بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم Al Neelain University Graduate College

INDICATORS OF IN KHARTOUM STATE

A complementary dissertation submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirement for M. Sc. degree in Environmental Sciences

By: Alaaeldin Abdelkarim Sabir Ali B. Sc. Hon. In Environmental Sciences;Al Neelian University

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Idris Mohamed Nur

June 2018

بسن هللا الرحوي الرحين جبهعة الٌيليي كلية الذراسبت العليب

بحث تكويلى لٌيل درجة الوبجستير في العلوم البيئية

بعٌواى: هؤشرات الفقر في والية الخرطوم

إعذاد : عالء الذيي عبذالكرين صببر علي بكبلوريوس العلوم – درجة الشرف في العلوم البيئية – جبهعة الٌيليي

إشراف: أ. د. ادريس هحوذ الٌور

يوًيو 1028

DEDICATION

To my parents, brothers and sisters

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Acknowledgment

I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Prof. Idris Mohamed Nur for suggesting this study and for the unlimited help he offered during all stages of the present work. Thanks are extended to Khartoum Zakat offices in the different localities for facilitating the data collection for the present work. The information about poverty provided by The National Bureau of Statistics in Khartoum is appreciated. Thanks are also extended to Dr. Elshibli for the statistical analysis of the data. Thanks are also extended to Prof. Abdelkarim Sabir Ali for his continuous support, encouragement and the fruitful suggestions throughout the preparation of this work.

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List of figures Title Page Number Figure (1) Map of Khartoum State 11 Figure (2) Water collection 19 Figure (3) Households in Khartoum State 20

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List of Tables Table Title Page Number Number 1 Frequency Table of Family Host 14 2 Frequency table of marital status 14 3 Frequency table of educational level 14 4 Frequency table of job and family host 15 5 Frequency table of age in groups 16 6 Frequency table of family numbers in Khartoum State 17 7 Frequency table of number of males primary education 17 8 Frequency table of number of males secondary education 17 9 Frequency table of number of males university education 17 10 Frequency table of number of females primary education 18 11 Frequency table of number of females secondary education 18 12 Frequency table of number of females university education 18 13 Frequency table of type of home 11 14 Frequency table of water resource 21 15 Frequency table of how do you collect water 21 16 Frequency table of electricity 21 17 Frequency table of bus station to school 22 18 Frequency table of bus station to work 22 19 Frequency table of bus station to hospital 22 20 Frequency table of bus station to market 22 21 Frequency table of how to dispose your solid waste 22 22 Frequency table of if there is any noise in your area 23 23 Frequency table of is there any problems in your daily life 23 24 Frequency table of what is basic income of family 23 25 Frequency table of what is the crops grow in your area 23 26 Frequency table of what is the kind of livestock you owned 23 27 Frequency table of animals 24 28 Frequency table of raising type of income 24 29 Frequency table of period of income 24 30 Frequency table of is the income enough to cover your 24 requirements 31 Frequency table of do you receive any assistance 25 32 Frequency table of from where you get assistance 25 33 Frequency table of Sorghum (for making Kisra) 26 34 Frequency table of wheat kisra (for making gorrasa) 26 35 Frequency table of bread 27 36 Frequency table of Pennisetum + Sorghum, Asida 27 iv

37 Frequency table of meat 27 38 Frequency table of vegetables 28 39 Frequency table of fruits 28 40 Frequency table of mean St. dev. Of how much does it costs 28 (LSd) to buy food)? 41 Frequency table of is there any market to buy daily needs 28 42 Frequency table of boy daily needs 29 43 Frequency table of have they any toilets (WC) 29 44 Frequency table of sewage water 29 45 Frequency table of what type of WC? 30 46 Frequency table of medical assistance for any member of your 30 family? 47 Frequency table of what the cost of medical treatment 30 48 Frequency table of what are reasons of death? 31 49 Frequency table of what is the sector where death is more than 31 others? 50 Frequency table of is there any case of death incidence 31 51 Frequency table of what is the source of energy for cooking? 32 52 Frequency table of how many rooms in each home? 34

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Table of Contents

Content Page Number Dedication I Acknowledgement II Table of Contents III Abstract IV Abstract “Arabic” V List of Figures VI List of Tables VII-VIII Chapter One Introduction 1-4 Chapter Two Literature Review 5-9 Chapter Three Material and Methods 10-12 Chapter Four Results and Discussion 13-34 Chapter Five 5.1 Conclusions 35 5.2 Recommendations 36 5.3 References 37-44 Appendices 45-49

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Abstract: The present study was proposed to assess urban poverty in Khartoum State. Data collection was performed using the secondary method by randomly distributing 350 questionnaeres in the seven localities of the State: Khartoum, Jebel Aulia; Khartoum North, Sharg El Neel; Umdurman, Umbadda and Karary. Each questionnaere consists 39 variables to illustrate the different aspects of rural and urban poverty. Poverty assessment in the Sudan has been limited, but studies provide evidence of high income poverty. Rural areas had witnessed escalating poverty incidence during the last three decades rendering poverty as a dominantly rural phenomenon. Poverty depth and severity also remained at high levels. In urban areas, the ranges in poverty depth were 42-67% during the same period. Poverty in Khatoum is caused by irrational use of natural resources, drought, and conflicts. These factors are behind the extensive migration from rural areas to the capital. Urban and are difficult to control as people continue to move around from one area to another seeking jobs and additional sources of income and security. To alleviate poverty communiteis must be a priority to the authorities in Khartoum State through creation of new jobs for the unemployed, better education and sound services, training and upgradiny the poverty community, plans and iniatives targetting the development of poor communities and provission of essential life needs. Governmental and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are expected to play a vital role in alleviation of poverty.

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هلخص البحث ٚٓذف ْزا انثحث انٗ ذمٛٛى ظاْشج انفمش انحضش٘ تٕالٚح انخشطٕو. ذى جًع انًعهٕياخ انخاصح ٚانرمٛٛى تاسرعًال طشق جًع انثٛاَاخ انثإَٚح حٛث ذى ذٕصٚع عذد 053 اسرثٛاٌ فٙ يحهٛاخ انخشطٕو انسثعح )انخشطٕو، جثم أٔنٛاء، انخشطٕو تحش٘، ششق انُٛم، ايذسياٌ، ايثذج ٔ كشس٘(. اشرًم االسرثٛاٌ عهٗ 03 يرغٛش نذساسح ٔذمٛٛى انفمش انشٚفٙ ٔانحضش٘ فٙ انٕالٚح.

انذساساخ انعهًٛح انرٙ ذٓرى تظاْشج انفمش فٙ انسٕداٌ يحذٔدج ٔ أضحد اَرشاس ظاْشج انفمش تًعذالخ عانٛح ٔلذ اسرفحهد ْزِ انظاْشج فٙ انًُاطك انشٚفٛح ٔ انحضشٚح خالل انثالثٍٛ سُح االخٛشج حٛث تهغد يعذالذٓا 24-76% يٍ عذد انسكاٌ. اسثاب انفمش فٙ ٔالٚح انخشطٕو ْٙ االسرغالل غٛش انًششذ نهًٕاسد انطثٛعٛح ٔ انجفاف ٔ اَعذاو فشص انعًم )انعطانح( ٔ انُضاعاخ. ادخ ْزِ انعٕايم انٗ ْجشج انعذٚذ يٍ انسكاٌ يٍ يُاطمٓى انرٚ ٙعٛشٌٕ فٛٓا انٗ انعاصًح انمٕيٛح. اسذثطد ْجشج انسكاٌ تانثحث عٍ فشص انعًم ٔذحسٍٛ انذخم ٔذٕفٛش انساليح ٔاأليٍ.

