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1989 The thnobE otany of Sweet Flag, Acorus calamus L. Timothy J. Motley Eastern Illinois University This research is a product of the graduate program in Botany at Eastern Illinois University. Find out more about the program.

Recommended Citation Motley, Timothy J., "The thnoE botany of Sweet Flag, Acorus calamus L." (1989). Masters Theses. 2337. https://thekeep.eiu.edu/theses/2337

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m THE ETHNOBOTANY OF SWEET FLAG

ACORUS CALAMUS L. (TITLE)

BY

Timothy J . Motley

THESIS

SUBMITIED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

Master of Science

IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL, EASTERN ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY CHARLESTON, ILLINOIS

1989 YEAR

I HEREBY RECOMMEND THIS THESIS BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE GRADUATE DEGREE CITED ABOVE s 11'.:J /'n DATE ADVISER

DATE ~EPARTMENT HEAD THE ETHNOBOTANY OF SWEET FLAG, ACORUS CALAMUS L.

BY

TIMOTHY J . MOTLEY

B.S. in Botany, Eastern Illinois University

ABSTRACT OF THESIS submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of

the degree of Master of Science in Botany at the

Graduate School of Eastern Illinois University

Charleston, Illinois

1989 ABSTRACT

One of the more interesting and attractive components of aquatic ecosystems is sweet flag, Acorus calamus L., a herbaceous perennial belonging to the Araceae, a primarily tropical family. Sweet flag is one of the few extratropical members.

The primary purpose of this work is to present a compilation of the various traditional and contemporary uses of sweet flag by various cultures.

Information regarding the known ethnobotanical and economic uses of the rhizome and aromatic essential oil as a flavoring agent is given, as well as its medicinal uses and value as an insecticide. In addition, a discussion of the nomenclature, history, and folklore of

Acorus calamus is included.

A discussion of the morphology of this unique plant is

supplemented by drawings and color photo- graphs illustrating the

features discussed.

The chemical composition and experimental data sections relate to the connnercial importance and potential for future use of sweet

flag. Concluding statements suggest the need for further research on

the medicinal and insecticidal aspects of the alkaloids and oils.

Several of the compounds isolated are similar to the derivatives of another important medicinal plant, the opium poppy. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks to all those who have helped me along the way. First I would like to thank my parents Roy and Joan and my brothers Gavin and Jeremy for all their advice and support.

My thanks also goes out to Dr. Charles B. Arzeni for his advisement, friendship, and for helping me to open my eyes to new horizons in the field of Botany and life.

Sincere thanks goes to Dr. John Ebinger, Dr. Andrew Methven, and Dr. Wesley Whiteside for their guidance and the many things they have taught me.

Once again I give thanks to my artistic brother Jeremy for the help he gave me on the ink illustrations included in this thesis. I would also like to thank, for their help in translating three articles in the German language, Bettina and Andrea Krugler.

Last of all, but not least, a special thanks to Kimberly McCord for her love, help, and moral support which helped me through this difficult time of my life and made it seem much easier. Finally I would like to thank God for giving me the ability needed for my endeavors.

i CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ••••• • • ...... i List of illustrations ...... iii Methods and materials • •••• • . •• . • . ... ••. • •.•.• .• .• ••• . . •.•. ••• . . 1 Introduction .2 Nomenclature .3 Classification .5 History and folklore .• .•... • • ... • •....•...... • ... . ••.• • ...•. • . • •. . 7 Morphology .15 Anatomy • • 22 Ethnobotany: China •. •••• . ••• .•. •••• . •. •.•• . .•. • ..•• •• • . • .•• • • .•.• .• •. •. •• • 2 4 India, Pakistan, and Ceylon • •• • 25 Tibet •••• 27 United States ...... •...... 27 American Indians •• . •• • • • 2 9 Russia . . • ..... 31 Istanbul ...... ••. . 31 Lithuania .. . .• ...... • ...... 31 South Africa ••. . • . •• • •• . • • •• . •• •• • •• • .• •• .• •• •• 3 2 Yugoslavia .• . • .•• •• . ••• • • .••.• •• . •• ••...•. • • • 3 2 Sweden • • • . •• • • • ••• • • • • • • •••••.••••••••• •• •• 3 2 Turkey •••••••••• . ••• . •••••• • ••••• • ••• • •• 3 2 Europe •• • •••••• • ••• • •• • • ••• •••• • ••••••••• ••••• ••••••• • • • ••••• 3 2 France •••••••••••••••••••••••••• • • • ••••••• • ••••••••••• • ••• • •• 3 3 Germany . • ••..•.• • .••..••••.•. • .•.•.. . • •• .••. • .•.••••••. 3 3 England . •.•••• •• . • •• .• . . •. • . • .• •• •• ••••.•• . ••••.•.• • ••• 3 3 Hol land . • . • •. . ••••..•. .• ...... • • • ..•.....••.• . •. . • . . 33 Arabic cultures .34 The Isle of Man .34 Indonesia .34 Java ...... •.... 34 Philippines ...... 34 Thailannd .... . •.• . 34 New Guinea ...... 34 Brazil ••• •• • •• •• •• . .•. • ..•.• 35 Argentina ••• • •• •• • ...... 35 Recipes and preparation . • ...... •. . . . 36 Chemical const i t uent s ...... • ...... •.. 41 Review of experimental data ...•..••• • .....•... • .•. . •.•..•.. • • • .• • • 43 Conclusion ...... • • . . . . • . . . .• . .• . .• •• ••• . • . . . • .. •. •• .• • • • . • • ••• •• 5 2 Literature cited • •••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••• • •••• • •••• •• •••••• • •• 53

i i ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1. Sweet flag in aquatic habitat • • • •• •• •• ••• • •• • ••• ••••••• 16 Figure 2. Sweet flag in semi- aquatic habitat • ••• • • •• • •• • •••• • • •• • 16 Figure 3. Sweet flag plant specimen • •• • • ••••••••••••••• • •• • • •••• • 17 Figure 4. Rhizome ..•...... • .•. . ..•.•. • ...• ...... 18 Figure 5. Peeled and prepared rhizome •• •••• • •• • • ••• • • • • • ••••• • ••• 18 Figure 6. Inflorescence ...... 20 Figure 7A Single flower, dorsal view •••• . • • •• • • •• • • • • • • •••••••••• 21 Figure 7B Single flower, lateral view • •••••• • ••••••• • • • •• • • •• •• • • 21 Figur e 7C Single stamen and sepal • ••••••••••••••••• • • •• • • •• • •• • •• 21 Figure 7D Ovacy ••• • • • ••• • • ••••• •••••••• • ••••••• • ••• • •• • • • •••••• • • 21

iii MATERIALS AND METHODS

General research procedures for this study involved a lengthy literature review and compilation of the known ethnobotanical information regarding sweet flag. In addition, information was obtained from interviews with people who have been exposed to the use of sweet flag. Furthermore, fresh material was obtained from

Illinois for morphological, anatomical, and photographic study. This illustrated treatment supplements the ethnobotanical comments and focuses on the morphological aspects of the plant.

1 INTRODUCTION

Sweet Flag, Acorus calamus L., represents one of the uncommon, but widespread, herbaceous, semi-aquatic components of aquatic habitats in the temperate to subtemperate areas of the world. It grows along the edge of ponds, in lake shallows, and river floodplains. In the Old World, Sweet Flag occurs in all the European countries, except Spain. It is also found in southern Russia, northern Asia Minor, southern Siberia, China, Japan, Burma, Ceylon, and India. In the New World it occurs in southern Canada and the contiguous 48 states of the United States.

Sweet flag a member of the Araceae, has a rich in history dating back to early Greek and Roman medicine and was included in many of the early herbals. The plant is thought to be indigenous to India and was spread by way of trade and conunerce. It was later cultivated by vegetative propagation using it's creeping rootstock or rhizome

(Grieve 1971). The rhizomes were also utilized extensively by the

Chinese, Indians, American Indians, as well as many other cultures past and present. Sweet flag has been the subject of superstition and poetry. The candied rhizome is a European and early American confection. The fragrant oils obtained from the rhizome are used medicinally, to flavor alcoholic beverages, as a fragrant essence in perfumes and sacred oils, and for its insecticidal properties.

