National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Program Center

Kings Mountain National Military Park Geologic Resources Inventory Report

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2009/129 THIS PAGE: The Centennial Monument erected in 1880 was the result of a massive effort by descendents and state governments to recognize those who fought at the Battle of Kings Mountain.

ON THE COVER: The monadnock known as Kings Mountain was the scene of the 1780 Battle of Kings Mountain. The rocky slopes helped provide cover for the patriot forces as they enciencircledrcled the loyalist forces under Major Patrick Ferguson.

NPS Photos courtesy Chris Revels (Kings Moun- tain NMP) Kings Mountain National Military Park Geologic Resources Inventory Report

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2009/129

Geologic Resources Division Natural Resource Program Center P.O. Box 25287 Denver, Colorado 80225

September 2009

U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service Natural Resource Program Center Denver, Colorado The Natural Resource Publication series addresses natural resource topics that are of interest and applicability to a broad readership in the National Park Service and to others in the management of natural resources, including the scientific community, the public, and the NPS conservation and environmental constituencies. Manuscripts are peer-reviewed to ensure that the information is scientifically credible, technically accurate, appropriately written for the intended audience, and is designed and published in a professional manner.

Natural Resource Reports are the designated medium for disseminating high priority, current natural resource management information with managerial application. The series targets a general, diverse audience, and may contain NPS policy considerations or address sensitive issues of management applicability. Examples of the diverse array of reports published in this series include vital signs monitoring plans; "how to" resource management papers; proceedings of resource management workshops or conferences; annual reports of resource programs or divisions of the Natural Resource Program Center; resource action plans; fact sheets; and regularly-published newsletters.

Views, statements, findings, conclusions, recommendations and data in this report are solely those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect views and policies of the U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use by the National Park Service.

Printed copies of reports in these series may be produced in a limited quantity and they are only available as long as the supply lasts. This report is also available online from the Geologic Resources Inventory website (http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/gre_publications) and the Natural Resource Publication Management website (http://www.nature.nps.gov/publications/NRPM/index.cfm) or by sending a request to the address on the back cover.

Please cite this publication as:

Thornberry-Ehrlich, T. 2009. Kings Mountain National Military Park Geologic Resources Inventory Report. Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2009/129. National Park Service, Denver, Colorado.

NPS 335/100137, September 2009 ii Contents

Figures ...... iv

Executive Summary ...... v

Introduction ...... 1 Purpose of the Geologic Resources Inventory ...... 1 History of Kings Mountain National Military Park ...... 1 Geologic Setting ...... 1

Geologic Issues ...... 5 Mineral Deposits and Mining History ...... 5 Water Issues...... 6 Erosion and Slope Processes...... 7

Geologic Features and Processes ...... 9 Geology and the Battle at Kings Mountain ...... 9 Regional Structures ...... 9 Metamorphism of the Kings Mountain Sequence ...... 10

Map Unit Properties ...... 15 Geologic Units within Kings Mountain National Military Park ...... 16

Geologic History...... 21

Glossary ...... 25

References ...... 29

Appendix A: Geologic Map Graphic ...... 33

Appendix B: Scoping Summary ...... 35

Attachment 1: Geologic Resources Inventory Products CD

Geologic Resources Inventory Report iii Figures

Figure 1. Map of Kings Mountain National Military Park ...... vi Figure 2. Geologic map of Kings Mountain National Military Park and immediate vicinity ...... 3 Figure 3. A Civilian Conservation Corps flagstone quarry operating on Kings Mountain ...... 4 Figure 4. Historic image of Henry Howser House...... 8 Figure 5. Hillslope below the U.S. Monument at Kings Mountain National Military Park ...... 12 Figure 6. Forested slopes at Kings Mountain National Military Park ...... 13 Figure 7. Tectonic map of Kings Mountain National Military Park area ...... 14 Figure 8. Generalized block diagram of the southeastern Applachian crustal structure ...... 23 Figure 9. Geologic time scale...... 24

iv NPS Geologic Resources Division Executive Summary

This report accompanies the digital geologic map for Kings Mountain National Military Park in South Carolina, which the Geologic Resources Division produced in collaboration with its partners. It contains information relevant to resource management and scientific research. This document incorporates preexisting geologic information and does not include new data or additional fieldwork.

The battle on the slopes at Kings Mountain was an through thick layers of regolith. Rapid development of inspirational victory for American patriots during the the surrounding areas threatens water resources with Revolutionary War. It was a turning point in the contamination and overuse. An ongoing drought in southern campaign. Here, the geology influenced the the upstate area of South Carolina is increasing the outcome, favoring the men who knew the terrain and demand for clean water, which could lower the water used it to their advantage. The experience of the park table beyond the extent of regional wells. begins with its geology, with the processes that · Erosion and slope processes. Topographic relief established the groundwork from which today’s within the park and surrounding areas is high in some environments, history, and scenery arise. The park and places, and landslides, slope creep, and debris flows its neighboring state parks (Kings Mountain State Park, are common. Heavy rainfall can quickly saturate South Carolina, and Crowders Mountain State Park, slopes and generate rapidly moving debris flows that North Carolina) protect a large section of the Carolina may destroy parts of roads, trails, and historic features, Piedmont—an area known for complex geology. impacting visitor experience and access. In relatively erosion-resistant units underlying ridges, rockfall Knowledge of the geologic resources is important in hazards exist. Anthropogenic changes to the making resource management decisions about future landscape, such as those produced by mining, may also scientific research projects, interpretive needs, and exacerbate erosion and slope processes. economic resources associated with the park. This Geologic Resources Inventory report is intended to Geologic processes give rise to rock formations, support science-based decision making on the part of mountains, slopes, valleys, springs, and streams. These resource managers. processes formed the landscape that attracted the loyalist forces to the high ground at Kings Mountain. Now the Humans have modified the landscape surrounding Kings park attracts visitors in search of a historical touchstone Mountain National Military Park, South Carolina, by and recreation opportunities. Understanding the building dams, roads, trails, mines, and housing geologic setting would enhance the visitor’s experience. developments. This dynamic system can show noticeable change within a human life span. Geological processes The park is located within the Kings Mountain sequence also continue to change the landscape, making of the Carolina terrane, adjacent to the Inner Piedmont preservation and park upkeep a challenge. The following terrane in north-central South Carolina. A series of features, issues, and processes are of primary geological northeast-trending terranes is characteristic of Piedmont importance and have a high level of management geology in the Carolinas. This area has complex geology, significance for the park: including structures such as shear zones, normal faults, and folds, myriad rock types, and areas of varying · Mineral deposits and mining history. The discovery of metamorphic grade. Geologists use these features to mineral resources strongly influenced the early interpret the geologic history of the region. development of the Kings Mountain region. The

remarkable variety of mineral deposits in the Kings Mountain sequence includes kyanite, marble, The geologic history of the southern Appalachians has manganese, iron, gold, barite, silver, pyrite, cassiterite, been the subject of intense study and debate among mica, spodumene, clay, and feldspar. Mine features geologists. The setting of the Kings Mountain sequence within the park include clay pits, a shaft used to extract along the boundary between two terranes makes manganese, and some open pits. Current interest understanding the geology of the area vital to regional focuses on pegmatite that contains valuable lithium studies of geologic history. The metasedimentary and reserves. The southeastern United States is meta-igneous geologic units within the park are underexplored for mineral resources that have good Neoproterozoic (late Proterozoic) in age and contain potential for exploration. Mining has the potential to such features as folds, cleavage, and foliation recording negatively impact natural resources in the area of the at least five phases of deformation and mineral park. assemblages indicating several pulses of metamorphism. · Water issues. In the area of the park, water wells tap regional aquifers in the weathered and fractured crystalline metamorphic rocks and granitic plutons, which are recharged by precipitation percolating

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report v

Figure 1. Map of Kings Mountain National Military Park and adjoining Kings Mountain State Park. NPS graphic with adaptations by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State University). Inset map in lower-right corner shows troop positions at the time of the battle at Kings Mountain.

vi NPS Geologic Resources Division Introduction

The following section briefly describes the National Park Service Geologic Resources Inventory and the regional geologic setting of Kings Mountain National Military Park.

Purpose of the Geologic Resources Inventory History of Kings Mountain National Military Park The Geologic Resources Inventory (GRI) is one of 12 Kings Mountain National Military Park preserves the inventories funded under the National Park Service setting of a pivotal victory on October 7, 1780, by (NPS) Natural Resource Challenge designed to enhance American patriots over American loyalists during the baseline information available to park managers. The Southern Campaign of the Revolutionary War. The program carries out the geologic component of the victory effectively halted the British advance into North inventory effort. The Geologic Resources Division of the Carolina. It destroyed the left wing of Lord Cornwallis' Natural Resource Program Center administers this army and effectively ended loyalist ascendance in the program. The GRI team relies heavily on partnerships Carolinas. This forced Cornwallis to retreat from with the U.S. Geological Survey, Colorado State Charlotte into South Carolina. It also gave General University, state surveys, and others in developing GRI Nathanael Greene the opportunity to reorganize the products. scattered American Army of patriots.

The goal of the GRI is to increase understanding of the An act of Congress (46 Stat. 1508) established Kings geologic processes at work in parks and provide sound Mountain National Military Park on March 3, 1931, "in geologic information for use in park decision making. order to commemorate the Battle of Kings Mountain." Sound park stewardship relies on understanding natural Executive Order No. 6166 (June 10, 1933) transferred resources and their role in the ecosystem. Geology is the authority from the War Department to the Department foundation of park ecosystems. The compilation and use of the Interior. The site is located in the southern of natural resource information by park managers is Appalachian Mountains, southeast of Great Smoky called for in section 204 of the National Parks Omnibus Mountains National Park, just south of the North Management Act of 1998 and in NPS-75, Natural Carolina–South Carolina border (fig. 1). Kings Mountain Resources Inventory and Monitoring Guideline. National Military Park shares a common boundary with Kings Mountain State Park and is only a few miles To realize this goal, the GRI team is systematically southeast of Crowders Mountain State Park, in North conducting a scoping meeting for each of the identified Carolina. All three parks protect a picturesque area that 270 natural area parks and providing a park-specific stretches along the eastern Appalachian foothills of the digital geologic map and geologic report. These products Carolina Piedmont. The National Park Service is charged support the stewardship of park resources and are with preserving the 1,596 hectares (3,945 acres) of designed for nongeoscientists. Scoping meetings bring historic battleground at Kings Mountain National together park staff and geologic experts to review Military Park and has supportive relationships and available geologic maps and discuss specific geologic coordination with the neighboring state parks. Together, issues, features, and processes. these three parks protect approximately 6,070 hectares (15,000 acres) of mixed hardwood forest. The park The GRI mapping team converts the geologic maps attracts more than 200,000 visitors annually. The identified for park use at the scoping meeting into digital attraction of Kings Mountain extends beyond the history geologic data in accordance with their Geographic of the famous battle. The area’s topography and geology Information Systems (GIS) Data Model. These digital are unique and complex and form a major component of data sets bring an interactive dimension to traditional a scenic recreation area and diverse ecosystem. paper maps by providing geologic data for use in park GIS and facilitating the incorporation of geologic Geologic Setting considerations into a wide range of resource Kings Mountain National Military Park is within part of management applications. The newest maps come the Piedmont physiographic province. The “Fall Line,” complete with interactive help files. This geologic report or “Fall Zone,” marks the updip extent and inland aids in the use of the map and provides park managers termination of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. The Piedmont with an overview of park geology and geologic resource encompasses the Fall Line and extends west from there management issues. to the Blue Ridge Mountains (Harris et al. 1997). The Piedmont formed by a combination of accretion, folding, For additional information regarding the content of this faulting, uplift, and erosion. The present physiography is report and current GRI contact information, please refer the result of weathering and erosion of an ancient to the Geologic Resources Inventory Web site mountain system that rivaled the modern Himalayas. (http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/). Today, erosion exposes only the root of the mountain system (C. S. Howard, written communication, 2009).

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 1 A series of northeast-trending terranes is characteristic (fig. 2) (Horton 1981a). The extent of the Kings of Piedmont geology in the Carolinas. These terranes Mountain sequence is difficult to define, and the Kings were affected by low-grade (greenschist facies) to high- Mountain shear zone cannot be continuously mapped grade (amphibolite facies) metamorphism, evident as (C. S. Howard, written communication, 2009). It extends alternating, parallel bands trending roughly northeast- northeastward into North Carolina, to the Winston- southwest (Horton 2008). This report uses the terrane Salem area, and perhaps as far south as the Georgia definitions outlined in Horton et al. (1994) wherein the border (Lowndesville shear zone). There a narrow zone Carolina terrane (a large component of the “Carolina of cataclastic (faulted) rocks about 600 m (2,000 ft) wide Zone” of Hibbard et al. 2002) includes rocks traditionally extends another 26 km (16 mi) into Georgia (Rozen assigned to the Carolina slate belt, Charlotte belt, Kiokee 1981) The shear zones have similar deformation fabrics, belt, Belair belt, and the Kings Mountain sequence. The are approximately on strike with one another, and form Inner Piedmont is a composite terrane bounded on the the eastern boundary of the Inner Piedmont (Nelson northwest by the Brevard fault zone and on the southeast 1981). by the Towaliga, Lowndesville, Kings Mountain (described below), and Eufola fault zones (Horton et al. Moderately dissected uplands of relatively low relief 1994). characterize the topography in the area of the park (Horton 2008). Linear ridges and hills underlain by Along the North Carolina–South Carolina border, the erosion-resistant quartzite and quartz-pebble Inner Piedmont is west of the Carolina terrane, separated conglomerate rise abruptly 30–240 m (100–800 ft) above from the Blue Ridge to the west by the Brevard fault the surrounding rolling hills and form precipitous cliffs zone. The allochthonous Inner Piedmont is composed of at nearby Crowders Mountain and the Pinnacle (Horton layered schist, gneiss, migmatite, and minor amphibolite. 2006, 2008). Elevation in the park ranges from 197 m It contains numerous granitoid intrusions as layers, (646 ft) at the northwest park boundary at Kings Creek dikes, and small plutons (Goldsmith 1981). The Kings to 323 m (1,060 ft) at the top of Brushy Ridge, a linear Mountain shear zone is the eastern boundary of the ridge underlain by erosion-resistant siliceous metatuff. Inner Piedmont and consists of a distinctive interlayered Brushy Ridge is a spur of the Kings Mountain Range. The sequence of sheared metasedimentary rocks. The shear trail from the visitor center to the loyalist position on the zone truncates rock units and juxtaposes rocks of ridge offers a panorama of the hillslopes that the patriot different metamorphic grades. The Carolina terrane is a army charged up to fight. fault-bounded, structurally complex amalgamation of igneous, meta-igneous, and metasedimentary rocks that Thick saprolite mantles much of the local bedrock, and extends from south-central Virginia to west-central regolith fills in the areas of lower relief (Horton 2008). Georgia (Secor et al. 1998). Streams in the area of the park cut through the overburden, locally exposing some bedrock along their On the western flank of the Carolina terrane is the Kings courses. From the heights of Brushy Ridge, Kings Creek Mountain sequence (informal name), which contains a and its tributaries including Stonehouse Branch and great variety of rock types and reaches its widest extent Dellingham Branch drain the western side of the park, near the South Carolina–North Carolina border (Horton whereas Long Branch and Pole Branch drain the eastern 2008). Including the Neoproterozoic (a geologic time era side. The Garner Branch watershed is on the southern from 1,000 to 542 million years ago) Battleground and side of Kings Mountain National Military Park. Blacksburg formations, the sequence contains metasedimentary, metavolcanic, and plutonic rocks

2 NPS Geologic Resources Division

Figure 2. Geologic map of Kings Mountain National Military Park and immediate vicinity. See next page for the map legend. Graphic by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State University), using data from the GRI digital geologic map (see “Map Unit Properties Table”).

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 3

Figure 2, continued. Legend for geologic map of Kings Mountain National Military Park and immediate vicinity. Graphic by Trista L. Thornberry-Ehrlich (Colorado State University), using data from the GRI digital geologic map (see “Map Unit Properties Table”).

Figure 3. A Civilian Conservation Corps flagstone quarry operating on Kings Mountain during the 1930s. Historically, the rocks of the park provided a variety of geological resources including minerals as well as building stones. NPS Photo courtesy Chris Revels (NPS Kings Mountain NMP).

