj bamboo-slip graph)
3) p hu 'door' (jf fa 'law'; ZS)
4) jfc li 'to stand' qido 'high'; HM)
75 This graph appears on the Chu bronze cauldron Yingan ding 'tX-Mfi (He 1989, 195).
76 This graph appears in the Wangshan H di bamboo-slip graphs (Re 1989, 196).
77 This graph appears in the Chu silk-cloth graph, Changsha boshu % # (He 1989, 197).
78 Some material names are abbreviated: ZS stands for Zhongshanguo + ib HI bronze vessels, HM stands for Houma mengshu ^ ,(§ Ji # (jade covenant inscriptions from Houma, Shanxi (Jj W) Prov.), and CS stands for Changsha silk cloth.
35 5) P kou 'mouth' (W bing 'table, the third of the ten Heavenly Stems'; CS)
6) 0 yue 'to speak' (jft lian 'to gather in'; ZS)79
7) <^ xin 'heart' sui 'ear of grain'; HM)
8) X you «to hold in hand» (J& di 'land'; HM)
9) kpu 'to beat' (£|E 'to start'; Biaoqiangzhong J$k%^)
10) T 'pennant or streamer' (if tang 'hot liquid'; CS)
b) Functional augmentation
An extra grapheme could be functionally augmented in two ways: (1) phonetically
and (2) semantically. In both cases, a simple graph (grapheme) was added to graphs of three types: simple graphs, semantic compound graphs (HY graphs in He's term), and SP graphs.
(1) Examples of augmentation with a phonetic element are:
ix) ifechi (*thj9gx) 'tooth' (simple graph + PE)
= te> chi (*thj9gx) 'tooth' + ± zhi (*tjsgx) 'to stop'80
X) £ bao (*p9gwx) 'to protect' (HY graph + PE)
= 1^ bao (*psgwx) 'to protect' + & jou (*pji9gw) 'earthen vessel'81
xi) $ qi (*dzid) 'place name' (SP graph + PE)
= ffqi (*dzid) 'Qi 'place name' + # qi (*tshid) 'wife'82
The following case is not strictly an augmentation, but rather a modification of shape of a part of the graph into a phonetic element. However, the result is the same as that of an
augmentation with a PE, so it has been included in this group.
xii) W (§0 sheng (*skh?-jingh) 'sage':
= ^ sheng (*skh?-jingh) 'sage' + ££. ting (*thingx) «man standing on the earth83 »
79 This augmented graph also appears on the Baoshan bamboo slips, and will be treated in § 4.3.3.
80 These augmented and unaugmented graphs appear oh the Yangtianhu $j bamboo slips (He 1989,201).
81 This graph appears on the Qi ^ bronze vessel Chenhou Wu dui S-lt^Hc (He 1989, 201).
82 This graph appears on one ("Tianche" ffl J$-) of ten stones which are collectively named as the Stone Drum shigu %i£ of the Qin (He 1989,202).
83 This altered graph also appears in the Baoshan bamboo graphs (He 1989, 212). The reconstructed sound is based on Li Fang-kuei.
36 (lower part of the HY graph was altered into a PE)
(2) Examples of graphemic augmentation intended to make explicit the meaning of the word represented are:84
vii) "7^ xiong 'elder brother' = xiong 'elder brother' + A ren 'man'
(simple graph + SE)85
viii) It ydng 'south side of a hill'
= H ydng 'south side of a hill' + ± nl 'earth' (SP graph + SE).86
3) Alteration
Alteration is the replacement of PEs or SEs, or the mistaken substitution of one grapheme with another.
(1) Replacement of PE
This can be seen, for example, in the graph )3t ding (*dingh) 'to settle' in which the original PE IE zheng (*tjingh) 'correct' is replaced with T ding (*ting) 'the fourth of the ten
Heavenly Stems'.87
(2) Replacement of SEs
The two SEs in the pair below are each combined with a given PE to represent the same word. Gao (1987,146) has observed that the usage of distinct but semantically congruent semantic elements in a multi-element graph was both synchronic and diachronic. As a result, a given word could at the same time have had several representations with different semantic elements. It can be surmised, therefore, that when a semantic determiner was added to the phonetic loan graph to derive a SP graph, the choice of the SE varied according to the scribe.
He (1989, 205-207) also observes that several cases of the SE in an SP graph replaced with another graph semantically similar. Of the following 34 pairs of SEs used interchangeably
84 There is no adequate example for the addition of a graph to a HY graphs (He 1989, 198-200).
85 This graph appears on the Chu bronze vessel, Wolingjun dou S. (H6 1989, 199).
86 He used this sample from the bronze inscription collection, Sandaijijin wencun 3. r£ llf & % fe (He 1989, 200). This also appears in the Baoshan bamboo-slip graphs.
87 This graph with its phonetic element T appears on Houma mengshu 1^ ,l§ H 1r (He 1989, 212). Qiu (1988, 57) ascribes this phenomenon to a different use of the phonetic loan graph, to which a semantic determinative was added.
37 during the guwen period, the former 27 pairs are taken from Gao (1987, 146-180)88, and latter
7 pairs from He. He also specifies those observed in the Warring States graphs (marked with
"WS").
1) A ren 'man': -fc nfi 'woman' (^yu 'to produce')
2) "ft" shou 'head, neck': X ye 'head' (M ydn 'forehead, face') WS 3) D kou 'mouth': "jjf ydn 'to speak' (^yong 'to chant') WS
4) <^ xin 'heart': "g ydn 'to speak' {% de 'virtue') WS
5) -f- yin 'sound': "t" ydn 'to speak' (Hyi« 'careful')
6) f*J rbu 'meat': # gii 'bone' (f£ 'bone')
7) i zM 'foot, to stay': M. zu 'foot'89 (IS zhong 'to follow')
8) A chub 'to go on the road': \tzhi 'foot, to stay' (i£ m 'against')
9) A chub 'to go on the road': ^ C/H 'road' (i^ bian 'border')
10) A c/zwo 'to go on the road': ^ zow 'to run' (it qian 'to send')
11) jt /?u 'to beat': ge 'dagger-axe' (jfcjiii 'to save') WS
12) ,| ma o 'bird': £ znwl bird with a short tail' (0yi 'chicken')
13) H /neng 'tree frog': ± cnd«g 'insect' (isfc znu 'spider')
14) ifc 'grain plant': mi 'rice' ($j c/ao 'rice plant')
15) # mi 'rice': ^ s/n 'food, to eat' (fe /* 'grain')
16) $Lyi 'clothe': ih 'cloth (long like towel)' ($£ qun 'skirt, hem')
17) & si 'silk thread': 'clothe' (ft ku 'trousers')
18) £ sud 'rope': & si 'silk thread' (jft S«6M 'silk band')
19) jfc su 'white, silk':^ si 'silk thread' (flkhuan 'relaxed')
20) |L ludn 'disorder': & si 'silk thread' (# c/wo 'indulgent')
21) ^ m/arc 'roof: T 'cliff (% zAdi 'house') WS
22) & /dw 'earthen vessel': X, wa 'unglazed pottery' (fe: gang 'a kind of earthenware')
23) JE min 'plate': % wa 'unglazed pottery' (|fc cing 'a kind of earthenware')
88 Gao enumerated 41 pairs, but those which do not appear in my tables have been excluded.
89 it zhi 'foot (below the ankle): J5L z" 'foot (between the knee and the ankle)'
38 24) I 'outer wall of a city': ± ra 'earth' (4ft cheng 'walled city') WS
25) 0 /uin 'field': i ra 'earth' (f /w 'to remain') WS
26) i ra 'earth': 4./& 'hill, ladder' (ifc gut 'to destroy')
27) 0 ri 'sun': ^ ywe 'moon' ($ #1 'period') WS
28) @ mu 'eye': ^jidn 'to see' ($, s/» 'to observe') WS
29) ^ /man 'roof: "X xue 'entrance of a side-cave residence' (% yu 'to lodge') WS
30) jfc 5i 'silk thread': # 'to bind' (jbfe c/zww 'pure') WS
31) Jlty cao 'grass': /MM 'tree' (5Ji /iuw 'pungent vegetables') WS
32) 77 dao 'knife': # ren 'blade' (Ig zhdo 'to instruct') WS
33) X you 'to hold in hand': je /?u 'to beat' (fifing 'respect') WS
34) A mil 'tree': «e 'grain plant' (#. xm 'to rest') WS
(3) Mistaken substitution
In some cases, it seems that certain graphemes are so similar in graphic form that they were interchanged by confusion (He 1989, 208-210). Most of the mistakenly altered graphs, according to He, were proscribed by the Script Reform. Although he does not specify the function of the grapheme for this phenomenon, his examples seem to suggest that it occurs mostly with semantic elements. Examples are given in parentheses: the graph which was written with two different graphemes; and the material on which graphs with alternating graphemes in question appear.90
1) A ren 'man': ^ gong 'bow (fi ddi 'to substitute, generation'; HM)
2) g mil 'eye': 0 tidn 'field (# kdn 'to see'; ZS)
3) H ri 'sun': @ mil 'eye' ($ ming 'bright'; HM)
4) U bei 'cowrie': @ mil 'eye' (If shang 'reward'; ZS)
5) 0 ri 'sun': 0 tidn 'field' (# xl 'past'; ZS)
6) P kou 'mouth': 0 ri 'sun' (^ you 'help [from a god]'; Caihoupan |^#)
7) ib zhi 'foot, to stay': cao 'grass' (# ben 'to run'; Stone Drum "Tianche'V'Lingyu"
90 Some material names are abbreviated: ZS stands for Zhongshanguo 39 8) -t yi 'arrow with a string': \ ge 'dagger-axe' (-^ yi 'arrow with string'; CS) 9) P kou 'mouth': P jie 'kneeling man' (% gong 'palace'; seal in Guxiwen bian 6.19)91 10) P jie 'kneeling man': & yi 'settlement' (#P shdo 'high'; ZS) 11) ± nl 'earth': ££ ting 'to extend', «man standing on the earth» (ji cheng 'to manifest'; seal in Guxiwen bian 2.6) 12) i tu 'earth': JL li 'to sand' ($tpo 'slope'; seal in Guxiwen bian 13.6) We have examined in detail the orthographic variations observable in the individual graphs of the WS period. We have not yet formulated, however, a precise set of graphical transformations that can be used to determine the graphical modifications that led to the observable discrepancies between the Chu and Qin WS script. (He's examples tend to compare graphs from different regions without discernible system.) Such a formulation is properly a part of this thesis, and so will be pursued at in the course of Chapters 2, 3, and 4. The principal observation that should be drawn from the discussion above is that, irrespective of the considerable disorder apparent in the usage of WS graphs, the overall trend is one of convergence (He 1989, 220). 1. 3. 8. The Script Reform at the Qin Unification The Script Reform of the Qin has been in modern times acknowledged as a standardization of the existing scripts, and an elimination of variants, rather than as had been presented in the SW, the creation of a new script. The Qin Script Reform and the ambient climate for the unification of the script have traditionally been considered to have resulted in the almost complete elimination of all non-Qin old scripts previously current. We need to gain a clearer vision of the conditions of the old script during the Warring States period if the true object of this reform is to be unveiled. Although no first-hand evidence of the substance of the reform is extant, and the three manuals of Chinese orthography composed by the scholar-officials implementing the reform were quite early lost, close study clarifies, nonetheless, the nature and basic outlines of the Reform. 91 Almost all examples of the graphs He gave for the mouth element in this pair do not show the original mouth element as drawn in the OBI, but either a circle or rectangle of unclear import. 40 Gao Ming jlrj J$ (1987, 187-189) approached the subject systematically by comparing individually the Pre-Qin graphs with those used after the Reform. He proposed that the Reform was carried out along four general lines: (1) A single form was adopted for each simple graph from the available variants. (2) The position of a given element in a compound graph was fixed. (3) The SE in any given semanto-phonetic graph was fixed (Previously several kinds of SEs were interchangeably used for a given SP graph). (4) Consequentially, the number of strokes for each graph was standardized. The first three tendencies coincide with the features of graphical evolution examined in the previous section: the modification of simple graphs; the alteration of the relative position of elements within a given graph; and the interchangeability of semantic elements in SP graphs. Noel Barnard (1978) has presented the phonetic aspect of guwen as a major consideration during the reform. Barnard suggests that in the Script Reform "phonological considerations" proscribed many variants of the SP graphs. He surmises that the implementors of the Qin strove to standardize variants for a given SP graph against the PE which conformed most closely to Qin contemporary pronunciation. 1. 4. Formulation of the development of guwen adopted in this thesis The early development of Chinese graphs involves a number of intricate factors. Having examined previous studies on the subject, however, graphical development during the guwen phase can be summarized as follows. 1. Simple graphs, pictographic in origin, first came into existence as early as the Shang era. 2. Via the multiple usage of single graphs for homophonous or near-homophonous words and etymologically related words, multi-element graphs, the SP graphs, were formed by augmentation. 3. HY graphs were created by combining simple graphs functioning as SEs. 4. Since it is likely that the creators of Chinese graphs were many, it is likely that divergent usage of simple graphs for homophonous and near-homophonous words, and the subsequent divergent usage of augmented semantic determiners in the formation of SP graphs contributed to discrepancies in the graphical representation. 41 5. Established graphs were the subject of further graphical evolution that did not contribute to the creation of new graphs, through processes such as simplification, augmentation of other graphs to SP graphs and HY graphs, the replacement of graphemes, or misrecognition of graphical forms. As at creation, individual modifications introduced independently by many individuals contributed to divergence during ,this evolution. 6. The convergence noted above was a counter-tendency that kept the WS writing system unified despite the introduction of discrepancies, and so can be considered distinct from the divergence. Since this thesis studies observable discrepancies in Chu and Qin WS script, we will not be treating this convergence. We will adopt this formulation of graphical development as the foundation for all of the analyses to be presented. 42 Chapter 2 Material and Methodology 2. 0. Introduction This chapter describes the design of investigation followed in this thesis, and provides information about the graphs used for data. The investigation can be divided into two parts: (1) A table has been created to show the graphical differences in the structures of the Chu and the Qin graphs for individual graphs, and to demonstrate the degree of graphical divergence which exists, as a whole, between the two regional forms. This table is presented in Appendix I. (2) The graphs with structural discrepancies are collected and discussed. The structure and function of the table and the graphs appearing in it will be presented in the first part of this chapter. The second part will describe the procedure followed for the investigation of structural discrepancies. 2.1. The table 2.1.1 The arrangement of the horizontal line of the table The graphs which are arranged horizontally can be divided into four large groups: (A) the common antecedent graphs used before the WS period, (B) the Chu and Qin graphs used before the WS period, (C) the Chu and Qin WS graphs, and (D) the modern transcribed characters. Column 3 to 11 contain two consecutive rows properly belonging to each entry: the first containing the Chu forms, the second the Qin. A. The antecedents 1. The 1st column from the left is assigned to the oracle-bone graphs. Specimens are mostly collected from the compilation of OBI graphs, Jiaguwen bian ^ # % $§•' 2. The 2nd column is filled with the WZ bronze script. Specimens have been collected from 1 Several have been taken from Jiaguwen heji f JtX&M, Xiaotun dierben: Yinxu wenzi: jiabian /Js fH, Xiaotun nandijiagu A^tiiYinqicuibian 4fc&#fl§, Yinxushuqi qianbian J£ M. • % It M, Yinxu shuqi xubian • M if H. 43 the compilation of bronze-vessel graphs, Jinwen bian ^r^cH, and other compilations of rubbings and hand-copies of the inscriptions. The dating of the bronze artifacts that carry data graphs has been adopted mostly from Shirakawa Shizuka £/ Jl| Kinbun tsashaku (1964-1980), a reliable work for the study of bronze inscriptions. Yin-Zhou jinwen jicheng fflLM&XUkfa, a compilation .of bronze vessel inscriptions, provided the dating of several bronze inscriptions referred to in this thesis that are not included in Kinbun tsushaku. A list of bronze artifacts is found in Appendix III. B. The Chu and Qin graphs from the WZ and SA periods 3. The bronze-vessel graphs of the Western Zhou period appear in the 3rd column, the Chu graphs in the 1 st of the two successive rows, and the Qin in the 2nd row. 4. The bronze-vessel graphs of the Spring and Autumn period appear in the 4th column in the same manner. The Chu bronze-vessel graphs used in the table have been collected from bronze vessels, most of which have been excavated in China during recent times, under reliable archaeological supervision. Also included are bronze vessels of unknown provenance that have been acknowledged by specialists as from the Chu state.2 The bronze vessels from the WZ to WS period are categorized according to the provinces in which they were found, when known, and listed in chronological order. Only a few extant bronze vessels and bells, and including one dagger-axe, were cast in Qin before the WS period. The Qin ceased to cast bronze vessels or bells of a ritualistic nature during the WS period, producing instead mostly weapons and measures. The Qin bronze graphs used in the table include both those found by modern archaeology and those others concluded as genuinely Qin.3 They are listed in chronological order. The list of both Chu and Qin bronze vessels produced during the WZ, SA, and WS period is found in Appendix IV and V. 2 In addition to the studies of GuoMoruo ([1932-1935] 1958) and Shirakawa Shizuka (1964-1980) to catalogue the Chu bronze vessels bearing inscriptions, LiuBinhui (1984, 1986, 1992, 1995) and Li Ling (1986, 1987, 1992), have given a systematic study on the identification, dating, and transcriptions of inscriptions, particularly for the more recently excavated bronze vessels. 3 Qintongqi mingwen biannian jishi ^-^W%M (1990), edited by Wang Hui gives necessary information about most of the Qin bronze artifacts which carry inscriptions. 44 C. The WS graphs The Chu and Qin graphs of this period appear in the 5th to 11th columns as described below: the bronze graphs in the 5th, and graphs written on other materials, including bamboo slips, stones, wooden tablets, and silk cloth, from the 6th to the 11th. Much material carrying WS graphs has been excavated or transmitted to the present by uncertain lineage, including seals, pottery vessels, and coins. Graphs found in seals have been excluded because of their generally uncertain provenance and their individually stylized epigraphy.4 Graphs found on coins, which indicate only a few place names, have been excluded as well. a) The Chu graphs 5. The bronze-vessel graphs of the WS period appear in the 5th column. 6. The Zenghou Yi Hjfc Z>, bamboo-slip graphs found in Sui County (pf Hubei Province (j#Mk#), appear in the 6th column. This set of material, from the early WS period, is a list of funerary objects on 240 pieces of bamboo slips with 6,696 graphs.5 The occupant of the tomb in which these bamboo slips were found was a sovereign of the small state of Zeng H .6 7. The Xinyang it |# bamboo-slip graphs found in Xinyang County (-fg Henan Province (^T^J fill the 7th column.7 They date to the early WS period. The inscriptions include a list of funerary objects (29 bamboo slips; about 894 graphs) and the writings of a Confucian scholar (121 bamboo slips; 470 graphs). The burial has been surmised to be that of a person belonging to iheshidafu i J^£L 'literati and officialdom' of the Chu state. 8. The Yangtianhu #7\iJ$ bamboo-slip graphs found at Changsha (-^nty), Hunan Province 4 A number of seal graphs are treated as WS graphs which display the variant orthographic features mentioned by He (1989). There conspicuously deviate from the standard form in the degree of simplification or fusion. Such deviations can be ascribed to the limited space available for writing, and to artistic considerations, for the seals were official or personal emblems. The graphs on pottery, most of which were produced by stamping with seals, therefore, have also been excluded. 5 Hubei sheng Bowuguan (1989, v. 1. 461-464,452-453). According to this book, the tomb from which these bamboo slips were found may have been built between 433- 400 BC. 6 This small state has not appeared by the name Zeng H in any received texts. Its identification has not been verified. 7 Henan sheng Wenwu Yanjiusuo (1986,139-140, 120-122). 45 (M18%), fiUthe 8th column. They date to the middle of the WS period.8 This set contains a list of funerary objects written on 43 pieces of bamboo slips and includes about 317 graphs. The identity of the occupant of the tomb is unknown. 9. Two sets of the Wangshan J£ di bamboo slips excavated from Jiangling County (j£f^l£), Hubei Province fill the 9th column: records of divination (207 bamboo slips; 1093 graphs) from "Grave No. 1", and a list of funerary objects (66 bamboo slips; 925 graphs) from "Grave No. 2". They date to the middle of the WS period.9 The occupant of "Grave No. 1" has been tentatively identified as the great-grandson of King Dao (reigned 401-381 BC).10 10. The 10th column is for graphs on silk cloth allegedly found at Changsha Hunan Province (}$•$}#). They date to the middle of the WS period.11 The inscriptions, written on a silk cloth with about 900 graphs, consist of three parts, dealing with mythology, the relationship between disasters and human actions, and various calendric taboos. 11. The 11th column is filled with Baoshan j?L\h bamboo-slip graphs.12 They date to the middle of the WS period.13 Information about this material will be presented below (Section 2. 2) in more detail. b) The Qin graphs 5. The bronze-vessel graphs of the Waning States period appear in the 5th column. 6. The graphs incised on stones, shiguwen %$X%, fill the 6th column. They date to the WS period.14 The inscriptions are in verse and describe noblemen hunting. There are about 431 graphs. The stones on which the inscriptions were incised have been lost. The specimens 8 ChuWenhuaYanjiuhui (1984, 20-21). 