The fragrant leaves, smelling of tangerine or citrus, were used on the floors of homes and churches to remove disagreeable odors and deter pests. More work has been initiated on the chemical compounds found in the rhizome to determine their uses as medicinal, antibacterial and antifungal agents.

2 NOMENCLATURE

Folknames of sweet flag:

A variety of folklore names have been associated with sweet flag. The large number of names attributed to this single plant attests to its rich history and use by many cultures in the past.

Some of the folklore names include: calamus, sweet rush, sweet root, sweet cane, gladdon, sweet myrtle, myrtle grass, myrtle sedge, cinnamon sedge (Grieve, 1971), flagroot, myrtle flag, sweet cinnamon

(Angier, 1974), beewort, pine root, drug sweet flag (Elliott, 1976), sweet segg (Harding, 1966), sweet grass (Lucus, 1966), reed acorus, sweet flagroot (Krochmal & Krochmal, 1975), water flag, yellow flag

(Sinmlonite & Culpeper, 1957), rat root and sweet calomel (Schultes &

Hofmann, 1980).

Many of the common names were derived from the plants long, sword-like foliage and the term flag refers to the drooping, prostrate iris-like leaves. Yellow flag (Iris pseudoacorus L.) and blue flag (Iris versicolor L.), two species in an unrelated family, are often mistaken for sweet flag when the plants are not in flower.

Sweet flag has also been called a rush, a grass, a reed, a cane, a sedge and a myrtle. This is due to the similarity of the foliage of sweet flag to the foliage of these other plants, which are also in other plant families.

The word sweet, preceding the common name, suggests the pleasant aromatic odor of the plant. The utilization of the rhizome led to the application of the connnon names including sweet root, rat root, pine root, and flag root. These names incorrectly refer to the underground rhizome as a root.

3 The derivation of the binomial from the archaic vernaculars:

The generic name, Acorus, comes from the Greek name acorn which was the Greek name for the plant used by Dioscorides. Acorn is derived from the Greek word coreon, meaning pupil of the eye, the ailments of which were treated with sweet flag in the early herbals

(Grieve, 1971). The specific epithet, calamus, comes from the Greek word calamos, meaning reed.

4 CLASSIFICATION

Sweet flag belongs in the Araceae, the arum family. This is a rather large family consisting of about 150 genera and 1500 species, most of which are tropical, but some are temperate (Core, 1955). The plants of this family are usually herbaceous, few are woody. They have an acrid to pungent juice, simple or compound often veiny leaves, and flowers crowded on a spadix, which is usually subtended by a spathe (Fernald, 1950). Many systematic treatments of sweet flag exist. One thorough taxonomic treatments of Acorus was done by

Fernald (1950) in Gray's Manual of Botany in a revision by Fernald

(1950). The following represent treatments for both the genus and the species as published by Fernald:

Acorus L. SWEETFLAG. FLAGROOT. CALAMUS. BELLE-ANGELIQUE or

REDOTE (Que.)

Sepals 6, concave. Stamens 6; filaments linear; anthers reniform, 1-locular, transversely opening. Ovary 2-3-locular, with several pendulous orthotropous ovules in each locule. Fruit at length dry, gelatinous inside, I-few-seeded. -- Aromatic, especially the thick creeping rhizome (calamus of the shops); small genus of N.

Hemisph. Leaves ensiform; the upper and more foliaceous prolongation of the scape may be considered as a kind of spathe. (Latin name of an aromatic plant.)

A. calamus L. (old name for a reed). -- Leaves 0.5-1 m or more long, 0.7-2 cm. broad; the leaf-like spathe similar, prolonged 2-3 dm. beyond the spadix; spadix 4-9 cm. long, in fruit becoming 1.2-2

5 cm. thick. Wet places and borders of quiet water, P.E. I. to Mont . and Oreg., s. to N.S., N.E., Fla. and Tex. May- Aug. (Early introd. and natzd. , but usually sterile, in Eu.)

6 HISTORY AND FOLKLORE

One of the earliest records of sweet flag is the calamus

of the Bible. It was first mentioned when God told Moses to make a

holy oil to anoint the tabernacle, the ark of testimony, and other

ritual paraphernalia (Moerman, 1981). In the wilderness, Moses

received instructions to use myrrh, frankincense, cinnamon, calamus,

cassia, galbanum, and sweet spices in the making of the holy oil

(Exodus 30:23, 24, 34). Calamus was also one of the plants said to

grow in the gardens of Solomon (Solomon 4:14). It was later mentioned (Ezekial 27:19) as one of the market plants of Tyre. There

are some differences of opinion as to whether the calamus mentioned

is Acorus calamus. Some scholars believe that the calamus of the

Bible could be ref erring to was beardgrass (Andropogon aromaticus)

(King, 1941) or to lemon grass (Cymopogon ~) (Wheelwright, 1974).

Sweet flag was used by the Greeks and Romans. In early herbals,

Dioscorides and Pliny referred to a plant called acoron which appears

to be sweet flag (Grieve, 1971). Theophrastus mentioned calamus and

Celsus reported of its presence in Indian markets nearly two thousand

years ago (Llyod 1929). In India sweet flag was such an important

medicinal aid for children's stomach complaints and colic, that a

penalty was placed on any druggist that would refuse to open the door

or his business to a parent in need in the middle of the night

(Barton & Castle, 1877). Sweet flag was also popular as a medicinal

in the orient.

Aphrodesiactic properties were attributed to the rhizome by the

Roman and Arabic cultures for thousands of years (Connell, 1965).

Its reputed ability to arouse sexual desire, resulted in sweet flag

7 being tagged with the name "Venus plant" (Wedeck, 1960) . Sweet flag was one of many ingredients used in a love potion in medieval times, prescribed by the physician Zacutus the Portuguese (Connell, 1965).

In the eleventh century sweet flag, a native of China and India, was transported into Russia and Poland by the Tartars (Mongolians) during their conquests. The Tartar belief that sweet flag purified drinking water was the reason they carried and planted sweet flag in their new settlements. Sweet flag soon became a symbol of Mongol invasion and was referred to as "Tartar" or "Mongolian Poison" by the natives of their conquered territories (Elliott, 1976). The first record of sweet flag cultivation was in 1574 by the Austrian botanist

Clusius, who had obtained the rhizome from Asia Minor and propagated it in Vienna (Grieve, 1971). The plant was soon reported in many other European countries. In 1588 it was first recorded in Germany

(Elliott, 1976), and was cultivated by Gerard in England in 1596

(Grieve, 1971), and was then introduced into France, Belgium (Grieve,

1971), and other countries by way of exchanges between botanists, botanical societies, and botanical gardens.

Sweet flag was soon recognized as being quite useful and quickly gained a place in European history and superstition. It was thought to be one of the ingredients in the hallucinogenic "flying ointments" used by European witches (Ott, 1975). The fragrant leaves of sweet flag were used in medieval times on the floors of castles, churches, and cottages to help cover odors and repel insects when sanitation was poor (Dobelis, 1986). Many churches used the leaves during holidays and festivals and the churches in Norfolk, England were thatched with the foliage (Grieve, 1971). During the reign of Henry

8 the VIII in England, Cardinal Wolsey was brought up on the charges of extravagance. These charges were levied against him not because of his extensive land awnings, but his habit of importing sweet flag reeds from the far away counties of Norfolk and Suffolk for his church in London at great expense. He was found guilty and beheaded

(Elliott, 1976).

When European explorers arrived in North America sweet flag was already well established. It unknown whether Acorus calamus is indigenous in the New World. Due to slight differences between the North American and Asian plants some taxonomists are now placing the North American sweet flag into a separate species, Acorus americanus (Raf.) Raf. Many North American Indian tribes used sweet flag either drank as a decoction, chewed raw or smoked to fight fatigue and hunger, much in the same way that South American Indians use coca (Erythroxylon coca Lam.) (Ott, 1975). Medicinally the tribes would chew the root daily as a panacea (Moerman, 1981).

