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An exploratory examination of the electroencephalographic correlates of aural imagery, kinesthetic imagery, music listening, and motor movement by novice and expert conductors
Jackson, Elizabeth Helene, Ph.D.
The Ohio State University, 1994
Copyright ©1994 by Jackson, Elisabeth Helene. All rights reserved.
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 AN EXPLORATORY EXAMINATION OF
THE ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHIC CORRELATES OF
AURAL IMAGERY, KINESTHETIC IMAGERY, MUSIC LISTENING,
AND MOTOR MOVEMENT BY NOVICE AND EXPERT CONDUCTORS
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Elizabeth Helene Jackson, B.A., M.M.
* * * * * *
The Ohio State University
1994
Dissertation Committee:
Dr. Marlin L. Languis
Dr. David Butler f Music Dr. Judith K. Delzell Co-Advisor, School of Music Richard L. Blatti Copyright by
Elizabeth Helene Jackson
1994 “There is a distinct class of musical philosophers, whom we may call the scientists of the present day; men whose researches as physicists have led them into a special inquiry into the natural laws and phenomena of sound. To this class belong Wheatstone, Tyndal, Blasema, and many others whose names must be familiar to every reader of contemporary musical literature. But undoubtably the most distinguished amongst musical scientists is Helmholtz, the German physicist and physician, whose work Die Lehre von den Tonempfindungen, recently translated into English by Mr. A. J. Ellis, has opened, as it were, a new world to the view of the musician. It may be said that the art of music profits little by these physical discoveries; but while the science is still in its infancy, we cannot predicate with certainty concerning the result of all this recent research. It may be that, at any moment, while the pen is in the hand, or the lips are moved to speech, some sudden burst of light, some new and splendid apocalypse, shall, by the instrumentality of science, irradiate the whole world of music, revealing forms of beauty, and spheres of vision, hitherto beclouded or unknown.”
from A Concise History of Music
1897
H.G. Bonavia Hunt, B.Mus. Christ Church, Oxford To my husband
Craig Kirchhoff, for his support, his love, and his willingness to
“bet the farm” ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express sincere appreciation to the following persons:
Dr. Marlin Languis, who introduced me to brain research and its role in the improvement of education. Thank you for your investment of time, effort, and money to this project, and for your priceless help with the methodology, analysis, and interpretation.
Dr. David Butler, who believed in the ideas from the beginning, and who has helped me to discover the beauty of pure, abstract, curiosity-driven research.
Dr. Judith Delzell, whose encouragement and knowledge as my teacher and advisor has been an inspiration to me since the day I arrived in Columbus.
Professor Richard Blatti, whose guidance and expertise has stimulated in me and countless others a sincere passion for the art of conducting education.
Richard Blatti, George Carr, Eugene Corporon, Steve Day, Tim Leasure, Craig
Kirchhoff, H. Robert Reynolds, and Nyle Sexton for their priceless contribution of time, talent, and patience. Without you, this study could not have been possible.
Leo Boyle HI for sharing his boundless knowledge of computers and all their wondrous mysteries.
Dr. Patrick F. Casey, Dr. Richard G. Mayne, and Dr. David E. Scott for being wonderful colleagues throughout this long and sometimes precarious journey.
My husband Craig, my parents, and my brother and sisters for their tremendous support and love. You are my greatest inspiration.
My two cats Poco and Presto, who slept peacefully through the whole thing. VTTA
July 2, 1960 ...... Bom - Breckenridge, Minnesota
1983 ...... B.A. in Music Education, St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota
1983-1985 ...... Director of Bands, Wrenshall Public Schools, Wrenshall, Minnesota
1986 ...... M.M. in Conducting, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois
1986-1990 ...... Associate Director of Bands, Spring Lake Park High School, Minneapolis, Minnesota
1990-1993 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, School of Music, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
1993-present ...... Instrumental Music Educator, Hopkins Public School District #270, Minneapolis, Minnesota
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Music
Studies in Music Education: Professors A. Peter Costanza, Judith K. Delzell, Patricia J. Flowers, Jere L. Forsythe, and Timothy A. Gerber
Studies in Wind Conducting and Literature: Professors Richard L. Blatti and Craig Kirchhoff
Studies in Music Perception: Professor David Butler TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION ...... ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii
VITA ...... iv
LIST OF TABLES...... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION
Introduction ...... 1 External vs. Internal Perceptions ...... 2 The Conductor and Mental Imagery ...... 3 The Education of the Conductor ...... 3 Statement of the Problem ...... 5 Purpose of the Study ...... 6 Research Questions ...... 7 Definition of Terms ...... 8 Assumptions ...... 10 Limitations ...... 11
U. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction ...... 12 Imagery and Conducting ...... 12 Aural Imagery ...... 13 Audiation ...... 14 Kinesthetic Imagery ...... 15 Verbal Imagery ...... 16 Conducting Texts ...... 16 Neurological Foundations ...... 17 Localization of Function ...... 17 Divisions of the Cerebrum ...... 18 Measurement of Brain Activity ...... 20 Electroencephalography ...... 20 Frequency Bands ...... 21 Brain Electrical Activity Mapping ...... 21 Evoked Potentials ...... 22 Components of the AEP Waveform ...... 23 Imagery and the Brain ...... 24 Kinesthetic Imagery ...... 25 Neurological Correlates of Mental Imagery ...... 25 Music and the Brain...... 26 G eneral...... 26 Musical Studies Using EEG ...... 28 Muscial Studies Using E P ...... 30 Musical Imagery and the Brain ...... 32 G eneral...... 32 Musical Imagery Studies Using EEG ...... 33 Muscial Imagery Studies Using E P ...... 34 Summary ...... 35 m . METHOD
Introduction ...... 36 Research Approval ...... 37 Population and Sample ...... 37 Procedures ...... 38 General Design ...... 38 Location of Assessment ...... 39 Development of Materials ...... 39 Baseline Auditory Task ...... 39 Musical Excerpts ...... 40 Pulse Markers...... 41 Instruments...... 42 M acintosh ...... 42 Brain Atlas III ...... 44 Pilot Study ...... 45 Protocol Description ...... 45 Information Collected Before Assessment ...... 45 Preparation of the Subject ...... 46 Pre-Task Checks...... 47 T ask s...... 48 Post-Task C heck...... 51 Data Reduction ...... 51 Data Analysis of E E G ...... 51 FFT F iles...... 51 Mean Microvolt Values ...... 52 Interpolation...... 53 EP F iles...... 53 Summary ...... 53
vi IV. RESULTS
Introduction ...... 55 Organization of the Chapter ...... 55 Data Analysis ...... 55 EEG Frequency Analysis ...... 56 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) ...... 56 Discussion of the Research Questions ...... 57 Research Question # 1...... 58 Research Question # 2...... 60 Research Question # 3...... 61 Research Question # 4...... 62 Presentation of the Data: Individual Analysis ...... 63 Novice Conductors ...... 63 Novice Conductor A ...... 64 Novice Conductor B ...... 74 Novice Conductor C ...... 85 Expert Conductors ...... 96 Expert Conductor D ...... 96 Expert Conductor E ...... 106 Expert Conductor F ...... 116 Presentation of the Data: Group Analysis ...... 127 General Comparison of Theta and Alpha Graphs 127 Characteristics of Relative Power Beta Graphs 128 Preliminary Findings Related to the EP Waveform .... 135 Summary ...... 136
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Introduction ...... 137 Purpose of the Study ...... 138 Methodology ...... 139 Summary of Results ...... 140 Individual Analysis ...... 140 Group Analysis ...... 143 Conclusions and Implications ...... 145 Suppression of Theta and Alpha ...... 145 Increase in Frontal A lpha ...... 146 Motor Movement ...... 146 Similarity Across Tasks...... 146 Recommendations for Further Study ...... 147 Final Comment ...... 152
LIST OF REFERENCES 153 APPENDICES...... 161
A. Human Subject’s Review Form ...... 161
B. Subject Consent Form ...... 163
C. Edinburgh Handedness Inventory ...... 166
D. Modified Edinburgh Handedness Scale ...... 168
E. Personal Information Form ...... 170
F. Protocol Check-List ...... 172
G. Absolute Theta Tables ...... 174
H. Absolute Alpha Tables ...... 181
I. Relative Beta Tables ...... 188
J. Raw Data Tables for All Music Tasks ...... 195
viii LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Conditions examined during music listening/conducting tasks .... 39
2. Conducting excerpts ...... 40
3. Placement of pulse markers within musical scores: ...... 43 Lincolnshire Posy (“Lisbon”) by Percy Grainger
4. Placement of pulse markers within musical scores: ...... 43 Second Suite in F (“March”) by Gustav Holst
5. Placement of pulse markers within musical scores: ...... 44 Variations on America by Charles Ives
6. Auditory evoked potential results ...... 50
7. Baseline tasks, descriptions, and abbreviations ...... 59
8. Musical tasks, descriptions, and abbreviations ...... 59
TABLES 9 - 26: Mean \lv Response Values for all Tasks at all Scalp Sites
(Tables 9 -14: Absolute power within the theta frequency band)
9. Absolute theta: Novice A ...... 175
10. Absolute theta: Novice B ...... 176
11. Absolute theta: Novice C ...... 177
12. Absolute theta: Expert D ...... 178
13. Absolute theta: Expert E ...... 179
14. Absolute theta: Expert F ...... 180
(Tables 15-20: Absolute power within the alpha frequency band)
15. Absolute alpha: Novice A ...... 182 16. Absolute alpha: Novice B ...... 183
17. Absolute alpha: Novice C ...... 184
18. Absolute alpha: Expert D ...... 185
19. Absolute alpha: Expert E ...... 186
20. Absolute alpha: Expert F ...... 187
(Tables 21-26: Relative power within the beta frequency band)
21. Relative beta: Novice A ...... 189
22. Relative beta: Novice B ...... 190
23. Relative beta: Novice C ...... 191
24. Relative beta: Expert D ...... 192
25. Relative beta: Expert E ...... 193
26. Relative beta: Expert F ...... 194
TABLES 27 - 44: Actual uv Response Values for all Music Tasks at all Scalp_Sites
(Tables 27 - 32: Absolute power within the theta frequency band)
27. Absolute theta: Novice A ...... 196
28. Absolute theta: Novice B ...... 197
29. Absolute theta: Novice C ...... 198