9 Hubei sheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo (1996, 208-210). 10 Hubei sheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo, and Beijing Daxue Zhongwenxi (1995, 136). 11 ChuWenhuaYanjiuhui (1984, 13-15). 12 The information about this main material, the Baoshan bamboo slips, will be given in § 2.2. 13 Hubei sheng Jingsha Tielu Kaogudui. (1991, Vol. 1, 330-333). 14 The dating of shiguwen 'fi^nX has been debated; it ranges from the early SA period to the WS period. This material is placed in the first column of the WS graphs (Mattos (1988, 367-369), and He (1989, 159)). 46 were collected from rubbings.15 8. The wooden-slip graphs found in the tomb in Qingchuan County (# Jl| |£), Sichuan Province (0 )\\ %), fill the 8th column. They date to the middle of the WS period.16 Six items from orders ranging from amendments to land laws to public construction projects are recorded using 146 graphs. 10. The stone-inscription graphs, ihezuChuwen Mft^, fill the 10th column. They date to the middle of the WS period.17 The same statement of imprecation upon the Chu king was addressed to three different deities.18 The original three sets of stone inscriptions, about 320 graphs in all, have been lost, but an ancient rubbing has survived.19 11. The Shuihudi Hifeitk bamboo-slip graphs found in Yunmeng County (9 PM), Hubei Province (Mit^), fill the 11th column. They date to the late WS period. The inscriptions include legal documents; a catechism about laws; guides for judicial officers; an administrative document issued by the governor (junshou IP ^) of the Southern Commandery; a chronicle of major events (not used); and a calendar noting diurnal prohibitive and auspicious omens.20 The number of bamboo slips amounts to 1155 pieces. The occupant of the tomb from which these bamboo slips were found was a Qin local official named Xi C. The modern transcription 12. The 12th column presents the Baoshan graphs with their constituents transcribed to modern form. This column, therefore, indexes the table, and we shall call its graphs the entry 15 MaXulun(1935). 16 Sichuan Bowuguan, and Qingchuan Wenhuaguan (1982, 11). 17 The dating has been debated, and ranges from 312 BC to sometime during the Chu King Qinxiang If (298-263 BC). The date 312 BC, based on Chen Zhaorong's review (1993, 574-576), seems to be acceptable. 18 Of these three, one (yatuo$.l$fc) has been excluded as a likely fake Guo Moruo Zhuzuo Bianji Chuban Weiyuanhui 1982,284-285). 19 Transmitted rubbing is not the original but the hand-copy of rubbing (Guo Moruo Zhuzuo Bianji Chuban Weiyuanhui 1982, 280-284; 315-320; 327-332). 20 Shuihudi Qinmu Zhujian Zhengli Xiaozu (1990,2). The occupant of the tomb Xi $• lived between 262-217 BC. The chronicle ends with the events of 217 BC. Material from the chronicle has been excluded, for it is certain that the text was written after the Qin unification (221BC). I have considered the other inscriptions as having been written during the last years of the WS period. 47 graphs. 13. The 13th column supplements the table with supposed modern equivalents for each Baoshan graph. 2.1.2. The vertical order of the table The graphs, Baoshan bamboo-slip scripts as entry graphs, have been vertically arranged by their number of strokes, beginning with the graph — yi 'one', placed in the 11th column. If no graph from other materials could be found for the entry graph, the cell of that entry was left blank. 2.1. 3. The design of the table The first row of each entry (3 to 11) allows the overall homogeneity of Chu script to be examined. The two consecutive rows for each entry allow the differences between the Chu and Qin forms for each entry graph to be observed. The table illustrates the generic relationship between the ancestor forms (the oracle-bone and the WZ bronze graphs) and their Chu and Qin descendants, and the evolutionary divergence exhibited by the two regional WS traditions. 2. 2. The main material: the Baoshan bamboo-slip graphs The Baoshan tomb lay close to the center of the Chu state. Furthermore, the Baoshan bamboo slips attest the greatest number of distinct graphs. The Baoshan graphs have therefore been selected as the pivotal or indexing form in the tables. The Baoshan bamboo slips were found in the cemetery called Baoshan Chumu Q Jj ft S, located on a hill 3 km south of Shilipu Township (+ Jl M&) in Jingmen City (M f"J ip ), Hubei Province (Mit$), 15 km north of the site of Jinancheng $£$3 4$, the Chu capital in the WS period.21 278 slips in all, bearing 12,472 graphs, were excavated from "Grave No.2", the largest of the seven Chu graves. The burial date has been determined as the twenty fifth 21 Hubei Sheng Jingsha Tielu Kaogudui. (1991, Vol. 1, 1-5,265). 48 day of the six month of the Chu calendar in 316 BC.22 It falls in the Warring States period (5th century BC - 221 BC). The bamboo slip inscriptions include records of census registration and law suits, records of divination, and a list of funerary objects. 2.3. Procedures for analysis of structural discrepancies 2.3.1. Transcription into modern forms and treatment of variants 12,472 Baoshan bamboo-slip graphs into different graphs inscribed on the Baoshan bamboo slips used in this thesis. Without access to the original bamboo slips, three references (Baoshan Chumu Jj ft Is, Baoshan Chujian Wenzi bian iiL Jj ftfflX^H, and Chuxijianbo wenzi bian ft^ $f r%%%-t§i) are useful for deciphering the various Baoshan graphs and sorting them by the corresponding modern forms. These three compilations are, however, based on subtly but essentially different principles. Having been published at different times and by different groups of scholars, these three works occasionally vary in their modern transcription for individual Baoshan graphs. 1. Baoshan Chumu iiLilj ftS presents photographs of all bamboo slips and several specimens for each graph, and transcriptions of all bamboo documents.23 2. Baoshan Chujian wenzi bian % ill ftfif jt groups graphs in each entry by their stylistic and structural similarities and differences. Each grouping thus formed is illustrated by a single representative graph copied by hand from the slips.24 3. Chuxijianbo wenzi bian ft %. % % % ^ $S details all graphs in handcopy with the 22 The Chu state referred a given year by the principal event of the previous year. Seven years are individually mentioned in the Baoshan bamboo slip inscriptions, in two groups of three (earlier) and four (later) successive years. The first one of the former three has been recognized as 322 BC because the event in its statement coincides with the one in 323 BC in Chushijia fti£|t in Shiji j£. IE. The occupant of the tomb Shao Tuo gp j& was buried while Shao Gu (M &) was Dasima (A fl Mi I an official title), between 323 and 298 BC. During this period, the order of the month and day of the latter four years only fit the four years from 319 to 316 BC. Thus the funeral took place in 316 BC and these bamboo slips were produced between 322 and 316 BC. (Hubei Sheng Jingsha Tielu Kaogudui 1991, Vol. 1. 332-333.) ; 23 This was published in 1991. The transcriptions and translations were done by Liu Binhui #J ##, Peng Hao % Hu Yali $ JJ£ JI, Liu Zuxin $J and Li Xueqin # $ $/. 24 This compilation was published in 1996 by Zhang Shouzhong 5ft «f • 49 phrases in which they appear" On occasion, graphs with different constituents appear under a single entry. For example, under the graph $| yuan 'to change the field and cultivate it' the graphs 1S, and || are included because the latter two, which have no modern equivalent characters, are interchangeably used with^aw $1 as personal names (Teng 1995, 118). The author seems to consider them as variants of the graphyudn jUL. We now describe the procedure of transcription followed in this thesis. All graphs were compared with the transcriptions given in the Baoshan Chumu. Graphs rendered illegible by the poor condition of the bamboo slips or, more often, by unclear photography were excluded. The modern transcription for each graph was independently arrived at using Noel Barnard's two-step transcription method (1973, 1996), with the result checked against each of the three bamboo-slip references. Barnard's first step is to transcribe archaic graphs into modem characters by replacing their constituents with their modern counterparts. The second step is the replacement of the "modernized" graph with an actual existing modern graph. This two-step transcription principle has been adopted for two reasons: 1) the first step emphasizes any variation in the usage of constituents (structural discrepancy) between the WS Chu and Qin forms; 2) the second step allows Chu and Qin counterpart graphs to be properly paired even if they are composed of different constituents. On occasion, the first, "modernizing" step of the transcription presents difficulties because we cannot find a modern equivalent for a Baoshan element. In these cases, it was attempted to find a modern equivalent for the graph as a whole, rather than on an element by element basis, (e.g., zhl # 'pronoun substitute for the head of a relative clause') The graphemically "modernized" graphs (step 1) have been placed in column 12; the true modern equivalents, in column 13. There are several cases of Baoshan graphs with different constituent structure having been transcribed into a single modern equivalent, for example, the graph vt., ^ and % are all 25 This concordance is published in 1995. The transcription and classification of the graphs were done by Teng Rensheng $£i ^. 50 transcribed into # bit 'to walk' (Teng 1995, 125).26 Such graphs were often distinct in their usage: in the example above, the first graph was used as a verb, the latter two graphs for personal names. In this thesis, graphs with grammatical or contextual differences in usage have been given separate entries. Graphs showing the following features have been treated as variations of a single graph, and have been placed together in Column 12: 1) omission or addition of one or two strokes without loss of graphemic identity 2) omission or addition of one or two strokes resulting in the change of graphemic identity, but the graphs either are used in the same context or represent the same word. 3) omission of a grapheme, but graphs either are used in the same context, or represent the same word. The variants of a graph sharing a column have been ordered by decreasing frequency of usage. 2. 3. 2. Principles for analysis of the structural discrepancies In this thesis, the principal materials for an analysis of structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin WS graphs have been the Baoshan and Shuihudi bamboo slips, respectively. Two fundamental conditions have been adopted. 1. When there are structural differences between the Baoshan graphs and their modern equivalents, but the Qin form is wanting, the SW form has been adopted as a replacement of the Qin when available.27 2. When the Baoshan graph in question has multiple variant graphs, the criteria by which the representing Chu graph has been selected to be compared with the Qin form are as follows: 1) the one used most often; 2) if both are used with the same frequency, the one which can be seen in other Chu 26 The Hanjian yf 1fif, a concordance of guwen form (ca. 960 AD), gives the graph which is the same as^.. 27 Although the SW is a transmitted text with accumulated errors, the forms given in the SW, xiaozhuan /JN $E, are the closest known counterparts of the Qin graphs. 51 materials. The structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin graphs have been grouped as follows: (1) different constituents used at formation; (2) antecedent forms graphemically modified, in the Chu or Qin variant, or both; (3) form progressively and unintentionally modified. The procedure of placing graphical discrepancies between the Chu and Qin forms of the graph into these three groups is as follows: 1. When the antecedent form is wanting: 1) the function of each grapheme has been analyzed; 2) Chu and Qin forms showing different PEs with the same SE are treated as divergent jiajie (SP formation step 1) augmented with the same semantic determiners (SP formation step 2). 3) Chu and Qin forms showing the same PE with the different SEs are treated as the same jiajie (SP formation step 1) augmented with divergent semantic determiners (SP formation step 2). 2. When the Shang or the Western Zhou antecedent form is extant: 1) the Chu or Qin form is identified as divergent from antecedent (or both forms diverge); 2) the divergent grapheme and its function (SE or PE) is identified. Detailed classifications of structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin simple graphs and multi-element graphs will be presented in Chapter 3 and 4 respectively. Simple and multi-element graphs will be properly distinguished in Chapter 3. The procedure for identifying the functions of a given grapheme is as follows. The potential that each component grapheme of a given graph serves as phonetic element is evaluated. The readings of the graphs are identified using the Old Chinese phonological system established by Li Fang-kuei ([1971] 1980). We do not yet fully understand 52 phonological relationship between the graph and its PE. In this thesis, the identification of PEs is based on two fundamental principles: (1) both the graph and its PE have the same or, at least, a homorganic initial consonant, and (2) both the graph and its PE belong to one of the following rhyme groups:28 1) both the graph and its PE belong to the same rhyme group. 2) both the graph and its PE belong to certain different rhyme groups that share the same main vowel and are called the yin-, yang-, or rw-type groups, distinguished by their distinct finals. 3) Both the graph and its PE belong to certain pairs of rhyme groups sufficiently close in sound to be used as belonging to the same group. 1. zhi and vow # rhyme group 2. zhi and jue % rhyme group 3. zhong 4" and qin 1^ rhyme group 4. wei # and zhi Jjg rhyme group 5. ge Hfc and yuan yt rhyme group 6. ge and jia H: rhyme group 7. yang |# and dong rhyme group 8. hou M and vw fa rhyme group 2. Any constituent grapheme not identified as a PE has been taken as an SE when semantically related to the word the composed graph represents, and as an element of unknown function otherwise. We are now in a position to distinguish properly between simple and multi-element graphs, and to formulate a clear classification of the types of formation and modification that lead to WS divergence between the Chu and Qin simple and multi-element graphs. 2 The basic phonological relationship between the graph and its PE was stipulated by Karlgren as follows: (1) both PE and the graph it composes belong to the same rhyme group, and (2) initial and final consonants of both PE and the graph it composes are articulated at the same place, i.e., homorganic (Karlgren [1940] 1957,456-459; [1954] 1963, 271; 1968, 10-17). It must be noted that these two conditions are rough initial outlines. 53 Chapter 3 Simple Graphs 3. 0. Introduction This Chapter will present tables juxtaposing the Chu and Qin simple graphs, and describe the nature of discrepancies between the Chu and Qin forms. The following topics will be covered. 1) Definition of simple and multi-element graphs 2) Types of discrepancies between the Chu and Qin graphs 3) Tables of simple graphs 4) Commentaries on the Chu and Qin simple graphs 3.1. Definition of simple and multi-element graphs The basic definition is that a simple graph is one composed of a single element: for example, X. you «hand, to hold in hand», zi 'child', yue 'moon' and @ mu 'eye', all of which are originally a depiction of a single concrete object. When classifying graphs into simple (single-element), and multi-element graphs, however, we encounter a certain difficulty in drawing a clear line between the two types. For example, the graph jian 'to look', which was originally composed of elements denoting an eye and a man, can be classified either as a multi-element graph, if the two elements are counted separately, or as a simple graph, if the interpretation is that of a man whose eye is emphasized.29 In this thesis, the single criterion used to categorize graphs as single or multi-element is the number of graphemes contained in a graph. Graphemes will be taken as either: (1) a minimum unit that originally depicted a single object and that can stand alone as a graph, such as zi 'child', or 29 The clear definition of a simple graph and actual classification of all graphs into these two categories seem not to have been attempted. Barnard (1978, 187) classified "archaic graphs" into four groups, i.e., simple single-element, complex single-element, simple multi-element and complex multi-element graphs, but does not give a definition for each group, the example jian JL is classified as a complex single-element graph. As has been suggested by Dr. Takashima (personal communication), the graphical minimal contrast, when found in OBI or the WZ bronze inscriptions, can be a useful criterion for determining the classification of individual graphs. The phonetic function of the constituent, if known, can also be taken as factor in determining the classification of individual graphs (This has been suggested by Dr. Pulleyblank). 54 (2) a minimum unit that originally depicted a single object but that cannot stand alone as a graph, such as the upper element of & gong 'together'.30 (Miriimum units are those that can only be further decomposed into their individual strokes.) When the earliest (oracle-bone graphs) form of the graph in question is wanting, or is of no help in determining the original form of the graph, classical or modern elucidations have been sought to determine the original form, and thus to classify the graph as either simple or multi-element by the number of its graphemes. For example, the oracle-bone counterpart of the graph it bhi 'north' depicts two men standing back to back. The graph bei it has therefore been classified as a multi-element graph. The graph % zhao 'omen, on the other hand, whose oracle-bone counterpart is not attested, has been classified as a simple graph given its elucidation in the SW and the Shinjigen as depiction a crack in a heated turtle shell. With the objects represented thus established, the final categorization of graphs by this criterion has been based on their WS forms. The formal definitions of simple and multi-element graphs adopted in this thesis follow. Simple graphs are: (1) graphs composed of a single grapheme depicting a single object, such as yue and zhao (2) graphs composed of a single grapheme and a set of strokes that in isolation would carry no meaning, such as # dan 'cinnabar'. Multi-element graphs are; (1) graphs composed of multiple graphemes that are also themselves independent graphs, such as jian ^ and %L qu 'to take'; (2) graphs composed of two graphemes, one of which, though not independent, was originally used to depict an object, such as 4* in ^ (^ shi 'to serve'). (3) graphs originally composed of a single grapheme that by the WS period had become multi-element by augmentation with another graph or by modification of the original form, such as zhu 'to run' and || long 'dragon'. 30 As can be seen in the oracle-bone graph p\, the upper element of & gong is elucidated as an arbitrary object carried with a pair of hands. 55 3.2. Types of discrepancies between the Chu and Qin simple graphs This section presents the types of discrepancies that can be seen in the Chu and Qin forms of the simple graphs. Recall from the first chapter that Qiu has considered simple graphs subject to the following evolutionary processes: linearization of pictorial forms, streamlining of curved lines and connection of lines previously disjoint, segmentation of graphs into several strokes, and omission and addition of strokes. These processes which produced no structural discrepancies between the two regional forms of a graph, but minor variations only, are classified into three categories, and presented as "non-structural modifications of one graph". a) Omission of strokes b) Addition of strokes c) Executional differences (first three considered together) Structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin simple graphs which can be found in a simple graph of type (2) as defined above will be presented as "structural modification of one graph". With a few exceptions, either a Shang oracle-bone or a WZ graph can be found corresponding to each of the WS graphs treated in this thesis. Comparison of the Chu and Qin WS forms to the corresponding antecedent graphs can often show the earliest known period at which the discrepancies that came about as a result of the processes listed above arose. The genesis of a discrepancy may lie at any moment between the graph's creation (pre-Shang or later), and the end of the WS period: for example, during the period of the OBI. We can find such cases in which the oracle-bone graphs were written in variations which were used in the Chu and Qin scribes, respectively. We will put simple graphs of this type into their own category, "discrepancies inherited from the Shang period by the adoption of different oracle-bone variants for the corresponding WS graphs". There is one case in which an almost completely different form replaced the Qin WS graphs and partially the Chu WS graphs (0 si 'four'). This graph will be presented as an "unclassifiable case". 56 3.3. Tables of simple graphs Simple graphs are grouped into the categories defined in the previous section and presented in separate tables by category. The full list of simple-element tables is as follows: 3. 