انحشكح انًسرًشج نهفمشاء يٍ يكاٌ ٜخش جعهد عًهٛح انرحكى فٙ انفمشيسرحٛهح. ٚجة عهٗ انسهطاخ فٙ ٔالٚح انخشطٕو انعًم يٍ أجم ذخفٛف اٜثاس انُاذجح عٍ انفمش ٔرنك يٍ خالل: ذحسٍٛ يسرٕٖ انرعهٛى ٔ انخذياخ انصحٛح ٔذٕفٛش ٔخهك ٔظائف جذٚذج السرٛعاب انفمشاء انعاطهٍٛ ٔذذسٚة ٔ سفع يسرٕٖ األفشاد فٙ انًجرًعاخ انفمٛشج ٔٔضع انسٛاساخ ٔانًثادساخ انرٙ ذٓذف نرطٕٚش ْزِ انًجرًعاخ ٔ ذٕفٛش احرٛاجاذٓا. االْرًاو تانذٔس انز٘ ذمٕو تّ انًُظًاخ انحكٕيٛح ٔغٛش انحكٕيٛح فٙ ذخفٛف آثاس انفمش

I

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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Poverty is the scarcity or lack of a certain (variant) amount of material possessions or money. Poverty is a multifaceted concept, which may include social, economic, and political elements. Absolute poverty, , or destitution refers to the complete lack of the means necessary to meet basic personal needs such as food, clothing and shelter (UNESCO, 2015). Bello and Liberati (1986), indicated that absolute poverty means absolute deprivation of certain basic necessities of life that most obvious being food. According to Aliyu, (2015) and Nur (2007), unequal access to land, other natural resources, education, credit and social services worsen poverty and create barriers to development; incentives should be provided to protect the environment. In addition, poor countries suffer from corruption, lack of human rights protection, rising inequality and climate change pose systematic barriers for building an inclusive and prosperous future (Win, 2018). Poverty refers to a pronounced deprivation in one or more dimensions of of an individual, such as limited access to health facilities, low human capital, inadequate housing infrastructure, , lack of certain goods and services, inability to express political views or profess religious believes, etc... Each of them deserves separate attention as they concern different components of welfare, and indeed may help policy makers to focus attention of the various facts of poverty. Nevertheless, there is also poorly education and without access to health care. The poverty line can be defined as the monetary cost to a given person, at a given place and time, of a reference level of welfare (it compress the cost of basket of goods and services) if a person does not attain that minimum level of standard of

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living, she/he will be considered poor (Sudan Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009 and World Bank, 2011) The world‟s poor are increasing in number, at a more rapid rate than the general population, and they are the most vulnerable because of the sub-standard buildings and sites they inhibit. The poor depend on the environment and are often forced to degrade it to survive, an estimated 60% of the poor from the developing world live in areas vulnerable to environmental changes such as hill sides and tropical forests. The poor are usually pushed to marginal areas (Nur, 2007). Poverty refers to a pronounced deprivation in one or more dimensions of welfare of an individual, such as limited access to health facilities, low human capital, inadequate housing infrastructure, malnutrition, lack of certain goods and services, inability to express political views or profess religious believes, etc. Each of them deserves separate attention as they concern different components of welfare, and indeed may help policy maker to focus attention of the various facts of poverty. Nevertheless in these communities, there is also poor education and without access to health care. The poverty line can be defined as monetary cost to a given person, at a given place and time, of a reference level of welfare (it compresses the cost of basket of goods and services). If a person does not attain that minimum level of standard of living, she/he will be considered poor. Although the situation is improving, Africa remains the poorest continent on earth. Effects of poverty in Africa include , disease and lack of basic necessities. Seventy-five percent of the world‟s poorest countries are located in Africa, including Zimbabwe, Liberia and Ethiopia. The Central African Republic ranked the poorest in the world with a GDP per capita of $656 in 2016 (Backtor, 2015). Poverty in Sudan is a multidimensional problem involving economic, political, social and ecological factors (Alkire, et al. 2015 and Bourguignon and 2

Chakravarty, 2000) and hence with a single income or expenditure measure is an imperfect way to understand the deprivations of the poor since for example markets for basic needs (Hart, 1997 and Nur and Salih, 2007 ) stated that poverty is an inability to attain minimum standard or living due to inaccessibility rather than unavailability of the constituents of the standard of living (World Bank, 2011). Poverty in Sudan is widespread and varies according to region, with co-existing conflicts as well as economic and social inequalities contributing to the large number of impoverished people. Inequality in education and limited access to health care, clean water, sanitation, resources and income have also impacted poverty in the country, especially in North Sudan (Sewidan, 2015 and Nevitt, 2013). Additionally, the expanding population along with climate change has affected the agricultural sector, which in turn impacts and the livelihood of people living in Sudan. For rural populations, unreliable rainfall, low productivity and small landholdings are major contributors to poverty in the area. These factors have also impacted malnutrition and children who are underweight. One third or 33% of children who are under the age of five are underweight as a result of chronic malnutrition (Faki et al., 2010). Currently in North Sudan, an estimated 44.8 % of the population lives beneath poverty line, with poverty rates higher in rural areas (55 %) than in urban areas (28 %). High unemployment rates (17%) as well as low employment opportunities contribute to the economic disparity found in many regions of Sudan. Areas that are considered to be most vulnerable to poverty are regions that have been affected by isolation. A large majority of settlements in Sudan exist far away from main urban cities and have limited access to social services. Additionally, isolated territories are harder to track in terms of poverty and progress. The amount of people living in poverty in isolated regions 3

are not completely known and are difficult to estimate as well (Bansal, 2013, Furtado, 2014 and Parks, 2017). The city of Khartoum is notorious for its destitution. The population has tripled over the past 20 years; however, the government has not implemented any formal accommodation for this influx. The current government has not sufficient resources to address poverty in Khartoum as it lacks information and the capacity to combat the issue (Gupta, 2015). Food is a key determinant of health. It is clear the quantity and quality of food we eat affects our health. And our health is critical to productivity and prosperity. Urbanization and the financial inability of some people to buy safe food are the cause of such situations. The Central Government has to intervene at different levels to adjust the situation. The objective of the present study is to study poverty in Khartoum State, Sudan. Such study is essential to throw light on this important problem and to provide baseline information which might help in suggesting practical solutions and improve the deteriorating conditions of the poor people in the capital.