Early American settlers found many uses for the plant as well.

Pieces of the rhizome were carried in a persons pocket to protect the possessor from being struck by lightening. An amulet made out of the rhizome was thought to protect the wearer from infectious diseases

(Ruegg, 1936). Grieve (1971) stated that in Salmon's Herbal of 1710 that there were sixteen ways in which the rhizome could be prepared medicinally, "as a liquid juice, an essence, an infusion of wine, a decoction of wine, a powder, a cataplasm, a spirtuous tincture, an acid tincture, an oily tincture, a spirit, a chemical oil, potestates or powders, an elixir, a collegium, a preserve, and a syrup." The

Shakers and other New Englanders sold the candied "root" as a

9 confection which can still be found in specialty shops (Fernald &

Kinsey, 1943). In astrological classification sweet flag placed under the moon sign because of the flowers half moon shape, yellow color, and the plants aquatic habitat (Lust, 1974). The distinct shape of the flowers and rhizomes of sweet flag probably inspired the

"calamus cluster" of thirty nine poems written by Walt Whitman in the

Leaves of Grass. Below are the first two poems of the series:

In Paths Untrodden

In paths untrodden,

In the growth by margins of pond-waters,

Escaped from the life that exhibits itself,

From all standards hitherto publish'd, from the pleasures,

profits, conformities,

Which too long I was offering to feed my soul,

Clear to me now standards not yet publish'd, clear to me that my

soul,

That the soul of man that I speak for rejoices in comrades,

Here by myself away from the clank of the world,

Tallying and talk'd to here by tongues aromatic,

No longer abash'd, (for in this secluded spot I can respond as I

would not dare elsewhere,)

Strong upon me the life that does not exhibit itself, yet

contains all the rest,

Resolv'd to sing no songs to-day but those of manly attachment,

Projecting them along that substantial life,

Bequeathing hence types of athletic love,

10 Afternoon this delicious Ninth-month in my forty-first year,

I proceed for all who are or have been young men,

To tell the secret of my nights and days,

To celebrate the need of comrades.

Scented Herbage of My Breast

Scented herbage of my breast,

Leaves of you I glean, I write, to be pursued best afterwards,

Tomb-leaves, body-leaves growing up above me above death,

Perennial roots, tall leaves, 0 the winter shall not freeze you

delicate leaves,

Every year shall you bloom again, out of where you retired you

shall emerge again;

0 I do not know whether many passing by will discover you or

inhale your faint odor, but I believe a few will;

0 slender leaves! 0 blossoms of my blood! I permit you to tell

in your own way of the heart that is under you,

0 I do not know what you mean there underneath yourselves, you

are not happiness

You are often more bitter than I can bear, you burn and sting me

Yet you are beautiful to me you faint tinged roots, you make me

think of death,

Death is beautiful from you, (what indeed is finally

beautiful except death and love?)

0 I think it is not for life I am chanting here my chant of

lovers, I think it must be for death,

For how calm, how solemn it grows to ascend to the atmosphere of

11 lovers,

Death or life I am then indifferent, my soul declines to prefer,

(I am not sure but the high soul of lovers welcomes death most,)

Indeed 0 death, I think now these leaves mean precisely the same

as you mean,

Grow up taller sweet leaves that I may see! grow up out of my

breast!

Spring away from the conceal'd heart there!

Do not fold yourself so in your pink-tinged roots timid leaves!

Do not remain down there so ashamed, herbage of my breast!

Come I am determined to unbare this broad breast of mine, I have

long enough stifled and choked;

Emblematic and capricious blades I leave you, now you serve me

not,

I will say what I have to say by itself,

I will sound myself and comrades only, I will never again utter

a call only their call

I will raise with immortal reverberations through the States,

I will give an example to lovers to take permanent shape and

will through the States,

Through me shall the words be said to make death exhilarating,

Give me your tone therefore 0 death, that I may accord with it,

Give me yourself, for I see that you belong to me now above all,

and are folded inseparably together, you love and death

are,

Nor will I allow you to balk me any more with what I was calling

life,

12 For now it is convey'd to me that you are the purports

essential,

That you hide in these shifting forms of life, for reasons, and

that they are mainly for you,

That you beyond them come forth to remain, the real reality,

That behind the mask of materials you patiently wait, no matter

how long,

That you will one day perhaps take control of all,

That you will perhaps dissipate this entire show of appearance,

That may-be you are what it is all for, but it does not last so

very long,

But you will last very long.

The other poems included in this group are Whoever You Are Holding Me

Now in Hand, For You Q Democracy, These ! Singing in Spring, Not

Heaving from~ Ribb'd Breast Only, Of the Terrible Doubt of

Appearances, The Base of All Metaphysics, Recorders Ages Hence, When

..! Heard at the Close of the Day, Are You the New Person Drawn toward

Me, Roots and Leaves Themselves Alone, Not Heat Flames ~ and

Consumes, Trickle Drops, City of Orgies, Behold This Swarthy Face, I

Saw in Louisiana ~ Live-Oak Growing, To ~ Stranger, This Moment

Yearning and Thoughtful, ..! Hear It Was Charged Against Me, The

Prairie-Grass Dividing, When..! Pursue the Conquer'd Fame, We Two Boys

Together Clinging, ~ Promise to California, Here the Frailest Leaves of Me, No Labor-Saving Machine, ~ Glimpse, ~ Leaf for Hand in Hand,

Earth ~ Likeness, .!. Dream' d in !!. Dream, What Think You .!. Take ~ Pen

In Hand?, To the East and to the West, Sometimes with One.! Love, To

13 ~Western Boy, Fast-Anchor'd Eternal Q Love!, Among the Multitude, Q

You Whom_! Often and Silently Come, That Shadow~ Likeness, and Full of Life Now •• This group of poems is thought to be about what Whitman called "adhesiveness ••••• a personal attachment between men that is stronger than ordinary friendship" (Moerman, 1981). Considerable debate has centered on whether the poems were describe homosexuality or simply the strong bonds of commardary or brotherhood between men.

14 MORPHOLOGY

The following colillllents on the morphology of sweet flag are based on field observations and laboratory studies. Where appropriate, additional technical colillllents have been included and cited.

Habit:

The overall appearance of sweet flag is that of an aquatic to semi-aquatic herbaceous perennial (see figures 1 & 2). Long, erect, narrow, cat tail or iris-like leaves ascend from a branched rhizome

(see figure 3). Most of the plants seen above ground in a population are probably a single plant connected by an extensive underground rhizome system.

Leaves:

Leaves aromatic, linear, erect, sword-like, up to 1 m in length,

1-2 cm in width. The leaves are sharp pointed and sharp edged. A rigid mid-vein is present up the entire leaf, making the leaf a diamond shape in transverse section. The leaves sheath each other and originate from the same point on the rhizome.

Stem:

The stem is a tough, wrinkled, underground rhizome that varies in length from 10-35 cm, 1-2 cm in diameter (see figure 4). It is light brown to creamy white in color. The rhizome has many nodes about 1 cm apart. Each node is covered by leaf scars and the remnants of old leaf-sheaths, giving the rhizome a dark brown appearance. The underside is sometimes pitted with circular root scars. Internally it is whitish-pink in color and very aromatic (see figure S). The rhizome has a bitter taste. When fresh material of the rhizome was sampled, most students could not stomach more than a

15 Fig. 1. Sweet flag growing in an aquatic habitat near Charleston, Illinois.

Fig. 2. Sweet flag population in a semi-aquatic habitat, a river floodplain near Penfield, Illinois.

16 Fig. 3. Sweet flag plant specimen showing foliage, flower, rhizome, and roots.

17 Fig. 4. A portion of the tough underground rhizome of sweet flag.

Fig. 5. The white peeled rhizome of sweet flag that has been prepared for medicinal and food use .

18 tiny portion of the rhizome due to the strong, ill- tasting flavor.

Many remarked that they could still taste the plant days later.

Roots:

The roots are white, seldom branched, and produced in rows on the ventral surface of the creeping rhizome.