3. 1. Simple graphs with non-structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin forms 3.3. 1. 1. Omission of strokes 3. 3. 1.2. Addition of strokes 3. 3. 1.3. Executional discrepancies 3.3.2. Simple graphs with structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin forms 3.3.3. Unclassifiable discrepancies 3.3.4. Adoption of different oracle-bone variants 3.3.5. Simple graphs exhibiting no divergence 3.3.6. Simple graphs which do not have the Qin counterpart graphs 57 3. 3. Tables (Simple graphs ) Chu Yangtianhu bamboo slip Qin fcffi Qin wooden tablet Oracle-bone H Jj Wangshan bamboo slip WZ bronze ^ ^ Silk manuscript WZ bronze tlftx: ZuChuwen stone tablet &&X S A bronze /&di/rtff Baoshan bamboo slip ®&x WS bronze H^itfcftfl Shuihudi bamboo slip Zenghou Yi bamboo slip 2g, -ft <(g ^ Modern grapheme Stone drums Modern character Xinyang bamboo slip 3.3.1. Simple graphs with non-structural discrepancies 3.3.1.1. Omission of strokes ft fid/ ft* ffl 3.3.1.2. Addition of strokes ft 'S.iJj'ftlBf «« *« # A* lift* *# 1 — ± — ± 1 ~L~~F 2 T T TT — T — T F X >!/ 3 dj UJ 4 k \ KHz 5 M M n A 58 ft *** ## 'Siilj'tt'ffi # te** ** ** 7^ 6 If 7T 7 ft 8 f 9 ? Ml * 1 10 fl 11 f £ f 12 T< in 13 Jx 14 It * r$ 15 t* 16 tt 17 •=><. 18 *** 19 * 20 s §§6 9 59 ft aft # 4f 21 % m 22 ID) ffij ft 23 (ii HI 24 25 ft $ & 26 $ 27 f fit t# * 111 28 3.3.1.3. Executional discrepancies aft ft ¥t* # W4r* Etfc l + ¥ ? ? 2 0 3 W # CL 4 Ban * 5 ? 60 ft W&* #&* $&* aft aft ¥t* #t # &* W&* #&* 5ft* fflfe*maim® & 6 7 8 If •f * 9 XX ft 10 ?* Mi 11 *** Mi ft s 3.3.2. Simple graphs with structural discrepancies ft ¥t* W&* *&* $&* ft* aft aft # &* W&* *&* «&* lift* % l * 3.3.3. Unclassifiable discrepancies WJH W&* #&* ft ¥*** ft* aft aft &* W&* *&* $&* lift* # ** 03? l — •EE (ED es CTP 3.3.4. Adoption of different oracle-bone variants ft W&* *&* SLih ft* '&iJj'W"(Bf aft ¥t* aft # &* W&* *&* 5ft* lift* ** l tt +T ±+ t + t cb 2 tt C3 t 61 ft &&X & ill ftf?af t aft # &&X tf* few 3 t f § 3.3.5. Simple graphs exhibiting no divergence ft W4r* $&x aft aft # &&X lift* at* — — '— — — — —- l — — — — — — 1 2 Lz LL ) 1 A A ;L XXA 3 n A A /\ + + > f 4 11 -H + 1 t 4 + + 1 1 5 1 X >> 6 i 77 *\ 7 7? A — — — 8 = = — — — = = 9 + 4- tt -4- -b 10 h %J 11 T TT — — — -— 12 — = — •— — —- 62 ft ft* W&* $&* ft* -allien »Sft aft # &* W&* 5 Si* lift* «• ** 11 =fc ID i i ± ± -In +± 1 A f f 1 < 7 ID T TT T =5= 1 A 10 * ft i 1 t 1 7 1 / 1 fi lo ft t Lb 1 Q 1 y it •fc li Oft JL ZU nil ± i 01 —1 5 ZI c e a ¥ zz n ? f f f f 03 ZD c 11 ? EJ OzL Z4 T ±^ til i I II I 0< 1 ih ZD 'l' OA zo 07 t z / 3-. it 63 ft f *z. # «* *# ** 28 etsi y H y y y MM 29 HN M 30 t >K * X % X 31 % jit I 1 © <3> e 32 sO 0 0 JO 9 33 K 34 * 35 4 '4 36 i 37 t A" 38 w 39 St 1 40 f > f 41 * # 42 f ¥ 3 64 ft ft* aft aft ¥f * lift* ** # &* *** } jt 43 m f X 21 44 n" X X X St 45 ft /\ — 46 I II 31 47 ill t 48 * I X. X 49 ±i i 6 50 6 e e ± 51 1 1 52. IT < # 53 t 54 © © ffl $ 55 E 56 % 57 65 ft ¥#* Sir* aft aft # &* life* 58 f ¥ YIP 59 8 ^ s 60 n i n i 61 A t 62 t 63 tt o 64 €, 23 it 65 41 * *. 66 67 68 f H 69 * X 70 IF •w 71 I f 1. fi 72 if * w /TV «T\ f 66 ft Wir* *ir* l^ir* aft aft ft* # ir* Wir* *ir* $ir* 5 ft* ti** «* ** T ? 73 ? 5 ? § 74 m f f S 75 I ? gtgtftf- 11 1 1 1 1 J 76 ^# f¥ $ X 18 3.3.6. Simple graphs which do not have the Qin counterpart graphs ft Wir* *ir* $ir* -aih-itnf aft Tt* aft Wir* *ir* ®,ir* ti** tf*** l L? $ 2 u u 3 t 4 tl * t 5 ft Pi /v. 6 T 7 8 -tr 9 i * 10 11 <& 12 0 13 Iii * St S 14 18 t S t * * 67 3.4. Commentaries on discrepancies between the Chu and Qin simple graphs The tables presented in the previous section have allowed us to discern the differences between the Chu and the Qin simple graphs by inspection. Table 3.3.1.1, 3.3.1.2, 3.3.4 and 3.3.5 show that most of the WS simple graphs manifest themselves nearly identically in the Chu and Qin scripts, although occasional stylistic differences can be noted. Although the lack of Qin counterparts in Table 3.3.6 prevents strong conclusions from being drawn, the near-identity between the Chu graphs and their oracle-bone counterparts suggests the possibility that those used in the Chu area did not diverge from those used in the Qin. Discrepancies caused by progressive and independent executional deformation of the earlier graph (Table 3.3.1.3) may result in the usage of totally different forms in the two regions after a sufficiently long passage of time, but the Chu and Qin graphs in Table 3.3.1.3 appear to have diverged only to a small extent. In this general tendency of identity between the Chu and Qin forms, the Baoshan graph fc WO 'end' (Table 3.3.2.1) appears as a rare case of substantial difference between the Chu and Qin simple graphs. This single example, however, is not sufficient to show a clear discrepancy between the Chu and Qin forms of simple graphs. Although He does not include these two graphs among his examples of pairs of graphemes interchanged mistakenly, it is possible that their similarity in form and meaning erroneously caused their interchange. The Wangshan graph in question, another Chu WS graph, did not use the grapheme he 'grain plant' used in Baoshan, but the same grapheme (fc mu 'tree') as the one used in the Qin form. The Baoshan graph mo fc, therefore, is an uncertain case of the use of different simple graphs by the Chu and Qin. The graph EJ si 'four' is an example of drastic change in form, or indeed almost replacement with a new form. The earlier form seen in the OBI was used, as can be seen, until the SA period by both Chu and Qin. The new form appears to have replaced the older form in the Qin, while undergoing transition in the Chu area. There are three cases in which both the Chu and Qin forms can be found in the oracle-bone graphs. Although the features involving discrepancies are trivial consisting of 68 several strokes, it reminds us of the phenomenon of graphical variations in OBI. As already noted in the first chapter, simple graphs created as pictorial depictions of actual objects were the first to have come into existence. Because it is likely that the associations among the simple graphs and the words they represent (i. e., sound and meaning) had already become by the WS period firmly established by a long history of continuous usage, it is probable that most simple graphs did not require structural revision better to reflect both meaning and sound. It is for this reason that simple graphs used in the two different regions naturally manifest little divergence from their common ancestors and so from one another. 69 Chapter 4 Multi-element Graphs 4. 0. Introduction This chapter will discuss the Chu and Qin multi-element graphs. This chapter is divided into the following three parts: 1) Typology of discrepancies between the Chu and Qin multi-element graphs 2) Presentation and commentary on the structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin multi-element graphs 3) Summary of discrepancies exhibited 4.1. Types of discrepancies between the Chu and Qin multi-element graphs We will first examine structural discrepancies that may have arisen in the process of formation of the multi-element graphs. Secondly, we will discuss the modifications the multi-element graphs had gone through after they were formed, and these separately for the SP and the HY categories. Cases in each category are presented, being divided into the following groups. (O) Cases in which both the Chu and Qin graphs underwent the same types of process in different ways. (A) Cases in which the Chu graphs underwent modification. (B) Cases in which the Qin graphs underwent modification. As a third group we will present the discrepancies caused by unintentional evolutionary changes and misrecognition of the graphical forms. Various discrepancies not falling into any of the types stipulated above will be presented in the fourth group. Lastly, cases in which both the Chu and Qin forms can be found in the Shang or Western Zhou graphs will be presented. In the discussion, graphs and their phonetic elements (graphs) are followed by their modern pronunciation, their OC pronunciation, and the meanings of the words represented; semantic elements (graphs) are followed by their modern pronunciation, the OC rhyme group they belonged to, which is sufficient for showing their non-phonetic function, and the meanings 70 of the words they represented. The modern pronunciation is not given if it is not known because the graph in question is not used today, or in cases where the grapheme is not itself an independent graph and does not have modern pronunciation. In the case of HY graphs, the way the graphemes denote the meaning of the word a given graph represents is explained. When the meaning of the word a given graph represents is unattested or uncertain, the source of the elucidation is provided. When the antecedent graph is not presented in the discussion, its form is shown in parentheses after the explanation of graphical composition. OBG stands for an oracle-bone graph, and WZG stands for a Western Zhou bronze graph. At the end of this chapter are attached tables of the graphs discussed, in the order presented. The discussion of structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin multi-element graphs will be presented in the following order. 4. 2. Structural discrepancies present during the process of formation 4. 2. 1. SP graphs 4. 2. 1. 1. Divergent usage of jiajie graphs 4. 2. 1. 2. Divergent usage of semantic determiners 4. 2. 1.3. Chu augmentation of jiajie with semantic determiners 4. 2. 1. 4. Different graphemes used at SP formation 4. 2. 1.5. Different usage of semantographs 4. 2. 1. 6. Different usage of semantographs and PEs 4.2.2. HY graphs 4. 2. 2. 1. Different graphemes used at HY formation 4. 3. Divergent structural modifications of SP graphs 4. 3. 1. Omission of SP grapheme 4. 3. 2. Replacement of SP grapheme 4. 3. 3. Augmentation of SP with extra PE 4. 3. 4. Augmentation of SP with extra SE 4. 3. 5. Augmentation of SP with grapheme of unknown function 4. 4. Divergent structural modifications of HY graphs 71 4. 4. 1. Omission of HY grapheme 4. 4. 2. Replacement of HY grapheme 4. 4. 3. Transformation of HY to SP 4. 4. 4. Augmentation of HY with extra SE 4. 4. 5. Augmentation of HY with grapheme of unknown function 4. 5. Divergent evolutionary changes from and misrecognition of earlier forms 4. 6. Unclassifiable structural discrepancies 4. 6. 1. Cases in which ancestors cannot be determined 4. 6. 2. Cases of unclassifiable graphs and modifications 4. 7. Discrepancies existed in the earlier times 4. 2. Structural discrepancies present during the process of formation 4.2.1. SP graphs In this section, we will present the cases in which structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin occurred during the two-step SP graph formation process. 4.2.1.1. Divergent usage of jiajie graphs The following 7 cases, for which no Shang and or Western Zhou antecedent forms have been found, show different PEs with the same SE and have therefore been classified as structurally divergent at SP formation step 1 (divergent usage of jiajie; subsequent identical augmentation with semantic determiner). 1) Myu (fc$ *pjagx) 'dried meat': SE ft (*#),'meat' Chu: % f ; PE Xfii (fc US bjagx) 'father' Qin: fl! 9$ ; PE iftju (fc $5 *pjagx) 'honorific suffix to a man's name' 2) ftjl (fc$ *kjiak) 'halberd': SEge X (Ik IP) 'dagger-axe' Chu: # $ ; PE £ (## *ibnadfe) 'bits, piece' 1 Qin: $ & ; PE f - (7C$ «flag pole»2 3) ® qu&n (7fc£P *gjuanx) 'enclosure for animal': SE • wei (#$5) «enclosure» 1 According to Qiu, ji #5 can be written with + being as a PE (Qiu 1979, 33). 2 This phonetic element is elucidated by Qiu. (1979, 33) 72 Chu: ® <@/ ; PE A (7C$ *gwjian) 'to make a rice ball' Qin: S ^ ; PE # qudn (7GIP *gwjian) 'to bend in a circle' 4) # yi (If Ip *rak) 'to be pleased' SE Chu: 'H ^; PE | ( ? ) 'luster' (PE £ W/ (#$ *&ra£) 'white') SW:# ; ?E$yi (#3? *rak) 'to spy' 5) $ ze ($$ "tfrafc) 'luster'3: SE * shui (flgip) 'water' Chu: yi v^ ; PEf( ? ) 'luster' (PE £f fea/ (#$S *Z>rafc) 'white') SW:j? ; PE -£ ze (# IP *ra£) 'to inspect' 6) M gwan (xip *&wra«) 'barrier': SE men (X%> *mzn) 'gate' Chu: PI 1? ; PE $ guan (7GlP *Awan) 'to be accustomed' Qin:H If ; PE gwa" (7U IP *£wra«) 'kind of hair style with two tufts' 7) * ao (f IP *ngagw) 'to parch': SE A hud (Jrlp) 'fire' Chu: g # ; PE g ao (f IP *«gag-w) 'loud sound' SW ft : PE & ad (ft IP *ngagw) 'to saunter about' 4.2.1.2. Divergent usage of semantic determiners The following 14 cases show the same PE with different SEs, and have therefore been classified as structurally divergent at SP formation Step 2 {jiajie augmented with divergent semantic determiner). 1) M qi (^.IP *gjzg) 'period'4: PE qi (iliP *gjzg) 'possessive pronoun', or J\ (^.IP *kjsg) 'small table' Chu: M ^ ; SE 0 ri {% IP) 'sun, day' 3 fl and ilk can be considered to be equivalent to>>2 # ze if respectively. The SW has the graph which is explained in the SW as dabai ye cong da bai guwen yi wei zezi A 6 -fe A 6 * 1^ ^ ^ "[the word it represents] is "big white". [It] consists of [the graph] dk '[big'] and bai ['white']. [It] is guwen [form] of the graph ze ['luster']" The Baoshan graphs in question consist of shi fc instead of dd Among the WZ bronze graphs which have been transcribed into fie du 'be tired of, ample (sound)' Shi Qiangpan and Maogong ding % jffj also consist of shi fc instead of da ^ , while Nangong Hu zhong $j % ty & consist of dd ^ instead of shi fc. The interchange of shi fc and da A appears to be caused by their similarity in shape. The graph and ^ might be two variants of the same graph. 4 The PE of this graph is qi Q in the Qin graph (a pictograph of a bamboo basket which was loaned for 'it' with an additional PE, 7> 'low table'), and 7\ in the Chu graph which abbreviated a grapheme of a pictograph of a bamboo basket. 73 Qin: M ^ ; SE fl yue (fl IP) 'moon, month' 2) 4& m'ii (#IP *nrjsgwx) 'knob': PE It C/JOM ($H$5 *hnrjsgwx) 'the second of the twelve Earthly Branches' Chu : # if; SE S vw (it #5) 'jade'5 SW: Ift; SE&jm (ft IP) 'metal' 3) ©L(*IP*%mA; 'hard'; PE c/*e« E (£IP *sg/m) 'subject' Chu ; SE /ro & CilP) 'to beat' Qin ; SE >>ow X (iliP) «to hold in hand» This discrepancy can be seen in the graph ft xidn (^IP *gin) 'wise' in which the graph g& or was used as a PE. Chu: & &f-^f 6; SE /ro je ( J. IP) 'to beat' was used in the graphgfc. Qin: ft g ; SE you X (^IP) «to hold in hand» was used in the graph S3.. 4) IS: sha. (fl IP *sriat) 'to ': PE^. (JJgip *djidh) «long-hair animal», 'to curse'7 Chu: ^ ; SE k />h (MIP) 'to beat' Qin: |£ ^ ; SE & shu (£IP) 'a kind of lance' 5) £ kudng (If IP *gwjiang) 'mad': PE £(|#IP *gw/awg) 'fief8 Chu: Qin:|^i ; SE % qum (TEIP) 'dog' 6) £ ca/ig(BHP *ta*ng) 'good': PE » (ftlp *ozya»g) 'bed' or $ a/a/igfljfrlp *&/a/ig) 'to injure'9 Chu: & fe ; SE Ukbu (MIP) 'mouth 5 According to the SW, wnl 38 is a SW gwwen graph equivalent to w/u fe. 6 The Chu graph ^ which can be rendered as |& was also used to write xidn ft- 7 According to the SW, this graph was originally a depiction of a long-hair animal. According to Guo Moruo IP the OB graph^. was transcribed into^ and used for the word 'to curse' (JGWG v.2:1483-1484). Both the Chu and Qin forms of this graph are also treated in § 4.5. 8 Although the modern character uses i as a PE, the SW gives its equivalent graph consisting of 1 'dog' and . According to the SW, its SE guwen form has a heart element instead of <$. 9 Which semantic element, kou D, or chen EL, was earlier used is not certain, since no antecedent graph can be found among oracle-bone and WZ bronze graphs. We can find the one which contains kou D instead of chen gl appearing on the SA bronze vessel Jibo xu 74 Qin: A $ $ ; SE g c/ien (£*P) 'subject' 7) Jfc /& (feIP *R/i/gx) 'treasury'10; PE ftfit (fei p *R/M^A) 'to give' Chu:^ f - ; SE * midn (76IP) 'roof Qin: Jfr ; SE t (ft IP) «house on the cliff*11 8) frxwii (£|p *gin) 'virtuous': PEg£orE*(^iP *khrin) 'hard' Chu: $ £f ; SE ^ zi (iiip) 'child'12 Qin: ft lh SE £ fee/ (&lp) 'cowrie' 9) tf Z/ZOM (#IP *drjsgwh) 'helmet' : PE & vow (M *rggw) «helmet», 'from'13 Chu : # SE $ (gfcip) 'leather'14 SW : I SE S (M) 'to cover' 10) % bao (tf IP *pragwh) 'leopard': PE ^ sAao (HIP "tf/afcw) 'ladle' Chu: 0 ; SE SL shu (&IP) 'mouse' Qin: f\ |) f^; SE ^ zhi (1£IP) 'to crawl, as feline beasts on prey or as reptiles' 11) If an (7t!P *«ganA) 'wild dog': PE gan (jtIP *£ra«) 'shield' Chu: ; SE g, shu (&lp) 'mouse' Qin: |f ff^ ; SE ^ z/u (#:IP) 'to crawl, as feline beasts on prey or as reptiles' 12) ®/* OtiP 'kind of animal': PE M /I (£IP *#8gx) 'village' Chu: IS ^ ; SE ft shu (& IP) 'mouse' 10 The Chu and Qin graph for this word will be treated in § 4.3.4 and 4.4.2 respectively. 11 The graph f is explained to denote «house on the cliff» in the SW. 12 In the Baoshan bamboo slips, the graphs fe, |£ and % appear. They are all used as personal names, but in the Guodian bamboo slips, fe, l£ are used for the word 'virtuous' which is represented by the modern graph xidn 13 This may not be a case of a different use of semantic determiners added to a jiajie graph. Originally, the graph you & was a pictograph of a helmet. When this original graph for the word 'helmet' required a semantic determiner to clarify its meaning, different graphs, ge $ and 0 'cap' (Duan explained that this was an earlier graph representing the word 'cap' which was replaced with mao ty§ 'cap') were augmented, either of which was used by the Chu and Qin respectively. In the case ofzhou %, the SW elucidates as an SP graph which is composed of the PEyou & and the SE l=f probably because the original meaning of you & had been forgotten. 14 According to the SW, $| is a SW guwen graph equivalent to zhou Sf. 75 Qin:4lL ; SE ^ zhi (#IP) 'to crawl, as feline beasts on prey or as reptiles' 13) & mo (0IP *mrak) 'tapir': PE % mil (&IP *magh) 'dusk' Chu: m ; SE i, s/m (&IP) 'mouse' SW: |g ; SE ^ z/iz (# IP) 'to crawl, as feline beasts on prey or as reptiles' 0) # hdo (tf 3jS *gak) 'badger': PE £ge Chu: §| f& ; SE H shu (fciP) 'mouse'15 Qin: # SE ^ z/z* (#IP) 'to crawl, as feline beasts on prey or as reptiles' We can find the Qin form in the inscription of the WZ bronze Haozij>ow # ^ as^^. This case, therefore, should be considered as the case in which the Chu form was the one having been modified (by the replacement of the grapheme). This has been categorized as a case of Chu replacement of SP grapheme (§ 4.3.2.), but has been shown in this section as one of the same pattern of structural discrepancies. 14) Mjian (ftIP *kljam) 'sword'; PE fc qian (ftip *skhjian) 'all' Chu: tf £§ 16; SE &jfn (ft tf ) 'metal' Qin: M & ; SE ij aao (f IP) 'knife' 4.2.1.3. Chu augmentation oi jiajie with semantic determiners The second step for graphical development is the addition of a semantic determiner to a phonetic loan graph, which yielded an SP graph specified to represent the word for which the graph was borrowed. This operation did not take place for all loan graphs. The loan graph came to be firmly associated with the word for which it was loaned; thereupon, a new graph was formed by augmenting it with an SE, and was assigned to the word the loan graph 15 It has been noted that the grapheme s/m SL was used by the Chu instead of zhi % . (Liu Binhui et al. 1991, 378) There are twelve different Baoshan graphs which containsM five of which can find their counterpart graphs composed of zhi % in their modern characters, and four of which can find their Qin counterparts composed of zhi %. 16 The graph H appears on two pieces of the sword known as Wu king Guang's sword (Wu wang Guangy/an ^.'S.^tM) as a variant graph ofjian M. This Chu graph is also treated in § 4.3.3. 76 originally represented. For example, a graph was believed to have been a depiction of a snake, but later became exclusively associated with the word 'other' through jiajie; the word 'snake' was then written with the graph she 4& which was augmented with an SE ± hui 'insect'. Such assignments of a loan graph to a word, being carried out differently in each region, possibly contributed to the regional discrepancies visible in the SP graphs. The following 6 loan graphs are examples of such regional assignments: the Chu used SP graphs composed of jiajie graphs and semantic determiners, while the Qin used unaugmented bare jiajie graphs. Both the original depiction of the graph and the word for which the graph was loaned are given, separated by " •• > ". 1. The graph P kou (feiP) 'mouth' was added to the following jiajie graph, although it is unknown whether there is a semantic relationship between them. 1) W bXng (|#IP *pjiangx) 'horse buttocks [viewed from behind]'17 ••• > 'the third of the ten Heavenly Stems ' Chu: W li Qin: W W 2. The graph ± fu (& IP) 'earth' was added. 1) % v/ (IH IP *rid) was written with the graph shi f. f shi (IHIP *skhrjid) 'corpse' ••• > '(eastern) barbarian' Chu: Si Qin: 31^ 3. The graph 0 ri ("If IP) 'sun, day' was added to the following graphs, which were borrowed to represent the words semantically related to time.19 1) 4- dong ( + IP *tengw) 'spinning device' — > 'winter'20 17 Several proposals have been made for the object the graph pf depicted, i.e., [horse] rump (Takashima 1996, v. 1. 205), human buttocks (Todo 1965,439-441) and talbe (Ogawa et al. 1967,19). 18 There is another Baoshan bamboo-slip graph which contain W as 'fS which does not have a modern equivalent graph, which suggests that the attachment of the graph kou P to blng W was established. 19 The addition of the graph B to the graphs used for seasons have been recognized, for example, by Ceng Xiantong f gi| (1993. 