4 NPS Geologic Resources Division Geologic Issues

The Geologic Resources Division held a Geologic Resources Inventory scoping session for Kings Mountain National Military Park on September 19, 2000, to discuss geologic resources, address the status of geologic mapping, and assess resource management issues and needs. This section synthesizes the scoping results, in particular those issues that may require attention from resource managers.

Mineral Deposits and Mining History 1992b) did not result in any further development because Mining strongly influenced the early development of the prospectors found no economically minable deposits. Kings Mountain region and continues today (Horton This mine is on private property just beyond the park and Butler 1981). The Kings Mountain sequence boundaries (LaPoint 1992b). Although gold is not includes a remarkable variety of mineral deposits for presently mined in or near Kings Mountain National such a small area. U.S. Geological Survey Professional Military Park, gold mining and prospecting are of Paper 1462, (Gair 1989a, 1989b, 1989c; Gair et al. 1989a, considerable historical interest and merit interpretative 1989b; Goldsmith et al. 1989; Horton, 1989a, 1989b, attention (J. W. Horton, written communication, 2009). 1989c) describes the mineral resources of the area. Like Works by LaPoint (1992b) and Murphy (1995) contain most of the region’s geologic units, these deposits are in detailed histories of gold discovery and exploration in northeast-trending linear bands. The region’s mineral South Carolina and would provide excellent references products include kyanite, marble, manganese, iron, gold, for interpretive projects. barite, silver, pyrite, cassiterite, mica, spodumene, clay, and feldspar. Pegmatite bodies in the sequence contain Local mining also targeted rich deposits of kyanite, large lithium reserves. Eighty minerals were identified at marble, manganese, iron, and barite. This mining has the Foote Mineral Company spodumene mine near historical and environmental significance (J. W. Horton, Kings Mountain, North Carolina (Horton and Butler written communication, 2009). Iron deposits and marble 1977). According to LaPoint (1992a), the southeastern (for flux and lime) of the Kings Mountain sequence have United States is underexplored terrane having potential been a target for miners since before the Revolutionary for commodities that could be economically mined with War. Settlers from Pennsylvania worked “the Old Iron modern technologies. Park managers should be aware of District” around Blacksburg (Moss 1981). The iron exploration activities within the park area. The park does works in Lincoln, Cleveland, and Catawba counties own the mineral rights within park boundaries (C. made major contributions to the Confederate army Revels, personal communication, 2009). during the Civil War. However, by the late 1890s the iron industry in the region had ended due to stiff competition Gold in South Carolina was first discovered in 1802 in from other, more iron-rich areas, such as the Great Lakes Greenville County, prompting a gold rush (Murphy region (Horton and Butler 1981). 1995). More recent gold mining produced a significant amount of gold. For example, more than 100,000 oz The first local production of barite was from small open (≈3,000 kg) of gold was produced in the southeastern pits at Kings Creek in 1885 (Sharp 1981). Barite deposits United States in 1989 (Cook 1990). Most of this was from occur within the Battleground Formation in quartz- mines in the eastern Carolina terrane (Haile-Brewer and sericite schist (originally pyroclastic rock) in layers and Ridgway mines) (C. S. Howard, written communication, pods typically about 30 cm (12 in.) thick (Horton 1989b). 2009). This is significantly more than was produced Over several decades, the mining evolved from open pits during any other period since 1800 (Cook 1990). There to inclined shafts and back to open quarries in 1953. are also more than 75 abandoned or inactive gold mines Among the various uses of barite was as a weighting and prospects in the Kings Mountain sequence, with agent in flour and sugar until the Pure Food and Drug most of the activity concentrated in western York Act was passed in 1923 (Sharp 1981). County and adjacent Cherokee County (Horton and Butler 1977, 1981). An abandoned kyanite mine at Henry Knob (just east of Kings Mountain State Park), worked in 1935 and from Gold typically occurs in the upper parts of intrusive 1948 through 1966, produced significant amounts of igneous rocks that formed at shallow depth and altered kyanite (≈293,000 short tons; 266,000 metric tons) zones of metavolcanic rocks and quartz-mica schist (Gair (Horton and Butler 1981; Horton 1989c). This mine also 1989a). The gold-pyrite mineralization at the Kings produced pyrite (a sulfide mineral) as a byproduct from Mountain gold mine is hosted by carbonate rocks at the 1962 through 1966. This operation made South Carolina contact between the Battleground and Blacksburg the nation’s second largest kyanite producer in the 1960s formations on the Kings Creek shear zone (Gair 1989a; (Horton and Butler 1981). Kyanite and sillimanite LaPoint 1992b). Renewed interest and exploration at the occurrences similar to that at Henry Knob are old Kings Mountain gold mine (originally opened in widespread in the Kings Mountain sequence in beds and 1834 and located about 3.5 km, or 2.2 mi, south of the lenses of high-alumina kyanite quartzite or sillimanite town of Kings Mountain) in the early 1990s (LaPoint quartzite interlayered with quartz-sericite schist of the

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 5 Battleground Formation (Horton 1989c). These minerals Open-pit quarries for crushed stone and other resources, are a component in the manufacture of refractory whether active or abandoned, affect the regional materials. environment. When stabilizing vegetation is removed and the ground is disturbed by quarrying, erosion is Interest in lithium began on a large scale in the mid- accelerated and causes subsequent increases in sediment 1940s. Recent mining activity in the Kings Mountain load in local streams. Removal of vegetation and region is targeting rich lithium deposits in pegmatite exposure of saprolite and weathered crystalline rocks containing the minerals spodumene and cassiterite (a increase the likelihood of mass wasting as described source of tin). Foote Mineral Company has a large mine below under “Erosion and Slope Processes”. and processing plant 3 km (2 mi) southwest of Kings Mountain (Horton and Butler 1981). Additionally, scrap Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Recommendations for mica, feldspar, silica, clay, and crushed stone are Mineral Deposits and Mining History produced from the Kings Mountain sequence and Inner · Periodically sample and test surface and ground water Piedmont terrane. Companies such as the Kings and soil to detect heavy metals in those resources. Mountain Mica Company and Huber Corporation found Monitoring of drinking water is especially important. these resources in thick saprolite and partially weathered granitic rocks located throughout the region (Horton · Thoroughly investigate any ore-bearing (manganese, and Butler 1981). copper, gold, etc.) beds throughout the park, including descriptions, ore assays, and outcrop locations. Many abandoned mines, prospects, and mine dumps are · Inventory the ore content of the recent associated with local mining (J. W. Horton, written unconsolidated deposits and soils as well as ore- communication, 2009). Within the park boundaries are bearing rocks. an abandoned 30-m- (100-ft-) long mine shaft (for · Develop an interpretive program relating the mining manganese ore), abandoned clay pits, and at least four history of the area, how geologic resources directed other abandoned open-pit mines (Horton 2006; P. Enzi, settlement of the region, and how mining continues to written communication, 2009). The manganese deposits affect the landscape. Contact the South Carolina occur in a single, nearly continuous stratigraphic unit— Geological Survey for assistance (C. S. Howard, the Jumping Branch Manganiferous Member of the written communication, 2009). Battleground Formation (unit Zbj or Zbjp; see fig. 2 and Appendix A) (Horton 1989c, 2006; Howard 2004). This · Develop a program that will help a lay audience unit transects the park, the manganese occurring as understand how the wide variety of rock types at lenticular veins and masses of oxides in weathered zones King’s Mountain fits into the geologic history of the (Horton 1989c). The manganiferous schist locally Piedmont. Contact the South Carolina Geological provided brown pigment used in brick manufacturing Survey for assistance (C. S. Howard, written (Horton 1989c). Flagstone was obtained from the four communication, 2009). open-pit mines within the park. The Civilian · Contact the Abandoned Mineral Lands (AML) staff at Conservation Corps operated various quarries within the the Geologic Resources Division office, Denver, park during the 1930s (fig. 3) and the Henry Howser Colorado, for resource management questions. House (fig. 4) was constructed of local stone from the park (C. Revels, personal communication, 2009). Water Issues

Associated with local mining are potential environmental In the humid climate of the central-southern problems ranging from erosion to acid mine drainage, Appalachian Mountains, water seems present which can affect the soils, ground water, and small everywhere—in streams, rivers, runoff, springs, and the streams and springs in the park. Acid mine drainage ground. Wells tap regional aquifers in the weathered and develops when sulfides (such as pyrite) react with water fractured crystalline metamorphic and igneous rocks near Kings Mountain National Military Park (Castro et and lower the pH to produce sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 2- 2+ al. 1987). The resistant metamorphic and igneous rocks sulfate (SO4 ), and reduced iron (Fe ). This increased acidity raises the solubility of some potentially harmful are overlain by regolith. The regolith acts as a filter metals. Heavy metals in piles of mine waste are exposed through which water slowly percolates to recharge the and therefore made available for dissolution by rain and bedrock aquifer through a network of fractures and runoff in the vicinity of Kings Mountain National joints (Castro et al. 1987). Military Park. In general, ground and surface water transports these metals from the vicinity of a mine as Because of the rapid development of the surrounding dissolved ions, suspended sediment, or part of the areas, water resources are under constant threat of bedload in a stream (Madison et al. 1998). The metals contamination and overuse. An ongoing drought in the pose a potential threat to the water quality in the area upstate area of South Carolina is increasing the demand and therefore to the ecosystems associated with those for clean water (C. S. Howard, written communication, water sources. Abandoned shafts and open pit mines can 2009). Increased drawdown by wells lowers the regional be significant hazards to visitor safety although no water table of the slowly recharging aquifer. Because the specific hazards associated with the park’s abandoned aquifer is subject to reduced recharge from decreased features were identified (J. Burghardt, written precipitation, wells that are too shallow may run dry and communication, 2009). deeper wells may become less productive (Castro et al. 1987).

6 NPS Geologic Resources Division The water quality at the park is threatened by housing Erosion and Slope Processes and recreational developments, visitors, and the geology Erosion and slope processes are primary geologic forces itself. Rainwater made acidic by air pollution, combined sculpting the landscape at Kings Mountain. However, with the effect of locally acidic bedrock, threatens the they are also the cause of mass wasting, an important water supply and, by extension, the aquatic ecosystems geological resource management issue. Topography and dependent upon it. Borderline environments may elevation differences within and surrounding the park become inhospitable to organisms. As mentioned in the are considerable along Brushy Ridge (fig. 5). previous section, mine tailings expose heavy metals that Precipitation increases the likelihood of mass wasting are dissolved by precipitation and the runoff can lower because water-saturated soil and regolith are more the pH of local streams. susceptible to failure. In the wet, mountainous terrain of Kings Mountain, landslides, slope creep, and debris Urban development surrounding Kings Mountain affects flows are common. Slope failure is common in geologic the watershed in a variety of ways. One way is by units not necessarily associated with cliffs. For example, increasing runoff from impervious surfaces such as unconsolidated colluvium is especially vulnerable to parking lots, roads, and buildings. Sedimentation also failure where exposed on a slope, as are undercut alluvial increases due to clearing of land and mining. Water deposits. temperature increases because of the heat-retaining nature of impervious surfaces. For example, runoff from Heavy rainfall from hurricanes, cloudbursts, and a parking lot on a hot July day is much warmer than thunderstorms can quickly saturate slopes and generate runoff from a grassy slope. rapidly moving debris flows that are among the most dangerous and damaging types of landslides (Wieczorek Where agricultural remnants and other wastes are and Morgan 2008). A debris flow is a rapidly moving stored, nitrogen, phosphate, and ammonia levels in the mass of fragmented rock and soil in which more than water can reach dangerous levels (C. S. Howard, written half of the particles are larger than sand size (Wieczorek communication, 2009). Runoff from roadways and Morgan 2008). These flows may destroy parts of commonly contains high levels of oil and other car roads, trails, and historic features, impacting visitor emissions, which are carried into park waterways and experience and access. A debris flow most frequently seep into the soil. Knowledge of the potential travels along pre-existing drainageways and streams, contaminants and an understanding of the incorporating additional unconsolidated material along hydrogeologic system, including ground-water flow its course (Wieczorek and Morgan 2008). patterns, are essential to protect the park’s ecosystem. Steep slopes and cliffs along stream valleys within and The movement of nutrients and contaminants through around the park are highly susceptible to landslides, the ecosystem may be traceable by monitoring system slumps, and slope creep. This is a major concern in the inputs, such as rainfall, and outputs, such as streamflow. weaker rock units, such as weathered metamorphic Other input sources include wind, surface runoff, ground rocks. In stronger rocks, such as quartzite, silicified water, mine drainage, sewage, landfills, and fill dirt. metatuff, and metaconglomerate (Nystrom 2003; Streams in effect integrate the surface runoff and Howard 2004; Horton 2006) rockfall is a potential hazard ground-water flow of their watersheds. In doing so, they because of fracturing within the rocks exacerbated by provide a cumulative measure of the status of the frost wedging and plant root wedging. Rockfall and watershed’s hydrologic system. The park may need to topple are greater issues along the precipitous cliffs of monitor its own water sources for discharge and neighboring Crowders Mountain State Park than at contaminant levels. Sampling consistency is necessary to Kings Mountain National Military Park (J. W. Horton, establish baselines for comparison. written communication, 2009).

Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Recommendations for In addition to natural erosion, roads, trails, and other Water Issues artificially altered land also increase the likelihood of · Establish working relationships with the U.S. landslides by deforesting, altering, and/or undercutting Geological Survey and the South Carolina Geological slopes. On slopes that lack stabilizing vegetation, rock Survey to study and monitor the park’s watershed, and soil may mobilize and slide downhill as a massive fracture systems, and the hydrology of the area for slump or debris flow. According to maps showing applications in hydrogeology, landsliding, and other landslide incidence and susceptibility, the Kings geologic hazards. Mountain area is within a moderate to high incidence and susceptibility zone (Wieczorek and Morgan 2008). · Map and quantify ground-water recharge zones.

· Install monitoring stations to measure atmospheric Prediction of debris flows on the basis of rainfall inputs of important chemical components (such as thresholds alone is highly problematic (Wieczorek and nitrogen, mercury, and pH-affecting components) and Morgan 2008). Geologic structural controls, such as outputs to streams and ground water. extensive fracturing and jointing, and the wetting · Contact Water Resources Division (WRD) staff in requirements of regolith overlying various rock types Denver, Colorado, for resource management also play important roles in slope dynamics (Wieczorek questions. and Morgan 2008). Mitigation of debris-flow hazards may be improved by careful placement of infrastructure

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 7 and visitor areas away from locations most susceptible to · Map rockfall susceptibility by plotting rock unit versus slope failure and inundation (Wieczorek and Morgan slope aspect in a GIS, and use the map to help plan 2008). future development and current resource management. Contact the South Carolina Geological Inventory, Monitoring, and Research Recommendations for Survey for assistance (C. S. Howard, written Erosion and Slope Processes communication, 2009). · Use shallow (25-cm; 10-in.) and deeper core data to · Inventory areas that are susceptible to flooding from monitor rates of sediment accumulation and erosion in runoff; relate the findings to climate and confluence local streams and springs. areas. · Monitor steep slopes for rock movement and manage · Evaluate trails for stability and determine which trails any undercut areas appropriately. are most at risk and in need of further stabilization. · Monitor erosion and deposition rates by establishing · Contact the U.S. Geological Survey Landslide Program key sites for repeated profile measurements. Repeated for information, publications, and educational tools at photography may be a useful tool. the Web site http://landslides.usgs.gov. · Using a topographic map, geologic maps, and rainfall · Contact the Geohazards staff at the Geologic information, determine the relative potential for Resources Division office, Denver, Colorado, for landslide occurrence. The GRI digital geologic map resource management questions. could provide a foundation for GIS analysis employing

other spatial data. · Study erosion and weathering processes active at the park. Take into account the different rock formations as they may relate to slope, location, and likelihood of instability.

Figure 4. Historic image of Henry Howser House (built approximately 1803). Howser was a stone mason and built his house from local stone quarried within the park. NPS Photo courtesy Chris Revels (NPS Kings Mountain NMP).

8 NPS Geologic Resources Division Geologic Features and Processes

This section describes the most prominent and distinctive geologic features and processes in Kings Mountain National Military Park.