Inflorescence:

The inflorescence consists of a spathe and spadix (see figure

6). The spathe is leaf-like. The spike- like spadix is produced from the middle of the spathe. The spadix is 5- 6 cm in length, 1 cm in diameter and densely covered with yellow and green flowers.

Flower s:

Flowers perfect, hypogynous; perianth of 6, green, concave sepals (see figure 7A & 7B); stamens 6, filaments flattened, anthers reniform in shape (see Figure 7C); ovary superior, six-sided, oblong, prismatic, stigma sessile (see figure 7D).

Fruit:

A many seeded gelatinous berry (Fernald, 1950) .

Pollen:

Shape spherical or sub- elliptical; exine psilate with obscure stratification. Furrow with an irregular border, membrane flecked with scattered verrucae, 15 -16 microns in diameter. (Kapp, 1969) .

19 Fig. 6. The spathe and spadix inflorescence of sweet flag.

20 A B

c D

Fig. 7. Sweet flag flowers: (A) dorsal view of a single flower; (B) lateral view of a single flower; (C) a single stamen and sepal; (D) six-sided prismatic ovary.

21 ANATOMY

Because of the possible economic importance and potential medical uses of the rhizome of sweet flag, a detailed description of the anatomical features of the modified underground stem is covered in this study.

Epidermis:

Often sluffed off near roots. Parenchymatous tissue, cells containing few chloroplasts and starch grains (Moll & Janssonius

1923).

Cortex:

Secondary cork tissue consists of storied cork cells, occurring on leaf scars and near roots and developed as periderm, 3-6 layers of collenchymatous tissue, suberized (Moll & Janssonius, 1923). The primary cortex consists of 5-7 collenchymatous tissue layers and 150 aerenchymatous layers. Interspersed between the cells of the primary cortex are oil cells, tannins, sometimes anthocyanin (Moll &

Janssonius, 1923) and secretion cavities (Mansfield, 1916).

Meristeles are scattered through out the cortex. Consisting of two irregular rings that may contain no xylem or phloem elements inside of a sheath of sclerenchyma fibers. The endodermis consists of one layer of parenchymatous tissue (Moll & Janssonius, 1923).

Stele:

The pericycle is composed of 1 or 2 layers of parenchymatous tissue. The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring near the pericycle and are more irregularly scattered near the center of the stem. A 1-2 layered parenchymatous sheath surrounds each bundle.

The bundle arrangement is mostly amphivasal, occasionally colateral,

22 or a blend of both types. Aerenchyma tissue makes up the medulla

(Moll & Janssonius, 1923).

23 ETHNOBOTANY

Since sweet flag was, and is used by many different cultures and in many different countries, the enthnobotanical uses are listed by country or ethnic group.

China:

The rhizome is recommended for inflammation of the gastric membrane, colic, and as an appetite stimulant (Wallnofer &

Rottauscher, 1965). It was also known for its attributes as a smooth muscle relaxant, central nervous system depressant, hypotensive, anticonvulsant, hypothermic, analgesic, sedative, contraceptive, antipyretic, antidiarrhoeal, antithelmintic, antirheumatic, anti­ emetic, (Anonymous, 1975), diuretic, carminative, laxative, emetic

(Agarwal, et al. 1956) and as a lotion for leprous or pustular sores

(Duke & Ayensu, 1985). Sweet flag is listed as an insecticide, an antifungal agent, an antibacterial agent and a fish toxin (Anonymous,

1975). The rhizome was also prized for use in cases of bronchitis, coughs, colds, arthritis, dyspepsia, epilepsy, nausea, stroke, antiarrythymia and as an antiveratric (Duke & Ayensu, 1985).

Powdered, the rhizome is used to treat buboes, carbuncles, deaf ears, sore eyes, anorexia, and abdominal and chest congestion. In powdered form the rhizome acts as a diaphoretic, an expectorant and due to the presence of coumarins, it is used as a cure for tuberculosis (Duke & Ayensu, 1985) as well as lung and heart cancer

(Kirtikar, et al. 1975).

For curing neurological symptoms of the brain the rhizome acts as a desiccant (Perry & Metzger, 1980) and inhalations are used to relieve headaches (Boissya & Majumder, 1980). A mixture of the

24 rhizome with the crushed stems of Coccina cordifolia Cogn. and water aids high fever and vertigo. When combined with Alpinia galanga (L.)

Willd. , Zingiber purpureum, and vinegar, the rhizome is a depurative for women. Bathing in a herbal bath of sweet flag stimulates the circulation as well as giving relief to patients with rheumatism and lumbago (Perry & Metzger, 1980). Boissya and Majumber (1980) told of a paste made out of the rhizome being applied to stop the bleeding of external injuries.

Many people in China believe the plant is an aphrodisiac

(Dragendorff, 1898) and it was also used in order to hallucinate or

"see spirits". This was accomplished by mixing the rhizome with the achenes of Cannabis sativa L. and Podophyllum pleianthum (Li, 1977).

India~ Pakistan and Ceylon:

The rhizome is used as an aromatic stimulant, an expectorant, an elIUilenagogue, a bitter tonic, a carminative, an antispasmodic, an emetic, a laxative, a diuretic (Dastur, 1951), a central nervous system relaxant, a stomachic (Satyavati, et al. 1976), an appetite stimulant, an anthelmintic, a vermifuge, an antibacterial agent, a sedative, an analgesic (Jain, 1968), and a contraceptive (Mahli &

Trivedi, 1972) . It is also used for ailments such as mouth and throat diseases, fevers, epilepsy, bronchitis, delirium, hysteria, tumors, thirst, memory loss, rat bites, ear worms, general weakness, toothaches, pains of the chest and kidneys, leucoderma (Kirtikar et al. 1975), asthma, diarrhoea, dysentery, flatulence (Jain, 1968), dyspepsia (Wren, 1956), indolent ulcers (Dastur, 1951), rheumatism

(Arseculeratne, et al. 1985) and to increase the rate of catabolism

(Lewis & Elvin-Lewis, 1977).

25 Dastur (1951) states that in the treatment of children, an infusion of the rhizome is given to aid in the relief of choleric diarrhoea, dysentery, bronchitis, cough, fever, dyspepsia, epilepsy and intestinal worms. He also stated that the burnt rhizome is given to infants for diarrhoea, teething, colic, and as an emetic. Dastur mentions that the oil is used as an expectorant and relieves asthma, dysentery, loss of appetite, catarrh, ague, and hysteria. Additional medicinal values and preparations for sweet flag in Indian medicine mentioned by Dastur include its use as a mild stimulant in typhoid cases, the mixing of the plant with Cinchona bark for intermittent fever. The oil is given to hemorrhaging women after an abortion, and it is also used as a vermifuge to counteract croton poisoning. Mixed with saffron and mare's milk, delivery is hastened during child birth. The rhizome is sucked as a lozenge for coughs, sore throat, and to clear the voice. A poultice of the burnt rhizome mixed with either caster oil or coconut oil and milk or cashew spirit aids abdominal cramps, paralyzed limbs, and rheumatic swellings.

In times of epidemics the rhizome was chewed to protect the user from the disease (Barton & Castle, 1877). It was also thought to be an aphrodisiac (Petelot, 1954). The markets of India contain the candied "root" which could be eaten as a confection or used as a spice substitute for ginger (Meyer, 1970). A hair perfume is prepared from the powder of the rhizome (Ruegg, 1936).

The plant has also been used as an insecticide to repel fleas and protect clothes and grain from moths (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk,

1962) and the powder was sprinkled around the bases of trees to protect the trees from infestation with white ants (Dastur, 1951).

26 The rhizome mixed with garlic, cumin seeds, salt, sugar, and butter was used in veterinary medicine to strengthen horses. It is also one of the ingredients used in the treatment of foot and mouth disease (Watt, 1908). There was also the Indian belief that the plant had a narcotic effect on cobras (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk,

1962).