72). 20 The graph which was borrowed is not yet known. The shape of the graph is explained as being a 77 Chu:^ Qin: 4- % 2) jfc chen (;5tiP *djteri) 'bivalve' — > 'the fifth of the twelve Earthly Branches' Chu:#;|i^J* Qin: Jkjg.21 3) I xid (fc IP *gragx) 'the name of dance/music'22 ••• > 'summer' Chu:^f Sf Qin: K 41 •fl | 4. The graph J-_ zhi (^.Ip) 'foot' appeared to be added to the following graph which represents the word semantically related to activities related to movement implied by 'foot'.23 1) $L Idi (i:!P *hg) 'wheat' - > 'to come' Chu: $24 Qin: * $ $ In the WZ bronze graphs, we find (Lai Z/H #f) which is close to the Chu form and the unaugmented Qin form ^ (Hu ding jfij). 4.2.1.4. Different graphemes used at SP formation In the following 4 cases, the Chu and Qin corresponding SP graphs were formed from completely different graphemes. 1) Chu: BE (£ 'a kind of a bronze vessel'25: PE -£ gu (fc IP *kwagx) 'ancient' spinning device in the SW. 21 The graph ^ appears in the Shuhudi bamboo slips rishu, but was not used for the cyclic date. It is surmised to be borrowed for the word 'lips'. 22 The graphxj'a J. appears iaLiji (The Book of Rite). The word the graph xia J[ represents is explained as the name of dance and music (Morohashi 1986 v3. 304, 312). 23 The graph zhi it is equivalent of the modern character zM ib 'foot'. 24 This graph ^ is used as a constituent in a multi-element graph ^. 25 The graph EE was equivalent to the modern character f& $ because SE is used to used in the inscription on the Chu bronze vessel Chuwang Yinyue fu fti % $ %. which is recognized as ju referring to that vessel. 78 SEC (M)'box' SW: jg.fi (#> IP *pjagx) 'a kind of a bronze vessel' PE ^ Ja (IP *pjagx) 'honorific suffix to a man's name' SE ft zAti (5ft IP) 'bamboo'and SE JL min (If IP) 'vessel' 2) Chu: ^ |f jian 'cocoon, silk'26 PE jJL jian (JG IP *£z'an/i) 'to look' SE jfc 5i (Alp) 'silk, thread' 7 Qin: ]$[ ^ jian (7EIP fo'a>u) 'cocoon, silk': HY with a PE rfV HY &hui (tip) 'insect' which produces jfc si ($|p) 'silk' PE rfi (jclP *man) 'to be enough merely to cover its body'28 3) Chu: 5| H 'breath' PE gfc7*(#IP **7'3<0 'to complete' SE X hud (#lp) 'fire' Qin: & ?i (M **fc/a PE ^ qi (#IP *%W/i) 'vapor' SE fc mi (la IP) 'rice' 4) Chu: % H 'flag made of an animal tail and feather' PE fl" 4lng(#|p *tshing) 'blue'29 SE $}>u(&IP) 'feather' SW: $E71 «g (#IP *tsjing) 'flag made of an animal tail and feather' PE £ sTie/ig (# IP *sring) 'to be born' SET (TCIP)'flag' 4.2.1.5. Different usage of semantographs 26 According to the SW, jian £$, is the SW guwen form equivalent to jian 27 The graph $f has been elucidated as an HY graph by the SW, and as an SP graph by Ogawa et al. (1967,791). According to Dr. Pulleyblank (personal communication), a graph with the initial consonant *m- might have functioned as PE for the word with the initial consonant *k-. 28 The meaning of the word the graph represents is based on Duan Yucai S %H (1735-1815) in the SW. 29 The Chu graph "ft which is augmented with a mouth element is treated in § 4.3.5. 79 As has been reviewed in Chapter 1 (§ 1.2.4.3), SP graphs were formed by augmenting a semantograph (biaoyizi) with a graph which indicated the reading of the word represented. There is one case in which the Chu and Qin used different semantographs and the same phonetic element to form an SP graph. 1) % gusui (jctf *kwan) 'hat, cap': PE % yuan (JE tf *ngwjari) 'head' Chu: % semantograph & 'cap', a depiction of a cap. SW: % ; semantograph (HY) which was composed of 'covering object' and-*}" cun 'thumb, unit of length' which appears to depict a cap being put on by hand. 4. 2.1. 6. Different usage of semantographs and PEs There is one case in which the Chu and Qin used different SEs consisting of several elements which appear to be related to the meaning of the word the graph represents and different PEs. Since it is difficult to determine whether this is a case of SP formation through jiajie or by augmenting PE to semantograph (HY graph), this is treated separately from the different graphemes used at SP formation (§ 4.2.1.4). 1) M. /fi (flgtf *ljidx) 'shoe, to walk' Chu: 1 |f PE X ye (% tf *git) 'head' SE # zhou (# tf) 'boat' which might be a depiction of boat- shaped shoe andihz/ii G£.tf) 'foot' Qin:J||k PE f shi (Jitf *skhrjid) 'corpse' or | zi (||tf *sgjidh) 'self30 SE ^ 'foot', and chi % (0 tf) 'to go' 4.2.2. HY graphs There is only one case in which the Chu and the Qin used different HY graphs. 1) Chu: I ^ 'face' W (M) 'head' and 0 jiit (#tf) 'mortar' 30 According to SW, the phonetic element was said to beshi f3. 80 Qin: W mian (§/ % (TGIP *mjianh)31 @ /nw (#$3) 'eye' or W (^$5) 'head' is inside of the enclosing line 4. 3. Divergent structural modifications of SP graphs Structural modifications of SP graphs may involve the omission of a grapheme, the alternation of a grapheme, or the augmentation of the original SP form with a PE, an SE or with an element the function of which cannot be determined. The cases in which it is the Chu or the Qin form that can be recognized as having been modified will be presented separately under each category. The earlier counterparts of the graphs in question attest which graph was modified; various sources have been sought to determine the composition of the missing antecedents. 4. 3.1. Omission of SP grapheme (A) Chu graphs There are 3 cases in which a grapheme of the Chu SP graph was omitted. 1) J$ yu (fcip *rag) 'carriage'; % yu (fcip *rjag) 'to lift with hands' and a car % cht (fc IP *kjag), both of which are phonetically and semantically conformed to the graph they compose. Chu: IF ^ ; two hand graphemes were abbreviated.32 Qin: J$ ^ ; the earlier composition was preserved. 2) If gul (#lp *Jcwpd) 'to return'; originally as can be seen in the OBI $|; ^), it consists of PE % (#IP *ted)33 and SE # sao (tM) 'whisk', and an optional grapheme LL zhi 31 According to the SW, this graph consists off (a variant graph oishou "it" 'head (above the neck)'), depicting the shape of a human face( cong sh ou xiang ren mian xing t^W^AW^)- The grapheme used in the Qin variant graph, mil @ 'eye' seems to be an abbreviated form of W • 32 Both # and appear to conform to the sound and the meaning of the word the graph in question represents. Originally this graph should have four hands holding a car for two reasons: (1) the old sound of this graph yu is the same as yu & 'to keep company, to ally', ;§£. 'to lift', all of which can be elucidated to be formed with % four hands signifying "to lift [an object] in cooperation" as both a PE and SE; (2) the two hands below an object signifying to hold that object were mostly used to represent 'to present offering s to the gods or deities', which was not congruent to the word the graph yu % represented. 33 The graph gui $ was earlier in the WZ period composed of | and sao # as compulsory elements, with chi ^ or A as optional elements. The graph § was used in the OBI to represent the word '[army] camp', 81 $3)'foot', but later, as can be seen in the WZ bronzes, it appears to have become augmented optionally with elements related to movement chl % (0%$) 'to go'. Chu: 3f % # % % % ; PE $ was omitted. Qin: If §§ 3) ^ xi (0$ *hjiak) 'fear'; as the WZ bronze graph 'ffy shows, this graph was composed of PE & (0% *khjiak) 'crevice in the wall' and SE JH hu 'tiger'. Chu: ^ |f H ^ ; SE jfi hu (M) 'tiger' was reduced to p 'tiger's head'. SW:M (B) Qin graphs There is no known case of a Qin graph omitting a grapheme. 4.3. 2. Replacement of SP grapheme (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs There are 2 cases in which the replacement of a grapheme took place in both Chu and Qin SP graphs. 1) it cfo'fjM *drjid) 'slow' Chu: i% %l ; PE F shi (M *skhrjid) 'corpse' or ' er (JM 'two' SW: it; PE # xi ()M *** 2) # s/iow (M *dpgwx,h) 'longevity'; PE g ($?$$ *drpgwh) 'plowed field' and SE ^ /aodM) 'old' Chu: % g Qin: f but what the graph 0 depicted is unknown. 34 This replacement can be the misrecognition of a grapheme or reduction of strokes, but since er — conforms to the pronunciation of the graph in question, it is treated as a replacement of a grapheme. 82 The WZ bronze vessel antecedents contain P kou (Htf ) 'mouth' (as fl in Song gui ^SH), # g*n (Ifttf) 'sweet' (as in Song gui ^ which appeared to have developed from kou P, X you (i^tf) «to hold in hand» (as j|* and fl in Shanfu Ke ding or none of these three (as ^ in Shibosi gui fcife # j£)- The Chu used the graph which underwent the modification (replacement) which took place during the WZ period. The Qin form does not contain the mouth element, but includes a graph TT cun (;£tf) 'thumb, unit of length' which apparently replaced one of the three optional graphemes X-35 This graph was used as a PE in the following graphs. a) 4# tdo (ft tf *tegwx) 'stump' Chu: *§ SW:# b) # dao (ft tf *tegwx) 'to pray' Chu: f| Qin: (A) Chu graphs There are 11 cases in which the Chu used the SP graph whose grapheme was replaced with another grapheme. 1) \- ren *njin) 'benevolence'; PE ' er (flgtf *njid) 'two' and SE A ren (^tf *njiri), both of which are phonetically conformed to the graph ren f~.36 Chu: fi. ]— ; ren A was replaced with the graph f3 shi (JJH tf) 'corpse' 2) j| chu (fctf *khjagx) 'to stay'; as the WZ bronze graph jf shows, this graph was composed of a tiger's head and a human body and a foot resting on a small table JL ji (littf )• The tiger head ft (fctf *hl-ag) conformed to the OC pronunciation of the graph chu jfe. Chu: %. 2c. t-S- ; 'to stay'; the tiger's head with body was reduced to the 35 The graph which containsg&n # already appear in the WZ bronze Song ding ^.M- The element cun •+ in the Qin graph should have replaced an element you X which was included in the WZ bronze graph in question. 36 Both elements conformed to the reading of the graph ren jz. Shinjigen elucidates that this consists of PE — er (flg#3 *njid) 'two' and SE ren A (Ogawa et al. 1967,43). 83 graph f3 shi (fliitf) 'corpse' leaning on ji fi. Qin: jft ^ ; an SP graph which consists of PE f and the graph chu (Jitf)'tostay'37 3) % zhai (&tf * 'roof ;(OBG|£|) Chu :j% /£ Hi; m/an ^ was replaced with f~ (ft tf) «house on the cliff», a graph which denoted a similar meaning to midn ^. Qin: % <43 4) ^ wang (|#tf *gwjangh) 'to go'; it was originally composed of PE i£ wdng (|#tf *gwjang) 'king' and SE it z/u (il tf) 'foot', as j£ and £ which can be found in the OBI. Chu: ^ ; PE wdng3L was replaced with^ ting (#tf) 'to stick out, stretch' Qin:#39 5) cheng (#tf *djing) 'city wall'; PE cheng 'to complete' (which is composed of PE T ding (#tf *ting) 'the fourth of the ten Heavenly Stems' and SE & yue (flftf) 40 'battle-axe' and SE i m (Jfctf) 'earth'; (WZG f^) Chu: ; PE di ng T was changed into another PE f£ ting (# tf *thingx), and /u i is abbreviated or meant to be merged into ting£ which is related to 'earth'. Qin: $ ; This Chu graph has been transcribed into cheng although the element m i became invisible.41 6) jfc sui (Htf *skwjadh) 'year'; PE xu (Dffctf *syaf) 'the eleventh of the twelve 37 Originally, the element ft was a pictograph of a tiger's head, which has not been used as an independent graph. The SW elucidates the graph cM ^ that its meaning 'to stop' is denoted by 'walking' person and JL 'elbow rest' which he reaches and stops. 38 This element is explained as 'plant leaves' in the SW, which was denounced as a groundless speculation by Yu Xingwu (1996, 3307). No other proposal has been made. 39 This Qin graph was also modified. It will be discussed in § 4.3.4. 40 The WZ bronze graph $ was written with a different semantic element ^ guo 'outer city wall'. 41 This Baoshan graph has been transcribed as $ by H6 (1989,213; 1998, 810), by Teng (1995, 968-969) and by Zhang Shouzhong (1996, 202), but as $ by Qiu (1998,112). 84 Earthly Branches' and SE p bit (&3jJ)'to walk'; (OBG^f) Chu: $ # ; SE jjr was replaced with the ^1 yue(f\ IP) 'moon' Qin: 7) H£ (#:IP **^) 'sound of striking something'; PE E (1^IP *«/g/i) 'quiver, container for arrows' and SE £ s/m (felf) 'kind of lance'; (WZG £§) Chu:^; SE s7m 5: was replaced with jc />u (J| IP) 'to beat' Qin: i§L 8) # gui (ItIP *)bv/aJA) 'noble'; PEt)3 (?) 'to hold upward'42 and SE £ fee/ (&IP) 'cowrie'; the earlier composition can be seen in the WZ bronze graph ^ it yi 'to lose'. Chu: J| |[ l=f ; PEE)3was replaced with an unknown element.43 Qin:#f f 44 This graph was used as a PE in the following Chu SP graphs, mamtaining the same composition45 a) it yi 'to lose' Chu: it *jf" Qin: it There are three more Baoshan graphs [J. gw* 'box', ^ ^ 'kind of tree' and |f %| ^ kui 'to present [food]', which contain the graph J| (f ^) as a constituent. These graphs do not find their counterparts in the Qin graphs. 9) |& gui (^IP *kj9gwh) 'kind of ritual vessel'; this graph does not appear in the Baoshan bamboo-slip graphs, but was used as a PE in the graph j$tjiu 'stable'. We can find the oracle-bone antecedent graph^ In the Chu form, left grapheme |? was replaced by another graph shi ($&IP *djzk) 'to eat', and the right grapheme shu & by another grapheme & pu (it IP) 'to beat'. The graph |£ with shi & instead of H can be 42 The meaning of this graph is based on Ogawa et al (1967,955). 43 The upper element of j|, § and ^ has been transcribed as ^ in this thesis, although there is no such modern graph. The element which is similar in shape to this element also can be found in the Baoshan graphs, =j and ^ (jj[ which has been transcribed as 4t bian 'head dress' by Li Jiahao # (1986, 391-395)), #(#)and^(#). 44 This Qin graph is also treated in§ 4.5. 45 In addition to the graphs given here, there is also JP which does not have a descendent in modern characters. 85 found in some WZ bronze vessel inscriptions, such as"§=^ in Jihou gui B H. %. a) ML jiil (M *kpgwh) 'stable'; PE gfc giil (ft $ *kjsgwh) 'kind of ritual vessel' and SE f. (ft $) «house on the cliff »46 Chu :Jgt$p41; PEg^was used for PE of jiu Qin : M. fe ; PE |£ was used for PE of jiu Jf. 10) # foio (#$ 'badger': PE 4- ge (#$ *klak) 'each' and SE & zhi (&#) 'to crawl, as feline beasts on prey or as reptiles'; (WZG^tjT) Chu: m ; SEz/u 4 was replaced with SE i, s7m (& $5) 'mouse'. Qin: & ffr 11) if/a (^$3 *kwjapl>*pjap) 'model, law'; PE -£ #w (&$5 *khjagx) 'to depart' and two SEs, S7WI (M) 'water' and H zAi (TGHO 'deer-like animal';48 (WZG ff) Chu: | 0; i was replaced with jifv. (&3P *£/'##) 'man' which might have served as PE. Qin:>f ^if (B) Qin graphs There are 5 cases in which the Qin form of a SP graph replaced one grapheme with another. 1) # si (£.$ *rj9gh) 'government office'; PE ± zhi (£HS *tj3gx) 'foot' and SE X you (i: $5) «to hold in hand»; (WZ ^) Chu: ^ % 49 Qin: ; cun (%$>) 'thumb, unit of length' replaced you %. 46 The SW explains tins graph $ as consisting of PE |£ and SE f. 47 This Chu graph is also treated in § 4.5. 48 According to the SW,/a i# consists of three SEs shui j, z/iz M and AM i. Although the SW identifies it as an HY graph and the graph qu i does not conform to the sound of/a jf, qii is acknowledged as a PE. According to Dr. Pulleyblank (personal communication), a graph which had *k- might have served as PE for the word with an initial *p-, even though these sounds were not articulated in the same place of articulation. 49 The Chu graph in question was also modified by an augmentation with an element. This will be treated in § 4.3.5. 86 As a graph which consists of vow X was used in the WZ bronze vessel Shibo gui the graph in question originally consists of you X instead of cun ^f.50 This form is used in the following graph. a) # ding (ZM *tegx) 'rank; to classify '; PE # si (iltf *rpgh) 'government office [place]' and SE % zhu (ft IP) 'bamboo' Chu: tr ^ Qin: ^ ; cun replaced vow X- 2) B# sMOttf *dj&g) 'time'; PEitzM CtiP **/agx) 'foot' and SE 0 ri (JTUO 'sun, day' Chu: # ^- Qin: B*f ^ ; PE zhi it was replaced with another graph # si (iliP *rpgh) 'government office [place]' It has been proposed that the graph © 0 ri 'sun, day' was used to write the word B# shi 'time' in the OBI.51 We also can find the oracle-bone graph # & which has been deciphered as the prototype of shi B#. In the development of the graph for 'time', it can be surmised that the graph 0 ri 'sun, day' was used to write the semantically congruent word 'time' (parasemantic usage) and zhi it was added as a phonetic determiner, yielding the SP graph # to represent specifically 'time'. The Qin form can be considered as a case in which zhi it was replaced with another graph si # which also could serve as PE. 3) # fu (fclp *phjag) 'to spread'; PE $ ju (fcU5 *pjagx) 'honorific suffix to a man's name' and SE -f cun (JtiP) 'thumb, unit of length'; (OBG SW:H Originally, as can be seen in the WZ bronze graph, the graph in question was composed of Ju if and X you (iliP) «to hold in hand», but the Qin used cun Tf" instead of you X-52 This 50 Tang Yuhui (1986,40) notes that there is no extant late WZ materials carrying the graph cun ->f. 51 TakashimaKen-ichi's work in which this usage of the graph ri 0 is discussed will appear in a web-site publication at the University of Oslo, Norway. 52 In addition to the graphs treated in this section, there are 4 more graphs in which the Chu used youX and the Qin used cun -f. 1) iiju 'to give' Chu:Tt; Qin: ^ 2) )ft Ju 'treasury' Chu:f; Qin: if 87 discrepancy between the Chu and Qin graph can be surmised in the following graphs, which usedfu # as a PE.53 a) # bo *pwak) 'to arrest' Chu: ^$ SW: # b) it 7u (& $ Wag) 'to spread' Chu: % SW: ft 4) % chudng (jclp *drjuanx) 'to transmit'; PE # z/jua« (jciP *tjuan) 'exclusively' and SE Aren(%%>) 'man'; (OBG iff) Chu: Qin:^ As its OBI and WZ bronze antecedent graphs show, this graph originally used the element you X> as in the Chu form. The Qin used the form whose vow X was replaced with cun TT- 5) M wen *mjm) 'to hear'; PE & nun *hman) 'dusk' and SE er%- 'ear';(WZG^) Chu: # 15 Qin:« If Although the oracle-bone graph in question was an HY graph which was composed of an ear and a man, the WZ bronze graphs consist of a PE nun f£ and an SE er ^. The Qin graph replaced hun& with another PE f"J men *m$ri) 'gate'. 4.3.3. Augmentation of SP with extra PE (A) Chu graphs There are 3 cases in which the Chu usage of an SP graph was augmented with an additional PE not present in the Qin form. 1) M yia flfclP *krar) 'good, to praise'; PE fa jia (flip *krar) 'to add' and SE £ (M), the original graph ofgu i& 'drum'; (WZG ) Chu: ; an extra PE ^ he (ife$5 *gwar) 'grain plant' replaced the SE £. 3) # 'to obtain' Chu: ; Qin: 4) # ru 'to weed out grass with a shell, disgrace' Chu: ^; Qin: ^ These graphs are treated in § 4.4.2. 53 There is another graph # W (M. £P *pjagh) 'to beat' in which/u I? is also used as a PE, but since there can be found no Qin counterpart graph nor its antecedent graph by which the earlier form can be attested, it 88 Qin: # 54 The following two graphs have not been found in Shang and WZ periods. Recall from Chapter 1 that one PE and one SE were used, when SP graphs were formed. Since the graph qian fc serves as PE, and the combination of qian fc and gan # cannot be found as a graph, the grapheme gan # is treated as an additional element. 2) lim (fttf *ljiam) 'to gather'; PE fc qian (fttf *tshjian) 'all' and SE k pv. 01 tf) 'to beat' Chu: # §t ; an extra element if" gan (l|£tf *kam) 'sweet' which conforms to the sound of the graph in question. SW:& 3) M jian (fttf *kljam) 'sword'; PE fc qian (fttf *skhjian) 'all' and SE !) aao (f tf) 'knife' or &jin (fttf) 'metal'55 Chu: tf H>$ ; an extra element # gan (tfctf *kam) 'sweet' which conforms to the sound of the graph in question.56 Qin: M (B) Qin graphs There is only case in which the Qin used an SP graph augmented with a PE not present in the Chu form. 1) ^ J>e (fc tf *riagx) 'uncultivated land'; PE ± ta (fc tf *tagx) 'earth' and SE 7fc mil (1£ tf)'tree'57; (OBG|JJ) Chu: ^> preserved its original components. Qin: j£ |* ; PE f yu (fc tf *ragx) 'to give' was added, is not included in this section. 54 This graph is from the Qin bronze artifact Shiqinian chengxiang Qizhuang + 4j #t. 55 The graph $ appears on two pieces of the sword known as Wu king Guang's sword (Wu wang Guangy'j'an ^i^fc j#J) as a variant graph of jian ffl. This graph is also treated in § 4.2.1.2. 56 There is another Chu graph which contains qian but does not include an additional grapheme gan This graph %. also appears on the Wangshan bamboo-slip inscriptions, but has no equivalent in modern characters. 57 Qiu elucidates this graph as an HY graph as the SW does. Since the OC pronunciation of the 89 4.3.4. Augmentation of SP with extra SE (A) Chu graphs There are 9 cases in which the Chu form was augmented with an additional SE not present in the Qin form. 1. Addition of graph ± ru (fc tf *tagx) 'earth' The graph tu ± appears to have been added to the graphs which represent words semantically related to 'earth' (Takada [1925] 1975; Qiu 1980). There are 4 graphs thus augmented. 1) Tjf shi (iltf *dji9gx) 'market'; PE & i and SE ^ ' ? '58; (WZG'j*) Chu:^##59 Qin: "ijf jh 2) ML chen (^ tf *c?r//n) 'state name in the Zhou time'; PE jft c/zen (^-tf *drjin) 'to display' which was reduced to % dong 'east', and SE^w | (ft tf) 'hill, ladder' Chu:^^^^^60 Qin: |* P% According to Wang Guowei (1968, 7350), the form of the graph chen % evolved from ?$[ to and U- (an elaborate form of W). The earliest sample of the graph can be found in the SA bronze vessel inscriptions, such as ^in Chenhou gui PJc^Ji- 3) It ling (^.tf *ljsng) 'to ascend'; PE ^ ling (MM *ljzng) 'to transgress', and SE § fii (ft tf) 'hill, ladder'61; (WZG \% Chu: if f# Qin: it ^ grapheme ni i conformed to that of the graph ye If, this graph is treated as an SP graph in this thesis. 