Geology and the Battle at Kings Mountain and supplies during the Revolutionary War (Wagner “God Almighty can’t get me off this mountain,” was 2000). British Major Patrick Ferguson’s famous boast. Ferguson was the only non-American present at the battle of Kings One of the overall goals of the Kings Mountain National Mountain between American patriots and American Military Park is to maintain a sense of the historical loyalists. He was on his way to Charlotte, North context of the area. This comprises many historic Carolina, to join forces with British commander features from the 1780 battle, including the slopes and Cornwallis when he received notice of an approaching ridges, well-preserved remnants of Colonial-era roads patriot army crossing the Blue Ridge Mountains from and trails, as well as monuments (including the Chronicle Tennessee. Because of the legendary mountain crossings Marker—the second oldest battlefield monument in the by these patriots, they earned their reputation as the United States, circa 1815) erected to commemorate “over-mountain men.” figures in the battle and certain events. However, the context of the park also extends back hundreds of years Little did Ferguson know that his position atop Kings to the American Indians inhabiting the area, and Mountain was not secure. The topography was to play to encompasses both natural and cultural resources. This the patriots’ advantage. On the afternoon of October 6, goal is countered both by the continuous natural 1780, Ferguson elected to wait atop Kings Mountain for processes of erosion and weathering and increasing local reinforcements. This decision proved unwise because population and urban development. Erosional processes the patriot forces at nearby Cowpens traveled through are constantly changing the landscape at the park. the night in a pouring rain storm and surrounded the Erosion lowers higher areas and subsequent deposition mountain around noon the next day. fills in lower areas.

The battle started around 4:00 p.m. It was to last only one Issues also arise from opposing values between cultural hour and led to a resounding patriot victory. Among the and natural resource management. All the historic dead were 157 loyalists; another 163 were wounded, and features in the park require protection from geologic approximately 700 were captured. In comparison, only processes. Maintaining this battle landscape often means 28 patriots died and 64 more suffered wounds. It was one resisting natural geologic changes. At the same time, the of the turning points in the American Revolution historic landscape and restoration efforts need to fit in (Wagner 2000), decisively weakening the British position harmoniously with the landscape, natural resources, and in the southern campaign. historical context.

From the outset, the battle was between the British Regional Structures bayonet and the rifles of the American patriots. In the area of Kings Mountain National Military Park, However, the topography at Kings Mountain was the several ductile shear zones or zones of steeply dipping ultimate deciding factor in the struggle. Kings Mountain metamorphosed phyllonitic and mylonitic rocks are is a classic monadnock, or erosional remnant, which rises present along both margins of the Kings Mountain about 18 m (60 ft) above the surrounding landscape. sequence as well as within it (Horton 1981a). These More resistant metasedimentary quartzite, zones include the Kings Mountain shear zone, Kings metaconglomerate, and certain metavolcanic rocks Creek shear zone, Long Creek shear zone, Blacksburg underlie ridges and mountaintops. A narrow ridge, 18–30 shear zone, and Boogertown shear zone (Goldsmith et al. m (60–100 ft) wide, defines the top and is underlain by 1988; Horton 1981a). Many, but not all, of these zones erosion-resistant siliceous metatuff (Wagner 2000; coincide with lithologic boundaries or contacts between Horton 2006). This terrain was advantageous for the geologic units and have brittle faulting superimposed on riflemen. As Ferguson ordered bayonet charges, the mylonitic fabrics (Horton 1981a; Schaeffer 1981). The over-mountain men fell back, seeking shelter and cover Kings Mountain sequence is also deformed into several behind the trees and rocks covering the hillsides (see broad regional folds having subsidiary structures on their front cover and figs. 5 and 6). They were then free to fire limbs (fig. 7). well-aimed rounds from both sides of the ridge into the organized lines of loyalists (Wagner 2000). Kings Mountain Shear Zone

The Kings Mountain sequence underlies Kings While Ferguson appeared ever confident in the Mountain National Military Park. The Kings Mountain superiority of his troops and their position, in the end it shear zone separates the allochthonous sequence from was the patriots’ familiarity with the Kings Mountain the Inner Piedmont terrane to the west and defines part terrain that gave them the advantage and ultimately the of the northwestern boundary of the Carolina terrane victory. In addition to influencing battles, the (Horton and Butler 1977; Mittwede 1987; Butler and topography also affected the transportation of troops

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 9 Secor 1991; Horton 2008). This is a significant terrane about 25 km (16 mi) but does not appear to be a boundary in the southern Appalachians, being both a profound discontinuity (Horton 1981b; Butler and Secor metamorphic discontinuity and a structural one (Butler 1991). 1981). On either side of the shear zone, juxtaposed geologic units show differences in stratigraphy, intrusive Along many of the other en echelon shear zones within suites, structure, isotopic relationships, and the Kings Mountain sequence, gold, pyrite, and iron metamorphic grade (Butler 1981; Butler and Secor 1991). deposits occur in layers parallel to the pervasive The characteristic structures within the Inner Piedmont, mylonitic foliation (Horton 1981a). Notable examples west of the shear zone, are gentle to moderately dipping are the productive gold deposits of the Kings Creek shear units and recumbent to inclined folds, whereas the zone mined at Kings Mountain mine and the massive characteristic structures east of the shear zone are steeply pyrite layers within the Long Creek shear zone mined at dipping and essentially upright folds (Horton 1981b). the Oliver pyrite mine (Horton 1981a). Dips of units within the Inner Piedmont steepen abruptly near the shear zone, and dips of units within the Kings Regional Folds Mountain sequence are nearly parallel to the shear zone Within the Kings Mountain sequence, folds—and faults (Goldsmith et al. 1988; Horton 2008). that are subparallel to fold limbs—are the predominant geologic structures. At least four regional gently Deformed rocks, including phyllonite, mylonite, plunging, upright, tight to isoclinal folds are mappable in protomylonite, breccia, silicified breccia, and minor the Kings Mountain sequence (Horton and Butler 1981). schist occurring in a belt 50–200 m (165–655 ft) thick, From east to west, these include the South Fork mark the Kings Mountain shear zone (Butler 1981). It antiform, the McKowns Creek antiform, and the strikes northeast and dips steeply to moderately for at Cherokee Falls synform (Murphy and Butler 1981; Butler least 60 km (37 mi) (Horton 1981b; Willis et al. 1983). 1981). An inferred synform separates the South Fork and Several phases of deformation created large- and small- the northeast trending and plunging McKowns Creek scale structures within the King’s Mountain shear zone. antiforms (Schaeffer 1981). The South Fork and These structures include a predominantly northeast Cherokee Falls structures are the largest fold structures striking metamorphic fabric (schistosity or foliation), in the area; subsidiary folds exist on the flanks of these multiple generations of folding, ductile shearing, structures. mylonitization, brittle faulting, and crenulation cleavage (Schaeffer 1981). The South Fork antiform is a tightly folded, north- northeast-plunging structure. It is near the eastern edge The Kings Mountain shear zone truncates units in both of the Kings Mountain sequence. On the western flanks the Kings Mountain sequence and the Inner Piedmont. of the South Fork antiform are the isoclinal to tight This suggests that displacement may be on the order of Sherrars Gap synform and the Crowders Mountain kilometers, but timing of fault movements remains antiform (Horton 1981a, 2006). somewhat enigmatic. A spodumene pegmatite in the Carolina tin-spodumene belt (currently a source for Large regional folds and other features, such as small- lithium) dates to 352 ±10 million years (Mississippian) by scale isoclinal folds, schistosity, crenulations, and kink Rubidium-Strontium (Rb-Sr) isotopic dating (Horton bands define at least five intervals of ductile and semi- 1981b, 2008). Field relationships suggest that this age brittle deformation (Butler and Secor 1991). Regionally, may closely approximate the time of late-stage fold patterns show disruption on all scales; numerous semibrittle deformation and may represent a minimum discontinuities tend to parallel the regional strike. date for deformation in the shear zone (Horton 1981b). Isolated fold hinges, disrupted fold limbs, and truncations on all scales attest to extreme deformation Kings Creek Shear Zone and Other Local Shear Zones (Butler 1981). The Kings Creek shear zone truncates the southeast limb of the Cherokee Falls synform (described below) and is Metamorphism of the Kings Mountain Sequence the boundary between the Blacksburg and Battleground The metamorphic grade within the Kings Mountain formations of the Kings Mountain sequence (Schaeffer sequence is generally lower than that of the Inner 1981; Horton 2008). The Kings Creek shear zone is Piedmont or adjacent rocks within the Carolina terrane nearly vertical and strikes roughly parallel to the Kings (Horton and Butler 1981). The metamorphic grade of the Mountain shear zone (Horton 2008). Its trace runs just Inner Piedmont of North and South Carolina is generally west of the park boundary. This zone of high strain low to medium (garnet to kyanite zones) on the flanks appears to be part of a regional fault system in the central and high (sillimanite-muscovite zone) in the central part Piedmont of the southern Appalachians (Horton 1981b). of the terrane (Goldsmith 1981). In the area immediately west of Kings Mountain National Military Park, mineral The Boogertown shear zone extends along the somewhat assemblages of the layered metamorphic rocks of the arbitrary eastern boundary of the Kings Mountain Inner Piedmont are typical of the amphibolite facies sequence, separating it from the rest of the Carolina (kyanite and sillimanite zones) (Horton 2008). Large terrane (Schaeffer 1981; Horton 1981b). The shear zone areas of greenschist-facies metamorphism in the Kings is intermittently exposed along strike and is locally Mountain sequence are not present in nearby rocks of mappable (at 1:24,000-scale) . In the vicinity of Gastonia, the Inner Piedmont and Carolina terrane (Horton and North Carolina, the Boogertown shear zone runs for Butler 1981). High-grade metamorphosed areas do exist

10 NPS Geologic Resources Division within the sequence as evidenced by rocks peak of amphibolite-facies metamorphism (late metamorphosed to the sillimanite zone or upper Paleozoic Alleghanian Orogeny). Uranium-Lead (U-Pb) amphibolite facies (Horton 1981a). isotopic dates of zircons within the granite yield an age of 317 millions of years old, whereas Argon-Argon isotopic Metamorphic isograds transect stratigraphy units and ages of hornblende from metamorphic rocks of many regional structures. This pattern of metamorphism amphibolite to upper amphibolite facies from elsewhere indicates that the Kings Mountain sequence cannot within the Kings Mountain sequence are 323–318 million represent a simple structural window of low-grade rocks years old (Sutter et al. 1984; Horton et al. 1987). This rimmed by higher grade metamorphic rocks (Horton similarity in age demonstrates the synchronicity of the and Butler 1981; Horton 1981a). Interpretations of the intrusion of the High Shoals granite and the predominant metamorphic patterns are still subjects of debate. Several regional metamorphism of the Kings Mountain sequence metamorphic pulses, perhaps even at different times, in the area of the park (Horton et al. 1987). may have resulted in the complex pattern in the Kings Mountain area (Horton 1981a). Deformation and metamorphism associated with the Alleghanian Orogeny (see “Geologic History” section) in In the Blacksburg and Battleground formations, mineral the Kings Mountain sequence were superimposed on assemblages show a generally westward decrease in older deformational and metamorphic features, such as metamorphic grade from upper amphibolite facies foliation (Horton and Butler 1981; Horton et al. 1987). (sillimanite zone) near the High Shoals Granite On the basis of comparisons with areas east of the Kings (described below) to upper greenschist facies (epidote- Mountain sequence, in the Carolina terrane, Alleghanian amphibolite) in the south-central part of the sequence, metamorphism may be considered localized. This is part near the Kings Mountain shear zone (Horton 2008). of a complex relationship among thrust and strike-slip Within the Kings Mountain sequence (dominating the fault systems, regional metamorphism, and magmatic area north of Kings Mountain National Military Park) is intrusions during the Alleghanian Orogeny in the the High Shoals Granite batholith, which consists of southern Appalachian Piedmont (Butler et al. 1985; coarse-grained biotite granite having a strong, nearly Horton et al. 1987). Bands of medium- to high-grade vertical, gneissic foliation. According to Horton et al. Alleghanian metamorphism evident in rocks that crop (1987), field relationships suggest that the granite out in the area could be the result of folding and faulting intruded the surrounding rocks during the late stages of of paleo-isothermal surfaces (Horton et al. 1987). regional folding in the Pennsylvanian-age temperature

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 11

Figure 5. Hillslope below the U.S. Monument at Kings Mountain National Military Park. View is from the perspective of the attackers (along a visitor trail) under the command of Col. James Williams advancing toward the loyalist position atop Brushy Ridge. Photograph is included with permission by Ethan Rafuse, available at http://civilwarriors.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/kings- mountain1.jpg (accessed February 27, 2009).

12 NPS Geologic Resources Division

Figure 6. Forested slopes at Kings Mountain National Military Park. Photograph is included with permission by Chris Steude, available at http://farm2.static.flickr.com/1022/932449097_f42b5f0ca8.jpg?v=0 (accessed February 27, 2009).

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 13

Figure 7. Tectonic map of Kings Mountain National Military Park area showing geologic structures mentioned in the text. Graphic is adapted from Goldsmith et al. (1988) with data from Horton (2006), Nystrom (2003), and Howard (2004).

14 NPS Geologic Resources Division Map Unit Properties

This section identifies characteristics of map units that appear on the Geologic Resources Inventory digital geologic map of Kings Mountain National Military Park. The accompanying table is highly generalized and for background purposes only. Ground- disturbing activities should not be permitted or denied on the basis of information in this table.

Geologic maps facilitate an understanding of Earth, its conclusions are conjectural and meant to serve as a processes, and the geologic history responsible for its suggestion for further investigation. formation. Hence, the geologic map for Kings Mountain National Military Park informed the “Geologic History,” The GRI digital geologic maps reproduce essential “Geologic Features and Processes,” and “Geologic elements of the source maps including the unit Issues” sections of this report. Geologic maps are descriptions, legend, map notes, graphics, and report. essentially two-dimensional representations of complex The following references are source data for the GRI three-dimensional relationships. The various colors on digital geologic map for Kings Mountain National geologic maps illustrate the distribution of rocks and Military Park: unconsolidated deposits. Bold lines that cross or separate the color patterns mark structures such as faults and Nystrom, P G., Jr. 2003. Geologic Map of the Filbert 7.5- folds. Point symbols indicate features such as dipping minute quadrangle, York County, South Carolina. Scale strata, sample localities, mines, wells, and cave openings. 1:24,000. Geologic Quadrangle Map GQM-25. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. Incorporation of geologic data into a Geographic Howard, C. S. 2004. Geologic Map of the Kings Creek 7.5- Information System (GIS) increases the usefulness of minute quadrangle, Cherokee and York Counties. Scale geologic maps by revealing the spatial relationships to 1:24,000. Geologic Quadrangle Map GQM-16. other natural resources and anthropogenic features. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. Geologic maps are indicators of water resources because Horton, J. W., Jr. 2006. Geologic Map of the Kings they show which rock units are potential aquifers and are Mountain and Grover quadrangles, Cleveland and useful for finding seeps and springs. Geologic maps do Gaston Counties, North Carolina, and Cherokee and not show soil types and are not soil maps, but they do York Counties, South Carolina. Scale 1:24,000. Open- show parent material, a key factor in soil formation. File Report OFR 2006–1238. Reston, VA: U.S. Furthermore, resource managers have used geologic Geological Survey. maps to make connections between geology and biology; South Carolina Geological Survey. 2007a. Digital Geologic for instance, geologic maps have served as tools for Map of the Filbert quadrangle, York County, South locating sensitive, threatened, and endangered plant Carolina. Scale 1:24,000. Digital Geologic Data DGD- species, which may prefer a particular rock unit. 13. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. South Carolina Geological Survey. 2007b. Digital Although geologic maps do not show where earthquakes Geologic Map of the Kings Creek quadrangle, Cherokee will occur, the presence of a fault indicates past and York Counties, South Carolina. Scale 1:24,000. movement and possible future seismic activity. Geologic Digital Geologic Data DGD-14. Columbia, SC: South maps do not show where the next landslide, rockfall, or Carolina Geological Survey. volcanic eruption will occur, but mapped deposits show areas that have been susceptible to such geologic The GRI team implements a geology-GIS data model hazards. Geologic maps do not show archaeological or that standardizes map deliverables. This data model cultural resources, but past peoples may have inhabited dictates GIS data structure including data layer or been influenced by various geomorphic features that architecture, feature attribution, and data relationships are shown on geologic maps. For example, alluvial within ESRI ArcGIS software, increasing the overall terraces may preserve artifacts, and formerly inhabited quality and utility of the data. GRI digital geologic map alcoves may occur at the contact between two rock units. products include data in ESRI personal geodatabase, shapefile, and coverage GIS formats, layer files with The geologic units listed in the following table feature symbology, Federal Geographic Data Committee correspond to the accompanying digital geologic data. (FGDC)-compliant metadata, a Windows help file that Map units are listed in the table from youngest to oldest. contains all of the ancillary map information and Please refer to the geologic timescale (fig. 9) for the age graphics, and an ESRI ArcMap map document file that associated with each time period. This generalized table easily displays the map. GRI digital geologic data are highlights characteristics of map units such as included on the attached CD and are available through susceptibility to hazards; the occurrence of fossils, the NPS Data Store cultural resources, mineral resources, and caves; and the (http://science.nature.nps.gov/nrdata/). suitability as habitat or for recreational use. Some