30. Absolute theta: Expert D ...... 199
31. Absolute theta: Expert E ...... 200
32. Absolute theta: Expert F ...... 201
(Tables 33 - 38: Absolute power within the alpha frequency band)
33. Absolute alpha: Novice A ...... 202
34. Absolute alpha: Novice B ...... 203
35. Absolute aloha: Novice C ...... 204 36. Absolute aloha: Expert D ...... 205
37. Absolute alpha: Expert E ...... 206
38. Absolute alpha: Expert F...... 207
(Tables 39 - 44: Relative power within the beta frequency band)
39. Relative beta: Novice A ...... 208
40. Relative beta: Novice B ...... 209
41. Relative beta: Novice C ...... 210
42. Relative beta: Expert D ...... 211
43. Relative beta: Expert E ...... 212
44. Relative beta: Expert F ...... 213
xi LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1. Lobes of the convex surface of the hemisphere, left side ...... 19
2. International 10-20 electrode placement ...... 46
FIGURES 3 - 16: NOVICE A (FFT RESULTS)
3. Nl: Baseline condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 67
4. N2: Baseline condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 67
5. N3: Auditory condition in absolute theta |Hv values ...... 68
6. N4: Auditory imagery condition in absolute theta pv values 68
7. N5: Auditory condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 69
8. N6: Auditory imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values 69
9. N7: Kinesthetic condition in absolute theta p.v values ...... 70
10. N8: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute theta pv values . . . 70
11. N9: Kinesthetic condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 71
12. N10: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values.. 71
13. Nil: All imagery vs. no imagery condition-absolute theta 72
14. N12: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute alpha. . . . 72
15. N13: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery - absolute theta.. 73
16. N14: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery -absolute alpha.. 73
FIGURES 17 - 30: NOVICE B (FFT RESULTS)
17. Nl: Baseline condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 78 18. N2: Baseline condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 78
19. N3: Auditory condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 79
20. N4: Auditory imagery condition in absolute theta |iv values 79
21. N5: Auditory condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 80
22. N6: Auditory imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values.. . . 80
23. N7: Kinesthetic condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 81
24. N8: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute theta pv values . . . 81
25. N9: Kinesthetic condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 82
26. N 10: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values.. 82
27. N l 1: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute theta 83
28. N12: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute alpha.... 83
29. N13: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery - absolute theta.. 84
30. N14: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery - absolute alpha.. 84
FIGURES 31-44: NOVICE C (FFT RESULTS)
31. Nl: Baseline condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 89
32. N2: Baseline condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 89
33. N3: Auditory condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 90
34. N4: Auditory imagery condition in absolute theta pv values.. . . 90
35. N5: Auditory condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 91
36. N6: Auditory imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values 91
37. N7: Kinesthetic condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 92
38. N8: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute theta pv values . . . 92
39. N9: Kinesthetic condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 93
40. N10: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values.. 93
xiii 41. N11: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute theta 94
42. N12: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute alpha 94
43. N13: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery - absolute theta.. 95
44. N14: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery-absolute alp h a.. 95
FIGURES 45 - 58: EXPERT D (FFT RESULTS)
45. El: Baseline condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 99
46. E2: Baseline condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 99
47. E3: Auditory condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 100
48. E4: Auditory imagery condition in absolute theta pv values 100
49. E5: Auditory condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 101
50. E6: Auditory imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values... 101
51. E7: Kinesthetic condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 102
52. E8: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute theta pv values .. 102
53. E9: Kinesthetic condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 103
54. E10: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values . 103
55. El 1: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute theta. . . . 104
56. E12: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute alpha. . . . 104
57. E13: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery - absolute theta.. 105
58. E14: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery - absolute alpha. 105
FIGURES 59 - 72: EXPERT E (FFT RESULTS)
59. El: Baseline condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 109
60. E2: Baseline condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 109
61. E3: Auditory condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 110
62. E4: Auditory imagery condition in absolute theta pv values.. . . 110
xiv 63. E5: Auditory condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... I l l
64. E6: Auditory imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values... I l l
65. E7: Kinesthetic condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 112
66. E8: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute theta pv values .. 112
67. E9: Kinesthetic condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 113
68. E10: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values . 113
69. El 1: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute theta 114
70. E12: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute alpha 114
71. E13: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery - absolute theta ..115
72. E 14: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery-absolute alpha. 115
FIGURES 73 - 86: EXPERT F (FFT RESULTS)
73. El: Baseline condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 120
74. E2: Baseline condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 120
75. E3: Auditory condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 121
76. E4: Auditory imagery condition in absolute theta pv values 121
77. E5: Auditory condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 122
78. E6: Auditory imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values... 122
79. E7: Kinesthetic condition in absolute theta pv values ...... 123
80. E8: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute theta pv values .. 123
81. E9: Kinesthetic condition in absolute alpha pv values ...... 124
82. E10: Kinesthetic imagery condition in absolute alpha pv values . 124
83. El 1: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute theta 125
84. E 12: All imagery vs. no imagery condition - absolute alpha. . . . 125
85. E13: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery - absolute theta.. 126
xv 86. E14: Auditory imagery vs. kinesthetic imagery - absolute alpha. 126
FIGURES 87 - 98: RELATIVE BETA GRAPHS (FFT RESULTS)
87. Baseline Eyes Open Task in relative beta pv values ...... 129
88. Baseline Eyes Closed Task in relative beta pv values ...... 129
89. Baseline Auditory Task in relative beta pv values ...... 130
90. Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task in relative beta pv values... 130
91. Baseline Kinesthetic Task in relative beta pv values ...... 131
92. Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task in relative beta pv values . 131
93. Listen Only Task in relative beta pv values ...... 132
94. Image Only Task in relative beta pv values ...... 132
95. Listen/Conduct Task in relative beta pv values ...... 133
96. Image/Conduct Task in relative beta pv values ...... 133
97. Listen/Image Task in relative beta pv values ...... 134
98. Image/Image Task in relative beta pv values ...... 134
xvi CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Music is a phenomenon that is difficult to define. One can list the elements of music, or identify the structure of music, or discuss the value of music, but it is extremely difficult to agree upon a definition of music because it is experienced so uniquely by each listener. The role music plays in the lives of all human beings may range from mere novelty to absolute necessity. Is there a common thread that links the experience of music to everyone? Leonard B. Meyer (1956) suggests that at the very least, we can say that music has meaning to both the participant and the listener (p. 1).
The particular nature of that meaning will vary based on the uniqueness of each individual, but the meaning itself exists. The rationale for this philosophy may be that since music is a creation of the human mind, all human beings can and should take ownership in its power and mystery.
Since the human brain is the source of all music, an understanding of the processes of the brain as it participates in the experience of music is a legitimate goal of music research. Gaining an awareness of the brain’s role in the creation of and reaction to music is one of the keys to the comprehension of music itself. In a journal recently published which is devoted to functional neuroanatomy and neuroimaging, Justine
Sergent (1993) comments on the complex relationship between music and the brain:
How the brain came to devote parts of its neural tissue to the representation and
processing of musical information, and which cerebral territories were recruited
1 2
to sustain the diverse musical functions, are rather elusive questions because
music is like nothing else the brain is called on to accomplish, (p. 20)
Music is a unique and enigmatic force, and yet it is fundamental to our nature as human beings. The observation of measurable differences that occur in the brain as it processes the musical experience is one way to begin to unravel the many secrets of music's meaning in our lives.