58 The meaning of this grapheme is ambiguous. The SW elucidates as fence. According to the dictionary Shinjigen ff^if, it means 'even, flat'. 59 The graph shi Op with nl i has been pointed out by Qiu (1980). 60 The graph |£ was used as the state name Chen 1$. which existed between the beginning of the WZ and 479 BC in present Henan Province, (jf^f 61 According to the SW, this graph consists of PE ling and SE fit % . No other reliable elucidation 90 4) Mydng (|#|p *rjang) 'south side of a hill'; PE # ydng(B^ *rjang) '[sun] to rise' and SEya | (ft lP)'hill, ladder'; (OBG {?) Chu: m l§ ft g Qin: $?r%f% It has been recognized that the grapheme/w | tends to be accompanied by /ii i (He 1989, 200). Three graphs listed above are in all extant cases composed of both fii % and nl ±. Of other Chu graphs, $\ f^), ft (E2), r$ Of), (m), ® 0$), K (SS), It (S), and If (&) are not known in any instance which includes tu ±. 2. Addition of other graphs 1) If gui (#lp *&W/3G0 'to return'; originally as can be seen in the OBI ^), it consists of PE $ *ted)62 and SE f sao (ft IP) 'whisk', and an optional grapheme ^ z/zi (^ IP) 'foot', but later, as can be seen in the WZ bronzes, it appears to have become augmented optionally with elements related to movementc/z? % ($^|p) 'to go'. Chu: i| %##%&; 4 chi ($$S) 'to go' was added. Qin: # §§ 2) /fr/u (feIP *£/Wgx) 'treasury'; PE #/« (felP *pjugh) 'to give' and SE T (ft IP) «house on the cliff» or ^ midn (jciP) 'roof63 Chu: jJ X bei (^IP) 'cowrie' was attached. This graph was used for the graph related to treasure and money, such as bao 'treasure', cdi #t 'goods, material wealth' and hud ^ 'goods, money'. Qin:)^64 The graph 6e7 M does not form an independent graph with ji fii or f~ (or ^). The graph bei X should be an additional element added after /u M was formed. 3) UL bai (## *pradh) 'to defeat'; PE £ bei (&$ *pad&) 'cowrie' and SE jc /ra (^ IP) 'to beat' has been proposed, this graph is treated as SP in this thesis. 62 The graph gui If was earlier in the WZ period composed of |§ and sab #• as compulsory elements, with chi % or A as optional elements. The graph $ was used in the OBI to represent the word '[army] camp', but what the graph $ depicted is unknown. 63 This graph is also treated in § 4.2.1.2. 64 This Qin graph is also treated in § 4.4.2. 91 Chu: Jft $f f(65 Qin:Jfc&fti The Chu graph in question consists of two 6e* X and one />u &, although the top Z>ez X to another grapheme mzi @ (:ft;iP) 'eye'. This is a variant graph (zhouwen $$30 included in the SW under the entry of bai The Qin form can be found in the OBI as and the Chu form in the WZ bronze Shishi gui &fc$jE. j| as 4) # wei (HIP *gwjadh) 'to protect'; PE # wei (ItIP *gwj9d) 'tanned leather' and SE ff xz>zg(|#iP) 'road, to go'; Chu:^ %v ; it 'foot' was attached. Qin:%^f Both the Chu and Qin form can be found in the WZ bronze, as^f in Wei zun % % and^^ in Wei gui % %. The Qin form can also be found in the OBI. 5) fc pu (MIP *buk) 'servant'; PE J| (M IP *buk) 'vexatious' and SE A ren 'man' Chu: if ^ $ ; E c/zen 'subject' was attached. Qimfcf f The graph c/zen E. which does not constitute an independent graph with ren A or H should be an element added later. (B) Qin graphs There is one case in which the Qin used an SP graph augmented with an additional SE not present in the Chu form. 1) & wang (|#lp *gwjang) 'to go'; it was originally composed of PE i£ wdng (|#!p *gwjang) 'king' and SE it zhi (illp *tjogx) 'foot', as j£ and £ which can be found in the OBI. 67 Chu: f Qin:^ ; SE ^ chi ($$S) 'to go' was added. 65 This graph is also treated in § 4.5. 66 This Qin graph is also discussed in § 4.5. 67 This Chu graph is also treated in § 4.3.2. 92 4.3. 5. Augmentation of SP with grapheme of unknown function (A) Chu graphs There are 2 cases in which the Chu graphs were augmented with a grapheme whose function is unknown. 1) if qmg (#tf *tshing) 'blue'; PE £. sheng (#tf *tsjingx) 'to be born' and SE # dan (jctf) 'cinnabar, red'; (WZG rS) Chu: "f ^ ; D £dw (l£tf) 'mouth' was attached.68 Qin:* f The graph "S" was used as a PE in the following graph, a) ft qing (#tf *tshing) 'to request' Chu: f# Ojn: ft 3f tff at $ 2) # si (iltf *rpgh) 'government office'; PE ±zhi (iltf *tpgx) 'foot' and SE X you (il tf) «to hold in hand»; (WZG ^) Chu: ; D kou (Mtf) 'mouth' was attached to three graphs out of five. 69 Qin: f This form is used in the following graph. a) # ding (iltf *tegx) 'rank; to classify '; PE # si (£.tf *rpgh) 'government office [place]' and SE ft z/m (ft tf) 'bamboo' Chu: ft ^ Qin: (B) Qin graphs There are 2 cases of Qin SP graphs augmented with graphemes of unknown function not present in the Chu form. 1) \% shmg (Htf *sjang) 'to hurt'; PE # ydng (|#tf *rjang) '[the sun] to rise' and SE A 68 As was discussed in Chapter 1, Botlz (1994, 1030105) proposed the alternate reading of D *mjing). In this case, this alternate reading coincides with the reading of the graph to which it was attached, but we cannot assume that it served as PE because we do not know whether this alternate reading had yet fallen into oblivion at the time the graph D was added to the graph in question, if it had had such an alternate reading. 69 This graph is also treated in § 4.3.2. 93 re/i(£iP) 'man' Chu: fj §>> Qin: jjfr 1% ; the top element above the grapheme ydng # was added for reasons that are not clear to us. We do not have the earlier graph in question. The top element above the grapheme ydng # is an additional element put after the SP graph was formed wimydngjj? and ren A according to the principle of SP graph formation (one PE and one SE). Since no graph consisting of ydng # with the top element has been found, it was probably not used as PE. 2) i% de (ItIP *te£) 'virtue'; PE % zhi (J$|p *drpk) 'straight' and SE /C? xin (ftiP) 'heart SW: ^ ; SE ^ chi (0 IP) 'to go' was added for reasons that are not clear to us. 4.4. Divergent structural modifications of HY graphs The structural modification of HY graphs includes omission of a grapheme, replacement of a grapheme, and the augmentation of a PE, an SE, and an element whose function is unclear. HY graphs whose modifications can be recognized in the structure of the Qin and Chu graphs have been grouped together respectively. 4.4.1. Omission of HY grapheme (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs There is a graph whose graphemes are not fully preserved in both the Chu and Qin graphs. 1) # qin *dzjin) 'Qin (name of the state)'; a pair of hands X you (ilp) holding a pestle wu (fc, IP) is pounding on grain plant ^ he (HfciP); (OBG \\) 70 Qiu (2000, 204) explains that % is the original graph for |% de 'virtue' 94 (A) Chu graphs There are 2 cases in which the Chu used abbreviated form of HY graphs. 1) lp sAi(JM *srjid) '[army] camp'; SE $ (#tf) '[army] camp' and SE fp (^tf) 'to surround'71; (OBG^ , WZo^) Chu: fp ^ ^ ^ ; PE | was completely omitted. Qin: 0fp Bfl5 ff5 ; PE $ was preserved except for one case out of five in all. 2) 0 qi (IH $5 *khjidh) 'to abandon'; two hands holding a basket containing an upside-down child about to be abandoned; (OBG JaJ<). Chu: -f^f ; the basket was omitted. Qin: ^ ^ ; the original composition was preserved. (B) Qin graphs There is one Qin HY graph exhibiting the omission of a grapheme or graphemes 1) iC yi (ffctf *ngjar?) 'fitting, right'; meat in the container or stand originally denoted a certain sacrificial ceremony; (OBG j|j). Chu: ^ ^ ; although the form of a container or stand was reduced,72 it preserved two elements of meat. (Jin: ; one of two elements meaning meat was omitted. 4.4.2. Replacement of HY grapheme (A) Chu graphs There is 1 Chu HY graph whose grapheme was replaced with another grapheme. 1) % kou (M tf *khugh) 'to rob'; 'to rob' was rendered by midn (% tf) 'house', jt yuan (jctf) «head» and & /?u(Jitf) 'to beat'; (WZG $(1) 71 Although its original identity is unknown, this graph 0 appears in the OBI for the word meaning "[army] camp", and the grapheme ip (3S$5 *tsriap)1 'to surround' was added, probably as a semantic element, as seen in the Western Zhou bronze-graph. % can be the phonetic element for shi $p, because (1) the former appears as a single graph representing the word shi If '[army] camp' in the OBI, and (2) some graphs belonging to thezhi || rhyme group and wei %. thyme group are rhyming together in the Shijing (Li Fang-kuei [1971] 1980, 64-66). 72 This feature is also treated in § 4.5. 95 Chu: ; pu k was replaced with ^ ge (Ufc^P) 'dagger-axe'. Qin: ^ ; the composition which consisted of tXt, jc and k, was preserved. (B) Qin graphs There are 3 cases in which graphemes in Qin HY graphs were replaced. 1) tt /w (fe£P *pjugh) 'to give'; HY; the SW explains it as consisting of SE A ren 'man' and ~f cun (Xty) 'thumb, unit of length'. We find two variant graphs in the WZ bronze graphs as ^ (Rui ding ^ which consists of X you «to hold in hand» and ^ (Hu ding 3^$) which consists of cun -f. Since the graph cun which was not used in the WZ bronze graphs other than this case, the Qin form with cun appears to have been a modified form Chu: 11 ft Qin: # ^ The Qin used the graph which was composed of a man and cun -f, and the Chu used the one composed of a man and vow X- This graph Jit tt was used as a PE in the following graph. The discrepancy between the Chu and Qin was maintained, a) foju (fe£P *pjugx) 'treasury' Chu: 73 Qin:^^ 2) # de ($fc$5 *tek) 'to obtain'; a shell X bei 'cowrie' is held in hand vow X; (OBG 1% Chu:^ Qin: ^ 74 3) # Hi (Ji$P *njuk) 'to weed out grass with a shell, disgrace'; ^ chen {%%f>), a pictograph of a bivalve, is held by a hand you X; (OBG fi^)- 73 This Chu graph is also treated in § 4.2.1.2 and 4.3.4. 74 This Qin graph is also treated in§ 4.4.5. 75 The SW defines rfl # as 'disgrace'. This graph does not appear in the OBI, but there is a graphic which is explained as an antecedent graph of nbujjg^Xn weed out grass' by Qiu (1992), and Wen Shaofeng JS-^I? and Yuan Tingdong (JGWG v.2: 1139). Although the graphru # itself does not appear in the excavated materials, it can be surmised to have originally consisted of chen Jfc and you X- 96 Chu:^ Qin:f 4.4.3. Transformation of HY to SP (A) Chu graphs In these 6 cases, the Chu HY graph became an SP graph by being augmented with a PE, having an SE replaced with a PE, or modifying the form of an SE into a PE. 1) JTL xiong ((#$3 *hwjang) 'elder brother'; a mouth element and kneeling figure; (OBG \ Chu: ^ ^ ; PE wang (^$5 *gwjiang) 'to go' was added. 76 Qin:< 2) H wang (!#$$ *mjangh) 'to look from afar'; a man who is standing on the ground ting (#$0 'to stick out, stretch' with the emphasized eye which was interpreted as the not occur. 3) >f Hang (|#$3 *ljangx) 'a pair of; the original identity appears to be a depiction of an object in pair, for example a depiction of two same graphs Mng ^ «horse rump»78; (WZG Chu:^f ; part of the graph was modified and changed into a graph which served as PE ^ ydng (|#£P *rang) 'sheep'. Qin: ; the original form was preserved. 4) & he (M-^ *g?p) 'to join'; 'to join' was denoted by a mouth-like element which depicted a container and an element on top of it which represented its lid; (OBG£) 76 The graph \% is the earlier form of the graph & wang 'to go', although the lower part was modified. 77 This Qin graph in question is treated in § 4.6.2. 78 This explanation was proposed by Ling Yiguang (JWG v.9: 4852). 97 Chu: # ; PE hdn the added element possibly is ^ ^ hdn (ft IP *gsm) 'to keep in the mouth, contain' which is congruent phonetically and semantically.79 Qin: the original composition was preserved. 5) 3L jmg IP *king) «warps which are put on a loom» The lower part of this HY graph 3. which was written as 5 hi the WZ bronze vessel inscriptions, in the Chu, was altered to ££. ting (#IP *thingx) 'to stick out, stretch' to indicate the reading. This altered Chu graph j| was used in the following SP graphs, while the Qin counterpart graph was preserved in its original form.80 a) Wfmg (#|p *kjingh) 'strong' Chu: gr j)f SW:$? b) # y'wgOM *kingh)' a kind of tree' Chu: ^ SW:# c) M fing (#IP *kjingx) 'neck' Chu: H |? Qin: % *f 6) I ./w {% IP *6/3Jbv) 'to return'; an unknown object and a foot ^; (OBG§ )81 This graph is used as a constituent of the following graphs. In the Baoshan graphs the upper element, an unknown object, was replaced with a graph |f you (ftIP *ragwx) 'wine vessel' which is phonetically conformed to the graphs in which it is a constituent. a) fu (flip *bpkw) 'to return' Chu: i|% 82 SW: 79 Qiu (2000, 218-219) surmises that the graphs, a depiction of a mouth holding some object, might originally have been used represent the word 'to hold in mouth'. Until the graph hdn & was formed to write 'sweet', the graph ^ might have been used to write both words 'to hold in mouth' and 'sweet'. It is not known whether the graph hdn was already in use in the Chu area during the WS period. 80 Since the form of another Baoshan graph $M seems to be equivalent to £f jmg (#$3 *king) although the right grapheme 3L 'warps' is abbreviated, it is not included in this section. There is another graph which contains the grapheme §, as 13. 81 The object written above a foot has been variously surmised as (1) an abbreviated form of guo fp 'outer wall of the city', (2) a kind of vessel, or (3) a cave for dwelling. (JGWG v. 1: 862-863) This graph is taken as an HY graph in the present thesis, for the grapheme which can serve as PE for this graph has not been clarified. 82 This graph is also treated in § 4.6. 98 b) H fit (ft $ *ppkw) 'abdomen'. Chu: it 3f Qin:M (B) Qin graphs In these 4 cases, the Qin HY graph became an SP graph by being augmented with a PE, having an SE replaced with a PE, or modifying the form of an SE into a PE. 1) # sa n (ft^p *s9tn) 'three'; it was evolved from the graph oo representing stars in the OBI. Chu: (51,; preserved the earlier composition of the graph in question. Qin: % ; PE ^ shan (ft£P *sr9m) 'something drawn by a brush' was added to denote the reading of the graph. 2) g? jit *krid) 'all'; two man elements A ren (£3P) and # gan 'sweet'; (WZG^ )83 Chu: ^; preserved the earlier composition of the graph in question. 1 Qin: H; the top elements are replaced with two fcfc bi (ISi^p *pjidx) 'to compare' which was congruent to the sound of the graph. 3) it.yuan (jc^P *gwjanx) 'distant'; PE ^yudn (jc^ *gwjan) 'long gown' and SE ^ representing the movement The HY graph yuan serving here as a PE, appears in the OBI with and without the element O, as Y and . According to Qiu (1985), the grapheme O was later added to indicate the reading of this graph.84 The Chu graph does not include this extra grapheme, while the Qin graph does. Chu:$ 85 83 The graphjie ^ is elucidated as consisting of two men and bai 6 'white', but the WZ bronze vessel graph has an element which appears asga« if instead of bai ^. 84 According to Qiu, this grapheme signifies 'round' which is represented by the modern character yuan Ji 'round' (TCIP *gwjan). 85 This graph appears in the Baoshan bamboo slips without O, but in the Guodian fp bamboo slips produced in the Chu state during the WS period it appears withO- Although the grapheme O has a phonetic function, it seems optional for the graphs yu an 3& and hudn it.. Another graph hudn Ht might be the same case as hudn ii., since both are composed of the same phonetic element^ 99 The following two graphs it. and 3g. are composed of yuan a) 4Awa«(7ttf *gwfr?;a«)'to return' Chu: 86 Qin:g| b) 3$[ hudn (7c tf *gw(r?)ari) 'ring-shape jade' Chu: SW: * 4) 4 ftwg(J^.tf *dung) 'servant; a servant who is tattooed with a kind of needle JfL Chu: f[ f ; preserved characteristics of the OBI graph' ^ by 'needle', an 'eye' with a man's figure standing on the ground' Qin: J § ; the middle part is modified into dbng (^.tf *tung), which serves as PE.87 As shown below, the Qin counterpart preserved its quality of graphic representation. a) # zhong (^.tf *tjung) 'to grow (grain)' Chu: $ff Qin:*| b) tf zhong (Jfctf *tjung) 'bell' Chu: ff Qin: § 4. 4. 4. Augmentation of HY with extra SE (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs There is one case in which an HY graph developed into two variant graphs, each of which was augmented with a different graph from the other. The Chu and Qin used these two different augmented graphs as shown below. 1) ifcyou (ft tf *regw) 'to stroll'88 Chu: ^; SE i_ (tf tf), an element signifying movement 86 The Chu graph in question was written both with and without the element O. 87 This addition of dong %. can be seen in the WZ bronze inscriptions. 88 It is unknown what the original graph consisting of -?- zi 'child' and f~ 'flag' represented, since it was used to write the place name in the OBI. (JGWG v.4: 3059-3060.) This unaugmented graph which depicts a man holding a flag is treated in the present thesis as an HY which renders 'to sway' as stipulated in Shinjigen (Ogawaetal. 1967). 100 Qin: $F SE s/*wi (Jgtf) 'water' Originally, the graph in question consisted of -J- zi (iltf) 'child' and f~ 'flag', as seen in the OBI jf^". This graph was later augmented with a graph. The Chu form was augmented with the semantic element which was used in graphs representing actions involving movement, such as 'to go', while the Qin graph was augmented with the grapheme shul fa. (A) Chu graphs There are 6 cases of Chu HY graphs being augmented with an additional graph of related meaning. Graphs in which a segment of a grapheme was modified into an independent grapheme have also been considered as having been augmented, and are treated in this section. 1) ^ zha (fc tf *dzragh) 'to make'; originally written as % or in the OBI. The Baoshan graph in question was augmented with X you (^.tf) which is semantically related to 'to make'. Chu: ^ SW: ^ This augmented graph is also used in the following Chu graphs, while the Qin counterpart graphs used the graph without a hand element. a) # zud (fc tf *tsagh) 'to make' Chu: j% f% f-f $ Qin:l£ % b) 0 zud (fc tf *dzagh)'sacrificial meat' Chu: $f SW:# 2) ~%L ji (£4tf *gj9p) 'to reach'; HY graph which denoted "to reach" by a man A ren {% tf) with a hand X you (iltf) catching him from the behind, as \ which can be found in the OBI. Chu: i# ^ ; two SEs % chl (tftf) 'to go' and it zhi (iltf) 'foot' were added. SW: & We can find both forms in the WZ bronze vessels: (|p| in Fushu xu #,>fe3I, and ^ in Bao you 101 3) #C qiu (ft $ *tshpgw) 'autumn'; fc he Oft UJ) 'grain plant' and fc Awo (#$) 'fire'89 Chu:f0 ^ ; 0 rc(M) 'sun, day' was augmented and the grapheme hud fc was reduced to two strokes or omitted.90 Qin:&%^ 4) f OM *phjingh) 'frank words'91; & j;ou (ft IP) 'from' and (ft IP)' ? '92 This graph was used to write the word ft />z«g 'to go to inquire' in the Baoshan bamboo slip inscriptions. Chu: |f ^ ^: a graph P £dw (fe$5) 'mouth' was added. SW: ft (f ) Among the WZ bronze graphs, we can find both the Chu and Qin forms on the WZ bronze vessel inscriptions; ^ on Fansheng gui #-^. jl and IP on Maogong ding % fe^i .93 5) jfc hudng (li^P *gwang) 'yellow'; ramified and evolved graph from a pictograph of an arrow or a crippled man (OBG ft $ f )-94 Chu: % ^ ^ ^ ; the lower part (the part depicting an arrow feather or the legs of a cripple) was modified into the graph fc hud (#$P) 'fire' which can be semantically related to 'yellow', it Qin: ^ ; the modification of the lower part did not take place. 89 The OBI graph representing 'autumn' was written with a pictograph of an insect which has been surmised as being a locust with and without a fire element. It can be surmised that the graph with he and hud ji. is the product of augmentation of he fcan d an abbreviation of the pictograph of the insect. 90 The element hud A in this graph ranges from being omitted, to being included. The one with a fire grapheme appears on the Baoshan wooden slip and the Guodian bamboo-slips (Liude no. 25). 91 This meaning is given by the SW. 92 The identification of the grapheme under & is ambiguous. It has been transcribed into-? (#&$3 *khsgwx). The explanation of-5 is given in the SW as «an appearance of vapor which is blocked its rising». Since the graph in question does not contain a grapheme which denotes the sound of the word it represents, this graph is treated as an HY graph in the present thesis. The graph % is later developed into the modern character If 'to go to inquire'. There is also a Baoshan bamboo-slip graph ~%, but it does not have the modern equivalent graph. 93 The graph % in the bronze inscriptions was used to write the word "to assist". 94 The origin of the graph hudng ^ has been proposed: (1) this graph was ramified and evolved from a pictograph of an arrow which was proposed by Zhao Cheng (1988, 75); (2) this graph was originally a depiction of a deformity which was later represented by the modern character wang jg, 'crippled', which was proposed by Qiu (1992, 218-219). 102 6) $1 /S (fctf *ljagx) 'troops'; two or three men under the flag denoted troops; (OBG f$ ft)- Chu: it # # ; SE A consisting of % chl (0 tf) 'to go' and tt zhi (iltf) 'foot' was added. Qin: ; the original composition was preserved. (B) Qin graphs There are 3 cases of Qin HY graphs being augmented with an additional graph of related meaning. 1) 1^ hou (#tf *gug) 'target, feudal lord'; originally consists of r «hanging archery mark» and ft shi (Jitf) 'arrow'; (OBGfl).95 Chu: Jfc ; preserved the earlier composition. Qin: ^ ; A ren (^tf) 'man' is added to denote the meaning 'feudal lord'. 