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Chapter TWO Literature Review Poverty is the scarcity or the lack of a certain (variant) amount of material possessions or money. Poverty is a multifaceted concept, which may include social, economic, and political elements. Absolute poverty, extreme poverty, or destitution refers to the complete lack of the means necessary to meet basic personal needs such as food, clothing and shelter (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2013 and UNESCO, 2015). According to Haymes, (2015) and Recardo (2008), Poverty is classified to absolute poverty and relative poverty. Absolute poverty is defined as the independence of the person's permanent location or era. On the other hand, relative poverty occurs when a person who lives in a given country does not enjoy a certain minimum level of "living standard" as compared to the rest of the population of that country i. e. an index to income inequality. Therefore, the threshold at which relative poverty is defined varies from country to another, or from one society to another. Providing basic needs can be restricted by constraints on government's ability to deliver services, such as corruption, tax avoidance, debt and loan conditional ties and by the brain drain of health care and educational professionals. Strategies of increasing income to make basic needs more affordable typically include welfare, economic freedom and providing financial services (Ono, 2015). Global Poverty: The World Bank forecasts of 2015, the global prevalence of poverty revealed that 702.1 million people were living in extreme poverty, down from 1.75 billion in 1990. Of the 2015 population, about 347.1 million people (35.2%) lived in Sub-Saharan Africa and 231.3 million (13.5%) lived in South Asia. In addition, the World Bank estimated that between 1990 and 2015, the percentage of the world's population living in extreme poverty fell from 37.1% to 9.6%, falling 5

below 10% for the first time (Worldbank.org. 2015). According to Win (2018), no change was detected and the situation remains as it is in (2018): in Asia and despite growth, one in 1o Asians live in extreme poverty i.e. 400 million peoples, a tenth of Asia population live on less than 1.9 US S (The global definition for extreme poverty. Wang, (2018) reported that Africans accounted for about two thirds of the world‟s poor and if the current trends persist they will account for nine-tenths by 2030. Fourteen out of eighteen countries in the world –where extreme poverty is rising- are in Africa. A country like Nigeria has about 87 million people in extreme poverty, compared to India 73 million. Extreme poverty is growing by six people every minute, while continues to fall. In fact, by the end of 2018 in as a whole, there will be probably about 3.2 million more people living in extreme poverty than there are today. Even developed countries e.g. European countries have their share of poverty (European Commission, 2018 and Scottish Government, 2018). Efforts targeting poor communities, households, population structure, health, education and labor conditions were put forward and were considered a priority for all countries forming the European Union. In the United Kingdom, the living standards, poverty and inequality have risen slightly after the introduction of the national living wage (Cribb et al. 2018). In North America, an estimated 98 million people live in poverty (Bramlett, 2018). Possible causes of such poverty are low wages, worker inequality, industry diversification and a widening gap between the rich and the poor. In the United States (US), 12.7% of its population (40 million people) are living in poverty; 7.5% of Canadians (4.9% million people live in poverty and nearly half of Mexican population is in poverty (53.3 million people). Smith, (2018) reported that the current events such as protests and political upheavals in and have drawn attention to problems plaguing 6

South America especially higher rates of poverty. The major causes of this poverty are unequal distribution of wealth, colonialism/racism, political turmoil and education. In a published paper. Ray (2018) showed that in (2016) there was an estimated rise in from 28.5% in 2014 to 30.7%. In fact 61 million people live in extreme poverty and 22 million people live on less than S 10 a day this region. The Australian Council of Social Service (ACOSS) Report released in 2012 revealed that Australia is no exception with respect to poverty. The report, showed that in 2010 , after taking account of housing costs, an estimated 12.5% of the population including 570,000 children 917.3% of all children) lived in households below the most austere poverty line widely used in international research (Davidson, 2012). ACOSS report of 2016 showed that poverty is growing in Australia with an estimated 2.9 million people or 13.3% of all the population living below the internationally accepted poverty line. The report estimated also that there are 731,000 children under the age of 15 are in poverty. Definition of Poverty: Poverty is the scarcity or the lack of a certain (variant) amount of material possessions or money (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2013). The word poverty comes from old French poverté (Modern French: pauvreté), from Latin paupertās from pauper (poor) (Skeat, 2005). No problem is of greater concern world-wide today than the problem that shackles one-third of the world‟s people. Poverty, hunger and diseases are inter- related enemies of mankind that need to be alleviated. There are more than one billion people in developing countries living below the international poverty line. Poverty in Sudan is a multi-dimensional problem involving economic, political, social as well as ecological factors (Gupta, 2015).

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The level of poorness in the capital of Sudan, Khartoum is a radical conflict in itself if any improvement is to be made (Berrebi, 2011). The city‟s population more than tripled in only 20 years, but close to no plan was undertaken by the government to well accommodate this influx of new comers. The capital remains opaque regarding its resource management (Faki, 2011 and Faki, et al. 2010). From a scientific perspective, poverty can be defined as lack or deficiency in necessary requirements of basic human living that cannot satisfy a kind of standard of living condition. This concept includes two aspects; the first aspect is what the necessary requirements are? The second aspect is what the standard of living condition is? Based on the traditional view of poverty, encompassing material deprivation, low achievement in education and health, the World Bank concept of “vulnerability”, “voicelessness” and “powerlessness” into poverty defining which includes: Lack of income and access to attain basic necessary food, shelter, clothing and acceptable level of health and education and sense of voicelessness of stable society, and vulnerability to diverse shocks linked to an inability to cope with them (World Bank, 2001). To identify the standard of basic living conditions of the poor, there are two terms of importance: Absolute poverty and relative poverty, for example (using income aspect of poverty) an absolute standard is that the earnings of a household cannot meet the minimum basic needs that are calculated by cost in food based on calories and proteins for nutrition‟s needs, clothing and housing. The result of this calculation is a poverty line of income below which called absolute poverty. A relative standard compares the living conditions of social members. It sets a line as a percentage of averages, for example, 20% lowest income households are called poor (Hart, 1997). 8

To understand poverty more clearly, we connect poverty with other concepts that include development and inequality. Development is advancement and enhancement of human living conditions. Poverty is that opportunities and choices base to human development is denied. Today the developing countries are adopting many policies and strategies accelerating development to alleviate poverty. Poverty is also closely connected to inequality. Inequality is an indicator of distribution of social and economic materials. Poverty itself is generally the result of larger inequality. Poverty means that part of the social members get little in distribution (UNDP, 1997). Poverty is a broad dimensional concept and a dynamic condition from which people can move in and out (Faki, 2011). In times of economic recession and natural hazards, households are vulnerable to move into poverty, because of increasing unemployment, goods prices and vanish of houses and infrastructure. Similarly, households can move out from poverty when they increase the human poverty capacity of household members, or poverty alleviation programmes are applied in their living area (Ferguson, et al. 2007). In its publication of 2009, the Republic of Sudan produced six maps showing different aspects of poverty in Northern States and regions: incidence, gap and severity (Figs. 1-6 Appendix)

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Chapter Three Materials and Methods The present work was conducted to investigate poverty in Khartoum State, Sudan. The study is expected to throw light on poverty in Sudan‟s Capital which can be considered as indicator to poverty in other parts of Sudan. The data was collected randomly during 2017-2018. Data collection was carried out using questionnaires (Appendix 1). Prior to distribution of questionnaires, several visits were made to the deferent localities of Khartoum to choose the blocks and the respondents that represent the localities. The three types of data: Primary, secondary and tertiary was used in this study. The former type is the primary and the latter includes was possible through communications with poverty experts and relative institutions and available literature in the different libraries and facilities in Khartoum State. It is worth mentioning that primary data collection through household surveys was seen to be the most essential part in this work, as it contained the basic data needed. The data collected was statistically analyzed using SPSS/21(P<0.05). Materials Study Area: Officially, Khartoum State (Fig. 1) is divided into three districts: Khartoum, Khartoum North (Bahri) and Omdurman and seven localities. Khartoum localities are Gebel Awliya and Khartoum. Bahri is formed of Eastern Nile (Sharg Al Neel) and Khartoum North. Omdurman, Umbada and Karrari are the localities of Omdurman.