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 15 Geologic Units within Kings Mountain National Military Smaller pods, lenses, and bands of other geologic units of Park the Battleground Formation also crop out within Kings As can be seen on the digital geologic map, the Mountain National Military Park. These include the Neoproterozoic Battleground Formation is the most Jumping Branch Manganiferous Member (unit Zbj or widespread geologic unit in Kings Mountain National Zbjp), the Dixon Gap Metaconglomerate Member (unit Military Park. Three units within the Battleground Zbc), volcanic metaconglomerate (unit Zbvc), and Formation, mapped as quartz-sericite phyllite and schist siliceous metatuff (unit Zbmps). The Jumping Branch (unit Zbs), mottled phyllitic metatuff (unit Zbmp), and Manganiferous Member is brownish gray and contains plagioclase-crystal metatuff (unit Zbct), cover the abundant manganese oxides, spessartine-almandine greatest aerial extent within the park (Horton 2006). garnets, and other accessory minerals (Howard 2004; Horton 2006). This unit was mined within the park The quartz-sericite phyllite and schist (also called quartz boundaries (P. Enzi, written communication, 2009). The schist, metasiltstone, and phyllite) is quartz- and Dixon Gap Metaconglomerate Member includes coarse- feldspar-rich rock interlayered with quartz schist, meta- grained, clast-supported quartz-pebble (as many as 90% arenite, metasiltstone, and metaconglomerate containing of clasts are white quartz) metaconglomerate in poorly darker bands of phyllite (Howard 2004; Horton 2006). developed, graded beds (Horton 2006). The volcanic This unit appears very light gray with bluish and metaconglomerate is yellowish gray in outcrop and has yellowish areas and has very fine grained to medium- myriad pebble compositions, including gray, ferruginous grained textures (Horton 2006). Accessory and trace quartz, biotite-muscovite schist, and massive metatuff minerals within this unit include plagioclase, biotite, (unit Zbct). This unit displays relict flow layering in some garnet, chloritoid or staurolite, kyanite, andalusite, places (Horton 2006). The siliceous metatuff is the chlorite, graphite, tourmaline, zircon, pyrite, and quartzose equivalent of the mottled phyllitic metatuff hematite (Horton 2006). The local mineral assemblages (unit Zbmp). It is relatively resistant to erosion and are indicative of metamorphic grade. underlies linear ridges, such as Brushy Ridge and the site of the 1780 Battle of Kings Mountain (Horton 2006). Separated from the quartz-sericite phyllite and schist by a normal fault running through the park, mottled An isolated lens of Neoproterozoic metatonalite (unit phyllitic metatuff is a light- to dark-gray, micaceous rock Zto) is present within the plagioclase-crystal metatuff containing some bluish bands and distinctive rounded (unit Zbct) along the eastern edge of the park. This may and elliptical clasts and lapilli (lacking abundant opaque have originated locally as shallow igneous intrusions oxides), which produce the mottled appearance within the Battleground Formation (Horton 2006). It has (Howard 2004; Horton 2006). Minerals within this rock medium- to coarse-grained, weakly foliated to schistose include quartz, plagioclase, sericitic white mica, iron- textures and is gray to tan in outcrop. Major minerals titanium oxides, paragonite and muscovite, and lesser include oligoclase, blue quartz, biotite, muscovite, and amounts of chloritoid, chlorite, epidote, and margarite hornblende (Nystrom 2003; Howard 2004; Horton (Horton 2006). 2006).

Massive to schistose, medium-gray to dark-gray, Alluvium (unit Qal)—a surficial map unit—occurs within andesitic to dacitic metamorphosed volcaniclastic rocks the park boundaries at Kings Mountain. The Quaternary are characteristic of the plagioclase-crystal metatuff unit alluvium includes poorly sorted, fine-grained to very in the area of the park (Horton 2006). The unit contains coarse grained quartz sand, silt, and clay in the valleys plagioclase crystals and some rounded quartz crystals in and flood plains of local streams (Nystrom 2003; a very fine grained matrix of plagioclase, quartz, white Howard 2004; Horton 2006). Thicker alluvial deposits mica, epidote, chlorite, calcite, biotite, pyrite, and other (≈6 m, or 20 ft, thick) locally have the potential for opaque minerals (Nystrom 2003; Horton 2006). Foliation commercial sand and gravel production (Nystrom 2003). defined by micaceous bands is characteristically poorly developed in this unit (Howard 2004). Past mining interest focused on barite from layers within the metatuff at Kings Creek (Howard 2004).

16 NPS Geologic Resources Division Map Unit Properties Table Colored rows indicate units mapped within Kings Mountain National Military Park.

Unit Name Erosion Suitability for Cultural Age Features and Description Hazards Mineral Occurrence Habitat Recreation Geologic Significance (Symbol) Resistance Development Resources

Dam Material Qme includes concrete and steel material used Units associated (Qme) to construct Ninety-nine Islands Dam. Qaf High, low for Units are associated Mine-related debris may with human Qme creates Mine debris and dam fill Artificial Fill contains unconsolidated gravel, sand, fill, and Units record history of urbanization of the unconsolidated with modern contain heavy minerals and development in None reservoir shoreline should be avoided for (Qaf) debris used in constructing roads, dams, and Kings Mountain area deposits development. dangerous substances. Kings Mountain habitat. recreation. Mine Dump building foundations. Qd contains waste area. (Qd) tailings and mine-related debris. QUATERNARY

Qal consists of mixed deposits of gravel, sand, Unconsolidated Qal is associated with Qc is associated with mass- silt, and clay that is mainly poorly sorted and nature of units waterways and is Alluvium wasting processes and is May contain that is fine to very coarse in grain size. Unit may renders them Modern riparian suitable for light Surficial units may have been present at (Qal) prone to slumping and battlefield relicts be present in wide banks as much as 7 m (23 ft) Low unsuitable for None documented habitat along recreation. Qc should be time of battle and record waterway and Colluvium sliding when water- or American thick. Qc contains mixed blocks of quartzite, waste-water facility waterways avoided due to slope development throughout the area (Qc) saturated and present on a Indian artifacts boulders, and coarse cobbles associated with development or association with mass slope.

QUATERNARY frost-wedging and slope processes. heavy development. wasting.

Unit may be associated with Units are part of the Central Atlantic Unit is dark gray, fine-grained to very fine frost-wedging and slope Unit may weather Unit may have Labradorite laths, accessory Magmatic Province—the most extensive Olivine Diabase Dike grained, crystalline mafic igneous intrusions processes when present as to iron- and High None documented provided trade minerals such as augite, olivine, None documented igneous province on the Earth. Unit marks (Jd) present in north- to northwest-trending parallel boulders; unit may pose magnesium-rich material. magnetite rifting of Pangaea and opening of proto- dikes as much as 5 m (16 ft) thick. rockfall hazard when soils.

JURASSIC Atlantic basin. exposed on a slope.

Cherryville Granite: PNhs contains very light gray, coarse-grained,

High Schoals Granite porphyritic, gneissic biotite granite and augen Some radioactive Residual boulders (3–9 m (PNhs) gneiss. Phenocrysts are subparallel to biotite- minerals may exist Weathers to a [10–30 ft] in diameter) may Granite unit may defined foliation. Lenticular inclusions of within these units Accessory minerals include porous, well- Pedestals and balds Units are among the oldest Alleghanian pose rockfall hazards. PNy have been York Pluton: country rock occur locally. PNy contains and should be myrmektite, pyrite, sphene, drained sandy soil associated with PNy plutons; unmetamorphosed nature of High exposed as pedestals may be quarried for unmetamorphosed, coarse-grained, avoided for epidote, allanite, apatite, zircon; that supports attract recreation units renders them good for age-dating prone to blockfall. monument York Pluton porphyritic, light-gray adamellite in two basements and abundant feldspar for abrasives. pastures and seekers. (PNy = 321±2 million years old) Weathered units may emit stones. (PNy) separate plutonic bodies. PNyf is a finer grained water treatment orchards. radon gas.

PENNSYLVANIAN Fine Grained and more leucocratic (light-colored) facies of facilities. Leucocratic Facies PNy that is present locally. (PNyf) Mcp contains weakly foliated, very light gray, coarse-grained biotite-muscovite granite that Cherryville Granite: grades into pegmatite and is also cut by later Microcline, oligoclase, quartz, pegmatite. Mc includes light-gray, weakly muscovite, biotite, graphic

Coarse Grained foliated muscovite-biotite granite that has Some radioactive granite; some magnetite- Deformed areas within these Granite and Pegmatite medium- to coarse-grained textures. Unit is minerals may exist ilmenite, apatite, zircon, units may be prone to Granite unit may Units record complex intrusion and (Mcp) largely concordant but locally discordant to within these units chlorite, epidote, beryl (rare); intense weathering and have been deformation of the Kings Mountain area. Muscovite-Biotite country rock foliation. Mp contains very coarse and should be pegmatite minerals: euhedral High therefore be zones of quarried for None documented None documented Rb-Sr (whole rock) age of 351±20 million Granite grained, white pegmatite showing little avoided for garnet (1 cm [0.4 in]), weakness within intact rock monument years old for Mc; Mp has Rb-Sr age of (Mc) deformational textures. Ms includes unzoned, basements and undeformed micas, spodumene bodies. Weathered units may stones. 341±40 million years old. Granite Pegmatite white, medium- to coarse-grained pegmatite water treatment (2 cm [0.8 in]), manganapatite,

MISSISSIPPIAN emit radon gas. (Mp) containing abundant spodumene and albite- facilities. ferrocolumbite, cassiterite, Spodumene Pegmatite quartz fillings of vugs and cracks. Textures vivianite, fluorapatite, siderite, (Ms) range from unfoliated to strongly foliated, attractive mineral groupings. blastomylonitic to augen gneissic in dikes and sills.

Feldspar may weather Unit is biotite granite and subordinate Some radioactive Cherryville Granite: preferentially to clay, Oligoclase, microcline, quartz, Unit is suitable for most granodiorite having medium- to coarse-grained minerals may exist U-Pb dates for this unit suggest causing zones of weakness None biotite, muscovite, garnet, recreation unless highly and strongly foliated textures. Unit appears High within this unit and None documented Ordovician age; unit records regional Toluca Granite throughout otherwise intact documented. monazite, ilmenite, rutile, altered in settings prone very light gray in irregular bodies conformable should be avoided deformation. (Otg) rock; these weak zones may sillimanite, apatite, zircon. to mass wasting. to the regional country rock for basements. develop slip surfaces ORDOVICIAN

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 17 Unit Name Erosion Suitability for Cultural Age Features and Description Hazards Mineral Occurrence Habitat Recreation Geologic Significance (Symbol) Resistance Development Resources

Inner Piedmont CZa contains layered plagioclase and

Layered Metamorphic hornblende-rich bands of amphibolite. Heterogeneous and Units may weather Diopside, calcite, epidote, Rocks: Textures are fine grained and equigranular, and locally schistose preferentially in deformed quartz, hornblende, plagioclase, Micaceous units unit appears dark gray and banded in outcrop. nature of these units bands and pose rockfall biotite, garnet, sphene, apatite, weather to Amphibolite CZbg is light-gray to dark-gray gneiss having may render them hazards on slopes; mica-rich Minerals may pyrrhotite, chlorite, magnetite, Units record regional metamorphism and contribute to (CZa) fine- to medium-grained textures in Moderately high. unsuitable for units tend to preferentially have provided sillimanite, garnet, oligoclase, None documented ductile deformation at great crustal grayish-pink to Muscovite-Biotite inequigranular, foliated, layered, and locally development on weather to grayish pink to trade material. muscovite (2 mm [0.08 in]), depths. pale-red, clayey Gneiss sheared bodies. CZs includes rather coarse slopes due to pale red clay and may form staurolite, kyanite, chlorite soils.

CAMBRIAN OR (CZbg) grained, well-foliated, yellowish-gray inherent planes of zones of weakness in (secondary), radial clusters of Muscovite Schist muscovite schist with abundant metamorphic weakness. otherwise intact rock. tourmaline in schist NEOPROTEROZOIC (CZs) textures and minerals.

Inner Piedmont Unit weathers to a mottled dark gray and has Deep-weathering nature of Unit tends to weather Layered Metamorphic Weathering medium- to coarse-grained textures and Weathered nature of these units may render them Labradorite, andesine, green deeply and also produce Rocks: contributes to Unit postdates regional metatonalite and compositions ranging from hornblende-quartz this unit may render slippery on slopes and prone None hornblende, quartz, epidote, large, rounded boulders Moderate distinctive may be relict oceanic crust subjected to gabbro to hornblende-quartz diorite. Small it unstable for heavy to act as failure surfaces due documented. biotite, magnetite, relict in streams that may Metadiorite and greenish-brown, metamorphism and deformation. outcrops appear strongly foliated, massive or development. to higher clay pyroxene attract recreation Metagabbro clayey soil. gneissic. Some metadiorite appears speckled. concentrations. seekers to waterways. (PZZgd) PALEOZOIC? OR NEOPROTEROZOIC

Charlotte Belt Units: Zambgn contains thinly layered, fine-grained Zmto weathers to

amphibolite interlayered with medium-grained produce orange, Amphibolite and biotite gneiss. Layering is locally contorted and sandy soils Layered and Layered units may contain Biotite Gneiss disrupted. Zms contains silica-rich sericite containing remnant weathered nature of weathered planes of Large oligoclase crystals (2–3 cm Weathered outcrops Amphibolite predates regional belts of (Zambgn) phyllite that appears purple and brown in quartz and Moderate to high these units may weakness that render them None [0.8–1.2 in]), gray to blue quartz, may be blocky and too metatonalite and places constraints on the Mica Schist outcrop. Zmto includes distinct belts of coarse- oligoclase grains. for quartzite. render them unstable on slopes and documented. biotite, muscovite, hornblende, sharp for trail timing of metamorphism and (Zms) grained metatonalite that weather to sharp, Zq contains pits unsuitable for heavy prone to blockfall and other quartzite development locally. deformation. Metatonalite blocky exposures. Local mafic lenses are and voids from development. forms of mass wasting. (Zmto) present. Zq includes brown- and purple-stained weathered pyrite Quartzite quartzose rock in fine-grained, weakly foliated that may provide NEOPROTEROZOIC (Zq) lenses and small bodies. specialized habitat. Zto contains light- to medium-gray metatonalite that is weakly foliated to schistose and has medium- to coarse-grained textures. Charlotte Belt Units: Some mafic inclusions are locally present. Ztom is metatonalite containing a high mafic Metatonalite component and is present as mappable layers (Zto) and inclusions of hornblende gneiss and Heterogeneous Oligoclase, quartz, albite, Metatonalite with epidosite. Ztrs contains interlayered mafic and nature of units as biotite, muscovite, hornblende Mafic Layers felsic gneiss (metatrondhjemite), the felsic well as heavily Units may be susceptible to Units may have needles (4 mm [0.16 in] long), Units Ztr, Ztrs, and Ztrn (not identified (Ztom) layers consisting of white to light-gray, medium altered areas may slope processes, including been associated epidote, sphene, chlorite, on digital geologic map) correlate over a Interlayered Mafic and to finely crystalline, seriate textured rocks and Moderate to high Units may weather render the units blockfall, landslides, with gold mining magnetite, pyrite, zircon, broad geographic area and form part of Felsic Gneiss—South mafic layers containing greenish-gray to black, for unweathered to produce clayey None documented unsuitable for heavy slumping, and slope creep in the area and apatite, some angular mafic the core of the South Creek antiform. Zts (Metatrondhjemite) medium- to coarse-grained hornblende gneiss units. soils. development for altered, deformed, and attracted xenoliths, white mica, chlorite, was interpreted as shallow depth (Ztrs) that is strongly lineated. Ztr is mixed projects. Avoid fine-grained areas. surveyors. epidosite, actinolite, vein quartz, intrusions. Metatrondhjemite and metatrondhjemite and amphibole gneiss in highly fractured gold-bearing mineralized zones Amphibole Gneiss mostly concordant layers. Metatrondhjemite is NEOPROTEROZOIC areas. in Zts, pyrite (Ztr) very light gray to yellowish-gray, fine- to Silicified medium-grained rock that is weakly foliated to Metatrondhjemite schistose to gneissic in texture. Amphibole (Zts) gneiss is dark greenish gray, medium grained. Zts contains whitish-tan to pale-green metatrondhjemite having massive textures that is significantly cut by quartz veins. Blacksburg Formation: Zbla is dark gray and has fine- to coarse-

grained, equigranular textures in lenticular Hornblende Gneiss sheets parallel to foliation. Zblg is very light Calcitic and dolomitic and Amphibolite Dissolved carbonate Hornblende, plagioclase, quartz, gray to blue-gray calcite and dolomitic marble marble units may be prone Marble units (Zbla) areas should be epidote, augite, calcite, Units may weather Friable areas of units Marble units may record carbonate having fine- to coarse-grained textures and to dissolution and karst were quarried in Gaffney Marble Moderate avoided for waste- dolomite, marble, phlogopite, to produce high- may be unsafe for trail platform present prior to accretion to the localized banding and schistosity. Zblm is processes. This may cause open-pit Member water treatment tremolite, graphite, epidote, calcium soils. base. North American continent. similar to Zblg but has more strongly defined instability in overlying or operations. (Zblg) facilities. pyrite, white mica, chlorite banding consisting of layers of calc-silicate rock adjacent units. Marble Member of interbedded with marble. Maximum thickness Dixon Branch NEOPROTEROZOIC of Zblm is 200 m (660 ft). (Zblm)