2) jfc mian (7c tf *mjanx) 'to avoid'; originally consists of ^ midn (jctf) 'head-dress' and A ren (% tf) a man who is wearing a head-dress; (WZG^p).96 Chu: °^ ; preserved the earlier composition. Qin: \ 3k. ; the graphemes midn ^ and ren A fused and an additional element ren A was augmented on top. 3) Hf qidn (7Ctf *dzrianx) 'to advance'; a boat, # zhbu (fttf), with ± zhi (iltf) 'foot' which signifies movement; (WZG E9 ).97 95 Although several explanations have been proposed, what an element f means is actually not clear. 'The hanging archery mark' is adopted from Shinjigen (Ogawa et al. 1967, 63). 96 SW originally did not include this graph. Duan added it later. His elucidation that it renders ' [rabbit] to free' by the form which depicts a rabbit without its legs has been denounced. The graph ^ is elucidated by Qiang Yunkai (1935) to be composed of ^ and ren A depicting a person who is wearing a head-dress. According to him, this graph is the antecedent of the modern mian j?,'head-dress'. Another elucidation of this graph is that it is an antecedent of mian jfc 'to give birth to child' rendered by the form of the a man under a buttocks. (Ogawa et al. 1967, 89) 97 The graph % 'to go, ahead', which is explained as huiyi graph in the SW, appears in OBI. An element which appears to be a boat might be a boat-shaped shoe, which was proposed by Lin Yiguang #.H jt (JWG v.2: 801) The graph qidn fif which was created by adding a grapheme 7J d&o to # for the word 'to cut' replaced the graph #, and another graph jian i$ was created for the word 'to cut' (JCZ: 143-144). Since both # in the Baoshan bamboo slips (no. 122,123) and qidn I? in the Shuihudi bamboo slips (Falii dawen F"1 no. 12, 15) are used for the same word, that is 'ahead' and 'before' respectively, they can be considered the two 103 Chu: % ; the earlier composition was preserved. Qin: 10 d\o (f IP) 'knife' is added. 4. 4. 5. Augmentation of HY with grapheme of unknown function (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs There is one case in which both the Chu and Qin graphs were augmented with an element whose function is unknown. 1) IL luan (jcip *luanh) 'disorder'; SE an element £ (if IP) which was said to depict a knot or a braided string98 and SEs, two hands X you (^.IP) «to hold in hand» above and below it. Chu: 99 Qin: % ^ The earlier form is an HY graph which rendered 'to subdue' with the depiction of two pulling both sides of a lump of entangled thread (Ogawa et al. 1967, 27). The graph luan |L appears on the WZ bronze as ^ in Fansheng gui andg^j>in Maogong ding -^^jfri which contains four mouths on both sides of an element £ (other WZ bronze-vessel antecedents of this graph do not). The Chu form in question, therefore, was not a variant graph formed during the WS period, but rather an adoption of a variant existing during the WZ period. The Qin used a graph to which an element of unknown identity was later added.100 (A) Chu graphs variants representing the same word. 98 An object the graph £ originally imitated is not clear. Guo Moruo (JGWG v. 1: 392) surmised that £ used in the oracle-bone graph $P yu 'to drive [a carriage]' imitated a form of the knot which is a bridle (Guo Moruo, JGWG vl: 392) It is also used in the oracle-bone graph and it was surmised as imitating a kind of braid by Yu Xingwu (1979, 64-66). The graph £, therefore, might imitated an object like a knot of string or braid. An object £ imitated in the graph can be elucidated as a braided string . 99 This graph can be taken as luan $L because the graph luan SIL incised on the guwen ("i" part of the Santai shijing 3. ft If is the same as this graph. The graph luan f|L appearing on the WZ bronze, Maogong ding also contains four mouths on both sides of an element £ , while another WZ bronze graphs in question do not. 100 It was explained, for example, as Z^yi 'the second of the ten Heavenly Stems' by the SW or as the end of a entangled thread by Ogawa et al (1967,27-28). 104 There are 3 cases of Chu HY graphs being augmented with elements of unknown function not present in the corresponding Qin form. 1) H geng (*tf *kzngh) 'to extend across'; originally, it was composed of the moon fl yue(fl tf) between two horizontal lines, as can be seen in the OBI as and |]. Chu: S 5£ fE ^ 101; an element 1- or t whose function is unknown was added. Qin: §I§ 2) i.zhu (-f^tf *tjugx) 'master, owner'; originally a depiction of burning fire on a stand. Chu: $L ; a grapheme ^ midn (7c tf) 'roof was added. Qin:±££ 3) fjj jian (7ctf *krian) 'space between'; the moon fl yue (fl tf) and the gate men (% ID tf) dentoe 'space between'; (WZG ffi). Chu: 89 $f ; a grapheme 77 dao (Hf tf) was added. Qin: PQ ffi (B) Qin graphs There are two cases of a Qin receiving an attachment of unknown function not present in the corresponding Chu form. 1) # de (j&tf *pjagh) 'to obtain'; a shell K bei (^tf) 'cowrie' is held in hand X you tf) «to hold in hand»; (OBG Q( ^ ). Chu: ^; preserved the original composition. Qin: ^; an additional graph ^ (#tf) 'to go' was added.102 The Qin form of this graph is also be found in the oracle-bone graphs OjC^j), although vow X was replaced with cun 2) jSfc ./'we (^ tf *dzjiat) 'to cut off; a knife, 77 <£o (f tf), and £ (f tf) «knot or braided 101 The Chu forms, 3E f|, were augmented with an element For t whose function and identity of the forms are unknown. The SW stipulates thatiE is theguwen form of a graph if. heng(%;%$ *gzng) 'constant' which is composed of PE heng Sand SE i^xvt (ft IP) 'heart'. There is a Baoshan graph ^ which contains a heart element. It might be a case in which a semantic element was added to the HY graph to emphasize or clarify the meaning of the word represented. (An augmentation of a semantograph with a semantic element has been discussed in § 1.2.4.2.) It is possible that both graphs were used during the WS period. 102 This Qin graph is also treated in § 4.4.2. 105 string» are used to denote 'to cut off; (OBG || $ ) Chu: |$$; preserved the older composition of the graph in question. Qin : $L ; G, «kneeling person» whose function is unclear was added. 4.5. Divergent evolutionary changes from and misrecognition of earlier forms In this section, we will present the discrepancies resulted from evolutionary changes or misrecognition of earlier forms. The criterion for this category is that change were made by unintentional reinterpretation or erroneous recognition of the former form of the graph. This category has the following features: a) the modified forms do not function as PE or SE; and b) the temporal succession of forms manifests a linear evolutionary change in execution; or c) the original and modified forms are similar in shape. The cases in which the Chu graphs, Qin graphs, or both exhibit changes from the earlier forms are presented together. The graphs which exhibit changes are denoted by "! ". In the following sections, the OC sound for the graph is provided when an evolutionary change of the graph is related to its PE. 1) ^ shen «lightning» 'the ninth of the twelve Earthly Branches' Originally the oracle-bone graph in question Q and depicted lightning. We also find the oracle-bone graph ^ , which has been explained as the elaborate form of the graph shen tjs (Tang 1986, 60) and the original form of the graph dian % (Yu 1979, 10-11). Tang surmised that the Chu form of the graph shen ^ might be the descendent of this elaborate form of the graph shen ^. The small squares of the elaborate form of the graph was changed into two P kou (JJtHS) 'mouth' in the Chu graph. The Qin form with two A zhao (Wtf) «hand holding something*, 'claw' appeared to be evolved from the simple form of the oracle-bone graph % or 106 ! Qin:^ 2) fc ddi *dzgh) 'to take the place of, generation' It consists of PE yi (1&IP *rsk) 'to shoot [with arrow and string attached]' and SE A ren 'man'. The graph yi \ in the Chu form was replaced with \ gc (HII[IP) 'dagger-axe'. ! Chu:#?t Qin: ft T\ 3) & ting (#IP *ding) 'court of palace' The explanation of this graph varies: (1) SP graph which consists of PE ££. ting (#IP *thingx) 'to stick out, stretch' and SE (the SW); (2) HY graph which consists of A ren IP) 'man' standing in front of a staircase (Ogawa et al. 1967); (3) SP graph which consist of PE ^(^IP) 'thick hair' and an left element depicting the court in the palace. The WZ bronze graph in question varies as in Yu ding j£ $ in Shiyou gui £Sp |f % and ^ in Song ding £f jff}. The Chu graph adopted theh^, and the Qin adopted(J[. The right element of the Chu graph became different from the earlier form which can be transcribed as ren A- The left element of the Qin graph became closer to the modern grapheme 5_. ! Chu:£^ ! Qin:*£ 4) & Hang 'good' It is unknown what this graph originally depicted. The upper and bottom parts evolved differently in the Chu and Qin graphs from the oracle-bone graph \ and the WZ bronze graph \ (Gebo gui felb 1) 5) OLyi' fitting, right' Meat in the container or stand originally denoted a certain sacrificial ceremony. The oracle-bone graph in question was written as j|. The form of the container in the Chu graph was reduced to a grapheme *** midn 'roof. 107 Qin: HQ 6) H qi 'wife' Originally, the oracle-bone graph in question \\ or ^ was drawn as a woman whose hair was emphasized and ybu X- The hair part of this graph graphs evolved differently as shown below. ! Chu:^T 7) Jl hudng 'august' Originally, it was a depiction of flames on the stand. The upper part which is a depiction of light from a fire on a stand evolved from the WZ bronze graph ^ differently. ! Chu:^ ! Qin:|l 8) # rub 'to approve' In the OBI, this graph depicted a person with both hands raised towards his hair as ^ and Y. Later, a mouth element was added, as can be seen in WZ bronze inscriptions. The Chu and Qin used forms evolved differently. ! Chu:^:^^ ! Qin:#- This graph is used in the following graph as a PE. a) g ni 'to hide' ! Chu: S 9) & cang 'storehouse' Originally, it was a depiction of a roof (a top element) and a walled structure (a bottom element) which resembles a mouth element with a door (a middle element) as can be seen in a oracle-bone antecedent • ! Chu: Ji" ; the mouth like element became one or two horizontal lines with additional short horizontal lines in its middle, resulting in the shape under the roof resembling the graph for the word 'horse' ^. Qin: % ; the form of the original composition (a roof, door and mouth-like 108 structure under the roof) is preserved. 10) §tsha 'to kill' It consists of PE ^ «long-hair animal», 'to curse' and SE & shu 'kind of lance'. The left grapheme evolved differently in the Chu and Qin. ! Qin:fe^ 11) * mu 'dusk' Originally, it was a depiction of the sun ri B setting behind some grass which was expressed by four grass elements drawn on its top and bottom, as can be seen in a it oracle-bone graph The Chu graph preserved the structure of its oracle-bone antecedent. In the Qin form, the two pieces of grass at the bottom became the element consisting of two hands. Chu: ;ji ; ! Qin: MI 12) f da/(IfeHJ)'to borrow' It consists of PE yi (K&IP) 'to shoot [with arrow and string attached]' and SE X bei (HIP) 'cowrie'. In the Chu graph, the PE yi gained an extra stroke, producing a non-PE grapheme 3t gc (HfciP) 'dagger-axe'. ! Chu:£# SW: ft 13) # lou 'name of constellation' The WZ graph was written as . Two hands, and a middle upper element whose significance is not clear had been transformed into the upper element in the Qin graph as shown, while the Chu graph in question preserved more of its earlier constituents. Chu: ^ ! Qin:£££ 14) ^ wei 'to make, to be' Originally, as the oracle-bone form ^ shows, this graph was composed of an elephant 103 This graph is also treated in § 4.2.1.2. 109 and a hand grabbing the trunk of the elephant. Both the Chu and Qin graphs diverged. ! Chu:fe%fe^ 15) ^ chun 'spring' The OBI graphs in question sj*, Bj- and 1$ consist of two SEs, trees and the sun, or either one of the two, and a PE "fe tun 'to accumulate, station'. While the Chu descendent graph preserved all elements separately, the Qin fused grass and tun fe as shown. Chu:§L ! Qin:# % 16) || long 'dragon'; The OBI graph for 'dragon' ^ or ^ was a pictograph of an imaginary living thing. The right part had differently evolved. ! Chu: fE ! Qin: II f|H The evolved forms of this graph were faithfully maintained when used as a PE in the following two graphs. a) $ft gong 'to show respect104 ! Chu: f£ f£ ! Qin: $ # b) ft, chong 'favor' ! Chu: ! Qin: 17) 1fr g"* 'noble It consists of PE*l3 'to hold upward' and SE K bei 'cowrie'. In the Qin graph, it was changed into a different form from its precious one. Chu: Aff105 ! Qini-fr-frf 104 The graph H has been elucidated as the older form of the modern character gong $$ 'to offer'. 105 This graph is also treated in § 4.3.2. 110 This graph was used as a PE in the following SP graphs, maintaining the same composition, a) it yi 'to leave behind' Chu: i| $ ! Qin: it tf There are three more Baoshan graphs H gui 'box', 'kind of tree' and H "f^ f ^ kui 'to present [food]', which contain the graph j| ^) as a constituent. These graphs do not find their counterparts in the Qin graphs. 18) M.jiu 'stable' It consists of PE t£ gui 'kind of vessel' and SE f~ «house on the cliff». In the Chu graph, the grapheme /"" was used instead of the grapheme f~ as the result of one stroke omission. ! Chu :WiWj106 Qin : it i|| 19) Jj§ wu 'eaves' It consists of PE wit 'none' and SE f~ «house on the cliff». In the Chu graph, the grapheme F was used instead of the grapheme f as the result of one stroke omission. ! Chu : Ji H Qin : M$k 20) & zhi 0M)'to hold' The oracle-bone graph in question was written as . In the Chu form, the element depicting a foot of the manacled man was erroneously interpreted as -jr nu (fctf) 'woman' under %A as can be traced from a WZ bronze-vessel form^ (Duoyou ding # ! Chu:&ft£|f#^ Qin:&$jfe 106 This graph is also treated in § 4.3.2. 107 Ding Fuyan T # if ([1925] 1988,46) explained that the element jc was erroneous evolution of the picture of a manacled man's figure %'s foot, which were often seen in the bronze graphs in question. The WZ bronze vessel Shou gong niao zun ^ % % % gives an example of % with a foot, and the WZ bronze Duoyou ding fyiLrfa carries the graph zhi #(, having an element % with a woman instead of a foot. Ill 21) Ji ying fjktf *»jmg) 'to respond' The graph J$£ yan (l&tf **jmg) 'hawk' which serves as PE for the graph ying Ji108 consists of a SE A ren (^E-tf) 'man' with a short vertical line, which depicts a man in profile, and a SE % zhui (#tf) 'bird with a short tail'. The WZ bronze graph was written as^. The element A with a short vertical line was modified into hdn F 'cliff in the Chu graph, and into the element f~, a grapheme which was used for words relating to sickness in the Qin graph. ! Chu:# ! Qin:^*| 22) & yue/le (H tf ) 'music, joy' Originally, it was a depiction of a musical instrument. The oracle-bone form ^ has been interpreted as an musical instrument depicted by an object represented by a tree-like element and threads represented by two £ . At a later stage, as the WZ graph ^ shows, an element that appears to be a kind of playing device was added.109 ! Chu: ^ ; the tree-like element was replaced with A hud (# tf) Qin:$ 23) fobai (^tf)'to defeat' It consists of PE K bei (&tf) 'cowrie' and SE & (Jt$) 'to beat'. The above one of two graphemes fee/ H was reduced to another grapheme mu U in the Chu graph which must have been composed of two bei % and pu je as the zhouwen form of the graph in question. ! Chu: JJ^^ 110 108 The graph representing the word 'hawk', a PE of ying jj§ is explained in the SW as consisting of two SEs, ren A 'man', zhui % 'bird', and a PE if yih 'mute'. Having examined the bronze-vessel graph in question, Wang Guowei elucidated it as an HY graph consisting of y\ # in profile and zhui % depicting a man holding a hawk on his side. 109 Luo Zhenyu HfRS elucidated the top middle element as a kind of device for this instrument (JGWGv4: 3198). 110 This graph is also treated in § 4.3.4. 112 Qin: & fe 24) ^Z>z (HIP)'wall' It consists of PE # W (HIP) 'ruler' and SE ± ru (&IP) 'earth'. The Chu graph's lower part of ^ xi>j (^-IP) 'bitter' was changed into # /ing (#1)3) 'well', while the Qin graph used-I- fii (#lp) 'hill, ladder' instead of p /ze (If IP) «kneeling person» and O.111 ! Chu: §F ! Qin: If g 25) jjfc. 'to offer': It consists of PE | (TCIP) 'kind of tripod with hollow legs' and SE fc quart (7cIP) 'dog'. The graph I consists of PE (&IP) 'tiger's head' and SE ffi li ($$) 'tripod with hollow legs'. The graph xidn Jtfc. with a grapheme either ^frf ding (#lp), as ( ? bo gwz'JlftJi), or K ^ez (£$) 'cowrie' U2, asj||j (Zhaobo gui -9 46 It), instead of /i ifj, as ^$ (Ke xzz jf ), can be seen in the WZ bronze vessel inscriptions. The Chu adopted two variants, with bei H and li if), misrecognized the form of the grapheme li ifj and changed into the two graphs as shown in (b). Chu : (a) Jft $L; SE bei M. ! Chu:(b) ftf? $ ;SE/i if Qin : It |t; SE /i i 26) #z>zg 'reward, to be happy' The bottom part of the WZ bronze graph |1, a tail of a deer-like animal, was interpreted by the Qin scribe as the foot element and by the Chu scribe as the grapheme A/zwi (tip) 'insect'113 ! Chu: 1 % ! Qin:^f 111 The Old Chinese pronunciation of an element O is unknown, but it can be surmised as being close to the sound of the graph ft yuan (76 $5 *gwjari) 'round' which carries an element O as a PE. 112 For example, the two WZ bronze vessels named Zhaobo gui $ J£ each carries one of the graphemes for the graphxj'an £t (JWB, 683) 113 ^ ^Z- There are variant graphs, ^> and which do not contain the element chong A. 113 27) flj wei (£tf *gwjadh) 'to protect' It consists of PE % wei *gw/9d) 'tanned leather' and SE ft *ing(Bfr3P) 'road, to go'. The graph # was written in the OBI as^^and^jr The Chu graph used the former form with an added element ifc zhi (iltf) 'foot' as discussed above in § 4. 3. 4. On the other hand, the latter form was used by the Qin with modifications probably caused by misrecognition. Chu:^ ^ ! Qin:^|f^ ; the lower part of the grapheme % was written similar to the graph f (%%) 'to surround'. 4. 6. Unclassifiable structural discrepancies There are 15 cases that cannot be classified into any of the categories used above. Cases in this category are divided into two groups: (1) cases in which both the Chu and Qin graphs which differ from each other are found in the earlier times, and it cannot be determined which was the ancestral form and modified form; (2) cases in which graphs that were modified cannot be determined to which category of graphs (SP or HY) they belonged, and it cannot be determined which category of processes listed above the modification graphs underwent belong to. 4. 6.1. Cases in which ancestors cannot be determined There are 12 cases in which both the Chu and Qin graphs were found used in the earlier times, and the relationship of the original and modified cannot be determined. 1) ± zud (Jfctf) 'left'; SE X you (iltf) «to hold in hand» and SE P kou (Mtf) 'mouth' in the Chu graph or X gong (^.tf) 'chisel' in the Qin graph. The Chu graph was composed of kou P, while the Qin graph was composed of gong X. Both forms can be found in the WZ bronze inscriptions, as ^ in Xing zhongj|& M and ^ in$S. Chu:^^ Qin: £ f£ 114 2) % cheng (^lp *7-jsng) 'to assist'; in the OBI, it was drawn as a person with a pair of hands, with its optional element depicting a hole in the ground, as (r\( and 1^. The Chu graph appears to be a descendant of the original graph without a 'hole in the ground', while the Qin graph descended from one with a hole. Chu:# Qin:>& 3) jf!| li (J$$ *ljidh) 'favorable'; PE a pictograph of a plow and SE fc he 'crop' The grapheme )) li (liilp *ljid) 'plow' appears in the OBI graph in question with and without two dots signifying lumps of earth, as ty and J^.114 The Chu used the grapheme ^ 'plow' with two dots, and the Qin adopted it without two dots, which would evolve into the modern grapheme l] dao (f IP) 'knife'. Chu: fh%^> Qin: $\ 9fd 4) # hou (felP *gugx) 'behind, after'; according to the SW, this HY graph consists of an element £ which renders 'to link' or 'to bind', a foot facing downward ^, and chi %, a grapheme which denotes activities relating to movement. We can find both the Chu and Qin forms on the WZ bronze vessel inscriptions: ^ on ? ding^ fi, and -1^ on Ling gui 4"JI- Since it and^ are used together as an grapheme & which was used for the word related to action of moving, it is hard to determine which was the original composition. Chu: J/)%.; the grapheme it zhi 'foot' which often appears with an element chi % with which signifies human activities involved in movement. Qin : ^ ; the grapheme it zhi 'foot' was not included. 5) ft zai *dzagh) 'to plant'; PE^zaz GtlP *dzggh) 'disaster' and fc mu (felpj 'tree' We can find two graphs for the word 'disaster' in the OBI, ^fand^ , differing in their left upper element. The Chu and Qin forms appear to have derived respectively from these two graphs. 114 Qu Wanli Jg % JL (1984,460) surmised dots to be a depiction of lumps of earth. 115 Chu:$ Qin:^. 6) 1 ydn (ft tf *grjam) 'salt' This graph cannot be found in the earlier materials produced before the WZ period. According to the SW, the graph in question consists of PE j& jian (ft tf *kram) 'to inspect' and SE |»| (fc tf) «salt». The Chu graph might have abbreviated the upper part of jian I£ and used only JE min (|#tf) 'vessel'. Chu: Hi H Qin: 1 ^ 7) itk di (Jitf *djidh) 'earth'; PE •£ fa /tub (^tf *thar) 'other', an SE g ./« (ft tf) 'hill, ladder' or± tu (fctf) 'earth' It is hard to determine which of the following graphs was closer to the earlier composition of the graph for 'earth.115 Chu: El fi£ ±^ Qin: it ^ ; SE fit $ was not included. 