External vs. Internal Perceptions. The art of music is most often perceived as an external event focused on the production and comprehension of sound. Musicians spend their lives perfecting those elements of music that will ultimately reach the ears of the listener, e.g., pitch, rhythmic accuracy, phrasing, and tone quality. As a result, most programs devoted to the study and performance of music focus on the development of those externally expressed elements. However, the perception of music is not necessarily dependent on the stimulation of the tympanic membrane. The brain is capable of experiencing music through the process of mental imagery without the aid of any physiological organ devoted to the collection of sound waves. Consider
Mozart, who is presumed to have been capable of conceiving entire symphonies in his mind. This accomplishment seems unrealistic, if not impossible, to those of us who are not composers. However, the ability to mentally create a vivid representation of external perceptions is not necessarily an exclusive privilege of the gifted prodigy. All normally functioning human beings are capable of mental imagery, and it can apply to perceptions of all kinds.
The term “spatial schemata” is used by psychological theorist Ulric Neisser
(1976) to describe the internal maps which guide many forms of perception, including aural, tactile, visual, and so forth. He suggests that the mental image is not simply a reflection of the external world, but that it anticipates the perception of that world: 3
“Mental images are perceptual anticipations: schemata active independently of the perceptual cycle to which they would normally pertain” (p. 170). If this is true, then one’s reality is based not only on the external perceptions of the environment, but also on the internal anticipations of that environment. It seems critical that the musician should develop an internal schema of the finished musical product before he or she is concerned with the production of sounds which represent that product.
The Conductor and Mental Imagery. Conductors, like composers, are unusual among musicians in their extensive use of mental imagery. While all musicians can benefit from imagery, conductors have no choice but to employ it on a daily basis during their preparations for rehearsal or performance. This necessity for imagery is based upon the fact that conductors have no vehicle except the imagination in which to experiment and refine their vision of the finished musical product. Frederik Prausnitz
(1983) articulates this uniqueness to the student of conducting: “As a conductor, your primary musical instrument is your own mind. Unlike any other performer, you must learn, practice, plan, recreate and pre-perform music in your imagination before you set foot on the podium for its first rehearsal” (p. 79). The conductor must guide the sound production of many musicians simultaneously. His or her internal schemata must be well developed long before the sounds reach the ears of the listeners. The study of conducting, however, tends to focus on the external experience of hearing and appropriately adjusting an ensemble with physical gesture, quite often ignoring the equally important development of the internal schemata. Both aspects are important and vital to the growth of the conductor.
The Education of the Conductor. Conducting is an art that requires the development of both cognitive behaviors and motor behaviors. One of the specific skills a conductor must develop is the ability to translate written information from the 4 score into physical motion that communicates that information to the musicians involved. Beginning conducting courses focus primarily on the physical aspect of conducting, e.g., baton grip, preparatory gestures, releases, basic beat patterns, and the variation of those patterns to correspond with changes in the music. The development and understanding of these gestures is essential, but they are only a means to an end.
Too often, beginning students perceive conducting as a series of mechanical gestures strung together in proper order based on the musical structure of the composition, without first internalizing his or her idealized aural impression of the composition. This
“perfect inner sound” should ultimately be the source of those gestures.
The goal of the conducting instructor is to provide the conducting student with those tools necessary to effectively communicate all styles of music to an ensemble.
Once the student is aware of the tools, he or she must apply them in order to grow and improve as a conductor. A young conductor can intellectualize many aspects of conducting, but can in no way develop completely as a conductor until he or she puts in the many hours of podium time applying that which has been learned. Must we therefore come to the conclusion that conductors cannot become “experts” without spending years and years on the podium learning their trade? The experienced conductor has the advantage of hours of practical conducting experience with a live ensemble that cannot be artificially reproduced. However, for every hour spent on the podium, the expert conductor has spent countless more hours in the silence of his or her study recreating the experience mentally. It is necessary to understand this process in greater detail. How does the ability to mentally image sound and motion contribute to the success of the conductor? Perhaps the art of conducting could be more effectively taught with a greater understanding of mental imagery and its use (or lack thereof) by both novice and expert conductors. 5
Statement of the Problem
Conductors differ radically from other musicians in their preparation for rehearsal or performance. Preparing a score is a highly abstract experience, accomplished largely through the use of aural and kinesthetic imagery. While musicians in the practice room can immediately hear their product and adjust it as they see fit, the conductor experiences no live feedback until he or she finally appears at that rehearsal or performance. It is therefore assumed that mental imagery is fundamental to the conducting process. How does the process of mentally imaging conducting compare to the actual experience of conducting (i.e., the mental experience of silent study compared to the mental experience of actual conducting)? How do expert conductors compare with novice conductors in their ability to mentally image the experience of conducting?
Describing the experience of mental imagery is highly subjective; something other than a personal verbal report is necessary to provide scientific legitimacy to a pursuit of this nature. Both music and mental imageiy originate in the brain. While many of the processes involved in the brain’s function are yet to be understood completely, tools have been developed that can measure physiological changes in the brain that are associated with cognitive activity. The electroencephalograph is such a tool. It is capable of measuring minute electrical changes that occur moment by moment throughout the brain (brain waves), and it has been found to adequately reflect the processing of music and musical imagery (Petsche, Lindner, Rappelsberger, &
Gruber, 1988). The data collected by the electroencephalograph can be examined in many different ways, therefore, which techniques of measuring and analyzing brain wave activity yield the most useful information to assess the process of musical imagery? 6
Purpose of the Study
Since the human brain is the source of all music, and since music is perceived both internally through mental imagery and externally through listening, an examination of the processes of the brain under those conditions should be pursued. The primary purpose of this study is to assess the potential relationship between mental imagery and conducting by comparing the functional (cognitive) brain processes of a conductor engaged in imagery (related to conducting) to the functional brain processes of that same conductor engaged in the act of conducting. A secondary purpose is to describe the differences in the functional (cognitive) brain processes between novice conductors and expert conductors while they are performing identical musical tasks involving conducting and mental imagery.
While this may provide valuable information regarding generalized states of musical processing, a question of even greater significance to musicians may pertain to the cognitive changes which occur during specific moments in the music. While some music is designed to give the illusion of motionlessness (e.g., minimalism), all music is composed, performed, and consumed in time. The temporal nature of rhythm, pitch, timbre, texture, and dynamic level gives music a constantly changing landscape which reflects a state of direction and motion. The isolated events that occur along the way are by no means insignificant; on the contrary, they are the very essence of the composition itself. Therefore, this study may also shed light on the processing of significant musical moments, and reveal a “cognitive road map” of musical perception as it occurs within a specific composition.
Since the experience of music perception and the functional brain processes associated with that perception are unique for each individual, subjects involved in this type of research cannot be easily compared with one another. However, subjects can 7 be compared with themselves as they experience different types of musical listening and musical imagery. It is possible that common patterns may be found in the examination of individual brain processes which will indirectly reflect the difference in experience and skill between novice and expert conductors. These patterns could be explored in greater detail in the future, possibly leading to curricular revisions in basic conducting courses, among other things. This study is intended to stimulate curiosity in musicians regarding cognitive brain functioning during activities commonly experienced by conductors, and to provide a small link between brain research and music research.
Research Questions
1. Does the functional (cognitive) brain processing of conductors differ between an eyes-closed resting position (baseline) and active musical tasks (imaged and actual)?
2. Does the functional brain processing of conductors differ between types of imagery (aural, kinesthetic, and combined)?
3. Do the functional brain processes of expert conductors differ significantly from the functional brain processes of novice conductors while performing and imaging identical musical tasks?
4. Do conductors show evidence of an evoked potential waveform (indicative of information processing) in the two seconds surrounding a significant musical event found in a given composition? For purposes of this study, a musical event is defined as that which requires a specific response (i.e., gesture) from the conductor including:
(a) orchestration shift, (b) dynamic shift, (c) conclusion and/or onset of a new phrase, and (d) cue. 8
Specifically, baseline tasks will be compared with subjects’ responses to three separate musical excerpts from the wind band repertoire. All tasks will include one or more of the following components: (a) auditory stimuli, (b) motor movement, (c) aural imagery, (d) kinesthetic imagery, and/or (e) conducting imagery (a combination of aural and kinesthetic imagery). Isolated moments within certain tasks will be examined for evidence of the evoked potential waveform. Data will be compared between novice and expert conductors.
Definition of Terms
The following is a definition of terms for purposes of this study:
Expert Conductor: those persons who (a) have currently held positions as university conductors for a minimum of ten years, (b) are currently involved with the education of conductors at the university level, and (c) hold professorial status.