Tibet:

In Tibet, dried sweet flag, mixed with Ferula foetida (Bunge)

Regel., Zingiber officinale Rose., Cuminum cyminum L., Terminalia chebula Retz . , Inula racemosa Hook., and Saussurea lappa C.B. Clark, is used to cure choleric diarrhoea, chronic fever, heaviness of the stomach, and phantom tumor (Lama & Santra, 1979). The dried plant is used in cancer cases (Burang, 1979) and in Nepal the rhizome is valued for its use against colds, coughs, bronchitis, and nervousness

(Singh, et al. 1979).

United States:

The rhizome is used for stomach cramps, flatulence, and as a tonic stimulant (Dobelis, 1986). Chewed raw or candied it clears phlegm from the throat (Krochmal & Krochmal, 1975), aids indigestion, heartburn, and acts as a carminative (Elliott, 1976). It is also good for appetite loss, biliary upsets, liver disorders, exhaustion, weakness (Thomson, 1978), high cholesterol (Harris, 1972), diarrhoea, fevers (Ludlow, 1824), suppressed menses (Tantaquidgeon, 1972), malaria (Ruegg, 1936), and toothaches (Hussey, 1974). It is also used as a vermifuge (Malpass, 1945), an antiseptic, an antiprotozoal, a central nervous system stimulant, a sedative, an analgesic, to lower blood pressure and respiration (Watt & Breyer- Brandwijk, 1962),

27 and as an abortive in Missouri (Weiner, 1972). Dropsy, peritonitis

(Bethel, 1972), hyperacidity, and pyrosis are also cured by the rhizome.

Sweet flag is high in potassium, which aids in the relief of illnesses attributed to a potassium deficiency such as asthma, hay fever, hiccoughs, and muscular dystrophy. The phosphorus and potassium, in the plant also aid in pain relief (Bethel, 1972).

Harris (1972) remarks that the rhizome stores unused carotene which is converted to vitamin A and can be used to treat eye problems. The sulfur content in the rhizome is good for bone growth, blood clotting, muscle metabolism, and to counteract toxic substances in the body (Lust, 1974).

Externally the rhizome is used to wash sores, burns (Elliott,

1976), and indolent ulcers (Morton, 1974). In a bath the plant gives relief to rickets, scrofula, paralysis, gout (Ruegg, 1936), poor circulation, chilblains, low blood pressure, and general tiredness

(Lust, 1974).

The powdered rhizome was smoked or chewed to help smokers quit cigarettes (Dobelis, 1986) and was sprinkled on shelves or in closets to repel insects and protect clothes and books (Barton & Castle,

1877).

The oil is used to flavor cordials, liquors, gin, beer, wine, bitters, and perfumes (Uphof, 1968). Vermouth de Turin and Eceu-de­ view de Dantzig are examples of two of the liquors flavored with the oil (Ruegg, 1936). The oil has fixative properties which help retain and prolong the aromatic principles of other oils (Meyer, 1970).

In Boston the candied rhizome is chewed to sweeten the breath

28 (Hedrick, 1919). The tender new leaves are used in wild salads

(Angier, 1974), broths, stews, as well as to flavor fish, and as a spice that is used as an additive to flavor vinegar (Harris, 1972) .

Loewenfeld and Back (1974) said that some types of creams and custards also contain sweet flag in the flavoring.

In some western states the oil of the plant was used in the tanning of leather (Morton, 1974). Because of its aromatic odor the plant is used in potpourris (Rose, 1974) and sachets (Bethel, 1972).

Salmon's Herbal reported that the juice of sweet flag could be used to "prevail against the bitings of mad dogs and other venomous creatures" (Grieve, 1971).

American Indians:

Throughout its range, sweet flag was used as a cold remedy, cough medicine, general tonic, pain killer for colic, stomach cramps, sore throat, toothache (Moerman, 1981), fever, menstrual problems

(Dobelis, 1986), flatulence, stimulant (Krochmal & Krochmal, 1975), kidney problems (Coon, 1960), and as an abortant (Weiner, 1972). One dose was usually considered a piece of the raw rhizome as big as the first finger joint (Coon, 1960). For burns the juice of the plant was rubbed directly on the injury and was snuffed for a catarrh

(Coon, 1960). To relieve fever, coughs, and toothaches the rhizome is mixed with willow bark (Hussey, 1974). Sweet flag was considered by many tribes as a cure-all (Johnson, 1970) and a medium of exchange

(Dobelis, 1986).

The Cree of Alberta, Canada always had some of the rhizome in their medicine bundles (Johnson, 1970). They chewed the rhizome daily to maintain good health (Anonymous, 1981) and to prevent

29 fatigue. One daily dose was about 1- 2 inches of the rhizome and ten inches would be consumed if they wished to induce hallucinations

(Ott , 1975). Wehkes (muskrat root) as they called it, was used to cure colds, toothaches, stomach problems (Anonymous, 1972), coughs

(Kirtkar & Basu, 1975), cholera (Chandler, et al. 1979), sore throat, and headaches when it was mixed with tobacco and smoked

(Johnson, 1970).

The Potawatomis snuffed the powdered rhizome to stop nasal drip

(Weiner, 1972) and to cure catarrh and inhaled the rhizome smoke to cure colds (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis, 1977).

The Blood Indians used the rhizome, which they called Pow-e-men­ artic (fire root, bitter pepper root, fish backbone, muskrat root) , that they obtained from the Kootenai tribe, to relieve coughs and liver ailments (Anonymous, 1972).

The Mesk.wakis used the boiled rhizomes on burns and sores

(Weiner, 1972) . The Meskwakis and the Omaha tribe fed the plant to ailing horses (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). Kindscher (1987) stated that the Omaha ate the boiled rhizome for food.

The Pawnee called the plant Kahtsha itu (medicine lying in water). The Osage called it peze boao ka (flat herb) and the Lakota name was sinkpe tawote (muskrat food root) or sunkace (dog penis) .

The Pawnee used a garland of the leaves in sacred ceremonies, and both they and the Lakota would braid the leaves into a necklace when they would come across the plant during hunts. The Lakota would eat all parts of the plant as a salad and the Osage chewed the rhizome for flavor (Kindscher, 1987) . The Dakota, Omaha, Pawnee and

Winnebago tribes all chewed the rhizome to soothe toothaches, coughs,

30 and drank it as a tea to lower fevers (Moerman, 1981). By chewing the rhizome into a paste and rubbing it on their faces the Dakota warriors thought this would make them calm and unafraid in the face of danger during war (Elliott, 1976).

Sweet flag was seen as a panacea, to prevent illness and to help ill people regain their strength, by the Micmac, Cheyenne, and

Mohecan tribes (Moerman, 1981). The Cheyenne used the plant as a diuretic and laxative (Hart, 1981) and would tie a piece of the rhizome to their children's pajamas to keep the "night spirits" away

(Moerman, 1981).

The Chippewa snuffed the ground rhizome and drank a tea made from the rhizome to cure colds. The tea was gargled for sore throats

(Moerman, 1981). Penobscot Indians thought sweet flag was a panacea

(Speck, 1917), the Kentucky Algonquin used the plant to induce menstruation (Bolyard, 1978) and the Pillager Ojibwas drank the rhizome tea for colds and throat problems (Weiner, 1972). Plant parts of sweet flag were discovered in the caves of the Ozark Bluff­ dwellers, which would lead to the conclusion that sweet flag was also used for some purposes by this tribe (Kindscher, 1987).

Russia:

Rhizome used to cure typhoid fever, cholera, syphilis (Ruegg,

1936), and baldness (El' Yashevych & Cholii, 1972).

Istanbul:

Rhizome is a confection, stomachic and eaten during epidemic diseases as preventive medicine (Lindley, 1838).

Lithuania:

Rhizome is preserved as a sugar confection and the young leaves

31 are eaten by children (Grieve, 1971). The Lettish people drink the a brandy extract of the rhizome for chest pain and diarrhoea. The leaves are added to bathes to relieve pain, sterility, gout, and rheumatism. The leaves are also placed in beds to rid them of fleas

(Ruegg, 1936).

South Africa:

Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) said that the white population use sweet flag as a carminative, a stomachic, an antidiarrhoeal, a tonic, a tooth powder, and an aphrodisiac.

Yugoslavia:

Peasants use sweet flag to induce abortions (Krochmal, 1975).