8) H ji (iHtf *dzjsp) 'to gather, collect'; 'bird with a short tail' zhui (#tf) came to perch on the 'tree' mu (/JI tf); (OBG ^and Shang bronze graphc^f on Xiaojimuyi zhi A^%^z,m * Since both forms appeared during the Shang period, we cannot determine which one was original or modified form. Chu: % f Qin: 9) ^ ning (#tf *ning) 'tranquil' The SW lists both graphs ning ^ 'peaceful' (which consists of SE midn (jc tf) 'roof and SE xm (fttf) 'heart' and SE JL min (Htf) 'vessel') and ning ^ 'would that' 115 According to Takada ([1925] 1975, 518-519), the graph representing the word 'earth' was possibly written as li , &, % , during the WZ period when it came into existence. Originally, Takada surmised, 'to fall from the heights' (SW: cong gao duiye %t$Hj Duan explained that 1$. and|S£ were the orthodox and vulgar graph for the word 'to fall') was used for 'earth', andgfc was mistakenly written this way because of the similarity in the graphical form. The graph |$$. was a variation with a grapheme tu i which was commonly added to the grapheme ju % . The graph pfc 'to fall', too, used for the word 'earth', and later a was created for the word 'earth'. 116 (which includes an extra grapheme "7 (#1)5) ' ? '116). Duan explained that the graph ning & and ning are gujinzi The original form of this graph appear in the OBI in three variations as , Q\. It might be that Chu was the descendent of the graph consisting without the bottom element, while the Qin was that of the graph with it. Chu: H Qin:ff 10) £ ding (SIP *teng) 'to ascend, to offer' In the OBI, there are graphs which appear to be original graphs of the modern graph % *1 W as f\ and 5. • The graphs without two foot elements are used for the sacrificial ceremony, and could be interpreted as 'to offer', but the graphs with two foot elements are used for personal names. It is not known when and how the latter composition of graphs came to be used for 'to offer'. The Chu used the graph with a pair of hands, while the Qin used the one without a pair of hands. Chu:#«S Qinrg 11) ft. fi (flip *bpkw) 'to return'; PE £ fi (ftIf *bpkw) 'to return' and SE, either % chi (0IP) 'to go' (WZG }f andjj) According to the SW, this graph consists of PE M. fi (ft IP *bpkw) 'to return' and SE, either % chi (#IP) 'to go', but, as the WZ bronze graph & in San pan fj[# shows, the graph which consists oi ^ was also used during the WZ period. Gao (1987, 158) explains that the grapheme chi % was an abbreviation of the grapheme ^ which is a combination of chi % and ihz«i(^.iP) 'foot'. Because it is difficult to determine, however, whether the graph in question was originally composed of and the grapheme zhi it was abbreviated later, this case is treated in this section. Chu: i| ^ 117; it zhi (iliP) 'foot' was attached. SW:$ 12) $ (TtiP *lan) 'disorder'; it consists of two SEs t ydn (76UJ) and & mi (1£IP) 'silk 116 The identification of the grapheme -5 is ambiguous. According to the SW, it denotes "an appearance of vapor which is blocked its rising". 117 The modification of the form of the graph %_ is discussed in § 4.4.3. 117 thread' or £ (If IP) «knot or braided string». According to the SW, this graph consists of two SEs "g ydn (76IP) and & mi (HIP) 'silk thread', but, as the WZ bronze graph fj? in Song ding flgjff} andin Doubi gm' jl R! H shows, both forms were already used in the WZ times. Chu: gyg SW: M 4. 6. 2. Cases of unclassifiable graphs and modifications There are 3 cases in which graphs in question and modification cannot be classified into the categories used in this thesis. 1) % qi (^IP *fd9g) 'it, its'; a pictograph of bamboo basket 0£_lp *kj^g) ^ A pictograph of bamboo basket (illp *kpg) ^which had been loaned for a third pronoun in the OBI, and additional PE 7\ (iliP *kjsg) 'low stand to offer an object' as can be seen in the WZ bronze graph int. 118 The graph representing a 'bamboo basket', originally a loaned graph, was abbreviated from the Chu bamboo-slip form. The graph qi however, appears in the WS Chu bronze inscriptions. The graph qi Q used as a grapheme in the graph ji 'foundation' was also written in an abbreviated form A in the Baoshan bamboo slip inscriptions. Chu: A JT7X Qin: £ 11 a) i/i(iLiP *kj3g) 'foundation' Chu: 2£ SW:* 2) H wang (#IP) 'to look from afar'; It was a depiction of a man who is standing on the ground f£ ting (#IP) 'to stick out, stretch'. Its emphasized eye became the grapheme £ chen (^ip)'subject'.119 In the Chu graph, PE iz wang (|#IP *mjang) 'to disappear' replaced the eye element, while an 118 The abbreviated grapheme is a pictograph of a bamboo basket which was used alone to represent qi 'it' in OBI. The abbreviated graph in the next case is also this grapheme. 119 Chen Hi was also a vertical depiction of an eye in the OBI. 118 element fl yue (fl tf) 'moon' was added to the original graph (\ or \ ) in the Qin graph.120 while the Chu form remained in its original form. The Qin form can be found in the WZ bronze inscriptions as (Shenzi gui ifc^li j|). Chu: F§ W) Qin: ft121 4. 7. Discrepancies existing in the earlier times The Chu and Qin graphs in the following 21 cases appear on the Shang oracle-bone or the WZ bronze vessel inscriptions. The discrepancies between the Chu and Qin forms are therefore the result of the adoption of different pre-WS variants. Both the Chu and Qin graphs are presented below followed by the antecedent graphs and their identity. 1) iiju 'to give' Chu: ft /f ; ft (Rui ding^ Qin:#^ ; ^ (Huding^) 2) %. zud 'left' Chw.fe&ife ((Bangui QJn:&£; g (Xingzhong$S-lt) 3) % cheng 'to assist' Chu: # ; ^ (OBG) Qin:>&; ® (OBG) 4) M li 'favorable' The graphyue f=\ was added to create a graph for the word 'full moon' (JWG v. 10: 5178-5179). This graph is from the Stone Drum:Qianyi. 119 Chu:fh%^ ;V (°BG) Qin:fijfc -,y> (OBG) 5) Jk. ji 'to reach' Chu: i£ g (Fushu xu h &£) SW: A ^(Baoyow&fS) 6) M yuan *«win) 'abyss' Chu: J$JB};§ (OBG) Qin:^ (Shenzigu/ it*t&) 7) # c?e 'to obtain' Chu:^;^( (OBG) Qin: (OBG) 8) # hou 'behind, after' Chu:#;^i(?rfm^H) Qin:^;^ (Ling gu/41) 9) & za/ 'to plant' Chu:$;^(OBG) Oin: jj& ; ^t(OBG) 10) & ji 'to gather, collect' Chu: ; ^ (Xiaojimuyi z/*/ /Ml#£$) Qin: 4$ (Maogong dihg € ^) 11) ^ mng'peaceful' 1 Chu: H;? (OBG) Qin:f ^ ;[yl(OBG) 12) vwa« 'distant' Chu: § ; V (OBG) Qin: £1 ; y (OBG) 13) $ii 'disorder' Chu:^^; $ (Songdi/ig4g||) sw: m jjjj (Doubi g«i a. M1) 120 14) ft ju 'to return' Chu: i| 3t ; ^ (San pan ft jfc) SW: ft ; )f (Xiaochen ?gwz /JN Ej&tS) 15) 4 *»«g 'servant, child' Chu: f f ; ? (OBG) Qin: 11 ; | f (Fansheng gui 1) 16) IS: gwi (ft IP *kj9gwh) 'kind of ritual vessel' in ft/iii (ft IP *kj3gwh) 'stable' Chu : M # ; ^ (Jihou gui & £ 1 (sAi * was used in gwi ft) Qin : Jfcfe ;$^ (Ling g«i4-f (g was used in gwi ft) 17) #,zW 'to hold' ' Chu: & ft $| f# H ; (Duoyou rfmg # * ih) Qin: (OBG) 18) £ dercg (SIP *fc»g) 'to offer' Chu: |^ #r H ; $ (OBG) Qin: f;^ (OBG) 19) ft tow 'to defeat; to be defeated' Chu: ft $ #X ; S3 (Shishi gui Qin:ftfeftl;0l;(OBG) 20) x/a/i 'to offer' Chu : (a) ft %. \ (Zhaobo gwi # # 1) Qin : ft ft ; %((Zhaobo gwz # # %) 21) # we/ 'to protect' Chu:^ 1g ;ifo"f (OBG) and^(Weizun%%) SW:# ;^f(OBG) 121 4.8. Summary of modifications discussed Table of the graphs discussed in Chapter 4 List of abbreviations * : This mark following the graph indicates that the graph shown in the list was also used in other SP graphs as a constituent, as presented in Chapter 4. SWG: The graph in the SW is used as a substitute of the Qin graph in question. CWS: From the table (Appendix I) the graphemic change of the graph can be considered to have happened during the WS period. CWZ: From the table (Appendix I) the graphemic change of the graph can be considered to have happened during the WZ period. OBI: Both the Chu and Qin divergent forms can be found in the Shang OBI. WZ: Both the Chu and Qin divergent forms can be found in the WZ bronze inscriptions. 122 Table 4. 1. 1. Graphs discussed in Chapter 4 Modification Evolutionary Formation Type of SP Modification HY Modification Unclass. Process Chu Oin Chu Qin Chu Oin ifJ CWZ JB # Unspecifi. Omission If If J[ CWS ft Ancestor Step ffl jj SWG & ± wz SWG 3 0 3 2 % OBI 1 # total ft ft jiajie SWG ^ SWG >f»J-*wz 3pJ OBI # wz # £. wz SWG jf CWS ^ CWS $ OBI total 7 j& cws Si itfc SWG % OBI & Replacen « ^ OBI f -g- OBI & * & wz * $ wz Step Jfr Jt wz * 12 2 * 11 II Unclassifi. Sd. * SWG * * Graphs total 13 7 1 3 jt if # wz jKH wz s & SWG rf 3 $ & OBI *l PE 4 wz total 14 A It Chu u it* Step Chu g *^cws it wz 2 4 Chu m total 3 1 6 4 ft ft Sd. It Chu e ft % wz X Chu n St Chu t It 7A wz total 6 a SE It Jt SWG t Jfr |i SWG/WZ Step H i & wz CWS 1&2 & o SWG n total 4 total # 9 1 7 4 other % * HL wz SL JR SWG Unk ^*cws fg SWG # OBI total 2 WZ ± ft HY W ra total 1 total 2 2 4 3 Total 30 cases 11 cases 21 cases 16 cases 22 cases 15 cases Total 34 cases Total 41 cases 37 cases 27 cases 15 cases 123 Table 4. 1.2. Graphs which underwent multiple divergent processes Each graph underwent the processes marked with "X". Graphs are indexed by entry number in the table presented in Appendix I. Abbreviations C: classification of the graph G: graph H/S: modification occurred upon a HY graph and upon an SP graph for which the HY graph was used as a PE. Modification Process Evolutionary Formation Augmentation Change No. C G Omission Replac;emei i Stepl Step2 PE SE Unknown Jiajie S.det Chu Qin Chu Qin Chu Qin Chu Qin Chu Qin Chu Qin 1458 SP M X X 1067 H/S ft X X X 521 SP fix. X X X 1087 SP X X 389 SP <# X X 283 SP X X 957 SP * X X 1224 SP ft X X 1356 SP # X X 332 HY X X 1074 HY # X X 781 SP X X 431 HY # X X 392 SP it X X 1083 SP # X X 923 HY X X 1407 HY ft X X 124 In this chapter, we have examined 105 graphs for which the Chu and Qin forms differ in graphical structure. There are 34 cases in which structural discrepancies originated in the two-step SP and one-step HY formation process. The discrepancies of 7 SP graphs resulted from different usage of jiajie with the same semantic determiner to remove overload from homophonous or near-homophonous representation. There are 14 SP cases in which different semantic determiners were added to the same phonetic elements to represent a given word. 4 SP graphs exhibit entirely different usage of both jiajie and semantic determiners. There is 1 SP case in which different semantographs are used with the same phonetic element. There is also another SP graph in which different semantographs are used with the different phonetic elements. We find only 1 case of an HY graph formed from different elements. For these 28 cases in all, no antecedents from any period can be found, and so it can only be proposed that their formation in the two regions was independent or partially so.122 The six remaining cases show Chu-area only augmentation with semantic determiners to jiajie graphs. It can be suggested that the augmentation of one graph Idi 'to come') took place during the WZ period. For the rest, the time at which augmentation occurred is unknown. There are 69 graphs whose structural discrepancies were the result of various types of graphemic modifications: 36 SP graphs (Chu 30 cases; Qin 11 cases) and 33 HY graphs (Chu 21 cases; Qin 16 cases).123 The numbers for SP and HY modification can be summarized as follows: Omission Replacement Add/ PE Add / SE Add / unknown SP: Chu 3 13 3 9 2 Qin 0 7 1 1 2 HY: Chu 3 1 6 7 4 Qin 2 3 4 4 3 122 Todo (1965, 13) has proposed that a Chinese graph to represent a given word could have been independently formed by different people, at different locations. Gao (1987, 146) has proposed that the usage of divergent but semantically congruent semantic constituents in multi-element graphs was not necessarily synchronic but diachronic. As a result, a given word could at the same time have several representations with different semantic elements. 123 The number of graphs which have been treated in Chapter 4 and the number of cases in which the Chu or Qin graphs underwent modification do not match. Some graphs must be counted more than once. See Table 4.1.2. 125 There are 4 Chu graphs (2 SP graph # j| and 2 HY graphs and one Qin graph (1 HY graph J[) for which the modification can in the table be put during the WS period. The forms of 6 graphs used in the Chu area (3 SP graphs WM # and 3 HY graphs can be found in the oracle-bone or WZ bronze graphs; 4 HY graphs (##^.4) used in the Qin state can similarly be traced to earlier antecedents. There are 27 graphs whose structural discrepancies between the Chu and Qin were caused by unintentional evolutionary changes: 10 cases in which both the Chu and Qin evolved differently; 12 cases in which only the Chu graphs underwent changes; and 5 cases of Qin only. In the table, we find that both the Chu and Qin modified forms of the graph Ji first appeared during the WS period. Of the 22 Chu modified forms, there are 3 graphs (tf> whose evolved forms can be found in the WZ period. There is only Qin modified form (#) which can be found in the WZ graphs. There are 15 graphs which cannot be classified into the categories above. Both the Chu and Qin forms of 10 graphs are found on either the Shang oracle-bones or WZ bronzes, and the original composition of 2 graphs are ambiguous, and so it has been impossible to determine the nature of the modification that caused the discrepancy; 3 graphs have not been classified because the processes of modification they underwent are not assignable to any one of the categories. From the extant materials, as traced in the table, it has been possible to date the discrepancy in the Chu and Qin forms as originating in the Warring States period in 7 cases, and in the earlier Shang and Western Zhou periods, to 26. Scarcity of material precludes dating the rest. 126 4. 9. Tables (Multi-element graphs) ft Chu P3LM Yangtianhu bamboo slip # Qin KM Qin wooden tablet Oracle-bone SLLJ Wangshan bamboo slip WZ bronze *# Silk manuscript ~$SjkX WZ bronze lift* ZuChuwen stone tablet &&X SA bronze Baoshan bamboo slip m&x WS bronze Shuihudi bamboo slip *fci Zenghou Yi bamboo slip Modem grapheme Stone drums Modem character 1BB Xinyang bamboo slip 4.2. Structural discrepancies present during the process of formation 4.2.1. SP graphs 4.2.1.1. Divergent usage of jiajie graphs ft # 1 it ail TT 2 3 a • 4 tl # 5 ft if 6 11 f wn RD M 7 # H 4.2.1.2. Divergent usage of semantic determiners ft &&X ** # © 1 % 2 IT 3 ft 127 aft # &* tl** * 4 % f ft* 5 li 6 a. is (It 7 * 8 Iff V • 9 w 10 1* ft *» 11 If If te ft 12 n fi 13 §8 4i n 14 if $ * M 4.2.1.3. Chu augmentation of jiajie with semantic determiners ft &&X *t aft # &* &&X ** l pq PI 2 3 f] AA ft A 0 * 4 JS 128 WiS Wir* *ir* $ir* adj ft ffl <& # T 1A ir* Wir* *ir* ** 5 I $ 0 4.2.1.4. Different graphemes used at SP formation ft ¥#* WiS Wir* *ir* $ir* # ir* Wir* *ir* $ir* ** 1 H d E It It 2 il But PR 3 ft 4 * f & 4.2.1.5. Different usage of semantographs ft ft* WiS Wir* *&* «ir* # ir* Wir* *ir* «ir* lift* 1 1=1 T T 7TJ 4.2.1.6. Different usage of semantographs and PEs ft ¥t* WJS Wir* *ir* $ir* -flit # ir* Wir* *ir* $ir* lift* ^# l * It 4.2.2. HY graphs ft ¥t* WiS Wir* *ir* $ir* £ih ftt aft # Wir* *ir* mir* tf«t* lift* l I iff ii 129 4.3. Divergent structural modification of SP graphs 4.3.1. Omission of SP grapheme (A) Chu graphs ft WM W&* *&* aft aft ¥t* $&* &* W&* tl** # #&* $&* 1 ft i 2 Ik *» 3 n ^ -T\ >T\ 4.3.2. Replacement of SP grapheme (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs ft ISM W&* aft aft ¥t* #&* $&* # W&* *&* H&* ti** 1 it i 1 II III fl II 2 ti 1 (A) Chu graphs ft W&* aft aft ft* «&* # &* W&* $&* ti** l 7= i- 2 i t£ % JT 3 f?l 4 «: i ii f£ ft 130 ft &&X ** aft aft # &* &&X tmx 5 Si % 6 * 7 He $ * 8 ft it it It 9 m% if 10 m 11 1 * (B) Qin graphs W&X adj aft aft ft ¥# X # &x *** %&X lift* m 1 * f tf at. f * 3 tic A 4 Hi it c % D •» M 131 4.3.3. Augmentation of SP with extra PE (A) Chu graphs ft WiS Wir* *ir* $ir* 'S.Jj'HrlBf ft* aft aft # &* Wir* *&* $ir* *r&* lift* 1 1 * 2 it 3 if $ * (B) Qin graphs ft WJH Wir* #ir* $ir* f Mi JLiii ft* aft aft ir* Wir* *ir* $ir* lift* # ^^* l ** S? ^ if ± 111 4.3.4. Augmentation of SP with extra SE (A) Chu graphs ft WiS Wir;* *ir* l^ir* aft ft* #t aft # ir* Wir* *&* $ir* lift* *» l f ft 2 as 3 ft n « IS 4 f? I m 6* s 5 I* *» it & 6 fit 132 &&X &&X aft «ft ¥t* ft* # &* W&* &&X Sk&X tit* ** 7 l» ft fk 8 ffl * 9 m # ft (B) Qin graphs ft ¥** mM m&x *&* «,&* ft* aft # &* m-tx &&X &&X 5ti* IE** l f If 4 ft 4.3.5. Augmentation of SP with grapheme of unknown function (A) Chu graphs ft W&* S$&* ft* aft aft ft* *&* # £* W4r* *&* $&* ^&* il** m t t 1 w it JlL at 2 f if f (B) Qin graphs ft mM SUJ ft* aft aft ¥t* m&x *&* $&* # &X m&x #&* &&* ^&* !&** ** l m * 2 i 4.4. Divergent structural modification of HY graphs 4.4.1. Omission of HY grapheme (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs ft WiS Wir* #ir* air* &djtfrffi aft aft ¥t* # ir* Wir* *ir* l^ir* 5IA* ti** ft 1 ft it « # ft $ (A) Chu graphs ft ¥** WiS Wir3 *ir* Kir* adj aft aft # •kX Wir* *ir* ftir* #t£* us* l tf HP Bp ff56ff} 2 % >* # * (B) Qin graphs ft WiS Wir* *ir* air* %9tL adj aft aft ¥t* # ir* Wir* *ir* air* %$£X ti** mmm® 1 A PI s & HI m 4.4.2. Replacement of HY grapheme (A) Chu graphs ft WiS Wir* *ir* air* #» adj «# ^djitffi aft aft ¥t* # ir* Wir* *ir* air* ti** 1 f% (B) Qin graphs ft WiS Wir* *&* air* adj a* ^.djitffi aft aft ¥t* # ir* Wir3 *&* air* ^fe* fc® ii** mM.ik%® ** ft # l of f 1 134 ft W$ Wir* *ir* ftir* ^iljItlSf ¥t* aft aft # Wir* *ir* air* lift* f Z # # 3 ft 4.4.3. Transformation of HY to SP (A) Chu graphs ft W$ Wir* *ir* air* -feih-Hrff a« ¥f * f aft # ir* Wir* *ir* air* ii** ** 1 rl S 2 ran fa 3 rf 4 A # y & 5 if II ti Si t 6 t tt tt 135 (B) Qin graphs ft mM m&x ft* lift aft ft* *&* $&* # m&x *&* $&* *ft* US* 0$ O OO A 1 % AA 2 & fi s if mi & 3 • I fl Ii t 4 ft nn If If fl It 4.4.4. Augmentation of HY with extra SE (0) Both Chu and Qin graphs ft mM W&* *&* ft* aft aft ft* $&* # &* W&* *&* $&* ti** l 9 136 (A) Chu graphs ft WJS wi-* *ir* air* aft as ¥t* Wir* *ir* ftir* il** ** # k IdE °< lk 1 & ft # 2 3 1 * 4 * 5 I I n n * t 1 f it * f 6 & (B) Qin graphs ft W$ Wir* ^ir* air* SLih aft aft # ir* Wir* *ir* air* 5ft* fc® 11** ** l If it f It 2 3 1 137 4.4.5. Augmentation of HY with grapheme of unknown function (O) Both Chu and Qin graphs mM m&x &&X &&X HB 4.OJ aft ft ¥t* ft* aft # &x m&x %&x &&X ti** ** $ 1 * I fl It (A) Chu graphs ft mM m&x &&X &&X HB ft* aft ¥** aft &x m&x &&X ^ si* ti** mtim® m ?F l If T T 2 9 v> 3 W H Sl (B) Qin graphs ft m&x &&X &&X HB ft* ¥** aoj aft aft &* m&x &&X ?k1Bf ti** l ^ # (22 2 ft* 4.5. Divergent evolutionary changes from and misrecognition of earlier forms ft mM m&x &&X &&X HB ft* a* ¥•* adj # m&x %&x &&X ?kiBf ii** % l a i % ¥ % <¥ ft ft 2 ft ft 138 ft Wit* *ir* l^ir* aft ft* aft # Wir* #ir* air* 5 ft* fc® lift* ## 3 ID 1 % 4 1 it M \ ft 5 1 A SI 6 f fl$f 7 a if i m i # 8 Pi- I f 9 t t ** 10 ft* /fix. 11 tt e> Yt MI 12 13 * if* * 14 m iff H 25 « /Tift O ^< 15 T * *3* fi 139 ft ®4r^ ** aft aft ft* «» # &*W4r * lift* f? * ft ft tin IE II If 16 H % ** « * 17 ft it it 18 Jgc 19 JS is 9m. 20 fe If 21 //I JS 22 ! # * * m ft 23 Be % 24 m lit It 25 ?