Novice Conductor: those persons who (a) are currently enrolled as music majors at the university level, and (b) have completed no more than two quarters of formal study in conducting.
Mental Imagery: the act of creating any experience mentally without observable external stimulus.
Aural Imagery: the act of mentally “hearing” a specified sound (musical or non musical) without external stimulus; aural imagery is sometimes called “auralization” or
“audiation.”
Kinesthetic Imagery: the act of mentally “practicing” a series of physical motions (musical or non-musical) without the presence of any muscular movement.
Electroencephalograph: a system for recording the electrical activity of the brain derived from electrodes attached to the scalp (Stedman's Medical Dictionary , 1990). 9
Electroencephalogram (EEG): the record obtained by means of the electroencephalograph (Stedman 's Medical Dictionary, 1990).
Evoked Potential (EP): a subtle, small amplitude electrical response of the brain which is represented by a series of peaks and troughs that occur at characteristic latencies following an attention-arousing stimulus such as a light flash or a click. The evoked potential can be thought of as a predictable pattern embedded within the ongoing EEG. It is sometimes referred to as an “Event Related Potential” or ERP
(Hillyard & Hansen, 1986).
Auditory Evoked Potential (AEP): an evoked potential which is related to acoustic stimuli.
Brain Electrical Activity Mapping: a computerized system developed by Frank
Duffy (1979), a neurologist at the Harvard Medical School. This system automates the collection and analysis of both EEG and EP data using topographic display techniques.
The topographic brain maps which are produced by this system are color-coded to represent the varying levels of electrical activity produced by the brain (Duffy, Bartels,
& Burchfiel, 1981).
Fast Fourier Transform Analysis (FFT): a digital computer algorithm for rapidly calculating the Fourier transform by reducing the number of mathematical operations required. The original transform proposed by Fourier was based on the theory that any signal could be expressed as a sum of sine waves. The accuracy of the analysis is directly proportional to the amount of data (length of time) which can be supplied to the FFT (Roberts, 1988). This calculation can be performed on raw EEG, and when used in brain electrical activity mapping combines complex waveforms to produce a graphic representation of various brainwave frequencies. For greater detail, see The Fast Fourier Transform, by E. O. Brigham (1974). 10
Absolute Power: represents the total amount of electrical activity recorded at a given scalp site for a defined frequency band during a given task. It is obtained by summing the squares of the actual brain wave amplitudes found within each frequency range at each scalp site.
Relative Power: the percentage of total power for each frequency range at each scalp site. It is obtained by taking the absolute power value at each scalp site and calculating its percentage of the total absolute power.
Artifact: any electrical signal produced by the brain or body which is the result of something other than cognitive activity, such as the muscles that produce eyeblinks, heartbeat, jaw tension, excessive motion, and so forth.
Assumptions
It is assumed that all conductors involved in this study bring with them a capacity for some degree of mental imagery, and therefore will not require training to accomplish the imagery tasks. It is also assumed that each participating conductor has the ability to use a baton correctly, to conduct a basic three pattern and a basic two pattern, is familiar with basic gestures such as cues, and has some degree of left-hand independence. Finally, it is assumed that each participating conductor has enough familiarity with the study compositions that he is capable of mentally imaging a short excerpt from each one. All subjects had either performed or conducted each composition on more than one occasion, each subject responded positively when asked if he could recreate each excerpt mentally without visual or aural prompting, and all three compositions are considered by the wind band community to be well known and of high quality (Gilbert, 1992). 11
Limitations
The results of this exploratory study only apply to those expert and novice conductors who participated, and should not be generalized to the entire population of
“conductors.” This study is not intended to explain the function and/or value of mental imagery as it applies to conductors. Rather, its purpose is to describe a diverse group of conductors in terms of the physiological evidence associated with their functional brain processes while engaged in mental imagery. CHAPTER n
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
This chapter begins by describing the role that mental imagery plays in the daily lives of conductors and music educators. Since the generator of imagery is the brain, a section follows which briefly reviews basic neurological concepts pertinent to this study. A description of the measurement of brain activity focuses on electroencephalography, brain wave frequency bands, brain electrical activity mapping, evoked potentials, and the relevant components of the auditory evoked potential waveform. Finally, the remainder of the chapter reviews studies which have explored the brain’s functional responses during imagery, music, and musical imagery.
Imagery and Conducting
Mental imagery is not a revolutionary concept in the field of conducting. It is a necessity based on the restrictions inherent to the profession. Since conductors do not have the luxury of immediate feedback when they study a score, they must rely on the mental recreation of the composer’s intentions as they develop their own interpretive ideas. Based on his or her inner aural concept, the conductor must decide which physical gestures will best communicate those sound images to the performers. This requires a keen sense of imagery - both aural and kinesthetic - in which the conductor’s musical contributions to a piece of music are nurtured and developed. It is only after that development has taken place that the conductor is ready to face the ensemble.
12 13
Aural imagery. One of the characteristics that successful professional conductors seem to share is the ability to produce an extraordinarily strong inner aural image of the music they conduct (Reynolds, 1993). Reference to the personal use and development of aural imagery has been mentioned frequently in writings by professional conductors throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. For example, when asked about score preparation techniques, thirteen of fifteen contemporary professional conductors interviewed (Herbert Blomstedt, Dennis Russell
Davies, Christoph von Dohndnyi, Charles Dutoit, Gunther Herbig, Kenneth Kiesler,
Kurt Masur, Eduardo Mata, Roger Norrington, Andr6 Previn, Stanislaw
Skrowaczewski, Leonard Slatkin, and Edo de Waart) made reference to the process of mentally experiencing the music before it was ever actualized in rehearsal or performance (Wagar, 1991). The majority of these conductors reported the use of aural imagery to “hear'’ the sounds mentally, while a few mentioned the use of visual imagery to memorize each page of the score as well. Bruno Walter suggested that the development of the “inner ear” was vital for the student of conducting (Bamberger,
1965):
Among the most important aims of studying is the gradual acquisition of a
distinct, inner sound-image, or rather, sound-ideal; this will establish itself in
the ear of the interpreter as a criterion that exerts a guiding and controlling
influence on his practical music-making, (p. 160)
Apparently, Toscanini was capable of producing such a strong inner image of the music that he never needed to reference a score during performance and rarely during rehearsal (Ewen, 1936). Sir Adrian Boult (1963) described his own experience with inner sound and its importance in the preparation and absorption of a musical score as follows: 14
Going out for a walk by myself I would start thinking through some work I had
in preparation. As I went on I might be interrupted. . . some incident might
break into my internal concert, and it might go out of my mind for several
minutes. At the end of this I would resume my walk, and find that the
performance had gone on unconsciously, and I might even find that I had got
into the next movement, (p. 8)
Boult’s report implies that his ability to mentally absorb a score was so complete that it
“played back” on its own in musical time, without external stimulus, and regardless of superficial distraction.
Audiation. The ability to audiate can be considered synonymous with the ability to achieve a vivid and complete sense of aural imagery. The term audiation was introduced by Edwin Gordon in 1976, and can be described as the ability to hear music, its structure, tonality, and meter without any external stimulus (Gordon, 1976).
It is not simple recall of melody or rhythm; it is a mental comprehension of all the elements which make up the total sound experience. Daniel Martin used a similar term in 1952 - auralization. He said that “to auralize would be to form a mental impression of sound not yet heard” (p. 416). Audiation, however, is the term most familiar to music educators who are interested in evaluation and measurement techniques.
Gordon’s Primary Measures of Music Audiation or PMMA is used as an evaluative tool in which to determine potential giftedness in music (Gates, 1988).
In Joseph Casey’s Teaching Techniques and Insights (1991), an entire chapter is devoted to audiation and its use by conductors in various levels of music education.
Many of those interviewed identified audiation or aural imagery as a primary tool in the aural development of their students (intonation, tone quality, transpositions, etc.).
Others linked aural imagery to physical gesture, such as mentally singing while 15 performing the correct fingerings or slide positions. James Froseth acknowledged the value of audiation to the conductors themselves: “Studying the score is important if one
‘hears’ what the music is to sound like before or after the analysis. If not, the beautiful analysis is without any result” (p. 200). In other words, a conductor who understands the changes of meter, key, texture, tempo, and structure in a score without “hearing” or
“audiating” the composition as a whole is merely a technician.
Kinesthetic imagery. Kinesthetic imagery is less frequently mentioned as an independent technique with which to develop appropriate conducting gestures.