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Methods In each locality a number of blocks were selected randomly for data collection. The number of respondents (persons) interviewed in each block was 350 i.e. 350 questionnaires. The gender (male, female) was taken care of where the questionnaires were distributed.

Figure (1) Map of Khartoum State showing the different localities (Source: Suliman et al. 2017)

50 blocks were chosen for Omdurman three localities (Appendix 1). In Bahri Locality and Sharg Elneel, 14 blocks were chosen for the data collection and 12 blocks for Khartoum. Furthermore, some markets were selected to represent poverty in the study area. These markets are Al Ingaz in Khartoum; Libian, Elashigla and Um Dafasso in Omdurman. 1.2.1 Problems faced by research worker: 11

* Some people were reluctant to respond to the questionnaires. * Some of the areas could not be reached because of security problems, e.g. Al Kartoon Block in El Hag Yousif, Mayou Block, etc. * Because of the wide spread area of Khartoum State, some parts were not visited, e.g. Mayou Blolck, Jabal Awliya, etc. * Help was sought from some friends and acquaintance to reach the targeted group where Alzaka Officers were not available. * Lack of response to some of the questionnaires by Alzaka Officers. * Some of the people demanded payment in cash for answering the questionnaires, e.g. people of the block No. 1 Abu Sed, Alozoozab, etc. * Some of the international organizations e.g. United Nations, UNDP etc… were not cooperative in filling the questionnaires.

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CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Data collection in the present study was carried out using 350 questionnaires distributed randomly to respondents in the capital three towns (Khartoum, Khartoum North and Omdurman). To study poverty, 56 parameters were assessed to obtain the best possible image about poverty in the State. The data obtained was statistically analyzed using SPSS/21 (P<0.05) program. Table (1) showed that the respondents‟ gender in the study area was as follows: 49.1% were males; females constituted 50.9% i. e. no significant difference was noted between the genders populations. Percentages of the marital status of respondents are 69.3% married; single 20%; divorced 12.5% and widow =12.2%, respectively (Table 2) indicating a significant difference between the variables. In spite the high poverty of the respondents, the married category was the highest marital status. Such result may be attributed to religious and social culture. Certain tribes in Sudan e.g. Ingassana and Nuba tribes marry women to guarantee a permanent source of living by letting the wives do any job and bring money to the house. Meanwhile the husbands are enjoying themselves and staying at home all time. In some cases this phenomena results in polygamy, the husband marry many wives. According to Papp et al. (2011), money is considered as the most important topic of marital conflict and finance. However, Chethik, 2006 and Oggins, 2003 stated that money was not the leading source of marital conflict in the homes. Table (3) reveals that the sequence of education was as follows: primary, secondary, illiterate and graduate. A significant difference was evident between these education levels. Van der Berg (2018) showed that education offered to poor people is normally of weak quality and richer households perform better at school than poor children. 13

With regard to jobs, non-skilled workers were leading group among the respondents in this study (55.7%). Fields, (2014) found out that most of the world‟s poor people are self-employed but because there are few opportunities in developing countries for them to earn enough to escape poverty; they are working hard but working poor.

Table (1) Frequency Table of Family Host

Categories Frequency Valid Percent Male 161 49.1 Female 167 50.9 Total 328 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.740

Table (2) Frequency Table of Marital Status

Frequency Valid Percent Married 232 69.3 Divorced 41 12.2 Single 20 6.0 Widow 42 12.5 Total 335 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table (3) Frequency Table of Educational Level

Frequency Valid Percent Illiterate 80 25.0 Primary 123 38.4 Secondary 88 27.5 Graduated 29 9.1 Total 320 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

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Table (4) Frequency Table of Job of family host

Frequency Valid Percent Public sector employee 40 12.0 Private sector employee 44 13.2 Unemployed 64 19.2 Non-skilled workers 186 55.7 Total 334 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table (4) shows that the non - skilled sector was highest among the groups (55%) followed by unemployed, public and private employees, respectively. Hawkins (2014) poverty affects millions of people in U.S. and across the world. According to Fields, (2014), most of the world poor people are self-employed but because there are few opportunities in most developing countries to earn enough to escape poverty, they are working hard but working poor. To improve this situation is possible only through raising the returns of self-employment and creating more opportunities to move from self-employment into higher paying wage employment. Highest percentage was obtained for 42-62 age group and the minimum for >83 age. Table (6) shows that the family number of 2-12 scored the highest rank (significantly different, Chi2=0.00) followed by 13-23 and 24-34, respectively. Appearance of the latter family member of more than 12 members is related to the extended family i.e. other related family members live together e.g. brothers, uncles, grandfathers and mothers. These results were much higher when compared with values obtained from different countries in Europe and North America (United Nations, 2017). According to Compassion (2017), a child is a gift, joy and a blessing but when income is scarce and the family is struggling to survive it questionable why parents in Sudan and elsewhere in developing countries expand their families? There are many social, cultural, economic and religious reasons for this expansion. In general, child mortality is high in addition to the following: 15

limited access to education; early marriage and gender expectations; limited access to contraception; no government-provided pensions or social security benefits; need for extra labor and religion (Oebeta Jr., 2005). Tables (7-12) reveal gender education Khartoum State (primary, secondary and university) which differ markedly between males and females. The number of males was higher than females in all levels of education. Such difference may be attributed to family interest in males‟ education rather than that of females. In such poor communities more care is given to males who are granted with a higher position in the community as compared with females. Greever (2014) claimed that poverty has adverse effects on students‟ performance and students; in poverty are below grade levels at much higher rates and that they generally have poor or average grades. In addition, Murphy and Tobin, (2011) suggested that there are several factors involved that play a part in students‟ performance as follows: health and nutrition, vocabulary, effort, hope and growth-mind set, cognition, on relationships and distress. On the other hand, Buck and Deutsch, (2014), education in poverty communities is inferior because students have numerous problems that teachers are unable to account for through instructions and the schools‟ facilities face numerous structural inadequacies which have been proven to have an effect on the quality of instruction. Table (5) Frequency Table of Age in groups Frequency Valid Percent 21 to 41 117 34.9 42 to 62 179 53.5 63 to 83 38 11.3 More than 83 1 0.3 Total 335 100.0

The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000 Mean age of family host= 47.4 years Std. =12.7

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Table (6) Frequency Table of Family numbers in Khartoum State Frequency Valid Percent 2 to12 304 90.7 13 to 23 26 7.8 24 to 34 5 1.5 Total 335 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table (7) Frequency Table of Number of Male Primary Education Frequency Valid Percent 1.00 81 42.4 2.00 61 31.9 3.00 27 14.1 4.00 11 5.8 5.00 6 3.1 6.00 3 1.6 7.00 1 .5 9.00 1 .5 Total 191 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table (8)Frequency Table of Number of Male Secondary Education

Frequency Valid Percent 1.00 63 62.4 2.00 30 29.7 3.00 3 3.0 4.00 1 1.0 5.00 3 3.0 8.00 1 1.0 Total 101 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table (9) Frequency Table of Number of Male university (Graduated)