Sweden:

Rhizome extract is used in corn spirits (Barton & Castle, 1877).

Turkey:

The oil of the rhizome is used as an antiseptic to prevent infection (Ruegg, 1936). The candied or fresh rhizome is chewed as a confection, a stomachic (Harris, 1972), and to aid dyspeptic patients

(Wren, 1956). Baked, the rhizome is used for coughs, tuberculosis

(Ruegg, 1936), and as preventive medicine during epidemics (Barton &

Castle, 1877).

Europe:

Medicinally sweet flag is used to prevent obesity, enhance digestion, aid colds (Moerman, 1981), induce menses (Jochle, 1974) and as a carminative (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962). The rhizome is chewed as a masticatory to clear the voice (Barton & Castle, 1877) and the powdered rhizome is used to flavor beer, snuffs (Barton &

Castle, 1877), and is added to toothpaste (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis,

32 1977), perfumes, toilet powder, and sachets (Hill, 1952).

France:

Sweet flag is used in beers, to scent the snuff a' la violette, and as an addition to some perfumes (Barton & Castle, 1877).

Germany:

The rhizome is sold as a "quack" emmenagogue (Kantor, 1916) and in West Germany it aids gastrointestinal ailments (Herrmann, 1956).

A recent immigrant of Germany informed me that she was able to remember the plant being used as incense during Easter and Passover in the Lutheran church in the 1950's.

England:

Sweet flag is utilized as an aromatic, a carminative, stomachic

(Wren, 1956) an appetite stimulant, and an antibacterial agent

(Grieve, 1971). It also aids or relieves flatulence, colic, dyspepsia (Wren, 1956), ague (Wheelwright, 1974) and high fever

(Grieve, 1971).

Colic is cured by combining the rhizome with magnesia and chalk

(Wren, 1956). Inhaled the oil treats low fever, dyspepsia, and clears the voice. In Norfolk, sweet flag was used as a cure for a fever prevalent to the fens and as a stimulant in cases of typhoid.

A tonic called stockton bitters, made of sweet flag and Gentiana campestris L., is used for nervous complaints, vertigo, headaches, dysentery and catarrah (Grieve, 1971).

Holland:

Children chew the rhizome like gum and make pop gun projectiles out of it (Grieve, 1971).

33 Arabic cultures:

The rhizome was regarded as an enunenagogue (Razzack, 1980), an excitant, a stomachic, a diaphoretic, a diuretic, an incisive, an aid for flatulence, vertigo and headaches arising from dyspepsia (Barton

& Castle, 1877). Sweet flag was an ancient water-brash remedy for burning water coming from the stomach to the throat. Ancient

Egyptians used sweet flag to treat scrofula (Clymer, 1963).

The Isle of Man:

Manxmen on holidays, strew the floors of houses with the leaves of sweet flag (Gibbons, 1962).

Indonesia:

Sweet flag was a cure for diarrhoea and was used postpartum to purify women after childbirth. Sweet flag was also applied to people infected with lice (Hirschhorn, 1983).

Java:

The rhizome is taken after childbirth to increase the flow of milk (Burkill, 1966).

Philippines:

Philippinos value sweet flag medicinally as a stimulant, a carminative, and as an embrocation in rheumatism (Watt & Breyer-

Brandwijk, 1962).

Thailand:

Rhizome taken for blood purification and as an antipyretic

(Mokkhasamit, et al. 1971).

New Guinea:

Sweet flag used to induce abortions (Krochmal 7 Krochmal, 1975).

34 Brazil:

Medicinally sweet flag is an anthelmintic (Watt & Breyer­

Brandwijk, 1962) .

Argentina:

Women are given the rhizome for painful menstruation (Manfred,

1947).

35 PREPARATION AND RECIPES

The rhizome and leaves of sweet flag have been prepared in many different ways for medicinal uses and food. The leaves are used

fresh in wild salads. They should be collected in the early spring when the leaves first sprout from the rhizome (Gibbons, 1962).

Rhizomes should be collected for use in the early spring or late

fall after the foliage has died and turned brown (Elliott, 1976).

American Indians and other early cultures often ingested the rhizome raw to aid medical ailments and to induce hallucinations or give a

state of euphoria. Today in some countries and in folk medicine the

rhizome is still used raw to obtain a full effect of the plants medicinal benefits.

In South Carolina the rhizome is prepared as a cold remedy or

stomach tonic by steeping it in whisky. The ailing patient is then administered the tincture by tablespoon doses (Morton, 1974).

For stomach problems a 1:1 mixture of Arum maculatum L. and

sweet flag is used in a powder form (Lust, 1974). A tea of

peppermint, sweet flag, gentian and golden seal is also prescribed

(Bethel, 1972).

To strengthen the stomach:

European centaury Sweet flag

Yellow gentian root Camomile

Mix in equal parts. Steep 1 tsp. in 1/2 cup boiling-hot water.

Take 1 to 1 1/2 cups a day, in mouthful doses (Bethel, 1972).

36 For a stomach stimulant:

Sweet Flag Rhizome (1 part) Wormwood (1 part)

Milfoil (1 part) European centaury (2 parts)

Steep 1 tsp. in 1/2 cup boiling-hot water. take 1/2 cup, 30 to

60 minutes before eating (Lust, 1974).

For high acid content in the stomach or acidosis tincture:

10-20 drops Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca L. )

10-20 drops Water cress (Nasturtium officinale R.Br.)

10-20 drops Sweet flag (Acorus calamus)

6-10 drops Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.)

Steep tsp. motherwort, water cress, sweet flag and 3/4 of

goldenseal (all dried) in a pint of water for 30 minutes.

Strain, and add sufficient brandy to prevent fermentation. Dose:

1 tablespoon before meals (Clymer, 1963).

For chronic gastritis, a tincture of:

10- 20 drops Bayberry (Myrica cerifera L.)

10-20 drops Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.)

10-20 drops Sweet flag (Acorus calamus)

5 drops Fringe tree (Chiolanthus virginica L.)

4 oz. in water before or after meals. In some instances it may

be necessary to give either a half hour before or after meals,

depending on which works best for the patient (Clymer, 1963) .

For appetite loss and to stimulate gall secretion, a tea composed of shredded sweet flag rhizome, yarrow (Achillea millefolium

37 L.) and peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) is boiled for 15 minutes and drank lukewarm (Thomson, 1978).

To aid in cases of peritonitis, equal parts of marshmallow, slippery elm, sweet flag and dandelion root are brewed into a tea

(Bethel, 1972).

For vertigo, appetite loss and flatulency an infusion of 2 or 3 drachms (1/8 oz.) of sweet flag in a pint of water or white wine is used for stomach relief; one cupful for a dose (Simmonite & Culpeper,

1957).

Two rhizomes of sweet flag finely flaked and mixed into a mash with bran and molasses, taken twice a day relieves gastritis, dysentery, colic, constipation, fevers, cramps and appetite loss

(Levy, 1952).

In India and Pakistan, for most ailments the rhizome is made into an infusion; Mix 1 oz. powdered rhizome in 10 oz. of boiling water. A dose is 2 oz. taken two or three times daily. A decoction is prepared by boiling 2 oz. crushed rhizome, 1 drachm coriander, 1/2 drachm black pepper in a pint of water until the liquid is reduced to

12 oz.; For adults a dose is 1 oz. strained, three times a day. For children one to three drachms sweetened with sugar, taken two or three times daily (Dastur, 1951).

38 An infusion of 1 oz. dried rhizome per pint of boiling water is used to relieve dyspepsia (Grieve, 1971).

To relieve dysentery a tea similar to the decoction used in

India and Pakistan is made by:

1 part black pepper

2 parts coriander

30 parts powdered sweet flag rhizome

Boil 2 oz . of the mixture in 1 pint water, until one cup of

fluid is remaining. Strain immediately. Take one tablespoon

three times a day (Lust, 1974).