According to Bruno Walter, kinesthetic imagery is meaningless if not preceded by the generation of a vivid aural image (Bamberger, 1965):
While conducting, never think of the movement of hand and baton, only of
the playing of the orchestra. In the former case, one’s attention would be an
aim in itself; it is one’s musical intentions rather, that should, by the skill of
one’s hand, be translated into movements whose mechanical meaning is wholly
immersed in their musical significance as the transmitters of the impulses for
expression, tempo, and precision. It is to these impulses, which are in the
service of one’s general conception, that one’s attention must be directed in
conducting... inner musical feeling is converted into technique, becomes
technique, (p. 166)
Frederik Prausnitz, author of the conducting text Score and Podium (1983), agrees with Walter. He suggests that physical motion should be rehearsed in silence, but always with a constant reference to the inner aural image which it represents: “What we determine in our imagination with regard to the musical text can be translated into movement” (p. 106). Prausnitz believes that gestures must be made as “real” as possible in the imagination before they are ever translated into physically observable 16 motions.
Verbal imagery. Verbal imagery has been used successfully by conductors to communicate musical concepts to performers. In a study which attempted to identify and compare the characteristics of “musically poor bands” to “musically good bands,” conductors of the better bands consistently used imagery techniques in rehearsals
(Grechesky, 1985). In a separate descriptive study, conductors reported frequent use of visual and cutaneous (tactile) imagery in rehearsal; kinesthetic and auditory imagery were not mentioned (Casey, 1991).
Conducting texts. Based on the frequency in which the concept is mentioned by those who have found success in the field, and by its use as a teaching tool by music educators at all levels, the ability to develop vivid aural and kinesthetic images should be a high priority in the training of young conductors. While many texts make reference to the importance of imagery in conducting, few actually make an attempt to describe techniques which improve imaging skills. In one of the more popular conducting texts from the 1930s, Hermann Scherchen (1939) said that “the alpha and omega” of conducting was the capacity to conceive an absolutely ideal performance in the imagination. In The Grammar o f Conducting, Max Rudolf (1950) also stated that if the music “sings” within the conductor, an unmechanical and musical sequence of gestures would surely follow. More recent conducting texts have also made reference to the value of imagery (Long, 1977; Prausnitz, 1983), but do not offer techniques to develop such a skill. Emil Kahn (1965) was one of the first to briefly mention a technique for developing the inner ear in a conducting text, while in the past few years entire texts have been devoted to score study and aural imagery (Bailey, 1991; Battisti
& Garofalo, 1990). 17
Kinesthetic imagery is virtually ignored in conductor training texts. However, during the 1984 College Band Directors National Association Conducting Symposium,
Miriam Tait (1985) provided conductors with some valuable imagery exercises which have traditionally been used by mimes. These exercises not only helped to expand the gestural repertoire, they also helped to stimulate the creative imaginations of the conductors involved. Bruce Adolphe has used similar techniques in his teaching at
Juilliard (Adolphe, 1991).
Neurological Foundations
Conducting is a behavior which encompasses many broad subcategories such as sensory processing (vision, hearing), motor processing (coordinated movements), cognitive processing (learning, thinking, planning), and psychological processing
(personality, mood, emotion). Since behavior, emotions, and mental imagery are manifestations of brain activity (Pechura & Martin, 1991), the measurement and analysis of such activity could result in dramatic behavioral discoveries. The following is a summary of neurological information pertinent to this investigation.
Localization of Function. The possibility that the brain's functions could be anatomically localized originated with Hippocrates (ca. 460-377 B.C.) who was the first to notice that an injury to the left side of the head could affect the right side of the body (Restak, 1987). Approximately two thousand years later, a physician in France named Paul Broca discovered that damage to a certain portion of the left cerebral hemisphere resulted in impaired speech abilities. Research on the nature of the brain’s function was limited to the empirical observation of injured or dysfunctional subjects until the advent of recent technological discoveries. Through the use of the electroencephalogram and other technologies, recordings of electrical brain activity 18 made during certain tasks can now help localize the part of the brain that controls information processing specific to those tasks (Pechura & Martin, 1991). The following is a brief overview of functional information to date regarding the right and left hemispheres and the major areas of the cerebral cortex.
Divisions of the Cerebrum: Hemispheres & Lobes. The brain is divided into two hemispheres by the longitudinal cerebral fissure which extends from the back to the front of the cerebrum. Each hemisphere is further divided into four lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital. The frontal lobe is separated from the parietal lobe by the central sulcus, which also divides the motor cortex from the sensory cortex (see
Figure 1).
While the right and left hemispheres seem to have differing modes of information processing when isolated and consequently independent functions during normal processing, both hemispheres appear to work together (Restak, 1987). “Mental processes should be regarded as complex functions that are diffused throughout the brain and nervous system, not ‘localized’ (it la Broca)” (p. 6). It is apparently inaccurate to assume that the right hemisphere is completely responsible for nonverbal processes such as art, music, and spatial awareness, while the left is responsible for language, reading, and logic. For example, music may be processed globally in the right hemisphere and locally in the left, with the dominant hemisphere determined by variables such as musical experience and other individual differences (Hellige, 1993).
Human brain function is a complex and integrated process that cannot be compartmentalized hemispherically or anatomically, although many attempts have been made to do just that. In the late nineteenth century, a pseudo-science known as phrenology professed that the shape of the skull (and the brain structures below) was an accurate indication of mental capacity. While the study of the localization of brain 19 function is not as simplistic today, there is still evidence that certain areas (lobes) of the brain control nearly all general functions.
Sensory cortex cortex
Parietal Frontal lobe lobe
O ccipital Lobe T em poral Lobe
Figure 1: The lobes of the convex surface of the hemisphere, left side (Bloom, Lazerson, Hofstadter, 1985, p. 23).
In right-handed individuals the following localized functions are typical. Hie unit including the frontal and prefrontal areas is sometimes called the executor of the brain (Languis & Miller, 1992). The frontal lobe is the largest and most recently developed area, and it is believed to control intellectual behavior such as planning, reasoning, abstract thinking, speech, and certain components of language. The regulation of alertness is also thought to be focused within the frontal lobes of the right hemisphere (Hellige, 1993).
The parietal lobes are concerned with the recognition of specific sensory stimuli, and includes the sensory area (also known as the post-central gyrus) which 20 receives afferent impulses from all over the body. An area in the right parietal lobe is considered the center for the encoding and integration of spatial information (Languis &
Miller, 1992). Damage to the right parietal lobe can impair one’s ability to mentally manipulate spatial, pictorial, and symbolic information (Richardson, 1980).
The temporal lobes receive afferent impulses related to hearing, and thus are involved with the interpretation and discrimination of sound. This area is also believed to be an extension of the ancient limbic system, including the olfactory and gustatory areas. The occipital lobe is the primary area responsible for the initial representation and discrimination of visual stimuli.
The Measurement of Brain Activity
Electroencephalography. An objective method of measuring the human brain’s functional activity was not available until the development of electroencephalography in the early twentieth century. Electroencephalography was developed in 1929 by Hans
Berger and soon became the principal non-invasive method of uncovering pathological information about the brain (Berger, 1969; Hannay & Levin, 1987; Springer &
Deutsch, 1981). The electroencephalograph recorded electrical information elicited by the brain through the use of electrodes attached to various locations on the human scalp.
Each electrode amplified the strength and frequency of the electrical potentials that originated in the neurons below the scalp, which were then displayed individually on a polygraph (EEG) for interpretation by highly skilled professionals. Although pathology (e.g., epilepsy, tumors) inspired the development of the EEG, researchers soon discovered that certain frequency bands were related to normal states of consciousness. Thus, the EEG became a tool which shed light on the mysteries of the functioning human brain. 21
Frequency Bands. Soon after brain waves were discovered, researchers classified the brain waves generated in the human brain into four groups based upon the speed of propagation each second (called Hertz or Hz). Four frequency bands have been identified as indicative of different states of arousal: (a) delta (0.5 - 3.5 Hz) - deep sleep, unconsciousness, (b) theta (4-7 Hz) - periods of dreaming, lack of mental focus; but also emotion, vigilance, and thinking, (c) alpha (8 - 13 Hz) - relaxed awareness, inward attention, light sleep, and (d) beta (14 - 30 Hz) - full alertness and outward attention during purposeful behavior (Druckman & Swets, 1988; Hodges,
1980; Sink, 1989; Wang, 1977). The behavioral interpretation of each frequency spectrum is not yet fully understood, as reflected by conflicting analyses found in the literature on brain research. For example, alpha waves have been characterized as indicative of improved task performance as well as representing simple electrophysiological “background” activity unrelated to behavior (Druckman & Swets,
1988). However, there seems to be a general consensus that during task-related, cognitive activity, the beta frequency predominates interspersed with short periods of alpha (Wittrock, 1977).
Brain Electrical Activity Mapping. Brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM) was developed in 1979 at Boston’s Beth Israel Children’s Hospital to assist in the clinical appraisal of electroencephalographic data. It was created by Frank Duffy, a neurologist at the Harvard Medical School (Duffy, Burchfiel, & Lombroso, 1979).