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 18 Unit Name Erosion Suitability for Cultural Age Features and Description Hazards Mineral Occurrence Habitat Recreation Geologic Significance (Symbol) Resistance Development Resources

Zblq is white to yellowish-gray, equigranular,

laminated micaceous quartzite containing Blacksburg Formation: phyllite layers. Layers are generally less than 1 Heterogeneous Attractive banded quartzite, m thick, and textures are fine to medium nature of units may Laminated Micaceous Landslide hazard may exist white mica, biotite, magnetite, grained. Unit is present as discontinuous beds Moderate for prove unstable for Unit is present Unit is suitable for most Quartzite where unit is exposed on garnet, chloritoid, chlorite, Zblc has a mineral assemblage suggestive no thicker than 140 m (460 ft). Zbls contains weathered units heavy foundations within the Kings recreation unless highly (Zblq) slope, especially if slope and calcite, graphite, mica fish None documented of retrogressively altered hornblende well-foliated to blocky, quartz-rich to moderately and development; Mountain gold altered, cleaved, and/or Phyllitic Metasiltstone predominant cleavage (scales) phyllite, epidote, gneiss. metasiltstone that appears light to dark gray, high. strong foliation and mine. fractured. (Zbls) direction are parallel. hornblende, plagioclase (4 mm fine grained, and phyllitic in outcrop. Zblc cleavage may also Chlorite Phyllonite [0.16 in] in diameter) contains light-greenish-gray, chlorite-rich weaken the units. (Zblc) NEOPROTEROZOIC phyllonite that includes lenses of bluish-gray dolomitic marble locally. Battleground Zbdt contains very light gray to yellowish-gray, Formation: felsic muscovite-biotite-quartz-plagioclase gneiss having locally mylonitic, fine- to Metadacite and medium-grained textures. Zbs is mixed and Plagioclase, blue quartz, biotite, Metatrondhjemite layered phyllite and schist. Unit appears very sericitic white mica, chlorite, (Zbdt) light to bluish gray and has very fine grained to Part of Kings Zbj weathers to Intact massive and resistant paragonite, muscovite, garnet, Zbdt has sheared, but unconformable, Quartz-Sericite Phyllite medium-grained textures. Zbd is 10–34 m (33– Avoid heavily Mountain gold produce saprolite units may be underlain by chloritoid porphyroblasts (<10 contacts with the Blacksburg Formation. and Schist 112 ft) thick and contains matrix-supported, Moderate for altered and/or mine area; a shaft and dusky-brown heavily weathered and/or mm [0.4 in]), staurolite, kyanite, Zbs contains record of high-grade regional (Zbs) coarse-grained metaconglomerate and weathered units fractured areas of within the park oxides, such as None documented fractured layers, creating a andalusite, graphite, tourmaline, metamorphism. Battleground Formation Draytonville metasandstone. Primary grains are quartz. Unit to high. these units for heavy mined pyrolusite and setting prone to blockfall if zircon, pyrite, hematite, named for exposures on historic Kings Metaconglomerate appears light to medium gray in outcrop. development. manganese ore psilomelane in local exposed on a slope. metaconglomerate, hornblende, Mountain battleground. Member Quartz pebbles are flattened at an angle to from Zbj. soils. spessartine-almandine garnets (Zbd) bedding to define a slight foliation. Zbj is an NEOPROTEROZOIC (0.1 mm [0.004 in]) Jumping Branch equigranular garnet-quartz rock interlayered Manganiferous with quartz-sericite schist. Units appear light Member gray to brown, having fine-grained textures and (Zbj) strong foliation. Zbaq is high-grade metamorphosed quartzite Battleground that appears light to medium gray and contains Zbaq records high-grade metamorphism,

Formation: aggregates of kyanite in a finer grained, quartz- aluminosilicate minerals detailing rich matrix having strong foliation. Zkq crops Kyanite (1 cm [0.4 in]), metamorphic evolution of the unit. Zkq is Aluminous Quartzite out as steeply dipping lenticular beds of sillimanite (<4 mm [0.16 in]), associated with the hydrothermal Units that are highly Clay-rich horizons may (Zbaq) foliated, kyanite-rich quartzite. Unit appears High for Minerals may andalusite, biotite, white mica, alteration zone southwest of Henry Knob. weathered may be create slip surfaces, Units may weather Kyanite Quartzite medium gray with brown to purple stains in quartzite to have provided magnetite, pyrite, quartz (1 cm None documented Zbc records regional deformation with unstable foundation rendering units prone to to clay-rich soils. (Zkq) coarse-grained exposures. Zbc contains coarse- moderately high. trade material. [0.4 in]), magnetite-ilmenite quartz grains flattened at a length-width bases. mass wasting. Dixon Gap grained, very light gray to medium-light-gray quartzite, hornblende gneiss, ratio of 1 to 5 at an angle to regional Metaconglomerate quartz-pebble metaconglomerate in which phyllite, chloritoid. bedding. Battleground Formation named Member quartz pebbles average 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter for exposures on historic Kings Mountain NEOPROTEROZOIC (Zbc) in a finer grained, poorly sorted quartzose battleground. matrix. Unit is 10–40 m (33–130 ft) thick. Zbmp contains mottled sericite schist and Battleground phyllite that is metamorphosed pyroclastic rock Quartz, plagioclase (<6 mm Formation: Landslide hazard may exist (lapilli metatuff). Mottled appearance is from [0.24 in]), sericitic white mica, Zbmp records early volcanism followed where unit is exposed on iron-titanium oxides in a lighter colored matrix. Heterogeneous and iron-titanium oxides, chloritoid by metamorphism and deformation. Zbct Mottled Phyllitic slope, especially if (in Suitable for most Some well-sorted and graded beds are schistose nature of (2–4 mm [0.08–0.16 in]), records andesitic to dacitic volcanism. Metatuff schistose units) slope and Minerals may recreation unless remnants of original textures. Unit appears units may prove chlorite, epidote, paragonite, Zbgs may be remnant of deep-seated (Zbmp) Moderate predominant cleavage have provided None documented schistose units are light bluish gray to medium dark gray in well- unstable for heavy muscovite, margarite, kyanite, oceanic crust and is the only occurrence of Plagioclase-Crystal direction are parallel; trade material. exposed on a steep foliated outcrops. Zbct resembles Zbmp in that foundations and magnetite (1 mm [0.04 in]), greenstone in the area. Battleground Metatuff shrink-and-swell clays may slope. it is medium to dark gray and has massive to development. tourmaline, calcite, green Formation named for exposures on (Zbct) develop from weathered schistose textures. Zbgs contains pale-green, amphibole, zircon, apatite, historic Kings Mountain battleground. Greenstone greenstone units. NEOPROTEROZOIC fine-grained schist that is rounded and knobby biotite, pyrite. (Zbgs) in outcrop. Zbfs contains white to light-gray feldspathic Battleground biotite schist and gneiss having fine- to Formation: medium-grained textures in lenticular bodies.

Foliation development varies. Zbht is Zbfs contains metamorphosed dacitic tuff Felsic Schist and Heterogeneous metavolcanic gneiss that appears medium to and mudstone. Metaconglomerate records Gneiss (Metafelsite) nature of units may Zbmps is a Calcic oligoclase (<2 mm [<0.08 dark gray to greenish gray in outcrop and has a high-energy deposition in volcanic, deeper (Zbfs) render them Landslide hazard may exist resistant unit in]; 5 mm [0.2 in] in Zbht), Units may weather Avoid heavily well-developed foliation. Zbmc contains water environment. Zbmps contains Metavolcanic unsuitable for heavy where units are exposed on that underlies albite, quartz, biotite, white to produce weathered, foliated, quartz-pebble metaconglomerate having disseminated pyrite, which suggests Hornblende Gneiss Moderate development if slope, especially if slope and linear ridges mica, microcline, orthoclase, calcium- and and/or fractured areas schistose textures that is light to yellowish gray volcanogenic hydrothermal silicification (Zbht) exposed on a slope predominant cleavage from the sillimanite, garnet, staurolite, potassium-rich exposed on slopes for in outcrop. Pebbles of quartz are subrounded, and epiclastic mixing with quartz-rich Crowders Creek and highly direction are parallel. battlefield of hornblende (<3 mm [0.12 in]), soils. recreation purposes. well sorted, and flattened in the plane of sediment. Battleground Formation named Metaconglomerate weathered and/or 1780. epidote, sphene, pyrite schistosity in a finer grained matrix. Maximum for exposures on historic Kings Mountain Member fractured. NEOPROTEROZOIC thickness of unit is 15 m (50 ft). Zbmps is battleground. (Zbmc) quartzose-mottled phyllitic metatuff that is Siliceous Metatuff light to medium gray and fine grained in (Zbmps). exposures.

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 19 Unit Name Erosion Suitability for Cultural Age Features and Description Hazards Mineral Occurrence Habitat Recreation Geologic Significance (Symbol) Resistance Development Resources

Zbmq includes micaceous quartzite and phyllite or schistose layering. Unit appears white to yellowish gray in outcrop and has fine- to medium-grained, equigranular textures. Schistose layers are locally a few meters thick, Battleground individual quartzite beds being as thick as 50 m

Formation: (160 ft). Zbms contains very light gray to Resistant quartzite may be bluish-brownish-yellowish-gray, fine- to Units with high prone to blockfall if Quartzite, biotite, magnetite, Zbmq correlates on a regional scale with Micaceous Quartzite medium-grained schist and phyllite grading and degree of Avoid heavily underlain by weathered quartz, sericitic white mica, other units in the local stratigraphic (Zbmq) interfingering with neighboring units. Zbvc is Moderate to heterogeneity, Minerals may weathered, foliated, schistose units. Strong oligoclase, albite, garnet, column (Zbj, Zbmc), which aids in Biotite-Muscovite metamorphosed volcanic conglomerate that is moderately high alteration, and have provided None documented and/or fractured areas foliation in schist and chloritoid, staurolite, kyanite, determining the regional geologic history. Schist yellowish to medium gray in outcrop. At least for quartzite. deformation may be trade material. exposed on slopes for phyllite may prove unstable sillimanite, andalusite, chlorite, Zbms contains record of metamorphic- (Zbms) five different pebble types are common locally: unstable foundation recreation purposes. on slopes and prone to mass tourmaline, pyrite, hematite. grade evolution. Volcanic (1) gray, ferruginous quartz rock containing bases. wasting. Metaconglomerate iron-titanium oxides; (2) white polycrystalline NEOPROTEROZOIC (Zbvc) quartz; (3) biotite-muscovite schist (Zbms); (4) mottled schistose pyroclastic rock (Zbmp); and (5) massive metatuff (Zbct). Some crude relict depositional features are present, including bedding, flow layering, and some clast rounding.

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 20 Geologic History

This section describes the rocks and unconsolidated deposits that appear on the digital geologic map of Kings Mountain National Military Park, the environment in which those units were deposited, and the timing of geologic events that created the present landscape.

Proterozoic Eon grade metaplutonic rocks, which had been deeply More than one billion years ago, the Grenville Orogeny buried, were juxtaposed against shallow, low-grade deformed and metamorphosed a continental mass metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks along major ancestral to North America called Laurentia (see fig. 9 ductile shear zones (Secor et al. 1998). Several phases of for a geologic time scale). Beginning about 750–700 deformation occurred within the Carolina terrane before million years ago, rifting of Laurentia led to the opening it collided with North America by means of intraplate of the Iapetus Ocean and formed a new eastern margin of events associated with tectonically active volcanic arcs the continent. The Iapetus was one of several proto- (Butler and Secor 1991). Atlantic ocean basins that closed episodically during the Paleozoic. Other basins included the Theic and Rheic Many of the terranes foreign to Laurentia (those oceans (Horton and Zullo 1991; Nance and Linnemann previously amalgamated, as well as others) and now 2008). located northwest of the Carolina terrane were accreted, deformed, and metamorphosed during the Ordovician During the Neoproterozoic (which spanned from 1,000 Taconic Orogeny, from about 470 to 440 million years to 545 million years ago), volcanic rocks, clastic and ago (Horton et al. 1988, 1989a, 1989b; Horton and Zullo carbonate sediments, and hydrothermally altered 1991). The Taconic Orogeny involved a volcanic arc– volcanic materials that would become units within the continent convergence and closure of the Iapetus Ocean Blacksburg and Battleground formations in the Kings (Nance and Linnemann 2008). Oceanic crust and the Mountain sequence were deposited (Goldsmith et al. volcanic arc were thrust onto the eastern edge of the 1988). In the late Proterozoic(?), tonalite and North American continent along major thrust faults trondhjemite magmas associated with volcanism (units (Moore 1988; Connelly and Woodward 1990). From Zto and Ztr) shallowly intruded the lower part of the approximately 415 to 385 million years ago, a major mixed deposits of the Battleground Formation group of plutons intruded the Carolina terrane east of (Goldsmith et al. 1988; Nystrom 2003; Howard 2004; Kings Mountain (Butler and Secor 1991). Devonian Horton 2006). These intrusions were roughly tectonothermal activity in the southern Appalachian synchronous with widespread eruption of mafic volcanic region occurred approximately 380–340 million years materials in other parts of the terrane, possibly ago and appears younger than events associated with the associated with an episode of arc-rifting dated at 570 Acadian Orogeny that primarily affected New England million years ago (Hibbard et al. 2002). The depositional (Horton et al. 1989a). environment for the Kings Mountain sequence of rocks may have been a volcanic arc-basin complex (LeHuray The Rheic Ocean opened during the Early Ordovician 1986; Goldsmith et al. 1988). Intrusions within the following rifting along the northern margin of Carolina terrane (primarily east of Kings Mountain) Gondwana in the Middle to Late Cambrian (Nance and record a major plutonic episode lasting from about 650 Linnemann 2008). It widened at the expense of the to 600 million years ago, which could correlate with an Iapetus Ocean as the Carolina terrane drifted towards intrusive center of a magmatic arc (Faggart and Basu Laurentia (Nance and Linnemann 2008). The 1987; Butler and Secor 1991). Pennsylvanian-Permian Alleghanian Orogeny (≈330–270 million years ago) involved the continental collision Paleozoic Era between Laurentia and Gondwanaland (a composite Throughout the Paleozoic, fragments of oceanic crust continent consisting of South America, Africa, and basin sediments, volcanic island arcs, and other Madagascar, Antarctica, India, other parts of South Asia, continental land masses collided with the eastern edge of and Australia), forming a supercontinent called Pangaea the North American continent. Many of these myriad and closing the Rheic Ocean (fig. 8) (Horton and Zullo fragments accreted to Laurentia in several episodes of 1991; Nance and Linneman 2008; C. S. Howard, written compression accompanied by metamorphism and communication, 2009). magmatism. These compressional orogenic events of varying duration and intensity affected different but The deformation associated with the Alleghanian overlapping segments of the eastern edge of North Orogeny overprints many previous structures in the America (Horton and Zullo 1991). southern Appalachians, resulting in flexural-slip folds, kink folds, and extensional crenulation cleavage (part of During the early Paleozoic, subduction-related volcanic the Alleghanian dextral shear system) (Schaeffer 1982; C. arcs, slabs of oceanic crust, and basin sediments were S. Howard, written communication, 2009). In the amalgamating off the eastern margin of the North Carolinas, in the vicinity of the Kings Mountain American continent. Within the Carolina terrane, high- sequence, effects of this collision were varied. Major