Frequency Valid Percent 1.00 46 79.3 2.00 8 13.8 3.00 2 3.4 4.00 1 1.7 5.00 1 1.7 Total 58 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

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Table (10) Frequency Table of Number of Female Primary Education Frequency Valid Percent 1.00 95 47.5 2.00 53 26.5 3.00 25 12.5 4.00 18 9.0 5.00 5 2.5 6.00 1 .5 7.00 2 1.0 8.00 1 .5 Total 200 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table (11)Frequency Table of Number of Female Secondary Education

Frequency Valid Percent 1.00 81 66.4 2.00 26 21.3 3.00 9 7.4 4.00 5 4.1 12.00 1 .8 Total 122 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000 Table (12) Frequency Table of Number of Female University (Graduated)

Frequency Valid Percent 1.00 55 66.3 2.00 20 24.1 3.00 5 6.0 4.00 2 2.4 6.00 1 1.2 Total 83 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Homes‟ ownership in poor community in Khartoum State (Table 13) was as follows: homes owned by the poor recorded the highest percent (46.3%), rented homes were 2nd (32.8%), private homes, third position was occupied by other forms and private occupy the last position (1.8%). In general, the houses are built from cheap materials and they provide minimum shelter and are vulnerable to

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environmental condition (Fig. 2). This is expected since poor communities in Khartoum State are living in squalid villages and slums located in the outskirts of the capital in areas deprived of most essential needs of life.

A B C

(A) Roof covered sacs (B) House formed of one room (C) Goats live With humans

D E F

(D) Walls build from grass (E) Toilet (F) No roof

Figure (2) Households in Khartoum State

The majority of them have migrated from their original areas to the capital as a result of the difficulties of life there. These problems are: unemployment, habitat destruction and depletion of natural resources, drought and conflicts (Faki et al. 2010.). They choose the capital as refuge to guarantee security, better jobs and new chances.

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Water supply in poor Khartoum State areas comes from wells and from River Nile (Table 14). Water is brought to the houses via pipes (15.0%), carts and donkeys (81.6%) or by women (3.1%) and children (0.3%) (Fig. 3).

Figure (3). Water collection using donkeys and carts pulled by donkeys

In most cases the water is untreated and contaminated which result in many water borne diseases e.g. Guardia, dysentery etc. (Akbar. and Smith, 2007). According to Abdel Aziz et al. (2011) availability of water is the corner stone in such communities rather than the water safety or quality (Abu Bakar et al. 2014). Such situation inflicts many limitations concerning community health (Schuster-Wallace et al. 2008 and United Nation Development Programme “UNDP”, 2006) and development (Lifewater, 2014 and Kember, and Sadoff, 2003). Electricity supply in most poor communities in Khartoum State was permanent (80.1%) and for 19.1% electricity was wobbling (Table 16). The majority of poor population in study area (>90%) have access to vehicle transportation to different locations: schools, hospital, working place and markets (Table 16). Means of transportation include buses, cars, trucks and carts. 20

80.2% of the population agreed that there is no noise in their area and they are enjoying quiet environment Table No (13) Frequency Table of Type of home Frequency Valid Percent Owner 155 46.3 Private 6 1.8 Rented 110 32.8 Others 64 19.1 Total 335 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (14) Frequency Table of Water resource Frequency Valid Percent River Nile water 159 49.2 Well water 164 50.8 Total 323 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=7.81 Table No (15) Frequency Table of How do you collect water

Frequency Valid Percent Women 10 3.1 Children 1 0.3 Pipes 48,9 15 Carts, donkeys 315 81.6 Total 326 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Electricity supply in most poor communities in Khartoum State was permanent (80.1%) and for 19.1% electricity was wobbling (Table 16).

Table No (16) Frequency Table of Electricity

Frequency Valid Percent Permanent 226 80.1 Wobbling 56 19.9 Total 282 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

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Table No (17) Frequency Table of Bus station to school

Frequency Valid Percent No 28 8.5 Yes 303 91.5 Total 331 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000 Table No (18) Frequency Table of Bus station to work

Frequency Valid work, Percent No 20 6.0 Yes 315 94.0 Total 335 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (19) Frequency Table of Bus station to hospital Frequency Valid Percent No 22 6.6 Yes 312 93.4 Total 334 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (20) Frequency Table of Bus station to market Frequency Valid Percent No 20 6.0 Yes 313 94.0 Total 333 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Solid waste collection was performed by trucks was the highest (Table 21).

Table No (21) Frequency Table of How to dispose your solid waste Frequency Valid Percent Throw away 87 27.0 Collecting by truck 235 73.0 Total 322 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (22) Frequency Table of If there is any noise in your area?

Frequency Valid Percent No 267 80.2 Yes 66 19.8 Total 333 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

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Table No (23) Frequency Is there any problems in your daily life?

Frequency Percent Valid Number 335 100.0

The data of people reveal that all the population suffers many problems (Table 23)

Table No (24) Frequency What is basic income of the Family?

Frequency Percent Valid Number 335 100.0

80.2% of the population agreed that there is no noise in their area and they are enjoying quiet environment Agricultural crops grown in the study area were mainly vegetables. Farmers grow different types of vegetables two times per year: summer and winter crops. Examples of summer crops include okra spinach and winter crops include tomatoes cucurbits etc...

Table No (25) Frequency Table of What is the Crops grow in your area? Frequency Valid Percent Valid No 333 100.0

Table No (26) Frequency Table of What is the kinds of livestock you owned?

Frequency Percent Valid Number 335 100.0

94% of the study area population do not raise animals at their homes and only 6% do not have animals (Table 28). The raised animals include goats, sheep, cattle and camels. The number of these animals is not high and they were raised only for the use of the family (self-sufficiency). Disinterest of poor in raising animals is expected under the harsh conditions they live in and the low incomes they earn and the difficulty of providing the necessary fodder and other needs for such practice.

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It is known that Khartoum is part of the semi-desert where arid inhospitable conditions prevail almost all the year around (Ali, 1994). Table No (27) Frequency Table of Animal

Frequency Valid Percent No 313 94.0 Yes 20 6.0 Total 333 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Income raising frequencies, period of income installments and whether the family income is sufficient to cover the family expenses (requirements) was illustrated in tables (29-31). The results suggest that self employed, daily installments and insufficient income ratio to family expenses were the highest and commercial, monthly and income of the family is enough to cover the family expenses. Table No (28) Frequency raising Type of income

Frequency Valid Percent Self employed 73.5 95.3 Commercial 15 4.7 Total 318 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (29) Frequency Table of Period of income

Frequency Valid Percent Daily 220 81.5 Weekly 28 10.4 Monthly 22 8.1 Total 270 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (30) Frequency Table of Is the income enough to cover your requirements

Frequency Valid Percent No 289 90.3 Yes 31 9.7 Total 320 100.0 Amount of money income =115.97 216.99 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

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Table No (31) Frequency Do you receive any assistance?