BEAM technology transfers the raw EEG from twenty electrode sites into a color- coded, graphic format called topographic brain maps which can be more easily and more quickly interpreted. Interpolation is used to determine the electrical values between electrodes. The result is a color-coded brain map which reveals specific information regarding the location and strength of electrical activity found in the four 22 frequency bands mentioned above (delta, theta, alpha, beta). Data can be displayed as a summary of activity or as an animated sequence of electrical events over time. Duffy’s ideas and the subsequent development and refinement of BEAM technology provided the neurological investigator with a new and exciting method to measure the subtleties of neural activity. Dr. Marlin Languis and others associated with the Brain Behavior
Laboratory at The Ohio State University were among the first to explore the possible applications of this new technology to educational research (Miller, 1989).
Evoked Potentials. An evoked potential (EP) or event related potential (ERP) is an electrical brain response elicited by an external stimulus or event. The EP is identified as a series of waveforms that occur up to 1000 msec following the stimulus.
The peaks and troughs (components) of the waveforms occur at characteristic latencies depending on the nature of the stimulus. Those components which occur after 50 msec are long-latency components; they are considered “endogenous” because they represent information processing rather than an involuntary sensory reaction (Hillyard & Hansen,
1986).
Since EP waveforms are very small, they usually cannot be identified within the ongoing EEG. To make these waveforms visible, several segments of EEG recorded during stimulus presentation must be averaged together. This technique eliminates any extraneous waveform that is not associated with the stimulus. For example, an auditory evoked potential (AEP) will occur within the EEG of a normal subject who is repeatedly presented with a target tone that he or she has been asked to identify (e.g., subject is asked to distinguish high-pitched tones from low-pitched tones). The AEP should be apparent after all EEG segments associated with the presentation of the high pitched tone are averaged together. 23
An EP typically lasts approximately 500 - 1000 msec following the stimulus, and is characterized by a sequence of positive and negative deviations from a baseline
(Springer & Deutsch, 1981). Normative waveforms relative to the type of stimulus presented (auditory, visual, tactile, etc.) have been generated as a result of numerous neurological studies (Chiappa, 1990; Hillyard & Hansen, 1986). The individual components of the EP waveform have also been well established, and occur within characteristic time periods following the stimulus. They are identified by the power and direction of their waveform (positive or negative) and by their latency (in msec) from the evoking stimulus.
Components of the Auditory Evoked Potential Waveform. Four components of the evoked potential waveform related to auditory processing will be briefly defined:
N100, N200, P300, and the N400. The letter (N or P) refers to the positive or negative deviation from zero in microvolts (pv), and the number refers to the msec following stimulus in which the waveform occurs.
The N 100 component of the EP waveform is a measure of selective attention elicited by the brain during auditory tasks. It is traditionally found in the mid-frontal region of the brain (Hillyard & Hansen, 1986; Miller, 1989).
The N200 reflects some feature of the process of discriminating stimuli
(Connolly, Phillips, Stewart, & Brake, 1992). It has been hypothesized to reflect the acoustic/phonological processing of the terminal word in sentences.
The P300 is the best understood component of the EP and is typically located in the parietal region of the brain (Hantz, Crummer, Wayman, Walton, & Frisina,
1992). It is thought to be a manifestation of the updating of working memory (Klein,
Coles, & Donchin, 1984), and is tied to focused and sustained components of attention
(Languis & Miller, 1992). Because of its relationship to concentration, it will typically 24 decrease in amplitude if the subject is asked to focus on two or more things at once
(Hillyard & Hansen, 1986). Linguistically, the P300 has been associated with
“semantic closure,” or the presence of a semantically meaningful final word of a sentence (Friedman, Simson, Ritter, & Rapin, 1975). Analogies have been drawn between “semantic closure” and the “musical closure” of phrases with distinct endings
(Walton, Frisina, Swartz, Hantz, & Crummer, 1988).
The N400 is elicited during violations of semantic expectancies in language
processing (Languis, 1992), and is focused over the centroparietal region with
maximum amplitude over the right hemisphere (Miller, 1989). Apparently the N400 will not be produced unless the stimulus is of sufficient complexity (Cohen & Erez,
1991). For example, if a subject is presented with a category and then asked if certain words fit into that category, those words which do not fit would elicit the N400.
The N400 is also thought to be related in some way to long-term memory transfer
(Stuss, Picton, & Cerri, 1988). It is not yet known if the N400 component is unique
only to linguistic processing.
Imagery and the Brain
Mental imagery has intrigued cognitive researchers throughout the twentieth
century, but until recently has been a highly subjective and unreliable area of scientific
study. In 1909, G. H. Betts developed a Questionnaire Upon Mental Imagery which
identified and examined seven types of imagery: visual, auditory, cutaneous,
kinesthetic, gustatory, olfactory, and organic. The questionnaire (QMI) made an
attempt to quantify one’s level of imagery vividness by subjectively rating the clarity in
which subjects mentally experienced certain situations. After testing his questionnaire,
Betts came to the conclusion that mental imagery was “greatly over-emphasized as to its 25 relative importance as mental content (it) probably has some function, just how important no one can yet say” (p. 98). Despite Betts’s predictions, his questionnaire became a model for many other subjective tests of mental imagery in the following decades (Gordon, 1949; Hall, Pongrac, & Buckholz, 1985; Isaac, Marks, & Russel,
1986; Sheehan, 1967; Wilson & Barber, 1978).
Kinesthetic imagery. Kinesthetic imagery and its effect on the improvement of motor skills has received a great deal of attention (Corbin, 1972; Goss, Hall, Buckolz,
& Fishbume, 1986; Hale, 1981; Hird, Landers, Thomas, & Horan, 1991; Kirkcaldy,
1989; Mumford & Hall, 1985; Suinn, 1980;). Three excellent reviews of research in mental imagery have been published in the past thirty years (Feltz & Landers, 1983;
Richardson, 1966; Weaver, 1985). In general, results have suggested that physical practice combined with mental practice is at least as beneficial as physical practice alone in skills which do not rely on sensory feedback, but which follow a preplanned complex motor sequence (Decety & Ingvar, 1990). This effectiveness may be due to the mental rehearsal of the cognitive components of the skill (e.g., sequentially rehearsing each segment of a dive or each cycle of a swimming stroke), or to the actual innervation of relevant muscle tissues during the act of imaging.
Jacobson (1930) was among the first to explore the physiological correlates of kinesthetic imagery. He discovered that kinesthetic imagery elicited an electrical response in the muscles associated with a simple motor movement such as clenching the fist. His work led to a series of studies which tried to associate other physiological phenomena with mental imagery such as heart rate, galvanic skin response, and respiration rate.
Neurological correlates of mental imagery. Technological advances have allowed researchers to explore cortical functional changes during the imagery process. 26
With the use of the Xenon regional cerebral blood flow (tCBF) technique, positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and brain electrical activity mapping (BEAM), a new world of information about the brain’s function is being discovered. A review of these technological advances can be found in Decety & Ingvar (1990).
An early neurological study examined the occipital EEG of “vivid” and “weak” imagers (based on the Betts QMI), and found that vivid imagers had a higher mean dominant alpha frequency than did the weak imagers (Gale, Morris, Lucas, &
Richardson, 1972). Other results were inconclusive; however, the study did offer evidence that imaging does affect EEG. More recently, Martha J. Farah (1983; 1984) has published a number of articles concerning the neurological basis of mental imagery.
One study of particular significance (1985) involved a comparison between visual imagery and perception. She found that imaging the letter “H” facilitated the detection of “H’s” more than the detection of “T’s” and vice versa. In other words, when the image matched the stimulus, the stimulus was more readily perceived. Another study which followed a similar paradigm (Peronnet, Farah, & Gonon, 1988) found that imagery could influence the latency and amplitude of topographically mapped evoked potentials (EPs). Specifically, EPs showed a greater early negativity when the image and the stimulus were identical.
Music and the Brain General. The effect of music on physiological response has been explored in some detail, including studies involving heart rate, respiration rate, galvanic skin response, electromyography (a method of recording the electrical current generated in an active muscle) and motor response, among others (Dainow, 1977). One study was 27 found which examined the “characteristic tingling sensations” which may accompany emotionally arousing music (Goldstein, 1980). Another even explored the effects of music on incontinency (Griffen, 1957). Studies regarding music and brain function, however, have been less frequent. For a comprehensive review of research and technological development regarding music and the brain, see Patricia E. Sink (1989).