Baths and external washes are prepared with sweet flag to help prevent and sooth medical ailments. To relieve vericose veins a herbal wash is prepared by:

Sweet flag Horse chestnut leaves and fruits

Nettle leaves Thyme leaves

Mix in equal parts. Add 3 tbsps. to 1 qt. cold water, bring to

a boil. Add 1/2 tbsp. salt and use to bathe the legs (Lust,

1974).

Herbal bathes containing sweet flag are used to relieve nervous exhaustion, stimulate circulation, aid low blood pressure and chilblains (Lust, 1974) . Three different preparations of baths are:

1. Boil 100 g. rhizome in a liter of water for 10 minutes. Let stand 20- 30 minutes, strain and add to bath. Bathe 10-15 minutes at

35- 37 degrees C. Note: Do not bathe at night (Thomson, 1978) .

39 2. Add 1 lb. chopped rhizome to 5 qts. cold water. Let stand 2 hrs., then bring to a boil and steep 5 minutes. Then add to bathe

(Lust, 1974).

3. Place 1/2 lb. of rhizome and leaves in cold water. Cover and allow to boil 30 minutes. Strain and add to bathe (Lucus, 1969).

To prepare a sachet, grind 1 oz. coriander seeds, wild ginger root and lavender flowers and 1/2 oz. of deer's tongue and sweet flag

(Bethel, 1972).

The rhizome is prepared as a confection or candy by boiling the young, tender, peeled and sliced rhizomes. The rhizome should be boiled until it is tender to the mouth. The length of time for boiling depends on the age of the rhizome, from 30 minutes (Gibbons,

1962) to three days (Coon, 1960). In either case the boiling water should be changed 4 to 5 times to moderate the taste. Then sinnner the rhizome in two parts sugar and one part syrup until most of the sugar is absorbed. Let the rhizomes dry and roll in granulated sugar. Then store the uneaten portion in an air-tight container

(Angier, 1974).

40 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Alkaloidal constituents and essential oils:

The major constituents of sweet flag are asarone, parasarone, calamene, asarylaldehyde, sesquiterpene, methyleugenol, calameone, acorin, eugenol, calamenol, n-heptylic acid (Perry & Metzger, 1980), and about 20 other compounds in trace amounts (Masada, 1976).

Chemical isolation studies have led the discovery of two stereoisomers, alpha and beta asarone. These two chemicals have psychoactive effects (Ott, 1975). Schultes and Hofman (1980) said,

"the root induces an experience similar to LSD in sophisticated subjects."

Native Americans that consumed the root reported that it relieved fatigue and compared the experience to walking a foot off the ground

(Schultes & Hofmann, 1980). Alpha asarone is chemically like mescaline (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis, 1977), the alkaloid in the hallucinogenic cactus Lophora williamsii (Lem.) Coulter, and similar to amphetamines (Elliott, 1976). Beta asarone is similar to myristicin and kava alkaloids (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis, 1977).

Many of the properties of sweet flag are due to a volitile oil, composed of pinene and the aromatic constituent asarlaldehyde

(Grieve, 1971). This oil and asarone have a relaxing effect on smooth muscle tissue, similar to the effects of papaverine found in the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.). Tannins, starches, mucin

(Thomson, 1978), soft gums, and resins are also found in sweet flag

(Grieve, 1971).

Toxicology:

Sweet flag is poisonous under certain conditions causing

41 disturbed digestion, gastro-enteritis, persistent constipation, followed by diarrhoea and passage of blood into the feces (Pammel,

1911). In 1968 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration reported that the use of sweet flag was unsafe. The report was issued do to cancerous tumors found in lab animals treated with the plant

(Dobelis, 1986). But the carcinogenic agent, beta asarone, seems only to be present in the triploid Asian varieties of sweet flag.

The diploid varieties are free of beta asarone and other toxic phenylpropane derivatives (Duke & Ayensu, 1985). The volatile oil, when in contact with the skin, has been known to cause dermatitis in some cases (Mitchell & Rook, 1979).

42 REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA

The positive and negative results of experimental biological activity from extracts of sweet flag are listed and the publications

containing the results are cited.

Dried Bark Extract (Cortex of rhizome):

Antispasmodic activity:

Active - Guinea pig ilium (Itokawa, et al. 1983).

Dried Plant Extract:

Antifungal Activity (Dash, et al. 1983):

Active - Botrytis cinerea Pers.

Trichophytum mentagrophytes

Inactive - Saccharomyces pastorianus

Canida albicans

Rhizopus nigricans Ehren.

Aspergillus fumigatus Fres.

Aspergillus niger Van Tieg

Penicillium digitatum Sacc.

Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht.

Psycotrophic activity:

Active - Humans.

Essential Oil:

Antibacterial Activity (Kar & Jain, 1971):

Active - Pseudomonus solacearum (Smith) Smith

Streptococcus pygenes Rosenbach

Streptococcus faecalis Andrews & Horder

Bacillus pumilus Meyer & Gottheil in Gottheil

Sarcina lutea

43 Salmonella typhosa Borman, Stuart & Wheeler

Active - Corynebacterium diphtheriae (Kruse) Lehmann & Neumann

Shigella dysenteriae (Shiga) Castellani & Chalmers

Staphylococcus albus Rosenbach

Staphylococcus aureus Rosenbach

Vibrio cholera Pacini

Bacillus subtilis (Ehrenberg) Cohn

Escherichia coli (Migula) Castellani & Chalmers

Inactive - Pseudomonus aeruginosa (Schroeter) Migula

Antifungal Activity (Arora & Pandey, 1984):

Active - Penicillium digitatum

Penicillium italicum Wehmer

Diplodia natalensis

Alternaria tenuis Nees.

Spasmolytic activity:

Active - Rabbit intestines (Kar & Jain, 1971) and aorta; rat

intestine and uterus (Maj, et al. 1966).

Antileech activity:

Active (Saxena, et al. 1969).

Hypotensive activity:

Active - Cats (Kar & Jain, 1971).

Anticonvulsant activity (Khare & Sharma, 1982):

Active - pregnant mouse

Inactive - male mouse

Dried Rhizome:

Antiviral Activity:

Inactive - Herpes virus type (May & Willuhn, 1978)

44 Inactive - Influenza A2 (May & Willuhn, 1978)

Poliovirus II (May & Willuhn, 1978)

Vaccinia (May & Willuhn, 1978) (Bhakuni, et al. 1969) .

Antibacterial Activity:

Active - Hemophilus pertussis (Bergey, et al.) Pribram (Chopra,

et al. 1957).

Streptococcus pneumoniae (Klein) Chester (Chopra, et

al. 1957)

Vibrio cholera (Chopra, et al. 1957)

Staphylococcus aureus (Janssen, et al. 1986)

Bacillus subtilis (Janssen, et al. 1986) (Pongpan et

al. 1982)

Escherichia coli (Janssen, et al. 1986)

Shigella dysenteriae (Chopra, et al. 1957)

Inactive - Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Zapf) Lehmann & Neumann

(Bhakuni, ~ al. 1969)

Streptococcus pygenes (Chopra, et al. 1957)

Enterobacter agglomerans (Beijerinck) Ewing & Fife

(Grabowska & Kedzia, 1982)

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Janssen, et al. 1986)

Salmonella typhosa (Avirutant & Pongpan, 1983)

Escherichia coli (Mokkhasmit, et al. 1971) (Ishii, et

al. 1984)

Bacillus subtilis (Mokkhasmit, et al. 1971) (Ishii, et

al. 1984) (Ray & Majumdar, 1976)

Shigella dysenteriae (Avirutnant & Pongpan, 1983)

Salmonella typhosa (Avirutnant & Pongpan, 1983) (Ray &

45 Majumdar, 1976)

Vibrio cholera (Ray & Majumdar, 1976)

Staphylococcus aureus (Avirutnant & Pongpan, 1983)

(Chopra, et al. 1957) (Bhakuni, et al. 1969) (Ray &

Majumdar, 1976) (Mukerjea & Govind, 1960).

Mutagenic activity:

Active - Salmonella typhimurtum (Loeffler) Castellani & Chalmers

(Goggelmann & Schimmer, 1983).

Antifolic Activity:

Active - Lactobacillus casei (Orla-Jensen) Hansen & Lessel

(Patil, et al. 1966) .