Frequency Valid Percent No 181 59.5 Valid Yes 123 40.5 Total 304 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=001

Table No (32) Frequency from where you get assistances Frequency Valid Percent Office of Zakat 100 75.2 Government 1 .8 Relative 32 24.1 Total 133 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Tables (33-36) discuss the food type‟s consumption in Khartoum State. Food of the population in the state is made either of Sorghum spp., Pennisetum sp. or wheat (Kisra, gurrasa and bread). Families usually use on type of these foods or more than one type. Use of either type of these foods is related to family income. Families that can afford wheat prices eat bread for the whole month or if the family income is insufficient they may eat bread from time to time. Vegetables and fruits use in the present study showed that families consuming vegetables four times/month were the highest percentage and those who have them two times/month was the least. Meat consumption (Table 38) indicted that families that eat meat four times/month gave the highest percent and the lowest value was found for 24 times /month. Regarding fruits (Table 40), the maximum value was obtained within families consuming fruits one time/month and the lowest value was revealed by families consuming 16 times/month. These results are in conformity with Safefood Report, (2011). Today in Khartoum State and based on the data and information collected in the present study, not everyone has access to enough, nutritious and safe food.

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In local markets, including Libya Market, Maayo Market and Bahri Market in Omdurman, Khartoum and Khartoum North, respectively dead chickens (not slaughtered according to Sharia “hallal”, locally known as “Allah Katalla, killed by God”, legs of chicken and unwanted or unused meat) are sold openly, especially to the poor people. These items constitute the main part of their meals. They are cooked with available vegetables to give them necessary flavour and taste. Also, people do not look for bread, they look for the crumbs.

Table No (33) Frequency Table of Sorghum (for making kisra) Frequency Valid Percent 1/m 11 3.7 12/m 49 16.6 16/m 18 6.1 2/m 10 3.4 20/m 1 .3 28/m 69 23.3 3/m 1 .3 30/m 1 .3 4/m 64 21.6 8/m 70 23.6 90/m 2 .7 Total 296 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (34) Frequency Wheat kissra (wheat of gorassa) Frequency Valid Percent 1/m 21 13.7 1/w 1 .7 12/m 12 7.8 16/m 3 2.0 2/m 7 4.6 28/m 7 4.6 3/m 4 2.6 30/m 1 .7 4/m 71 46.4 8/m 26 17.0 Total 153 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

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Table No (35) Frequency Table of Bread Frequency Valid Percent 12/m 4 1.2 16/m 1 .3 28/m 303 91.8 30/m 6 1.8 4/m 11 3.3 8/m 5 1.5 Total 330 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (36) Frequency Table of Pennisetum + Sorghum, Asida) Frequency Valid Percent 1/m 15 5.1 12/m 18 6.1 16/m 10 3.4 2/m 6 2.0 20/m 1 .3 28/m 38 12.8 3/m 2 .7 30/m 5 1.7 4/m 159 53.7 8/m 41 13.9 90/m 1 .3 Total 296 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (37) Frequency Table of Meat Frequency Valid Percent 1/m 36 12.5 12/m 34 11.8 16/m 7 2.4 2/m 11 3.8 24/m 1 .3 3/m 2 .7 4/m 93 32.4 8/m 58 20.2 90/m 1 .3 Total 287 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

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Table No (38)Frequency Table of Vegetables Frequency Valid Percent 1/m 8 2.9 12/m 56 20.3 16/m 8 2.9 2/m 5 1.8 28/m 62 22.5 3/m 2 .7 30/m 5 1.8 4/m 67 24.3 5/m 1 .4 8/m 62 22.5 Total 276 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000 Table No (39) Frequency Table of Fruits

Frequency Valid Percent 1/m 16 24.6 12/m 2 3.1 16/m 1 1.5 2/m 6 9.2 28/m 5 7.7 4/m 27 41.5 8/m 8 12.3 Total 65 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table (40) The mean and standard deviation of How much does it cost (SD) to buy food, whether daily or monthly?

Mean 108.83 Std. Deviation 58.22

The cost of buying food was found to be equal to 108.83 + LS (Table 40)

Table (41) Frequency is there any market to buy daily needs? Frequency Valid Percent No 4 1.2 Yes 330 98.8 Total 334 100.0

The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

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Table (42) reveals the location of the market from which they buy their needs; (98.8%) of the population have access to markets and for the 1.2% there are no markets i. e. the majority face no difficulty in getting what they want.

Table No (42) Frequency place for boy daily needs

Frequency Valid Percent Local Shop (Elbaghala) 2 0.9 No 2 0.9 Vegetable Vehicle 12 5.2 Shop 204 87.9 Local Markets 12 5.1 Total 232 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

The range for this inquiry was 0.4% - 87% which is centered in the shops. This parameter provides an indication on whether the services are available to poor. The only available source nearby is the local grocery (shop).

Table No (43) Frequency Table of Have they any W.C

Frequency Percent Valid Percent No 26 7.8 7.9 Yes 304 90.7 92.1 Total 330 98.5 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (44) Frequency Table of Sewage water

Frequency Valid Percent W.C. 266 89.9 Public W.C. 3 1.0 Random W.C. 27 9.1 Total 296 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Practically the majority of poor people in Khartoum State have access to toilets (92.1%); only 7.9% do not have access. (Table 44). The type of toilets (Table 45) is pit latrines (80.6%) and septic or sewage networks (19.4%). Septic and sewage network toilets were available to the poor sector who lives in better conditions in Khartoum State. These are either low income workers (marginal jobs) in these

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areas (e. g. watchmen, gafeer etc.) or sometimes a family is invited to live in these buildings by their relatives. They enjoy living for free but they are actually considered as poor (could be a building). Table No (45) Frequency Table of What type of W.C? Frequency Valid Percent Pit latrines “hole” 254 80.6 Sewage network, septic tanks 61 19.4 Total 315 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table (47) showed that the poor of Khartoum were treated in health centers (84.1%) followed by public hospitals (15.6%) and in many cases they consult the pharmacist to describe the suitable medicine for their illnesses (0.3%). The cost of medical treatment in poor communities of Khartoum State (Table 48) ranges between <500->2000 SL. The highest was encountered at <500 SdL ->2000 L Sd which suggests the the low income conditions the poor are living.

Table (46) Do you have medical assistance for you or for any member of your family? Frequency Valid Percent Pharmacy 1 0.3 Health center 280 84.1 Hospital 52 15.6 Total 333 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table No (47) Frequency WHAT THE COST OF MEDICAL TREADMENT?

SDG Frequency Valid Percent < 500 142 43.7 500 - 1000 90 27.7 1000 - 1500 36 11.1 1500 - 2000 28 8.6 > 2000 29 8.9 Total 325 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Table (48) The range of medical treatment of <500 LSd was the highest (43.7% ) and the least was the range of >2000 LSd (8.6%).

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Table No (48) Frequency what are the reasons of death? Frequency Valid Percent Malnutrition 5 2.2 Infectious diseases & diarrhea 31 13.7 Dysentery 1 .4 heart attacks, kidney failure , cancers etc. 189 83.6 Total 226 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Causes of death in the study area were attributed to many factors (Table 49). The highest death incidences (83.6%) were related to heart attacks kidney failure, malaria, cancers, etc… and infectious diseases and diarrhea (13.7%), malnutrition (2.2%) and dysentery (0.4%) were arranged in this sequence as causes of death

Table (49) Frequency Table of What is the sector where death is more than other

Frequency Valid Percent Women 38 13.1 Children 95 32.9 Old age 129 44.6 Other 27 9.3 Total 289 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

Incidence of death (Table 50) was more among old age (males and females) followed by children, women and other sectors of the community.