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 21 changes included (1) widespread plutonism, (2) cataclasite zones developed across the Inner Piedmont westward transport of native and accreted terranes of the and Carolina terranes during multiple episodes of mid- Piedmont as part of a composite crystalline thrust sheet, Mesozoic brittle deformation that accompanied (3) amphibolite-facies regional metamorphism and continental rifting (Garihan et al. 1993). Associated with penetrative deformation, and (4) predominantly right- the extension was widespread igneous activity that is lateral strike-slip faulting (along northeast-trending locally evident as Early Jurassic olivine diabase dikes ductile shear zones) that sliced and shifted accreting (map unit Jd) and some localized hydrothermal activity terranes (Horton et al. 1989a, 1989b; Horton and Zullo throughout the Piedmont in the Carolinas (Schaeffer 1991; Butler and Secor 1991; Nance and Linnemann 1982; Horton and Zullo 1991; Nystrom 2003; Howard 2008). 2004; Horton 2006). There are nearly vertical olivine diabase dikes within the park and surrounding areas Approximately 317 million years ago, the High Shoals dating to this time (C. S. Howard, written granitic batholith intruded the metasedimentary and communication, 2009). These later intrusions locally metavolcanic rocks of the Kings Mountain sequence overprinted (contact metamorphism) pre-existing (LeHuray 1986; Horton et al. 1987; Goldsmith et al. features (Schaeffer, 1982). 1988). Gneissic foliation developed within the granite during deformation accompanying emplacement After this magma intruded the surrounding metamorphic (Horton et al. 1987). A zone of sillimanite-grade and plutonic rocks during the Jurassic, at approximately metamorphic rock surrounds the granitic batholith, and 200 million years ago, the region underwent a period of a zone of regional metamorphism extends beyond the slow uplift and erosion. The uplift was in response to immediate vicinity of the granite, overprinting evidence isostatic adjustments within the crust that forced the of an older, lower grade Paleozoic metamorphic event continental crust upwards and exposed it to erosion (Goldsmith et al. 1988). The relatively undeformed (Harris et al. 1997). Since the breakup of Pangaea and the Gastonia granite, one of many late Alleghanian (325–254 uplift of the Appalachian Mountains, the North million years ago) intrusive bodies throughout the American plate has continued to drift toward the west. Piedmont, in turn intrudes the High Shoals batholith Cenozoic tectonism in South Carolina is manifested in (Sutter et al. 1984; LeHuray 1986; Goldsmith et al. 1988). ways such as uplift, subsidence, and faulting (Prowell and Obermeier 1991). Most of this faulting is concentrated in Accretion of the Carolina terrane to Laurentia is a critical broad, alternating arches (upwarps) and embayments unresolved problem in the study of southern (downwarps) along the southeastern coast (Horton and Appalachian tectonics (Hibbard 2000). Data for Zullo 1991). Paleozoic igneous rocks that have paleomagnetic poles similar to Carboniferous (Mississippian-Pennsylvanian) Cenozoic Era poles from the North American craton show that the Running water and wind transported thick deposits of magmatic-arc terrane had sutured to the continent by unconsolidated gravel, sand, and silt from the eroding approximately 300 million years ago (Butler and Secor highlands. These were deposited at the base of the 1991). The Kings Mountain shear zone coincides in age mountains as alluvial fans and spread eastward to with outcrops of pegmatite and deformed the Cherryville become part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain to the east of Granite of the Inner Piedmont to the west and other Kings Mountain National Military Park. With fluctuating plutons aged 340–285 million years. These relations relative sea level and tectonism throughout the imply a late Alleghanian age for some of the local Cenozoic, sediments were regionally deposited and deformation and plutonism along the Kings Mountain eroded in alternating events. Today the Fall Line, a shear zone associated with the collision of North sinuous boundary, defines the current western extent of America and Gondwanaland (LeHuray 1986; Butler and the Atlantic Coastal Plain deposits (Horton and Zullo Secor 1991). Other geologists favor a Late Ordovician to 1991). The former western extent of the Coastal Plain is Silurian time of accretion based on the presence of a unknown and is still a matter of debate. Some geologists Silurian unconformity on the Laurentian margin, theorize it may have extended to the Blue Ridge extensive tonalitic to granodioritic magmatism in the escarpment (C. S. Howard, written communication, Piedmont at that time, and Argon isotope cooling ages 2009). The amount of material inferred from the now- calculated from mica showing a Middle to Late exposed metamorphic rocks throughout the Piedmont Ordovician and Silurian tectonic uplift event (Hibbard and Blue Ridge is immense. Many of the rocks exposed 2000; Hibbard et al. 2002). A study by Hibbard et al. at the surface must have been at least 20 km (≈10 mi) (2002) summarizes this debate and presents a below the surface prior to regional uplift and erosion. comprehensive history of the entire Carolina Zone that is beyond the scope of this report. Throughout the Cenozoic, the primary geologic processes at work in the Southern Appalachians were Mesozoic Era erosion and weathering. Erosion continues today along During the Mesozoic, extensional tectonic forces rifted regional drainage patterns developed during the early Pangaea into roughly the same continental masses and Cenozoic Era, the large rivers and tributaries stripping Atlantic Ocean that persist today. Along the eastern sediments, lowering the mountains, and depositing margin of North America, normal faulting opened rift alluvial terraces and alluvium (unit Qal) along the rivers basins that rapidly filled with sediment eroded from the and forming the present landscape (Moore 1988; Alleghanian highlands. Brittle faults, joints, and Nystrom 2003; Howard 2004; Horton 2006). Rain, frost,

22 NPS Geologic Resources Division rooted plants, rivers and streams, chemical dissolution, reached the southern Appalachians, the colder climates and mass wasting are wearing away the once-craggy of the ice ages played a role in the geomorphology of the peaks. Layers of resistant rocks, such as quartzite, area. The landforms and deposits are probably late siliceous metatuff, and metaconglomerate, underlie local Neogene to Quaternary in age, when a wetter climate, ridges and mountains. The more resistant rocks create sparse vegetation, and frozen ground caused increased ledges commonly associated with waterfalls near Kings precipitation and runoff that fed ancestral rivers. These Mountain National Military Park (Schultz and Seal conditions enhanced downcutting and erosion (Schultz 1997). and Seal 1997). Many of the concentrations of boulders, block fields, and fine-textured colluvium on the forested From about 1.6 million to 11,000 years before the mountainsides of the Southern Appalachians record the present, the Pleistocene ice ages resulted in significant process of frost-wedging. changes to the Earth’s landscape. Though glaciers never

Figure 8. Generalized schematic block diagram of the crustal structure of the southeastern Appalachians based on reprocessed data from the Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP) reflection survey. Kings Mountain National Military Park is located near the western edge of the Carolina Terrane. Sutures represent boundaries between terranes that were once separated by wide ocean basins such as the Iapetus and Rheic. Shear zones commonly mark the trace of a suture. Graphic is figure 8 from Nance and Linnemann (2008).

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 23

Figure 9. Geologic time scale. Included are major events in the history of life on Earth and tectonic events occurring on the North American continent. Red lines indicate major unconformities between eras. Absolute ages shown are in millions of years (Ma, or mega-annum). Compass directions in parentheses indicate the regional location of individual geologic events. Adapted from the U.S. Geological Survey, http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3015/.

24 NPS Geologic Resources Division Glossary

This glossary contains brief definitions of technical geologic terms used in this report. Not all geologic terms used are referenced. For more detailed definitions or to find terms not listed here please visit: http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/misc/glossarya.html. absolute age. The geologic age of a fossil, rock, feature, breccia. A coarse-grained, generally unsorted or event in years; commonly refers to radiometrically sedimentary rock consisting of cemented angular determined ages. clasts greater than 2 mm (0.08 in). allochthonous. Describes rocks or materials formed brittle. Describes a rock that fractures before sustaining elsewhere than in their present location. significant deformation. alluvial fan. A fan-shaped deposit of sediment that calcareous. Describes rock or sediment that contains accumulates where a hydraulically confined stream calcium carbonate. -2 flows to a hydraulically unconfined area. Commonly carbonate. A mineral that has CO3 as its essential out of a mountain front into an area such as a valley or component (e.g., calcite and aragonite). plain. carbonate rock. A rock consisting chiefly of carbonate alluvium. Stream-deposited sediment. minerals (e.g., limestone, dolomite, or carbonatite). amphibolite. A rock produced by metamorphic cataclastic. Describes structures in a rock produced by recrystallization, consisting mostly of amphibole and bending, breaking, or crushing of minerals, which plagioclase with little or no quartz. result from tremendous stresses during anticline. A fold, generally convex upward, whose core metamorphism. contains the stratigraphically older rocks. cementation. Chemical precipitation of material into anticlinorium. A composite anticlinal structure of pores between grains that bind the grains into rock. regional extent composed of lesser folds. chemical sediment. A sediment precipitated directly aquifer. A rock or sedimentary unit that is sufficiently from solution (also called nonclastic). porous that it has a capacity to hold water, sufficiently chemical weathering. Chemical breakdown of minerals permeable to allow water to move through it, and at the Earth’s surface via reaction with water, air, or currently saturated to some level. dissolved substances; commonly results in a change in arc. See “volcanic arc” and “magmatic arc.” chemical composition more stable in the current ash (volcanic). Fine pyroclastic material ejected from a environment. volcano (also see “tuff”). clast. An individual grain or rock fragment in a asthenosphere. Weak layer in the upper mantle below sedimentary rock, produced by the physical the lithosphere where seismic waves are attenuated. disintegration of a larger rock mass. authochthonous. Formed or produced in the location clastic. Describes rock or sediment made of fragments of where now found. Similar to “authigenic,” which pre-existing rocks. refers to constituents rather than whole formations. clay. Can be used to refer to clay minerals or as a axis (fold). A straight-line approximation that when sedimentary fragment size classification (less than moved parallel to itself generates the shape of a fold 1/256 mm [0.00015 in]). (see and use “hinge line”). cleavage (mineral). The tendency of a mineral to break basement. The undifferentiated rocks, commonly preferentially in certain directions along planes of igneous and metamorphic, that underlie the rocks weaknesses in the crystal structure. exposed at the surface. cleavage (rock). The tendency of rock to break along basin (structural). A doubly plunging syncline in which parallel planes that correspond to the alignment of rocks dip inward from all sides. platy minerals. basin (sedimentary). Any depression, from continental conglomerate. conglomerate. A coarse-grained, generally to local scales, into which sediments are deposited. unsorted, sedimentary rock consisting of cemented batholith. A massive, discordant pluton, greater than 100 rounded clasts larger than 2 mm (0.08 in). km2 (40 mi2), and commonly formed from multiple continental crust. The crustal rocks rich in silica and intrusions. alumina that underlie the continents; ranging in bed. The smallest sedimentary strata unit, commonly thickness from 35 km (22 mi) to 60 km (37 mi) under ranging in thickness from one centimeter to a meter or mountain ranges. two and distinguishable from beds above and below. continental shield. A continental block of Earth’s crust bedding. Depositional layering or stratification of that has remained relatively stable over a long period sediments. of time and has undergone only gentle warping bedrock geology. The geology of underlying solid rock compared to the intense deformation of bordering as it would appear with the sediment, soil, and crust. vegetative cover stripped away. convergent boundary. An active boundary where two block (fault). A crustal unit bounded by faults, either tectonic plates are colliding. completely or in part. country rock. The rock surrounding an igneous intrusion. Also, the rock enclosing or traversed by a mineral deposit.

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 25 craton. The relatively old and geologically stable interior groundmass. The material between the phenocrysts in a of a continent (also see “continental shield”). porphyritic igneous rock; also, the matrix of a creep. The slow, imperceptible downslope movement of sedimentary rock. mineral, rock, and soil particles under gravity. hanging wall. hanging wall. The mass of rock above a cross section. A graphical interpretation of geology, fault surface (also see “footwall”). structure, and/or stratigraphy in the third (vertical) hinge line. A line or boundary between a stable region dimension based on mapped and measured geological and one undergoing upward or downward movement. extents and attitudes depicted in a vertically oriented igneous. Refers to a rock or mineral that originated from plane. molten material; one of the three main classes or crust. The Earth’s outermost compositional shell, 10 to rocks—igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. 40 km (6 to 25 mi) thick, consisting predominantly of intrusion. A body of igneous rock that invades (pushes relatively low-density silicate minerals (also see into) older rock. The invading rock may be a plastic “oceanic crust” and “continental crust”). solid or magma. crystalline. Describes a regular, orderly, repeating island arc. A line or arc of volcanic islands formed over geometric structural arrangement of atoms. and parallel to a subduction zone. debris flow. A moving mass of rock fragments, soil, and isograd. A line on a map joining points at which mud, more than half the particles of which are larger metamorphism proceeded at similar values of pressure than sand size. and temperature as indicated by rocks containing a deformation. A general term for the process of faulting, diagnostic mineral or mineral assemblage. Such a line folding, and shearing of rocks as a result of various represents the intersection of a reaction surface with Earth forces such as compression (pushing together) the Earth’s surface corresponding to the boundary and extension (pulling apart). between two contiguous zones of metamorphic grade. dike. A tabular, discordant igneous intrusion. isostasy. The process by which the crust “floats” at an dip. The angle between a bed or other geologic surface elevation compatible with the density and thickness of and horizontal. the crustal rocks relative to underlying mantle. discordant. Having contacts that cut across or are set at isostatic adjustment. The shift of the lithosphere to an angle to the orientation of adjacent rocks. maintain equilibrium between units of varying mass divergent boundary. An active boundary where tectonic and density; excess mass above is balanced by a deficit plates are moving apart (e.g., a spreading ridge or of density below, and vice versa. continental rift zone). joint. A semi-planar break in rock without relative drainage basin. The total area from which a stream movement of rocks on either side of the fracture system receives or drains precipitation runoff. surface. ductile. Describes rock that is able to sustain lamination. The finest stratification or bedding as in shale deformation before fracturing. or siltstone; also the formation of laminae. en echelon. Describes geologic features (particularly landslide. Any process or landform resulting from rapid, faults) that overlap in a step-like pattern. gravity-driven mass movement. escarpment. A steep cliff or topographic step resulting lava. Still-molten or solidified magma that has been from vertical displacement on a fault or by mass extruded onto the Earth’s surface though a volcano or movement (syn: scarp). fissure. extrusive. Of or pertaining to the eruption of igneous limb. Either side of a structural fold. material onto the Earth’s surface. lithology. The physical description or classification of a facies (metamorphic). The pressure-temperature regime rock or rock unit based on characters such as its color, that results in a particular, distinctive metamorphic mineralogic composition, and grain size. mineralogy (i.e., a suite of index minerals). mafic. Describes dark-colored rock, magma, or minerals fault. A break in rock along which relative movement has rich in magnesium and iron. occurred between the two sides. magma. Molten rock beneath the Earth’s surface capable foliation. A preferred arrangement of crystal planes in of intrusion and extrusion. minerals; in metamorphic rocks, the term commonly magmatic arc. Zone of plutons or volcanic rocks formed refers to a parallel orientation of planar minerals such at a convergent boundary. as micas. mantle. The zone of the Earth’s interior between the footwall. The mass of rock beneath a fault surface (also crust and core. see “hanging wall”). mass wasting. A general term for the downslope formation. Fundamental rock-stratigraphic unit that is movement of soil and rock material under the direct mappable, lithologically distinct from adjoining strata, influence of gravity. and has definable upper and lower contacts. matrix. The fine grained material between coarse (larger) fracture. Irregular breakage of a mineral. Any break in a grains in igneous rocks or poorly sorted clastic rock (e.g., crack, joint, fault). sediments or rocks. Also refers to rock or sediment in frost wedging. The breakup of rock due to the expansion which a fossil is embedded. of water freezing in fractures. mechanical weathering. The physical breakup of rocks graywacke. A term commonly used in the field for a dark without change in composition. Synonymous with gray to dark green, very hard, dense sandstone of any physical weathering. composition but with a chlorite-rich matrix; these member. A lithostratigraphic unit with definable rocks have undergone deep burial. contacts; a member subdivides a formation.