Before the brain’s functional activity was technically accessible (via EEG, PET, rCBF, etc.), researchers were forced to deduce information based on behavioral observation. For example, the observation that injury to the right hemisphere caused
“amusia” (loss of musical ability following brain damage or injury) but did not affect linguistic functioning led researchers to believe that the right hemisphere was responsible for musical abilities and the left responsible for language. Maurice Ravel suffered from “aphasia” (loss of the power to understand speech) following damage to his left hemisphere. He could recognize his own music and detect errors in pieces he had known before the injury, but he could no longer compose or perform. A conflicting report is given regarding Vissarion Shebalin, a lesser known 20th century
Russian composer. Shebalin suffered from similar brain damage, but his musical abilities were affected in different ways (Benson & Zaidel, 1985). Despite conflicting reports such as these, simplistic explanations of hemispheric function remained popular for some time. An excellent review of deductive studies involving music and the brain was written by Anne Gates and John L. Bradshaw (1977). They described the results of many studies which examined ear preferences for the perception of all elements of music (pitch, harmony, timbre, intensity, rhythm), which compared the musical abilities of brain damaged individuals to those without injury or impairment, and which related mental abilities common to music and language. They concluded that “one hemisphere should not be regarded as ‘dominant’ for music, but rather each interacts 28 with the other, operating according to its own specialization” (p. 403). In other words, when sequential processing is employed, the left hemisphere appears dominant, and when holistic or gestalt processing is employed, the right hemisphere appears dominant. Despite this clarification, the tendency to categorize subjects as right hemispheric or left hemispheric remains (e.g., Zalanowski, 1990). Based on their research, Gates and Bradshaw concluded that the use of electrophysiological techniques may lead to a more detailed and accurate understanding of neural activity associated with music listening and performing.
Musical Studies using EEG. Studies which shed light on the neurological correlates of musical processing are less common than those which focus on the physiological responses such as heart rate, respiration rate, etc., and are also more difficult to interpret. Design characteristics have varied so drastically between studies that it is nearly impossible to consolidate the results. Variables have included the number and placement of electrodes on the scalp, the frequency band(s) included or excluded in the study, subject demographics (i.e., handedness, musical training, gender), type of music and/or musical element used as stimulus, and type of listening required. Because of these methodological inconsistencies, the examination of results has not led to the development of any comprehensive neurological musical processing theories. In fact, blatant contradictions are not uncommon. For example, Petsche,
Lindner, Rappelsberger, & Gruber (1988) concluded that electrical power (or amplitude) in the alpha and theta frequencies is reduced when attention is raised, thus alpha and theta should decrease during music listening. Wang (1977) found similar results during tasks of pitch discrimination, where the smallest intervals resulted in the lowest amplitudes. Walker (1980), on the other hand, suggested that as activation and expectancy increase, so should the level of alpha. He found that an increase in attention 29 equaled an increase in occipital alpha during music listening. Despite these incongruities, certain patterns have emerged.
Musical experience seems to have a direct effect on the brain’s function during music listening. These differences seem to be hemispheric in nature, with musically trained subjects producing more activity in the left hemisphere and musically untrained subjects producing more activity in the right. Petsche et al. (1988) reported an overall decrease in alpha and theta during music listening (described by Petsche as the “arousal reaction”), but an increase in local theta coherence in the left hemisphere for musically trained subjects only. Hodges (1980) described greater alpha production in the right temporal region for nonmusicians, and greater alpha production in the left temporal region for musicians. Benson and Zaidel (1985) reported that musicians produced decreased alpha in the right hemisphere when listening to music, and decreased alpha in the left hemisphere when doing arithmetic. Metabolic differences have also been recorded using positron emission tomography, with similar results (Mazziotta, Phelps,
Carson, & Kuhl, 1982).
Brain function also seems to vary based on the type of music listening employed. For example, Butler (1990) required his subject to listen to the same recorded melody three times, but asked that she later reproduce that melody differently each time (sing, play, notate). Each task assumed a different type of listening, and each condition resulted in a different pattern of electrical brain response. Walker (1980) investigated the relationship between EEG and performance on a musical memory task.
When the subject correctly recognized that an excerpt did not match an earlier presentation, occipital alpha increased. Verleger (1990) found that the rhythmic distortion of well-known melodies did not affect EEG, but that slow negative shifts were enhanced when melodic distortions occurred. He suggested that the shifts were 30 related to the effort expended to correctly complete the task.
The studies mentioned above attempted to measure human brain function during tasks of passive and active music listening. It is technically cumbersome and awkward to record EEG activity, therefore studies which examine brain function during musical performance are rare. An interesting and novel study was done by Manfred Haider using performers from the Vienna Philharmonic as subjects (Piperek, 1981). The electrical brain activity of the musicians was recorded both during periods of rehearsal and performance. He discovered that during rehearsal, the beta frequency was predominant with only short interruptions of occasional alpha. During performance, almost no alpha was present at all. As performers entered long periods of rest, alpha
“spindles” (bursts of alpha, indicative of a relaxed state) would emerge, but beta would replace these long before the next entrance. These results neurologically describe the mental intensity and anticipation required during a musical performance.
Musical Studies using EP. To successfully extract the auditory evoked potential
(AEP) waveform from EEG data, a minimum of fifty acoustic events must be averaged together (Petsche et al., 1988). Because of this restriction, musical studies using the
AEP have focused on the perception of musical elements rather than on the comprehension of musical experiences.
The most frequently examined component of the AEP in music research has been the P300. This waveform is believed to represent the manifestation of working memory and attentional resources, and has been found to accurately record the decision-making process within certain music-related tasks. Klein (1984) presented a simple pitch discrimination task to persons with and without absolute pitch. He found that persons without absolute pitch displayed a prominent P300 during presentation of target tones, but persons with absolute pitch showed either a very small P300 or no 31
P300 at all. He concluded that the P300 does in fact mark the initiation of working memory, and that because persons with absolute pitch do not require a memory
(comparison) process to discriminate between pitches, they will not elicit the P300 waveform. Hantz et al. (1992) used a similar methodology, but also included nonmusicians in the subject pool. He found that when asked to discriminate between major thirds and minor thirds, only musicians without absolute pitch elicited the P300.
Both nonmusicians and musicians with absolute pitch failed to elicit the P300. This supports Klein’s earlier findings and further establishes the P300 as an accurate indicator of musical training and/or ability. Crummer, Hantz, Chuang, Walton, &
Frisina (1988) found similar results during timbre discrimination tasks between musicians and nonmusicians. In general, during tasks of musical decision-making, trained musicians will exhibit a P300 with a shorter latency and higher amplitude than nonmusicians.
It is fascinating to note that even infants will display an auditory evoked potential waveform during multiple presentations of auditory stimuli (Shucard &
Shucard, 1990). This implies that the brain may “comprehend” that which the consciousness is yet unaware. A recent study examined the neural response of subjects asked to compare five tone pitch patterns to similar or identical reference patterns
(Cohen & Erez, 1991). The P300 reflected the subject’s acknowledgment of deviance from the reference patterns. However, even when the subject inaccurately reported that the patterns were identical, the P300 was similar to the correctly identified unequal patterns. 32
Musical Imagery and the Brain
General. As mentioned earlier, Jacobson (1930) was among the first to discover physiological correlates during mental imagery. Two musical studies followed closely on the heels of Jacobson’s work. Shaw (1938) measured the electrical activity in the muscles (EMG or action potentials) while his subjects mentally imaged singing a song and playing the clarinet. He found a general increase in action potentials during imaging, but not necessarily in the muscles associated with the activities of singing and/or playing the clarinet. Perhaps this is because he chose to focus on the arms and legs of his subjects rather than the throat or the fingers and hands. Rubin-Rabson (1941) examined the effectiveness of mental practice during the memorization of piano music. She discovered that taking time out for mental practice at the midpoint of physical practice was superior to an equal amount of physical practice alone. Research in this area was not vigorously pursued.
Recently, a renewed interest in imagery and the development of musical skills has emerged. The general design has not changed: studies have explored the value of mental rehearsal versus that of physical rehearsal, and have found that a combination of both was superior to physical practice alone (piano: Coffman, 1990, and McRae,
1982; trombone: Ross, 1985; trumpet: Gardner, 1990). Trusheim (1987) surveyed professional orchestral brass players to investigate the role that imagery may play in the enhancement of their performances. Some researchers have proposed that the principles of mental rehearsal and the development of psychomotor skills should also apply to the development of aural skills (LaReau, 1989). Other studies have examined the effect of imagery on the reduction of performance anxiety (Galatas, 1989; Russell,
1987). 33
Not all studies have been concerned with the improvement of musical skills or the reduction of stress associated with performance. Certain studies began to explore the role of the brain in the imagery process, and how the brain’s functions differ within imagery types and between imagery and overt (physical) experience. Weber and
Brown (1986) asked subjects to identify the tonal contour of unfamiliar musical phrases by either singing them (overt representation) or silently imagining them (musical imagery). No difference in processing time was found between the two conditions, indicating the possibility that musical imagery and the overt representation of song drew on similar cognitive resources. A secondary issue dealt with the identification of the specific mode of internal pitch representation: kinesthetic, visual, and/or auditory.
Results indicated that musical imagery did not rely on kinesthetic or visual imagery, but rather shared resources with auditory imagery.