Death incidences within the poor families in Khartoum State was quite popular (84.7%) and only 15.3% of the population do not experience death incidences within their families (Table 50).

Table No (50) Frequency is there any case of death incidence

Frequency Valid Percent No 49 15.3 Yes 271 84.7 Total 320 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

The sources of energy (Table 51) used for cooking food were charcoal (77.2%), gas (14.1%), wood (8.4%) and electricity and solar energy (0.3%), respectively.

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Such energy formula is typical for developing countries and poor communities where more than half the population depend on their natural resources mainly forests to provide fuel for cooking their food and for other purposes (Keeble, 1988). Extravagant use of wood is harmful to the environment since it affects and depletes environmental resources and negatively affects forests‟ biodiversity (Specht, et al. 2015). The outcome of such practice is the destruction of environmental habitats which endanger all living organisms that inhabit these habitats (Bett, 2018). In addition burning of wood and charcoal in cooking especially indoors has a negative and adverse health problems as a result of air pollution e.g. respiratory tract infections (asthma, bronchitis, , etc. ) due to exposure to smoke and volatile emissions (Gordon and Martin, 2014). According to their findings up to four million people were killed due to household air pollution in 2010. Furthermore, Pautista, et al. (2009) concluded that women and children in households are more vulnerable to indoor air pollution health hazards. In order to attain a better utilization and management of energy in Sudan, people must not rely much on oil energy and construct other sources of renewable, non-polluting energies like solar and wind energies (Omer, 2015). Table No (51) Frequency What is the source of energy for cooking?

Frequency Valid Percent Charcoal 257 77.2 Wood 28 8.4 Gas 47 14.1 Other (electricity, solar energy) 1 0.3 Total 333 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

The number of rooms in the studied houses range from one room to eight rooms. The highest score was obtained for one room and the minimum was for eight rooms (Table 52). Such finding is expected in poor communities where the family income is so meager to build and furnish splendid homes. According to 32

Ugochukwa and Chioma (2015), the poor of Nigeria need good governance to land, credit, affordable and environmentally sound and serviced settlements. Comparing the different variables of poverty considered and assessed in the present work with the data of the World Bank (2011) on poverty in the Northern States, Sudan: education, households, population, livelihood, sanitation, access to water and energy, it was found there was no remarkable progress in these parameters. In certain cases, the conditions now showed clear deterioration. In certain cases even the data obtained on poverty from South Sudan (a country in war) in 2009 was better when compared with the poor of Khartoum (National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) National Baseline Household Survey, 2009). In addition, Ballon and Duclos (2015) findings show regional and sub-population differences in the uni- dimensional and multidimensional poverty status of people in Sudan and South Sudan. Poverty in Sudan is generally less severe than in South Sudan, with a pattern showing (i) lesser uni- dimensional incidence of poverty; (ii) lower multidimensional poverty indices and prevalence, but similar breadth, in Sudan than in South Sudan, both for adults and children. This pattern also points towards Khartoum and Western Equatoria as the states with the least poverty, and Northern Darfur, and Warap as the states with the greatest poverty, both for adults and children, in Sudan and South Sudan, respectively. The data which was statistically analyzed reveal that with the exception of access to water (Chi2=7.81) and gender () all parameters were highly significantly different (Chi2=0.00).

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Table No (52) Frequency Table of How many rooms each home?

Frequency Valid Percent 1.00 118 36.9 2.00 103 32.2 3.00 64 20.0 4.00 18 5.6 5.00 10 3.1 6.00 4 1.3 7.00 1 .3 8.00 2 .6 Total 320 100.0 The P-value of goodness of fit using chi-square test=.000

The results of the present study have shown that the poor slums highly populated areas like in the outskirts of Elhaj Yousif are characterized by high rates of organized violent crimes and prostitution. Such phenomena were detected in other places around the world where poverty dominates e.g. London (Drewett, 2018); Office of the Mayer of New York City (2018). In recent years, there are many ongoing efforts, projects and programmes intended to alleviate the conditions of rural These initiatives are expected to transform the situation of the poor communities in Sudan to and urban communities living in poverty Sudan (Sudan Country Profile (2017). comply with the 2030 agenda for sustainable development and knowledge platform. Unfortunately, these efforts did bring about a remarkable change to the poor population and the condition continues to deteriorate year after year.

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Chapter Five 5.1 Conclusions: The aim of the research was to assess urban poverty through data collection , that will help policy makers and urban planners make better decisions for reducing urban poverty Poverty is defined as the lack of deficiency in necessary requirements or basic human welfare. Use of indicators is the best way to measure urban poverty Processes and methods of urban poverty can be assessed through urbanization which has reached 26% in Khartoum. Control of rural and urban poverty in Khartoum is a difficult task as people move around seeking new opportunities, jobs and income. The poor skills should be upgraded to cope with the new global system. To raise awareness of the poor communities about quality of human population and environment is essential for any break through towards alleviating poverty. Access and affordability of services and their equitable “equal” distribution are the main responsibilities of governments; denial of such services strengthens the enlargement of poverty. Good governance is needed to guarantee the accomplishment of these targets. Both governmental and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have equal responsibilities and roles as far as alleviation of poverty in urban and rural communities.

5.2 Recommendations:

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To alleviate poverty in Khartoum State:

Authorities of Khartoum State must create more jobs for the unemployed poor Training, upgrading and development of the poor community Building a proper infrastructure that provides all essential needs of the poor. To make available better education and health services in the areas that suffers from poverty. Governmental and nongovernmental organizations must be involved in programs aiming to alleviate poverty. adopt the appropriate developmental plans which should be much purpose ones so as to reduce poverty The quality of human life in poverty communities should be improved Good governance must prevail in poverty areas to guarantee equal distribution of the meager resources.

5.3 References:

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Abdel Aziz, S, A. A. Sulieman and Ali A. K. S. (2011). Socioeconomic and environmental impacts of in Northern Darfur State, Sudan. 3rd Ann. Grad. Col. Conf. 19-20 Nov. Al Neelain Univ., Khartoum. Abdelmagid, T. E. Elnour and M. Lugman (2008). Desertification in Sudan, Experiences and Lessons Learned. International Conference on „Learning from the Desert: from constraint to an asset, Douz, Tunisia, 12-16 November 2008. Aber, J. L., Bennet, N. G. and Conley, D. C. (1997). The effects of poverty on child health and development. Review of Public Health. Health and Education. Annualreviews.org Abu Bakar, S. H. Tahir, W. Ab. Wahid , M., Nasir, S. R. M. and Hassan, R. (2014). Proceedings of the International Symposium on flood Research and management (ISFRAM). Abubakr, M. (2007). Management of Natural Disasters. McGraw Hills. Abubakr, M. (2014). Disasters, What are they, and how to deal with them? Habitat International 38 (1), 26-37. Akbar, H. M. D. And Smith, P. (2007). Community water supply for the urban poor in developing countries: the case of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Habitat International 31(1), 24-35. Ali, A.K. S. (1994). The ecology of salt-affected areas in Khartoum: environment and vegetation. El Buhuth, 4 (1-B), 40-54. Aliyu, A. (2015). Management of disasters and complex emergencies in Africa. Ann. Afr. Med. 14(3), 123-131 Alkire S., Foster J., Seth, S., Santos, M. E.. Roche, J. M. and Ballon, P. (2015). Multidimensional poverty measurement and analysis. Oxford, Oxford University Press