26 NPS Geologic Resources Division meta-. A prefix used with the name of a sedimentary or porphyritic. An igneous rock characteristic wherein the igneous rock, indicating that the rock has been rock contains conspicuously large crystals in a fine- metamorphosed. grained groundmass. metamorphic. Pertaining to the process of provenance. A place of origin; specifically, the area from metamorphism or its results. which the constituent materials of a sedimentary rock metamorphism. Literally, a change in form. or facies were derived. Metamorphism occurs in rocks through mineral pyroclastic. Describes clastic rock material formed by alteration, genesis, and/or recrystallization from volcanic explosion or aerial expulsion from a volcanic increased heat and pressure. vent; also pertaining to rock texture of explosive migmatite. Literally, “mixed rock” with both igneous and origin. In the plural, the term is used as a noun. metamorphic characteristics due to partial melting radioactivity. The spontaneous decay or breakdown of during metamorphism. unstable atomic nuclei. mineral. A naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid radiometric age. An age in years determined from with a definite chemical composition or compositional radioactive isotopes and their decay products. range. recharge. Infiltration processes that replenish ground Moho. The Mohorovičić discontinuity, the boundary water. between the Earth's crust and the mantle. regolith. General term for the layer of rock debris, monadnock. An isolated erosional remnant rising above organic matter, and soil that commonly forms the land the surrounding landscape. surface and overlies most bedrock. mylonite. A compact, chertlike rock with a streaky or regression. A long-term seaward retreat of the shoreline banded structure produced by the extreme granulation or relative fall of sea level. or shearing of rocks that have been pulverized or relative dating. Determining the chronological rolled during intense dynamic metamorphism. placement of rocks, events, or fossils with respect to normal fault. A dip-slip fault in which the hanging wall the geologic time scale and without reference to their moves down relative to the footwall. absolute age. obduction. The process by which the crust is thickened reverse fault. A contractional high-angle (greater than by thrust faulting at a convergent margin. 45°) dip-slip fault in which the hanging wall moves up oceanic crust. The Earth’s crust formed at spreading relative to the footwall (also see “thrust fault”). ridges that underlies the ocean basins. Oceanic crust is rift valley. A depression formed by grabens along the 6 to 7 km (3 to 4 miles) thick and generally of basaltic crest of an oceanic spreading ridge or in a continental composition. rift zone. orogeny. A mountain-building event. sand. A clastic particle smaller than a granule and larger outcrop. Any part of a rock mass or formation that is than a silt grain, having a diameter in the range of 1/16 exposed or “crops out” at the Earth’s surface. mm (0.0025 in) to 2 mm (0.08 in.). Pangaea. A theoretical, single supercontinent that sandstone. Clastic sedimentary rock of predominantly existed during the Permian and Triassic periods. sand-sized grains. parent rock. The original rock from which a saprolite. Soft, often clay-rich, decomposed rock formed metamorphic rock was formed. Can also refer to the in place by chemical weathering. rock from which a soil was formed. scarp. A steep cliff or topographic step resulting from passive margin. A margin where no plate-scale displacement on a fault, or by mass movement, or tectonism is taking place; plates are not converging, erosion. diverging, or sliding past one another. An example is sediment. An eroded and deposited, unconsolidated the east coast of North America. (also see “active accumulation of rock and mineral fragments. margin”). sedimentary rock. A consolidated and lithified rock pegmatite. An exceptionally coarse-grained igneous consisting of clastic and/or chemical sediment(s). rock, with interlocking crystals, usually found in sequence. A major informal rock-stratigraphic unit that irregular dikes, lenses, and veins, especially at the is traceable over large areas and defined by a major sea margins of batholiths. level transgression-regression sediment package. permeability. A measure of the relative ease with which shale. A clastic sedimentary rock made of clay-sized fluids move through the pore spaces of rocks or particles that exhibit parallel splitting properties. sediments. silicate. A compound whose crystal structure contains phenocryst. A coarse crystal in a porphyritic igneous the SiO4 tetrahedra. rock. sill. A tabular, igneous intrusion that is concordant with phyllite. A metamorphosed rock with a silky sheen, the country rock. intermediate in composition between slate and mica silt. Clastic sedimentary material intermediate in size schist. between fine-grained sand and coarse clay (1/256 to plastic. Capable of being deformed permanently without 1/16 mm [0.00015 to 0.002 in]). rupture. siltstone. A variably lithified sedimentary rock composed pluton. A body of intrusive igneous rock. of silt-sized grains. plutonic. Describes igneous rock intruded and slope. The inclined surface of any geomorphic feature or crystallized at some depth in the Earth. rational measurement thereof. Synonymous with porphyry. porphyry. An igneous rock consisting of gradient. abundant coarse crystals in a fine-grained matrix.

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 27 slump. A generally large, coherent mass movement with suture. The linear zone where two continental a concave-up failure surface and subsequent backward landmasses become joined via obduction. rotation relative to the slope. syncline. A downward curving (concave up) fold with soil. Surface accumulation of weathered rock and layers that dip inward; the core of the syncline organic matter capable of supporting plant growth and contains the stratigraphically-younger rocks. often overlying the parent material from which it synclinorium. A composite synclinal structure of regional formed. extent composed of lesser folds. spring. A site where water issues from the surface due to tectonic. Relating to large-scale movement and the intersection of the water table with the ground deformation of the Earth’s crust. surface. tectonics. The geologic study of the broad structural strata. Tabular or sheetlike masses or distinct layers of architecture and deformational processes of the rock. lithosphere and asthenosphere (also see “structural stratigraphy. The geologic study of the origin, geology”). occurrence, distribution, classification, correlation, terrace. A relatively level bench or steplike surface and age of rock layers, especially sedimentary rocks. breaking the continuity of a slope (see “marine stream. Any body of water flowing under gravity in a terrace” and “stream terrace”). clearly confined channel. terrane. A large region or group of rocks with similar stream channel. A long, narrow depression shaped by geology, age, or structural style. the concentrated flow of a stream and covered terrestrial. Relating to land, the Earth, or its inhabitants. continuously or periodically by water. thrust fault. A contractional dip-slip fault with a stream terrace. One of a series of level surfaces in a shallowly dipping fault surface (less than 45°) where stream valley, flanking and more or less parallel to the the hanging wall moves up and over relative to the present stream channel. It is above the level of the footwall. stream and represents the dissected remnants of an topography. The general morphology of the Earth’s abandoned floodplain, streambed, or valley floor surface, including relief and locations of natural and produced during a former stage of erosion or anthropogenic features. deposition. trace (fault). The exposed intersection of a fault with strike. The compass direction of the line of intersection Earth’s surface. of an inclined surface with a horizontal plane. transgression. Landward migration of the sea as a result strike-slip fault. A fault with measurable offset where the of a relative rise in sea level. relative movement is parallel to the strike of the fault. trend. The direction or azimuth of elongation of a linear Said to be “sinistral” (left-lateral) if relative motion of geologic feature. the block opposite the observer appears to be to the tuff. Generally fine-grained igneous rock formed of left. “Dextral” (right-lateral) describes relative motion consolidated volcanic ash. to the right. unconformity. A surface within sedimentary strata that structural geology. The branch of geology that deals marks a prolonged period of nondeposition or with the description, representation, and analysis of erosion. structures, chiefly on a moderate to small scale. The uplift. A structurally high area in the crust, produced by subject is similar to tectonics, but the latter is generally movement that raises the rocks. used for the broader regional or historical phases. volcanic. Related to volcanoes. Igneous rock crystallized structure. The attitude and relative positions of the rock at or near the Earth’s surface (e.g., lava). masses of an area resulting from such processes as volcanic arc. A frequently curved, linear, zone of faulting, folding, and igneous intrusions. volcanoes above a subduction zone. subduction zone. A convergent plate boundary where water table. The upper surface of the saturated zone; the oceanic lithosphere descends beneath a continental or zone of rock in an aquifer saturated with water. oceanic plate and is carried down into the mantle. weathering. The set of physical, chemical, and biological subsidence. The gradual sinking or depression of part of processes by which rock is broken down. the Earth’s surface.

28 NPS Geologic Resources Division References

This section lists references cited in this report as well as a general bibliography that may be of use to resource managers. A more complete geologic bibliography is available from the National Park Service Geologic Resources Division.

Butler, J. R. 1981. Geology of the Blacksburg South Mineral resources of the Charlotte 1 degree × 2 degree quadrangle, South Carolina. In Geological quadrangle, North Carolina and South Carolina, ed. J. investigations of the Kings Mountain belt and adjacent E. Gair, 57–60. Professional Paper 1462. Reston, VA: areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. W. Horton, Jr., J. R. Butler, U.S. Geological Survey. and D. M. Milton, 65–71. Carolina Geological Society Field Trip Guidebook 1981. Columbia, SC: South Gair, J. E., J. P. D'Agostino, P. J. Loferski, and J. W. Carolina Geological Survey. Whitlow. 1989a. Saprolite deposits. In Mineral resources of the Charlotte 1 degree × 2 degree Butler, J. R., S. A. Kish, S. A. Goldberg, and P. D. Fullagar. quadrangle, North Carolina and South Carolina, ed. J. 1985. Metamorphic-tectonic history of the E. Gair, 73–81. Professional Paper 1462. Reston, VA: Appalachians in North Carolina, South Carolina and U.S. Geological Survey. Tennessee. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 17 (7): 536–537. Gair, J. E., J. P. D'Agostino, and J. W. Whitlow. 1989b. Placer deposits (gold, monazite, cassiterite, zircon, Butler, J. R., and D. T. Secor, Jr. 1991. The central ilmenite, rutile). In Mineral resources of the Charlotte 1 Piedmont. In The Geology of the Carolinas: Carolina degree × 2 degree quadrangle, North Carolina and South Geological society fiftieth anniversary volume, ed. J. W. Carolina, ed. J. E. Gair, 65–72. Professional Paper 1462. Horton, Jr., and V. A. Zullo, 59–78. Knoxville, TN: Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. University of Tennessee Press. Garihan, J. M., M. S. Preddy, and W. A. Ransom. 1993. Castro, J. E., H. L. Mitchell, and J. A. Harrigan. 1987. Summary of mid-Mesozoic brittle faulting in the Inner Groundwater in the Piedmont of South Carolina; an Piedmont and nearby Charlotte Belt of the Carolinas. overview. Geological Society of America Abstracts with In Studies of inner piedmont geology with a focus on the Programs 25 (6):484. Columbus Promontory, 55–65. Carolina Geological Society Annual Field Trip Guidebook, November 6–7, Connelly, J. B., and N. B. Woodward. 1990, Sequential 1993. Durham, NC: Carolina Geological Society. restoration of early Paleozoic deformation; Great Smoky Mountain foothills, Tennessee. Geological Goldsmith, R. G. 1981. Structural patterns in the Inner Society of America Abstracts with Programs 22 (4): 8. Piedmont of the Charlotte and Winston-Salem 2° quadrangles, North Carolina and South Carolina. In Cook, R. B. 1990. Recent developments in the Geological investigations of the Kings Mountain belt and exploration and exploitation of gold deposits in the adjacent areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. W. Horton, Jr., J. Southeastern United States. Journal of the Alabama R. Butler, and D. M. Milton, 19–27. Carolina Academy of Science 61 (3): 155. Geological Society Field Trip Guidebook 1981. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. Faggart, B. E., Jr., and A. R. Basu. 1987. Evolution of the Kings Mountain Belt of the Carolinas; implication Goldsmith, R., D. J. Milton, and J. W. Horton, Jr. 1988. from Sm-Nd systematics. Geological Society of America Geologic map of the Charlotte 1 degree by 2 degree Abstracts with Programs 19 (7): 658. quadrangle, North Carolina and South Carolina. Scale 1:250,000. Miscellaneous Investigations Series I-1251- Gair, J. E. 1989a. Gold-quartz and gold-pyrite-quartz E. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. veins. In Mineral resources of the Charlotte 1 degree × 2 degree quadrangle, North Carolina and South Carolina, Goldsmith, R., D. J. Milton, and J. W. Horton, Jr. 1989. ed. J. E. Gair, 61–64. Professional Paper 1462. Reston, Geology of the Charlotte 1 degree × 2 degree VA: U.S. Geological Survey. quadrangle. In Mineral resources of the Charlotte 1 degree × 2 degree quadrangle, North Carolina and South Gair, J. E. 1989b. Criteria for assessment of mineral- Carolina, ed. J. E. Gair, 7–15. Professional Paper 1462. resource potential. In Mineral resources of the Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. Charlotte 1 degree × 2 degree quadrangle, North Carolina and South Carolina, ed. J. E. Gair, 51–55. Hibbard, J. 2000. Docking Carolina; mid-Paleozoic Professional Paper 1462. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological accretion in the Southern Appalachians. Geology 28 Survey. (2): 127–130.

Gair, J. E. 1989c.Polymetallic base-metal, precious-metal, Hibbard, J. P., E. R. Stoddard, D. T. Secor, and A. J. and pyritic stratabound deposits in volcanic- Dennis. 2002. The Carolina Zone; overview of sedimentary host rocks of the Carolina slate. In Neoproterozoic to early Paleozoic peri-Gondwanan

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 29 terranes along the eastern flank of the Southern Carolinas; a summary and status report. In Geological Appalachians. Earth-Science Reviews 57 (3–4): 299–339. investigations of the Kings Mountain belt and adjacent areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. W. Horton, Jr., J. R. Butler, Horton, J. W., Jr. 1981a. Geologic map of the Kings and D. M. Milton, 194–212. Carolina Geological Mountain belt between Gaffney, South Carolina, and Society Field Trip Guidebook 1981. Columbia, SC: Lincolnton, North Carolina. In Geological South Carolina Geological Survey. investigations of the Kings Mountain belt and adjacent areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. W. Horton, Jr., J. R. Butler, Horton, J. W., Jr., A. A. Drake, Jr., and D. W. Rankin. and D. M. Milton, 6–18. Carolina Geological Society 1989a. Interpretation of tectonostratigraphic terranes Field Trip Guidebook 1981. Columbia, SC: South in central and southern Appalachian Orogen, USA. Carolina Geological Survey. International Geological Congress Abstracts 28 (2): 2.73– 2.74. Horton, J. W., Jr. 1981b. Shear zone between the Inner Piedmont and Kings Mountain belts in the Carolinas. Horton, J. W., Jr., A. A. Drake, Jr., and D. W. Rankin. Geology 9: 28–33. 1989b. Tectonostratigraphic terranes and their Paleozoic boundaries in the Central and Southern Horton, J. W., Jr. 1989a. Barite in quartz-sericite schist Appalachians. In Terranes in the circum-Atlantic and schistose pyroclastic rock of the Battleground Paleozoic orogens, ed. R. D. Dallmeyer, 213-245. Formation, Kings Mountain Belt. In Mineral resources Geological Society of America Special Paper 230. of the Charlotte 1 degree × 2 degree quadrangle, North Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America Carolina and South Carolina, ed. J. E. Gair,115–119. Professional Paper 1462. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Horton, J. W., Jr., A. A. Drake, and D. W. Rankin. 1994. Survey. Terranes and overlap sequences in the Central and Southern Appalachians, an expanded explanation for Horton, J. W., Jr. 1989b. Kyanite and sillimanite in high- part of the Circum-Atlantic terrane map. Open-File alumina quartzite of the Battleground Formation, Report OF 94-0682. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Kings Mountain Belt. In Mineral resources of the Survey. Charlotte 1 degree × 2 degree quadrangle, North Carolina and South Carolina, ed. J. E. Gair,107–110. Horton, J. W., Jr., A. A. Drake, D. W. Rankin, and R. D. Professional Paper 1462. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Dallmeyer. 1988. Preliminary tectonostratigraphic Survey. terrane map of the central and southern Appalachian Orogen. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Horton, J. W., Jr. 1989c. Manganese oxides derived from Programs 20 (7): 123–124. weathering of stratabound spessartine-almandine garnet in schist of the Battleground Formation, Kings Horton, J. W., Jr., J. F Sutter, T. W. Stern, and D. J. Mountain Belt. In Mineral resources of the Charlotte 1 Milton. 1987. Alleghanian deformation, degree × 2 degree quadrangle, North Carolina and South metamorphism, and granite emplacement in the Carolina, ed. J. E. Gair,119–122. Professional Paper central Piedmont of the Southern Appalachians. 1462. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. American Journal of Science 287 (6): 635–660.