* ft fe % A ft fc ft. 26 1 it ifr 27 4.6. Unclassifiable structural discrepancies 4.6.1. Cases in which ancestors cannot be determined ft *ir* air* aft ¥t* «« # Wir* *ir* air* 5ft* lift* & 1 % % fi 2 A 3 % Jfil % ft Ik t ft 4 & ii 5 Ik 6 S 7 ft * OBX BR if 8 * 9 jm. 10 t # * 11 ti t it $ 12 141 4.6.2. Cases of unclassifiable graphs and modifications ft ®$ W&* *£* ft* aft aft ¥t* $&* # £* W&* *&* 5 Si* tl** *« sin Tv TT rcTl TT: y N 1 MM W| 1st /\ 7T it 2 I t. 3 m 1 1# tf 4.7 Discrepancies existing in the earlier times W&* *&* ft ¥#* $&* ft* aft W&* #&* Kir* t£** # 1 ft tt 2 fx % 3 ©A 4 ft 5 6 1 HI tf 7 A # 8 ft & 9 10 ! * 142 WJS Wir* *ir* air* f Mi aft aft ft ¥t* # ir* Wir3 #ir* air* lift* 11 A tm. 12 13 il A tt 14 fr i 15 % f 11 Ii i * m It 16 JR: Ji 17 tt ft 18 * * 19 ft ft ft 20 ?t ft fe s * ft 21 % S 143 Chapter 5 Conclusion The characterization that Warring States "graphs varied in form" given in the SW had since the first century AD had become traditionally accepted, but scientific study of the Warring States writing has been made possible only with the abundant archaeological discoveries of the recent past. He Linyi's study of the Warring States graphs, among other scholars, presents well the state of contemporary knowledge of Warring States writing. By today, regional discrepancies have been thoroughly examined; the observable tendencies governing the regional variations have been categorized: notions such as graphemic augmentation, omission, and replacement have been introduced. Geographic divisions based on internal homogeneity of the graphical forms have been widely accepted. Scholars have in the main reached two essential conclusions: (1) considerable regional discrepancies existed in the writing, which at the same time was (2) uniformly descended from the Shang oracle-bone and Western Zhou graphs. Based on several previous studies, this thesis has attempted to draw a detailed and encompassing picture of two aspects of the regional discrepancies: (1) the degree to which the Chu and Qin writing diverged during the Warring States period; and (2) the nature of the observable discrepancies between the two regional traditions. The table of graphs constructed sufficiently shows the degree of heterogeneity and homogeneity between the Chu and Qin graphs. Inspection confirms that both the Chu and the Qin graphs indeed descended from common oracle-bone and Western Zhou ancestors: the uniformity observable between the two regional traditions in simple graphs overwhelms the observable discrepancies; the consdierable structural discrepancies in multi-element graphs have been observed, of which some originated before the Warring States period. That the graphical situation of the Warring States period was the outcome of processes continuous since the Shang period has therefore been the basis for attempting to characterize the observable discrepancies between the two regional traditions. If Chu and Qin writing descended from a common ancestor, and if Warring States graphs formed an unbroken evolutionary development from the Shang period (He 1989), then any regional Warring States structural discrepancy was the partial outcome of individual modifications or events that occurred in exactly one of the regions before or during the Warring States period, and in total the outcome of all these events in both regions. We have traced (in Chapter 4) various observable discrepancies between the Chu and Qin writing to the level of such events and of the region in 144 which these events occurred. Given the standard hypothesis that the Qin writing was the most conservative of the five regional traditions of the Warring States period in preserving the earlier graphical forms, one would expect that the modifications of the Qin graphs should be minimal. The examples presented in Chapter 4, however, show that structural graphical modifications were not confined to the Chu area only. Although the number of Chu modifications tabulated in this thesis exceeds the number of Qin modifications, cases of Qin deviation from antecedent forms preserved in the Chu tradition have also been found. It is possible that future archaeological discoveries will lead to a reassessment of the relative degrees of conservatism present in the five regional traditions. There is a scholarly tradition that graphical divergence was confined to the Warring States period. In the table we can trace the changes in graphical form of several Chu and Qin graphs. Several cases of divergence are found to have originated during the Warring States period: for example, the Chu modified form of # hudng 'yellow' (Table entry 1014), the Shang and Western Zhou forms of which are unmodified. For most cases, however, the exact moment at which the processes of modification first produced the discrepancies of the Warring States graphs cannot be determined for lack of data. In the extant materials we find only a few cases of structural discrepancy born in the Warring States period. On the other hand, there are more cases of both the Chu and Qin forms, one modified and the other not, already in use during the Western Zhou period: or indeed, in a few cases, as early as the Shang. Graphical variations occur during the Western Zhou period (Tang 1986; Qiu 1988), but the prevailing opinion has held that Western Zhou writing remained on the whole uniform (Guo 1972; Tang 1986), a single tradition under the strong central power of the Zhou Royal House. That both Chu and Qin forms can be seen in the earlier Western Zhou graphs suggests, however, another possibility: the basic graphs such as pictographs having been created, Chinese writing did not remain uniform throughout, but began to diverge toward the graphical situation of the Warring States period. 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(Preface dated 1833). 159 Appendix I Table: The Comparison of the Chu and Qin WS Graphs (Chu graphs top, Qin graphs bottom) ft Chu Yangtianhu bamboo slip # Qin Qin wooden tablet ¥** Oracle-bone Sdj Wangshan bamboo slip WM&X WZ bronze *t Silk manuscript "B&X WZ bronze lift* ZuChuwen stone tablet &&X SA bronze Baoshan bamboo slip m&x WS bronze Shuihudi bamboo slip Zenghou Yi bamboo slip Modern grapheme Stone drums Modern character 'ff" Xinyang bamboo slip mM Wir* tir* •SB* *« ft ft* aft # Wir* l^ir* ^&* 7kffl lift* ** — — — — — 1 — — — — — — 2 } i L A A A XX A 3 /V n A A 4 fl + + • 5 • 1 t+. 4 + + + 1 1 6 X 1 7 71 8 U u 9 A 7? ' — = — 10 = = — — — = 11 + 12 -h -b +t -4- 160 am aft ft ¥t* W$ Wir* *ir* ftir* # Wir* *ir* tir* ^ft* life* ** 13 i h_ >l K fe 14 - T 15 _ — _L — ± 16 TT? T T TT — T o— — "F T — — = -— 17 — =- — —- 18 ± +± ± 19 ft f 20 T\ TT m /\ * 7T 7T<£ 7T ^= 21 T TT ? 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Wr^Jft ft* ft* ir* I 5ir3 #ir* Kir* 5ft* life* »*• 744 # 745 M . ft 746 747 748 749 III if 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 il ft 760 761 ft tit M H * * 762 & & 763 f 764 9 765 7113 %%% 766 AA ft 767 * 768 198 ft Kir* ft* aft aft # Wir;* tit* ** 769 % 770 771 * 772 il 773 4H * ih #* 774 775 _f5_ m # 776 777 * 778 X- ** 779 780 at 781 f Ik IS If 782 783 ft it 784 if 785 tt ig 786 787 788 # •ft 789 790 791 a? * 792 #* ft 199 ft aft aft # &x 5 ft* life* 0* 793 H ft f#i * 794 Tt & 795 l * 25 796 * 797 798 k 799 800 801 802 803 ii 804 * 805 TK if 806 807 ft 808 ft #1 809 810 ft 811 812 t * 813 * 814 815 816 817 I Si * 200 ft wn Sir;* fciljttfl aft aft # Sir;* tit* 0* 818 819 ft i *** 1 I Hi. * lit 820 I; s % i 821 & 822 823 # 824 5 825 826 827 828 * 829 ** 830 i 831 i ffl 832 f 833 & 834 f It 835 ft 1 836 3$ IP 837 % IP 838 % » 839 % IP 840 & % * 841 f mm IP 842 IP 843 IP 201 ft ¥** Sir;* *ir* Slilj ft* aft # Wir;* #ir* «ir* tit* 844 * # 845 fe 846 • at 847 a 848 ($1 # 849 * 850 FF) tf 851 m 852 # 853 854 » ii I B * f $ 855 * 856 857 * 858 859 * 860 r 861 862 863 * 864 865 ft 866 ft 202 ft ¥t* WM »t aft aft # &X %ikX 0* 867 * * 868 * 869 »• 870 St 871 f 872 873 * 874 875 876 f # 877 /^•> 878 1 ### f 879 t If 880 881 JE im 882 ;ii 883 884 ft te 885 IE It 886 H 887 888 889 890 891 203 ft Sir;* *ir* mir* Sill ft* aft aft # ¥** ir* sir;* *ir* Kir* life* 18 11 892 w if # It fr 893 * 894 if® 895 896 # 897 # * 898 899 900 901 If UK 902 IS 903 904 §t§± 905 JS 906 907 908 i"4> if # 909 910 M 911 ft 912 m 913 fa 1 7T) # * 914 % * 915 916 3R U-J, 917 918 3fc 204 ft ¥t* a* aft aft # ^4t* sift* 919 920 921 I 922 923 fl 924 m si 925 m 926 f m 927 928 929 * 930 931 932 H f 933 % fe 934 ft ii Iff * 935 ¥ 936 937 938 A 939 ft* * 940 * n 941 # HI 205 ft ¥#* ISM *ir* Kir* am gib *# aft aft # ir* Wir;* *ir* Kir* 5 Si* aft* «t 942 *** % 943 % 944 a. 945 if fr" 946 9 947 f M 948 949 tt # 950 t i # t 951 tt 952 w 953 n f m ft °* if 954 955 w tt 956 ft 957 a» ff •t * 958 1 ft 959 960 961 SP 962 963 f iii f 964 8* $ 965 5^ *ft 966 ft 206 ft ¥t* mn ft* aft a« # &% 5ft* ** 967 * 968 969 970 971 972 1 lie 973 Jl 974 te 975 976 it 977 978 f 979 * 980 Ti WW I) ? 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Wir;* *ir* Kir* ad/ 'S. ill # ffl aft ¥t* # ir* Wir;* *ir* Kir* 5ft* *n t&&* S^ftitffl 1343 II 1344 1 ft 1345 11 1346 fe $1 1347 ft 1348 ft 1349 Ik 1350 $ 1351 ti ft ft 1352 1353 ffl 1354 » 'ft 1355 ft ff 1356 % V ft 1357 s 1358 1359 1360 ft 1361 * 1362 1363 * tt 1364 ft 1365 « t ft 1366 1367 1 9 222 ft WJ5 Sir;* *ir* $ir* ft* aft aft ¥f * # &* *ir* $ir* tit* ** 1368 & « 1369 n 1370 ft 1371 IS 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 1377 & 1378 fit 1379 1? 1380 it TIE 1381 M 1382 i 1383 IS 1384 # 1385 If 1386 1387 1388 1389 It 1390 » 1391 1392 1393 ti It t 1394 0,5 223 fe mM Wir3 *ir* Kir* aft aft ft* 7)cffl # ir* m&% *ir* Kir* 5 ft* iaft* 0* 1395 it 1396 m 1397 ft 1398 ft 1399 fti$ « 1400 *f 1401 it ft 1402 1403 m % ft 1404 n 1405 1406 X 1407 ft fl it 1408 ft ft 1409 it ft ft 1410 $f If 1411 it 1412 % » II ft 1413 IS 1414 ftft ft 1415 ft ft 1416 ft 1417 ft 1418 % 1419 1420 i$ 1421 U n S£ 224 ¥** Sir;* *ir* $ir* ma; ft* lift aft #it ir* Sir;* *ir* $ir* 5 si* life* «rt 1422 ft 1423 ft 1424 ft 1425 1 1426 H 1427 H IS 1428 fe 1429 ft 1430 II lit If 1431 a ai B m s II * 1432 Is 1433 If ft 1434 ft IS 1435 a 1436 ft ft ft 1437 « 1438 If II 1439 t 1440 & tt a. 1441 i_ §!? 1442 ft 1443 » 1444 ft 1445 ft 1446 ft 1447 « 1448 it 1449 ft$F i 225 ft a oi aft aft # &x &&X ZikX lift* 1450 1§ 1$ 1451 & 1452 it 1453 n 1454 tt aw 1455 Dt ft 1456 # 1457 If S 1458 It M 1459 * 1460 ft 1461 I 1462 IS 1463 # 1464 1465 8 1 B 1466 #^ ¥£ 1467 It ft 1468 ^ m 1469 If 1470 ft m 1471 $ fi 1472 fi 1473 m 226 Appendix II List of Graphs from the Western Zhou Bronze Vessels This appendix provides an index of the source materials from which the Western Zhou (T5 ffi&SO bronze-vessel graphical forms given in Appendix I have been taken. Appendix II gives between one and three Western Zhou forms for each entry, taken from the bronze vessels as numbered in Appendix III. The order of the bronze vessel numbers below matches the order of the Western Zhou variant forms. Entry Bronze vessels Entry Bronze vessels Entry Bronze vessels 1 78 29 78 54 79 2 78 30 79 136 55 78 136 144 3 79 31 137 56 8 5 24 32 26 78 57 2 6 78 33 2 58 5 9 24 61 34 79 142 59 24 2 10 78 35 61 60 9 12 158 36 143 61 61 13 62 37 143 62 126 14 79 39 121 63 78 15 155 40 24 129 64 110 61 16 135 41 78 65 45 17 78 42 108 136 66 28 18 62 44 142 67 78 19 2 45 143 68 107 20 143 10 46 78 69 61 21 24 99 47 10 70 46 22 78 5 48 81 71 78 23 61 49 79 72 78 24 143 50 78 73 46 158 25 61 51 136 74 172 27 155 52 111 75 27 28 158 53 78 76 2 227 77 138 120 85 174 65 78 79 121 73 175 54 80 79 111 122 79 176 60 82 122 123 26 181 128 145 83 5 124 47 182 87 84 82 125 11 183 111 86 100 126 49 184 78 155 87 6 118 177 127 12 100 185 149 89 37 128 78 61 186 78 90 6 131 2 187 66 2 91 38 132 78 188 136 93 145 134 78 191 5 94 76 158 135 78 192 88 96 143 136 143 198 6 116 143 97 2 140 127 199 89 99 78 148 136 200 67 101 158 149 79 202 143 104 155 150 50 204 136 105 1 151 78 205 136 106 158 154 150 208 69 107 143 155 45 209 55 108 84 160 143 210 5 109 78 161 23 211 119 110 101 162 102 51 212 66 111 78 163 101 215 115 112 39 165 78 216 116 113 20 166 87 217 5 114 61 167 46 226 90 115 143 10 169 35 100 228 41 116 64 170 52 234 143 117 27 171 53 236 100 118 78 172 136 239 177 147 119 43 173 100 240 135 228 241 66 155 330 70 422 26 242 2 332 149 423 155 243 153 334 46 95 424 5 244 78 143 341 89 425 105 245 116 349 139 430 5 254 81 138 354 152 431 78 257 78 356 66 448 145 258 43 359 78 451 143 259 62 361 78 453 115 264 5 90 362 36 82 454 78 267 143 364 78 458 13 268 92 365 101 459 155 269 78 371 10 463 143 276 78 375 78 469 78 142 277 73 378 143 471 149 278 28 380 14 473 5 279 89 78 381 151 477 158 283 173 382 90 478 87 286 99 78 170 383 78 493 43 288 61 384 143 495 87 289 136 385 143 501 136 290 3 387 6 2 506 17 292 143 388 66 507 78 293 43 10 389 86 510 24 157 296 143 391 2 511 44 301 119 392 57 513 81 303 116 399 128 515 100 305 71 401 2 516 16 306 93 403 118 526 4 309 78 407 117 535 135 2 310 140 409 103 536 101 328 68 412 104 538 15 329 110 421 56 541 177 229 563 120 691 116 832 143 569 143 693 73 845 111 570 124 696 78 846 78 571 2 709 18 10 851 117 575 2 717 85 854 61 580 148 720 2 860 72 584 164 727 61 878 26 590 5 29 730 135 881 2 591 77 732 24 882 112 21 595 7 733 131 885 106 597 119 136 739 5 892 5 142 601 116 743 111 894 2 135 605 143 749 61 921 100 606 80 756 40 923 74 612 118 759 166 927 61 619 34 761 101 932 5 623 136 762 5 933 133 625 88 775 137 934 2 627 78 777 167 938 143 73 628 142 778 78 141 943 146 637 179 781 71 98 169 945 61 638 142 786 29 953 2 639 78 788 171 143 980 83 640 119 793 2 1000 155 641 27 795 78 1001 110 642 97 798 5 90 1006 113 647 136 806 2 1014 42 650 130 808 138 1015 33 662 35 817 78 1021 143 663 81 819 34 1024 27 670 91 2 820 132 1025 161 671 125 821 32 1027 79 673 155 830 134 27 1041 89 164 230 1044 7 136 1307 5 1051 94 1311 63 101 26 1061 154 1314 61 1073 63 5 1330 10 1074 30 1336 87 1083 142 61 143 1344 26 1090 100 1351 142 1092 26 1356 163 48 1093 10 59 1371 149 1094 135 2 1383 155 171 1101 2 1393 5 1115 136 1399 5 1121 150 1406 176 1124 158 1407 135 2 1125 136 1431 61 114 1130 143 1465 113 156 1138 109 1146 19 1148 25 1151 78 1152 5 1163 61 1186 73 1206 6 1218 150 1221 123 1224 117 1228 2 1230 75 58 1238 87 1261 126 1278 89 1280 78 231 Appendix III List of the Western Zhou Bronze Vessels 1 26 3 ftl 51 7^"1 76 2 27 52 3ci 77 ^tei 3 Ai 28 53 Ml 78 ii 4 29 £«1 54 79 it 5 A&i 30 55 ft* 80 6 31 AM 56 #*S1 81 7 * e&i 32 57 #JK£1 82 8 tbl 33 58 83 9 $1 34 59 #£i 84 10 35 60 85 -frl 11 36 61 £i 86 £fcte#l 12 37 *r&i 62 87 * £ 13 38 .^i 63 88 #!$ 14 £*1 39 64 89 tl 15 40 *pl 65 90 *tel 16 41 66 91 til 17 42 $i 67 te£i 92 tl 18 ^i 43 68 fill 93 *1 19 44 69 te^3C^ 94 &#i 20 #A-£H 45 70 95 at£l 21 +;te£i 46 71 4i 96 Ml 22 47 itki 72 97 23 48 73 SKI 98 24 41 49 74 99 25 50 75 #*Ai 100 232 101 126 ft* 151 177 102 127 152 #s 103 t£ 128 153 #1 104 ** 129 IftH 154 105 130 155 106 131 156 107 132 157 108 lf£#i 133 158 109 lf£$ 134 #* 159 110 if a* 135 #£t 160 111 ifS.t 136 161 112 if Mi 137 #3f 4 # 162 113 ifM 138 163 « 114 139 164 115 140 165 116 If Wt 141 166 MS 117 142 *« 167 118 143 168 119 144 169 120 145 170 121 146 171 122 147 172 173 123 148 « $ 124 WS 149 174 125 150 ^ @ 176 233 Appendix IV List of the Chu Bronze Vessels The Chu bronze-vessel graphs in the table have been collected from the following bronze vessels and artifacts. The bronze vessels and artifacts are listed in chronological order below, divided in province where they were found. The name of the vessel or artifact, the place found, the dating, and the source are provided. List of Abbreviations CWZT Chu wenwu zhanlan tulu fe jti % % HI GMQ Guo Moruo quanji fp jfc £ H JHKG Jianghan kaogu iL^^"i" KIKS Kinshutsu In-Shu kinbun shusei $i tB WiM KG Kaogu LJDTK LiangZhou jinwenci daxi tulu kaoshi W M^^L^^^WM^ WW Wenwu WWCZ Wenwu cankao ziliao X % # # it ^4 SJWC Sandaijijin wencun 'feXfe SJT Shierjia jijin tulu -j- -Z. % fif & @ ^ SCCY Shouxian Caihoumu chutuyiwu fH&H-'f^il ttl iift#7 SSSK Shunju sengoku seidoki no kenkyu ^^C^@#H^-(D9f^S xxc Xichuan Xiasi chunqiumu :M J'l ~F ^-^.S XYC Xinyang Chumu It" |# fe H YJJ Yin-Zhou jinwen jicheng WiWi ZJT Zhensongtang jijin tu H ^ % if dkr m ZY Zenghou Yimu f M £S WZ the Western Zhou period; SA the Spring and Autumn period; WS the Warring States period; E early (first one-third); M middle (second one-third); L late (third one-third); E-M the first half; M-L the second half; pho. photograph of rubbing 234 I. Bronze Vessels Excavated in Hunan Province (ffl $j) l.MHW WS/M WW 1960.8/9.P.81 WS/M KG 1963.9 P.467 II. Bronze Vessels Excavated in Hubei Province (ffl it) 1. #te**fi KM WZ/M WW 1973.5 P.22pho. 3 2. Mt# WZ/M WW 1973.5 P.25pho.8 KM WZ/M WW 1973.5 P.25pho.9 5. f WZ/L, SA/E WW 1972.1. pho.6 5. f 4^^S WZ/L, SA/E WW 1972.2.P.53pho.ll 6. t?M + ^&Cli ^ li/ WZ/L SA/E WW1972.2.P.53pho.l2 7.Sf-S WZ/L, SA/E WW 1972.2.P.53pho.l3 8. £^H^Fi SA/E JHKG 1984.1 P. 101 9. gf^+lti SA/E KG 1975.4 P.223pho.3-l io. SA/E KG 1989.11 P. 1043 pho.6 SA/E, SA/M WW 1972.3 P.66pho.2 12. SA/E, SA/M WW 1972.3 P.68pho.7, 8 13. SA/E-M WW 1980.1 P.37 pho.6-2, 3; pho.7-2, 3 14. a: ft SA/M WW 1982.10P.17pho.2 QYT.P67.15 TCQ.P20 15. gJB^f KM SA/M JHKG 1980.2 pho.l (below) 16. t**#« KM SA/M JHKG 1980.1 P.77 pho.6 17. f 4^*^: « SA/M JHKG 1980.1 P.73pho.3 18. KM SA/M KG 1982.2 P. 145 pho.6-1 KM SA/M KG 1982.2 P. 145 pho.6-3,4 20. fill SA/L WW1986.4P.10pho.2 SA/M, M-L, WS/E-M SJWC 1.63-64; 22.JK.illl, £ KM SA/L JHKG 1983.1 P.75pho.2 23. SA/L WW 1976.11 pho.4-1 24. « SA/M, SA/L, SA/L —WS/E, WS/M JHKG 1992.1 P.73 25.&jg-*£ KM SA/L -WS/E, WS/E JHKG 1985.1 P.59 235 27. fM^i(t) IM WS/E ZYP.199pho.l00-l,2 28. Bfc&gfc KM WS/E ZYP.227pho. 126-2 29. %&z,s. KM WS/E ZYP.213pho.H2-3 30. f^^^M KM WS/E ZYP.561-579 31. KM WS/E ZY P.580-582 32. KM WS/E ZYP.283pho. 174-3 33. f«$(N105) KM WS/E ZYP.276pho.166 34. f MlM(N130) KM WS/E ZYP.273pho.163 35. tfMii-$ KM WS/E ZYP.277pho.167 36. g£*##«fte£* HI M WS/E YJJ85 37.|p^f^ ilft WS/E KG 1980.5pho.3-ll 38.^^ ft WS/E KG 1980.5 pho.3-10 39. #39 3 WS/E WW 1962.11P.58.1 III. Bronze Vessels Excavated in Henan Province (53" $j) SA/E WW 1980.1 P.47pho.2 / 2.#&£® fi§ l# SA/E WW 1980.1 P.43 pho.3 3.«M SA/E-M KG 1965.7 P.371 pho.1-2 4. #&6#i « SA WW 1980.1 P.43pho.4 5. SA WW 1980.1 P.43pho.5 6. SA WW 1980.1 P.44 pho.6 7. SA/E, SA/M KG 1984.4 P.311pho. 12-4 8. SA/E, SA/M KG 1984.4 P.311 pho. 12-5 9.£T#*At SA/E, SA/M KG1984.4P.319pho.20-3 10. t^^^Ai SA/E, SA/M KG 1984.4 P.320pho.21-5 n.-fc^ft^AflS SA/E, SA/M KG 1984.4 P.311 pho.21-4 12. SA/M WW1981.1P.13pho.ll, 12 13. |**AK SA/M WW1981.lP.13pho.14 trip SA/M SJWC 18.24.1 15. m f£.fa SA/M-L, SA/L XXCP.71pho.60-2 16. Wfi SA/M-L, SA/L XXC P.57 pho.46-1 17. tfc#mjt $fjn SA/M XXCP.33pho.25-1,2 18. J***® SA/M XXC P.36 pho.29 19. SA/M XXC P.8 pho.5-2 236 20. %mM& SA/L XXC P.69 pho.58 SA/L XXC P.l 17 pho.95, P.l 19pho.97, 21.i^^i P. 121 pho.99, P.124pho.l01 fllfjll SA/L XXC P. 143 pho. 118, P.144 22. i^HiM pho.119, P. 145 pho. 120, P. 148 pho.122, P.149 pho.123, P.151 pho. 125 23. SA/L WW 1976.11 pho.4-4 SA/L-WS/E WW 1980.1 pho.5-5 25. SA/L, SA/L-WS/E SSSK P.68No22 26. SA/L, WS/E, WS/E, WS/M XYC pho. VIII, IX IV. Bronze Vessels Excavated in Anhui Province l. &£JtM SA/L WW 1982.5 P.59 2. SA/L WW 1986.2 P.64 3. SA/L SCCY pho.39, 40 4.#fcJ£ SA/L SCCY pho.32-2, 3 SA/L SCCY pho.37 SA/L SCCY pho.34-5 7.&MM& SA/L SCCY pho.34-6 SA/L SCCY pho.38 9. SA/L SCCYpho.50, 51 SA/L SCCYpho.52, 53, 54, 55, 62, 65, 68, 69 SA/L KG 1963.4 P.205pho.l-1 12. f «*M"P£ WS/M SJWC 12.25.1 13. WS/M KG 1963.8 pho.8 14. g^i WS/L WWCZ 1957.7 P.83 15. WS/L WW 1959.4 P.l 16. WS/L WW 1978.5 P.96,pho.3 17. fei^i WS/L SJWC 3.25.1-4 18. fei^ll WS/L SJT Zun-21; SJWC 10.8, 3-5 19. XM%> WS/L WW 1980.8 P.28 237 20. $.5.$%% WS/L CWZT2 21. WS/L SJT Zun-24-25 22. WS/L CWZT4 WS/L SJT Bao-10 24. I#« WS/L SJWC 3.19.5 25. HF-^-TII WS/L SJWC 3.19.6 26. i#« WS/L SJWC 3.26.1,2, 3 V. Bronze Vessels excavated in Jiangsu Province (%LM) l. ftgftft SA WW 1989.4 P.53 pho.2 2.&B*##* SA WW 1989.4 P.54pho.4 3. ft&^-t&lM SA/L WW 1984.5 P.17pho.5 4. ^gxl.^^j SA/M-L WW 1988. 9 P96 pho.3 SA/L KG 1965.3 P.109pho.8, P.l 10 pho.9, P.l 12 pho. 11 6. WS/L KG 1995.1 P.76 pho.3 m% WS/L WW 1980.8 P.30pho.l left WS/L WW 1980.8 P.30 pho.l upper right, P.32 pho.2 right WS/L WW 1980.8 P.32 pho.2 left - VI. Bronze Vessels Excavated in Jiangxi Province (%L W) 1. ^£ SA/L ZJT vol.2, 13 Iflifel SA/L WW 1980.8 P.13 pho.l 3. MftsSt SA/L WW 1980.8 P. 14pho.2 VII. Bronze Vessels Excavated in Shanxi Province (Jj W) SAM, L KG 1963.5 P.238 pho.9 VIII. Bronze Vessels Excavated in Sichuan Province (0 )\\) UPilM fflP WS/E-M,WS/E WW 1981.6 P.7pho.4-2 IX. Bronze Vessels Excavated in Zhejiang Province (^fxH) 1. ftCflOHpf-f* $H SA/L WW1984.1 P.12pho.4,P13 238 pho.5 2. $H SA/L WW 1984.1 P.16pho.l4 3. K£$M 0* SA/L KG 1983.4 P.372pho.3-l X. Bronze Vessels Excavated in Shanxi Province (Rfc W) 1. ^i^Hii Ala SA/L WW 1981.1 pho.6-2 2. a#A°7ffi ^-Jb WS KG 1984.8 P.761 pho.5 XI. Bronze Vessels of Unknown Excavated Location l. WZ/M-L, SA/E SJWC 1.5.2, 1.6.1, 1.6.2, 1.7.1 2. WZ/L LJDTK 177 3. &A£ SA/E SJWC 17.37.1 4. SA/E SJWC 17.10.3 5. £iJM+$Ni SA/E, SA/M LJDTK 179 6. ft^M SA/E, SA/L SJWC 10.15.2,3 7. t^Ht j| SA/E, WS/E SJWC 17.13.1 8. SA/M SJWC 1.9.2, 1.10.1 9.±^&i SA/M SJWC 4.14.1 lO.i^^^S SA/M, SA/L SJWC 18.12.5 11. SA/L SJWC 19.52.2 12. «ililt SA/L, SA-WS SSSKP.48 Gui-25 13. WS/E LJDTK 179-180 14. £jg-j||| WS/E SJWC 3.11.4 15. WS/M JHKG 1992.2 P.68 239 Appendix V List of the Qin Bronze Vessels The Qin bronze-vessel graphs in the table have been collected from the following bronze vessels and artifacts. The bronze vessels and artifacts are listed in chronological order below. The name of the vessels and artifacts, the place found (if known), the dating and the source are provided. The original site of many is unknown, but their inscriptions prove their Qin provenance, and on occasion supply their dating. Objects not scientifically excavated but located in museums or originally in private collections are marked with and their location is the earliest one for which a full chain of possession can be determined. List of Abbreviations KG Kaogu KyW Kaogu yu wenwu KIKS Kinshutsu In-Sha. kinbun shusei $z & Jf£ M ^tX^kfa LJDTK LiangZhou jinwenci daxi tulu kaoshi W M&XffrJZ&W QMWX Qin mingke wenzixuan ^-^MX^M. QTMBJ Qin tongqi mingwen biannian jishi ^$$&$t%.$iia%-M.%\ SJWC Sandaijijin wencun jE. ft llf % fc WW Wenwu X% uk. The place where the object was found is unknown. WZ the Western Zhou period; S A the Spring and Autumn period; WS the Warring States period; E early (first one-third); M middle (second one-third); L late (third one-third); E-M the first half; M-L the second half. 1. uk. WZ/M-L QTMBJ pho. P.2. 3 WZ/M-L WW 1981.9 P.26 pho.3 3. £ uk. SA/E SJWC 19.53.2 240 4. SA/E QTMBJpho.P.7. 10-1, P.8. 10-2 5. SA/E QTMBJ pho. P.18. 12-4, P.19. 12-5, P.20. 12-6 6. SA/L LJDTKvol. 5.288 7. uk. SA/L LJDTKvol. 5.289, 290, 291 8. + uk. WS/M QMWX P.47 9. WS/M QTMBJ pho. P.32. 17 10.*t,ft# WS/M KIKS vol.2 P. 154 (reprinted from WW 1979.9 pho.8-1) ii. m^-mnw^ uk. WS/M SJWC 20.26.2; SJWC 20.27.1 WS/M QTMBJ pho. P.40. 27 13.+ = uk. WS/M WW 1964.2 P.49 pho.l 14. WS/M WW 1964.9 P.43 pho.2; P.44 pho.3 15. -fa^_r-«F*1£ WS/M WW 1987.8 P.61 pho.3, 4 16. +-#±IP^#^ WS/M WW 1977.5 pho.3-1, 5; P.35 pho.9; QTMBJ pho. P.49. 35 (handcopy) 17. JH*-h3^ WS/M WW 1977.5 pho.3-3; QTMBJ pho. P.51.37 (handcopy) is. -Ym%-m§&% uk. WS/M QTMBJ pho. P.52. 38 19. uk. WS/M WW 1964.2 P.50 pho.2 20. -t"fa#«M£ WS/M WW 1986.3 P.43 pho.2, 3, 4 2i.-y-s#_hip^^^ WS/M QTMBJpho.P.55.43 WS/M WW 1980.9 P.94 pho.2 23.^^^-H WS/M WW 1980.9 P.94 pho.3 24. WS/L WW 1975.6 P.75pho.l3-2 241 25. 3 + 7N#^ WS/L WW 1986.4 P.22pho.4 26. uk. WS/L SJWC 14.11.3 27. 0 + #JiiP^^ WS/L WW 1992.8 P757 28. fcXftfc* WS/L QTMBJ pho. P.63. 53 29. ^#±115^^^ WS/L WW 1982.11 P.75; QTMBJ pho. P.65. 55 (handcopy) 30. -##X# WS/L KyW 1983.6 P.5 pho.5; QTMBJ pho. P.61. 52 31. #X^ WS/L WW 1989.6 P.73 pho.2 32.S#-*^g^*^; - uk. WS/L SJWC 20.28.2, 20.29.1 33.£4MB#g:F*£ - uk. WS/L QTMBJ pho. P.77. 68-1 34. S^^^g^t^ = uk. WS/L QTMBJ pho. P.79. 69 35. X*B?ft% IS;II#;II WS/L KG 1991.1 P17pho.3,4 36. +0^M#P^ WS/L QTMBJ pho. P.83. 74 37.+-b^#X^[ ws/L WW 1982.3 P.12 38. ff#P uk. WS/L LJDTKvol. 5.292 39. mmm uk. Beginning of Qin dynasty QMWX P.48 uk. Beginning of Qin dynasty QMWXP.41 242