Insecticidal and Pest Control Activity: Active - Sitotroga cerealella Oliver (Abraham, --et al. 1972) Thermobia domestica Packard (Motl, --et al. 1975) Sitophilus oryzae L. (Paul, --et al. 1965) Tribolium castaneum Herbst. (Paul, --et al. 1965) Heterotermes indicola (Paul, ~ al. 1965)

Letheticus oryzae (Paul, et al. 1965)

Henosepilachina vigintiotopunctata (Tewari & Krishna-

Moorthy, 1985)

Ascaris lumbricoides (Feroz, et al. 1982) (Kokate, et

al. 1980)

Anopheles maculipennis Meig. (Mironov, 1940)

Musca domestica L. (Mironov, 1940) (Saxena & Mathur,

1976)

Dysdercus koenigii (Saxena, et al. 1977) (Kaul et al.

1976) (Bhasker et al. 1977)

46 Spodoptera litura (Yajima et al. 1977)

Dacus cucurbitae (Kaul & Bhatia, 1965)

Aedes aegypti L. (Dixit, et al. 1965)

Bruchus chinensis (Yadava, 1971)

Bombyx mori L. larvae (Mukerjea & Govind, 1959)

(Mukerjea & Govind, 1960)

Musca nebulo (Mukerjea & Govind, 1959) & (1960) (Chopra

et al. 1957)

Inactive - Ixodes ricinus L. (Mironov, 1940).

Antifungal Activity:

Active - Lenzites trabea Pers.:Fr.(= Gloeophyllum trabeum

(Fr. ) Murrill) (Maruzzella, et al. 1960)

Lentinus lepideus (Fr.:Fr.) Fr. (Maruzzella, et al.

1960)

Polyporus versicolor L.:Fr. (= Trametes versicolor

(L.:Fr.) Pilat.) (Maruzzella, et al. 1960)

Candida albicans (Janssen, et al. 1986)

Inactive - Saccharomyces cerevisiae Hansen. (Ray & Majumdar, 1976)

Trichophytum mentagrophytes (Ray & Majumdar, 1976)

Trichophytum rubrum (Ray & Majumdar, 1976)

Aspergillus niger (Ray & Majumdar, 1976)

Candida albicans (Ray & Majumdar, 1976) (Avirutnant &

Pongpan, 1983).

Antiamebic Activity:

Active - Paramoecium caudatum (Chopra, et al. 1957)

Inactive - Endameba histolytica (Bhakuni, et al. 1969).

47 Antitumor Activity:

Inactive - Leuk-11210 (Bhakuni, et al. 1969)

Sarcoma-WM256 (Bhakuni, et al. 1969).

Cytotoxic activity:

Inactive - (May & Willuhn, 1978) (Bhakuni, et al. 1969).

Antispasmodic activity in laboratory animals:

Active - (Bose et al. 1960) (Das et al. 1962) (Dandiya &

Cullumbine, 1959) (Updyke, 1977) (Bhakuni, et al. 1969)

(Keller, et al. 1985)

Inactive - (Mokkhasmit, et al. 1971).

Antihistamine activity in laboratory animals:

Active - (Updyke, 1977)

Inactive - (Mokkhasmit, et al. 1971)

Mixed results - (Keller, et al. 1985).

Anticonvulsant activity in laboratory animals:

Active - (Athanassova & Roussinov, 1965) (Agarwal, et al. 1956)

(Khare & Sharma, 1982)

Inactive - (Dandiya & Cullumbine, 1959) (Maj, et al. 1965)

(Bhakuni, et al. 1969)

Mixed results - (Madan, et al. 1960).

Hypothermic activity:

Active - (Bhakuni, et al. 1969) (Dandiya & Cullumbine, 1959)

(Maj, et al. 1964).

Inactive - Hypoglycemic (Bhakuni, et al. 1969).

48 Hypotensive Activity:

Active - (Maj, et al. 1965) (Bose, et al. 1960) (Agarwal, et al.

1956) (Mokkhasmit, et al. 1971) (Dandiya & Cullumbine,

1959) (Maj, et al. 1964)

Inactive - (Bhakuni, et al. 1969).

Analagesic Activity:

Active - (Agarwal, et al. 1956) (Maj, et al. 1964)

Inactive - (Bhakuni, et al. 1969) (Chow, et al. 1976).

Diuretic activity:

Inactive - (Bhakuni, et al. 1969) (Maj, et al. 1965).

Central nervous system depressant in laboratory animals:

Active - (Dandiya, et al. 1958) (Maj, et al. 1965) (Agarwal, et

al. 1956) (Shipotshliev, 1968) (Dasgupta, et al. 1977)

(Dandiya, Baxter, et al. 1959) (Maj, et al. 1964)

(Bhattacharya, 1968) (Dandiya & Cullumbine, 1959).

Antiinfla11DI1atory activity:

Active - (Vijayasarathy, et al. 1981).

Circulation stimulant:

Inactive - (Ohmoto, et al. 1985).

Plaque formation suppressant:

Inactive - (Naaiba, et al. 1985).

Antipyretic activity in laboratory animals:

Active - (Maj, et al. 1965)

Inactive - Nikonorow, 1939).

49 Convulsant activity in animals:

Active - (Meunier & Cadeac, 1890) (Chopra, et al. 1957) (Dandiya

& Cullumbine, 1959).

Bronchodilator:

Active - (Bose, et al. 1960).

Positive and negative inotropic effects in frogs:

Active - (Agarwal, et al. 1956).

Smooth Muscle relaxant in laboratory animals:

Active - (Agarwal, et al. 1956) (Das, et al. 1962)

Inactive - (Dandiya & Cullumbine, 1959).

Neuroleptic effect in laboratory animals:

Active - (Malthotra, et al. 1962) (Dandiya & Cullumbine, 1959)

(Dandiya, Cullumbine, et al. 1959) (Malthotra, et al.

1961) (Dhalla & Bhattacharya, 1968)

Inactive - (Dey, et al. 1976).

Antiinplantation activity:

Inactive - (Dhar, et al. 1978).

Hepatotoxic activity:

Active - (Taylor, et al. 1967) (Updyke, 1977).

Carcinogenic activity in laboratory animals:

Active - (Taylor, et al. 1967) (Updyke, 1977) (Goddard, 1968).

Embryotoxic activity:

Inactive - (Prakash, 1986).

Uterine relaxation in laboratory animals:

Active - (Updyke, 1977) (Das et al. 1962) (Dandiya, Cullumbine,

et al. 1959).

50 Barbiturate potentiat ion:

Inactive - (Dandiya, Cullumbine, et al. 1959).

Cardiac depressant in frogs:

Active - (Bose, et al. 1960).

Respiration inhibition:

Active - (Dhalla, et al. 1961).

Smooth muscle stimulant:

Inactive - (Dandiya & Cullumbine, 1959).

Antifibrillatory activity:

Active - (Madan, et al. 1960).

Irritant activity:

Inactive - (Updyke, 1977).

Photosenitizer activity:

Inactive - (Updyke , 1977) .

Cutaneous absorption effects:

Inactive - (Updyke, 1977).

Skin sensitization

Inactive - (Updyke , 1977) .

51 CONCLUSIONS

Sweet Flag has an interesting history and a variety of traditional economic and ethnobotanical applications. The plants history dates back to the time in the Bible where Moses used the plant in a holy anointing oil. Sweet flag was also one of the plants included in many of the early herbals by ancient scholars. Sweet flag has a rich history in the Chinese and Indian cultures, the first cultures to advance the uses of herbal medicine. Sweet flag was soon domesticated by various cultures throughout both hemispheres.

Contemporary use involves the alkaloids and oils produced mainly in the rhizome of the plant. The diseases and ailments, which it has been used to aid and cure, are many. Sweet flag is still used today in perfumes, potpourris, and in flavoring alcoholic beverages and vinegar. The oils of the plant are being tested successfully as antifungal and antibacterial agents. The medicinal values and uses as a natural insecticide are areas in which I believe further research is needed and could prove worthwhile in the medical and allied fields.

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