Horton, J. W., Jr. 2006. Geologic map of the Kings Horton, J. W., Jr., and V. A. Zullo. 1991. An introduction Mountain and Grover quadrangles, Cleveland and to the geology of the Carolinas. In The geology of the Gaston Counties, North Carolina, and Cherokee and Carolinas: Carolina Geological Society fiftieth York Counties, South Carolina. Scale 1:24,000. Open- anniversary volume, ed. J. W., Horton, Jr. and V. A. File Report OF 2006-1238. Reston, VA: U.S. Zullo, 1–10. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Geological Survey. Press.

Horton, J. W., Jr. 2008. Geologic map of the Kings Howard, C. S. 2004. Geologic Map of the Kings Creek 7.5- Mountain and Grover quadrangles, Cleveland and minute quadrangle, Cherokee and York Counties. Scale Gaston Counties, North Carolina, and Cherokee and 1:24,000. Geologic Quadrangle Map GQM-16. York Counties, South Carolina. Scale 1:24,000. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. Scientific Investigations Map 2981. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey. Lapoint, D. J. 1992a. Why explore for metallic minerals in Eastern U.S.? Geological Society of America Abstracts Horton, J. W., Jr., and J. R. Butler. 1977. Guide to the with Programs 24 (2): 25–26. geology of the Kings Mountain belt in the Kings Mountain area, North Carolina and South Carolina. In LaPoint, D. J. 1992b. Geologic setting of the Kings Field guides for Geological Society of America, Mountain gold mine, Cleveland County, North Southeastern Section meeting, Winston-Salem, North Carolina. In Geologic field guides to North Carolina and Carolina, ed. E. R. Burt, 76–143. Southeastern Section vicinity, ed. J. M. Dennison and K. G. Stewart, 35–48. of the Geological Society of America. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina.

Horton, J. W., Jr., and J. R. Butler. 1981. Geology and LeHuray, A. P. 1986. Isotopic evidence for a tectonic mining history of the Kings Mountain Belt in the boundary between the Kings Mountain and Inner

30 NPS Geologic Resources Division Piedmont belts, Southern Appalachians. Geology 14 Rozen, R. W. 1981. The Middleton-Lowndesville (9): 784–787. cataclastic zone in the Elberton East quadrangle, Georgia. In Geological investigations of the Kings Madison, J. P., J. D. Lonn, R. K. Marvin, J. J. Metesh, and Mountain belt and adjacent areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. R. Wintergerst. 1998. Abandoned-inactive mines W. Horton, Jr., J. R. Butler, and D. M. Milton, 174–180. program, Deer Lodge National Forest; Volume IV, Carolina Geological Society Field Trip Guidebook Upper Clark Fork River drainage. Open-File Report. 1981. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Butte, MT: Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology. Survey.

Mittwede, S. K. 1987. The Hammett Grove metaigneous Schaeffer, M. F. 1981. Polyphase folding in a portion of suite and its tectonic implications for the Inner the Kings Mountain belt, north-central South Piedmont–Kings Mountain belt boundary problem. Carolina. In Geological investigations of the Kings Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs Mountain belt and adjacent areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. 19 (2): 119. W. Horton, Jr., J. R. Butler, and D. M. Milton, 71–90. Carolina Geological Society Field Trip Guidebook Moore, H. L. 1988. A roadside guide to the geology of the 1981. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Knoxville, TN: Survey. University of Tennessee Press. Schaeffer, M. F. 1982. Polyphase deformation in the Moss, B. G. 1981. “The Old Iron District”—A legacy of Kings Mountain Belt of North-central South Carolina iron mining and manufacturing in South Carolina. In and its implications for Southern Appalachian tectonic Geological investigations of the Kings Mountain belt and models. Geological Society of America Abstracts with adjacent areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. W. Horton, Jr., J. Programs 14 (1–2): 80. R. Butler, and D. M. Milton, 110–119. Carolina Geological Society Field Trip Guidebook 1981. Schultz, A. P., and R. R. Seal II. 1997. Geology and geologic Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. history of Great Smoky Mountains National Park; a simple guide for the interpretive program. Open-File Murphy, C. F., and R. J. Butler. 1981. Geology of the Report OF 97-0510. Reston, VA: U. S. Geological northern half of the Kings Creek quadrangle, South Survey. Carolina. In Geological investigations of the Kings Mountain belt and adjacent areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. Secor, D. T., Jr., C. A. Barker, M. G. Balinsky, and D. J. W. Horton, Jr., J. R. Butler, and D. M. Milton, 49–64. Colquhoun. 1998. The Carolina terrane in northeastern Carolina Geological Society Field Trip Guidebook South Carolina: History of an exotic volcanic arc, 1–16. 1981. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Carolina Geological Society Guidebook for 1998 Survey. Annual Meeting. Durham, NC: Carolina Geological Society. Murphy, C. H. 1995. Carolina rocks! The geology of South Carolina. Orangeburg, SC: Sandlapper Publishing Sharp, W. E. 1981. The barite deposit at Kings Creek, Company. South Carolina. In Geological investigations of the Kings Mountain belt and adjacent areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. Nance, R. D. and U. Linnemann. 2008. The Rheic Ocean; W. Horton, Jr., J. R. Butler, and D. M. Milton, 120–129. origin, evolution, and significance. GSA Today 18 (12): Carolina Geological Society Field Trip Guidebook 4–12. 1981. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. Nelson, A. E. 1981. Polydeformed rocks of the Lowndesville shear zone in the Greenville 2° South Carolina Geological Survey. 2007a. Digital Geologic quadrangle, South Carolina and Georgia. In Geological Map of the Filbert quadrangle, York County, South investigations of the Kings Mountain belt and adjacent Carolina. Scale 1:24,000. Digital Geologic Data DGD- areas in the Carolinas, ed. J. W. Horton, Jr., J. R. Butler, 13. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. and D. M. Milton, 175–193. Carolina Geological Society Field Trip Guidebook 1981. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. 2007b. Digital South Carolina Geological Survey. Geologic Map of the Kings Creek quadrangle, Cherokee and York Counties, South Carolina. Scale 1:24,000. Nystrom, P G. Jr. 2003. Geologic Map of the Filbert 7.5- Digital Geologic Data DGD-14. Columbia, SC: South minute quadrangle, York County, South Carolina. Scale Carolina Geological Survey. 1:24,000. Geologic Quadrangle Map GQM-25. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Geological Survey. Sutter, J. F., J. W. Horton, Jr., and M. J. Kunk. 1984, Timing of Alleghanian metamorphism in the Kings Prowell, D. C., and S. F. Obermeier. 1991. Evidence of Mountain belt of North Carolina and South Carolina. Cenozoic Tectonism. In The geology of the Carolinas: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs Carolina Geological Society fiftieth anniversary volume, 16 (3): 201. ed. J. W. Horton, Jr., and V. A. Zullo, 309–318. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press.

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 31 Wagner, J. R. 2000. Geological influences on the 1780 Willis, J. D., J. P. Horkowitz, and D. T. Secor, Jr. 1983. A battle of Kings Mountain, SC; an opportunity for fundamental tectonic boundary between the inner interdisciplinary learning. Geological Society of America Piedmont and Kings Mountain Belt, South Carolina. Abstracts with Programs 32 (2): 79. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 15 (2): 111. Wieczorek, G. F., and B. A. Morgan. 2008. Debris-flow hazards within the Appalachian Mountains of the Eastern United States. Fact Sheet 2008-3070. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey.

32 NPS Geologic Resources Division Appendix A: Geologic Map Graphic

The following page is a snapshot of the geologic map for Kings Mountain National Military Park. For a poster-size PDF of this map or for digital geologic map data, please see the included CD or visit the Geologic Resources Inventory publications Web page (http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/inventory/gre_publications.cfm).

KIMO Geologic Resources Inventory Report 33

Appendix B: Scoping Summary

The following excerpts are from the GRI scoping summary for Kings Mountain National Military Park. The contact information and Web addresses in this appendix may be outdated. Please contact the Geologic Resources Division for current information.

The developing NPS theme browser was also Executive Summary demonstrated for adding GIS coverage’s into projects A geologic resources inventory workshop was held for "on-the-fly". With this functional browser, numerous Kings Mountain NMP (KIMO) on September 19, 2000 to NPS themes can be added to an ArcView project with view and discuss the park’s geologic resources, to relative ease. Such themes might include geology, address the status of geologic mapping for compiling paleontology, hypsography (topographic contours), both paper and digital maps, and to assess resource vegetation, soils, etc. management issues and needs. Cooperators from the NPS Geologic Resources Division (GRD), NPS Kings The NPS GRI (Geologic Resources Inventory) has the Mountain NMP and United States Geologic Survey (GS), following goals: South Carolina GS, and North Carolina GS staff were present for the workshop. · to assemble a bibliography of associated geological resources for NPS units with significant natural This involved a half-day field trip to view the geology of resources (“GRBIB”), and to compile and evaluate a the Kings Mountain NMP area led by Wright Horton list of existing geologic maps for each unit, (USGS) and another half-day scoping session to present · to conduct a scoping session for each park, overviews of the NPS Inventory and Monitoring (I&M) program, the Geologic Resources Division, and the on · to develop digital geologic map products, and going Geologic Resources Inventory (GRI). Round table · to complete a geological report that synthesizes much discussions involving geologic issues for Kings Mountain of the existing geologic knowledge about each park. NMP included interpretation, paleontologic resources (or lack thereof), and the status of geologic mapping efforts, sources of available data, geologic hazards, and It is stressed that the emphasis of the inventory is not to action items generated from this meeting. routinely initiate new geologic mapping projects, but to aggregate existing "baseline" information and identify Because of the potential for future expansion and the where serious geologic data needs and issues exist in the presence of other state land managing agencies as National Park System. In cases where map coverage is adjacent neighbors, the general consensus of KIMO staff nearly complete (ex. 4 of 5 quadrangles for Park “X”) or was that they would like to have geologic maps maps simply do not exist, then funding may be available completed for the following four quadrangles of interest for geologic mapping. to KIMO: Grover, Kings Mountain, Kings Creek, and Filbert. During the scoping session, each park is presented with a compiled, park specific geologic bibliography as compiled by GRI staff. The sources for this compiled Overview of Geologic Resources Inventory information are as follows: This is an overview of the Geologic Resources Division, the NPS I&M Program, the status of the natural resource inventories, and the GRI in particular · AGI (American Geological Institute) GeoRef · USGS GeoIndex A demonstration was presented of some of the main · ProCite information taken from specific park libraries features of the digital geologic map for the Black Canyon of the Gunnison NP and Curecanti NRA in Colorado. This has become the prototype for the NPS digital These bibliographic compilations are then validated by geologic map model as it reproduces all aspects of a NPS staff to eliminate duplicate citations and paper map (i.e. it incorporates the map notes, cross typographical errors, and check for applicability to the sections, legend etc.) with the added benefit of being specific park. After validation, they become part of a geospatially referenced. Microsoft Access database parsed into columns based on park, author, year of publication, title, publisher, It is displayed in ESRI ArcView shape files and features a publication number, and a miscellaneous column for built-in help file system to identify the map units. It can notes. also display scanned JPG or GIF images of the geologic cross sections supplied with the map. Geologic cross From the Access database, they are exported as section lines (ex. A-A') are subsequently digitized as a Microsoft Word Documents for easier readability, and line coverage and are hyperlinks to the scanned images. eventually turned into PDF documents. They are then posted to the GRI website at: http://www2.nature.nps.gov/grd/geology/gri/products/g eobib/ for general viewing.

KIMO Geologic Resource Inventory Report 35 Attendees GRI funds could be used to fund this digitization by the Erin Broadbent (KIMO Superintendent) USGS staff in Reston, VA. Tim Connors (Geologic Resources Division-GRI) Chris Revels (KIMO, Chief Ranger) As for the other two southern quadrangles (Kings Creek Wright Horton (USGS, Geologist) and Filbert), given the amount of clean-up necessary to Scott Howard (SCGS, Geologist) make them useful, it was suggested to have the SCGS Bill Clendenin (SCGS, State Geologist) finish production on these quadrangles (both mapping Carl Merschat (NCGS, Geologist) and digitization), and to pursue GRI funding of this Kenny Bochniak (KIMO, exotic species specialist) venture in conjunction with the SCGS. Details will need Bert Dunkerly (KIMO, Interpretation) to be worked out in the upcoming months. To cut costs, it was suggested to pursue KIMO park housing for Geologic Mapping whoever may end up mapping the quadrangles.

Existing Geologic Maps Other Desired GIS Data Wright Horton (USGS) has done extensive 1:24,000 Soils maps are also of interest to KIMO staff. Tim mapping (both as dissertation and other unpublished Connors will check with Pete Biggam (NPS-Soil work not quite ready for prime-time) of two of the four Scientist) on the status of soils mapping for the numerous quadrangles of interest to KIMO (the Grover and Kings counties in the area (Cherokee, York, Cleveland, and Mountain quadrangles) and reconnaissance mapping of Gaston Counties); will require more follow-up. the [third] Filbert quadrangle. Additionally, he says that the [fourth] Kings Creek quadrangle has been Chris Revels is interested in producing a wetlands map reconnaissance mapped by MS students from with WRD for KIMO; needs follow-up. universities, but their work is preliminary at best. Interpretation Additionally, the USGS has published the Charlotte 1x2 Chris would like to see an interpretive exhibit produced degree sheet (scale 1:250,000 scale; USGS Map I-1251-E) that discusses the various rock types present in the park, as a small-scale map for the area in general, and USGS their origins, and their significance to the physiography Professional Paper 1462 on the “Mineral Resources of of KIMO and the Piedmont in general. Additionally, the Charlotte 1x2 degree Quadrangle, NC and SC”, as because of the rich mining history of the region, and well as a few other miscellaneous topical publications specific mine features in KIMO, a display featuring the related to Kings Mountain. history of mining would also be desired at the Visitor Center. Both of these would contribute to both the Digital Geologic Map Coverage cultural and natural history of KIMO. Wright believes his Grover and Kings Mountain quadrangles are acceptable for digitization and even The number of rock types (ashes, limestones, publishing as GQ maps, given some more of his time to conglomerates) in such small area tell a good story about refine map unit descriptions and general “house- the geology and tectonics and should be somehow cleaning” on these quadrangles. translated to the general public in terms they can understand. He would like to see these maps digitized (with his oversight and guidance), assuming USGS management Miscellaneous can be convinced that it is a good use of his time to work SCGS is interested in seeing about the availability of park on this project. If necessary, the NPS staff, SCGS and housing while mapping the area to cut down on travel NCGS are willing to write letters to request Wright’s time and such; needs follow-up. assistance in this process. At present, it is believed that

36 NPS Geologic Resources Division

Kings Mountain National Military Park Geologic Resources Inventory Report

Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR—2009/129

National Park Service Acting Director • Dan Wenk

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Associate Director • Bert Frost

Natural Resource Program Center The Natural Resource Program Center (NRPC) is the core of the NPS Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Directorate. The Center Director is located in Fort Collins, with staff located principally in Lakewood and Fort Collins, Colorado and in Washington, D.C. The NRPC has five divisions: Air Resources Division, Biological Resource Management Division, Environmental Quality Division, Geologic Resources Division, and Water Resources Division. NRPC also includes three offices: The Office of Education and Outreach, the Office of Inventory, Monitoring, and Evaluation, and Office of Natural Resource Information Systems. In addition, Natural Resource Web Management and Partnership Coordination are cross-cutting disciplines under the Center Director. The multidisciplinary staff of NRPC is dedicated to resolving park resource management challenges originating in and outside units of the National Park System.

Geologic Resources Division Chief • Dave Steensen Planning, Evaluation, and Permits Branch Chief • Carol McCoy Geoscience and Restoration Branch Chief • Hal Pranger

Credits Author • Trista Thornberry-Ehrlich Review • J. Wright Horton and Jim Woods Editing • Diane Lane Digital Map Production • James Chappell, Jason Isherwood, Phil Reiker, and Heather Stanton Map Layout Design • Josh Heise and Georgia Hybels Report Production • Lisa Fay

The Department of the Interior protects and manages the nation’s natural resources and cultural heritage; provides scientific and other information about those resources; and honors its special responsibilities to American Indians, Alaska Natives, and affiliated Island Communities

NPS 335/100137, September 2009 National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior

Geologic Resources Division Natural Resource Program Center P.O. Box 25287 Denver, CO 80225

www.nature.nps.gov

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