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Australian Council of Social Service (2016). Poverty in Australia. https//www.acoss.org.au/poverty/ Backtor, J. (2015). Top 10 facts about poverty in Africa. The Blog Magazine. https://www.borgenmagazine.com Ballon, P. and J.Y. Duclos (2015). Multidimensional Poverty in Sudan and South Sudan. OPHI Working Paper NO. 93. Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI). Oxford Department of International Development, Queen Elizabeth House (QEH), University of Oxford, Department of Economics, Bansal, A. (2013). Why is Sudan poor? The Borgon Project. https://borgenproject.org/why-is-sudan-poor/2017 Bautista, L. E., Correa, A. Baumgartner, J. Breysse, P. and Matanoski, G. M. (2009). Indoor charcoal. smoke and acute respiratory infections in young children in Dominican Republic. American J. Epidemiology, 69, 572-580. Bello, L. G. and Liberati, P. (1986). Impact of policies on poverty. The definition of poverty. FAO “Food and Agriculture Organization” EasyPol. www,fao.org./tc/easypol. Berrebi, D. (2011). Poverty in Sudan: The oil curse. https//www.poveries.org Bett, J. (2018). Unsustainable wood fuel and its impact in coastal Kenya. WWF UK blog. Blogs.wwf.org.uk Bourguignon F. and Chakravarty, S. R. (2000). The measurement of multidimensional poverty. Binder1, 25-50. Bramlett, S. (2018). Inequality and the causes of poverty in North America.The Borgen Project. Borgen Magazine. Humanity, Policy and You.https://www.borgenmagazine.com Buck, R. and Deutsch, J. (2014). Effects of poverty on education. International J. of Human Sciences, 11(2), 1139-1148. 38

Chethik, N. (2006). Voicemale: What husbands really think about their marriages, their wives, sex, housework and commitment? New York: Simon and Schuster. Compassion, (2017). Why do the poor have large families? https//www.compassion.com.au.blog Cribb, J., Keiller, A. N. and Waters, T. (2018). Living standards, poverty and inequality in the UK. Institute of Fiscal Studies, Uk. https//www.ifs.org.uk Davidson, P. (2012). Poverty in Australia (Report). Strawberry Hills, NSW: AustraliaCounci of Social Service (ACOSS). Development Strategy Unit, and Policy Unit, Development Policy and Analysis Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2015). Multi poverty. Development Issues No. 3 Drewett, Z. (2018). Maps highlight shocking link between poverty and violent crime wave in London. Metro News. https://www.metro.uk Ernest, C. and Madu, E. C. (2010). Investment and Development Will Secure the Rights of the Child. The Convention on the Rights of the Child. European Commission (2018). Data-Eurostst. Income and living conditions. https//www.ec.europa.eu Faki, H. (2011). Poverty in the Sudan. Poverty: a broad and multi-dimensional concept. The Sudan Institutional Capacity Program: Food Security Information for Action. Policy Brief June 2011. Faki, H., E. M. Nur and Hashim, A. (2010). Poverty assessment and mapping in the Sudan (Final Draft 2010). Study prepared in cooperation with ICARDA and IFAD. Ferguson, H. B., Bovaird, M. P. H. and Muller, M. P. (2007). Impact of poverty on educational outcome for children. Pesdiatrics Child Health, 12(8), 701- 706. 39

Fields, G. S. (2014). Self-employment and poverty in developing countries. IZA World of labour. IZA Institute of labour Economics. Furtado, X., (2014). Supporting communities to reduce poverty in Sudan: Improving life for farmers and fishermen. Gordon, S. and Martin, W. (2014). Burning wood indoors to cook raises health risks for billions. CBC News http//www.cbc.ca>new Greever, S. (2014). Poverty in education: A literature review. ELE 711 M. Sc., in Education- Elementary Education, Presented ton Dr. Min Yu Misssouri State University. Gupta, N. (2015). Poverty in Khartoum. The Borgen Project, The Blog, Developing Countries. The Blog Magazine. https://www.borgenproject.org Hart, S. T. (1997). .Beyond greening: Strategies for a sustainable world. Harvard Business Review. World Resources institute. Haymes, S., M. Vidal de Haymes and Reuben Miller (eds), (2015).The Routledge Handbook of Poverty in the United States, (London: Routledge, ISBN 0415673445, pp. 1–2. Keeble, (1988). The Brundtland Report: our common future. Medicine and War 4(1), 17-25. Kember, K. and Sadoff, C. (2003). The global water challenge. World Bank Global Issues Seminar Series. Lifewater, (2014). Water and poverty: how access to safe water reduces poverty. Life water Home/Blog/ Merriam Webster Dictionary, (2013). Poverty. https://www.merriam- webster.com/ Murphy, J. and Tobin, K. (2011). Homelessness comes to school. Education pp 304. https//www.books.google.com

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Appendices

Appendix (1). The questionnaire

Locality: ……………………………..

Family Host

44

Man woman

Marital Status:

Married Divorced Single

Education level:

Illiterate secondary University

Number of Family members: …………………………………..….

Education stages:

stage Male Female

Illiterate

secondary

Graduated

Position of Family Host:

Public sector employee private sector employee Unemployed

45

Place of living:

House owner private house rented house

Type of Water using:

From river from well

Sullage water

W.C public W.C random W.C

11- Electricity:

Permanent wobbling

Is there any bus station near your residence area to go School.

For hospital for work for market

How to dispose your solid waste:

46

Throw away collecting by car

If there is any noise in your area?......

Are there any problems in your daily life? ………………………..

What is your basic income Family? ......

What is the kinds of the Crops grow in your area? ......

What is the kinds of livestock you own? …………………………….

Kind Account Prices production Grazing area

Sheep

Goat

Camels

Poultry

Others

Cost of animal raising? ......

47

Type of grazing

Food quantity the cost

Income level:

Daily Expenses Daily Type of income Annually Monthly weekly

Agricultural

Grazing

free business

Commercial

Other

Is the income enough to cover your requirement

Yes No

Do you receive any assistance?

Yes No

From where do you get assistances?

48

Office of Zakat government organizations relatives

What is the size of assistance given? ......

What is your subsistence?

Type Daily Weekly Monthly

Sorghum

Wheat kissra

Bread

Porridge

Meat

Vegetable

Fruits

27- How much dies it costs to buy food, whether daily or monthly?......

28-Have any market to buy daily needs?

Yes No

29-From where you buy your daily needs if there isn’t market?......

30- How do you collect water?

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Women children other

31-Have any W. C. (toilet)

Yes No

32. What is the type of W.C.?

Pit latrine Septic tank

Where do you find the medical if you are ill or any of your family?

Pharmacy Health center hospital Traditional medicine

How much does medicines cost monthly? ………………………………………………

If any death incidence?

Yes No

What is the sector where death is more than other?

Women children old age other

50

What is the reason of death?

Malnutrition Infections & diarrhea Dysentery other

38- What is the source of energy of the cooking in your house?

Charcoal wood Gas other

39- How many rooms are there in the house? ………………………………………

51