In an article which dealt with the physical effects of music, Dainow (1977) made reference to a study where skilled musicians “conducted” (with one finger only) to their aural image of various pieces of music (Clynes, 1970). This “voluntary beat response” was measured with a highly sensitive pressure transducer. Results showed certain consistencies across subjects regarding the musical style and emotional content of the compositions.
Musical Imagery Studies using EEG. One study was found which measured the EEG of subjects during musical imagery tasks. Bird & Wilson (1988) asked eight novice conductors and one expert conductor (the instructor) to mentally conduct four consecutive measures of four different metric patterns (2, 3,4, and 7 beats to the bar), and then to actually conduct the same sequence. Electrical activity from the left temporal (C3) site was collected and analyzed during both conditions, and compared with a baseline condition. After eight weeks of conducting instruction, the conditions 34
were repeated. No significant difference was found between baseline and mental
imagery during either trial, and no significant difference was found in any condition
between pre-trial and post-trial. However, the researchers noted an EEG pattern
similarity between conditions of imagery and conditions of actual conducting in the
expert conductor and the more advanced novice conductors. The conclusion was
drawn that as a motor skill such as conducting is developed, EEG patterns during the
mental rehearsal of that skill should more closely mirror those patterns occurring during
actual conducting.
Musical Imagery Studies using EP, One study was found which examined the
effect of auditory imaging on the brainstem responses of children, adult musicians, and
other adults (Kunzendorf, Jesses, Michaels, Caiazzo-Fluellen, & Butler, 1990). To
obtain the auditory evoked potential waveform, five hundred 8000 Hz clicks were
presented to each subject at 200 msec intervals. Each subject experienced two
conditions with auditory stimulation and two without: attentive listening, inattentive
counting, imaging louder, and imaging softer. Kunzendorf suggests that one of the
functions of imagery is to allow the mind to “efficiently generate and test the rules that
he or she needs in order to decode cochlear sensations into perceptual relationships”
(p. 164). In other words, if imagery serves a developmental function, then children
and musicians should exhibit evidence of a strong relationship between aural imagery
and auditory perception as indicated by changes in the latency and amplitude of the
brain stem auditory evoked potential (BSAEP). When data from all subjects were
pooled, significant conclusions were obtained. The “image softer” condition increased
the latency of the BSAEP and the “image louder” decreased the latency of the BSAEP, just as the actual perception of softer and louder clicks would have done. In support of
Kunzendorf s hypothesis, the effects were strongest in the brainstems of the musicians 35 and the children.
Summary
The study of the brain’s function during both covert and overt musical experience has only begun to be explored. Results are conflicting, complex, difficult to interpret, and often seem insignificant. Despite the confusion, more and more attempts are being made to understand the neurologic activity that occurs during the processing of musical information. Two libraries have been established to provide centers for the latest research concerning music, behavior, and the brain. These are the Institute for
Music Research at the University of Texas at San Antonio and The Music and Brain
Information Center at the University of California, Irvine. For more information, „ contact Donald Hodges, Institute for Music Research, 6900 N. Loop 1604 West, San
Antonio, TX, 78249-0645, (210) 691-5317, or Norman M. Weinberger, Center for the
Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine, CA, 92717,
(714) 856-5512. CHAPTER HI
METHOD
Introduction
This chapter is organized into eight sections. The first section, Research
Approval, documents the approval from the Biomedical Science Human Subjects
Review Committee of The Ohio State University. The second section, Population and
Sample, identifies the population of subjects from which the sample was chosen, and describes the specific characteristics of that sample. The third section, Procedures, describes the general research design, offers a general framework of the research protocol (precedent set by Miller, 1989), and identifies the location of the assessment facility. The fourth section, Development of Materials, identifies the equipment which was used to digitize the auditory examples for the baseline measurements and the conducting tasks, and identifies the procedures which were used for pulse marker placement within the musical excerpts. The fifth section, Instruments, identifies the computer hardware used to deliver the auditory examples to the subjects and explains the function and settings of the Brain Atlas III in the EEG data collection. The sixth section, Protocol Description, details the written information collected before the assessment, the preparation of the subject for EEG data collection, the pre-task and post-task equipment checks, and the activities completed by the subjects while they were being assessed (including baseline tasks and conducting tasks). The seventh section, Data Reduction of EEG. describes how the raw EEG files were manually edited for artifacts. The eighth section of this chapter, Data Analyses, explains the 37 statistical procedures used for the data analyses in both the FFT and EP files.
Research Approval
The Biomedical Science Human Subjects Review Committee of The Ohio State
University granted approval to conduct research of this type to Marlin L. Languis,
Professor Emeritus of Education, The Ohio State University, and President of
Excellence in Learning, Inc., in 1987. The research protocol number is 89H0379
(Appendix A).
Each subject also signed a written consent form which explained the procedures and outlined any risks involved (Appendix B).
Population and Sample
In order to control for possible gender and handedness-related differences in brain function, six male, right-handed volunteer subjects with no history of brain trauma comprised the subjects in this study. They were divided into two categories: expert conductors and novice conductors. All subjects were in good health with normal hearing and acceptable auditory thresholds (between 25 and 45 dB).
Novice conductors were identified as those who had spent no more than one year of formal study in conducting, but who had spent a minimum of ten years as a performer in a conducted ensemble. All novice conductors had 30 weeks of conducting experience as students. All novice conductors were members of an advanced instrumental conducting course at The Ohio State University. In an attempt to narrow the age gap between novice and expert conductors, only students over the age of 25 were considered. The range in age of the novice conductors was 26 to 27 years, and the mean age was 26.9 years. 38
Expert conductors were identified as musicians who are employed as university conductors, who are currently involved in the education of conductors at the university level, and who hold professorial status. The range in conducting experience was 20 to
36 years, and the mean was 26.3 years. Each expert conductor was also identified as one of five “exemplary conductors” in the United States by a random sample of community college band directors (Stroud, 1991). The range in age of the expert conductors was 43 to 59 years, and the mean age was 49.7 years.
Procedures
General Design. One purpose of this study was to evaluate the differences in the electroencephalographic record between subjects with substantial conducting experience and subjects with very little conducting experience during varied tasks of aural imagery, kinesthetic imagery, conducting imagery (a combination of aural and kinesthetic imagery), music listening, and conducting. Since the examination of the functional brain processes during the conducting experience was the primary focus of this investigation, three components of that experience were isolated and examined:
(a) the kinesthetic component, (b) the auditory component, and (c) the imagery component. The psychomotor experience (kinesthetic component) of conducting a recorded example (auditory component) of wind literature was compared with the corresponding experience of mentally imaging the hearing and conducting of the same example of literature (imagery component). Four separate situations were examined: baseline tasks were compared with subjects’ responses to three separate musical excerpts from the wind band repertoire. Each musical situation was further divided into six tasks which isolated various combinations of auditory stimuli, kinesthetic acts, and mental imagery (see Table 1). 39
In summary, this study explored the differences in cognitive activity in tasks ranging from no imagery (i.e., Listen Only & Listen/Conduct) to complete imagery
(Image Music/Image Conducting) between subjects with varied conducting experience.
Table! The six tasks examined during the music listening/conducting tasks
AUDITORY AUDITORY IMAGERY CONDITION CONDITION NO KINESTHETIC Listen Only Image Music COMPONENT KINESTHETIC Listen & Conduct Image Music & Conduct CONDITION KINESTHETIC Listen & Image Image Music & Image IMAGERY CONDITION Conducting Conducting
Location of Assessment. Subjects were assessed at the Excellence in Learning
Clinic in Upper Arlington, Ohio between May 1,1993 and June 30, 1993. To maximize control of sound and light, all assessment occurred in an air-conditioned, windowless, internal room. Each subject was assessed within a single session. Each session lasted approximately three hours. Short breaks were taken between each task event. Task events varied in length between fifteen and thirty minutes. Thirty minutes were allotted for the preparation of subject and equipment, with procedures identical across all subjects.
Development of Materials
Baseline Auditory Task. A baseline auditory task was necessary to provide a point of reference from which the perception of musical examples could then be compared. It was important to find a stimulus that would not be associated with any melodic, harmonic, or rhythmic reference. Thus, a single sound sample (wood block) 40 at 11 kHz was recorded using tones of random duration and velocity to remove any perception of meter, pitch, or pattern. The baseline auditory stimulus was created using the Macintosh SoundEdit™ program and a Yamaha DX7 synthesizer.
Musical Excerpts. The three musical examples chosen as the stimuli for the assessment conditions were excerpts taken from the following compositions (see Table
2): (a) Lincolnshire Posy by Percy Grainger (1 min. 21 sec.), (b) Second Suite in F by
Gustav Holst (1 min. 46 sec.), and (c) Variations on America by Charles Ives (2 min.
26 sec.). The elapsed time of the excerpts totaled 5 min. 33 sec.
Table 2
Conducting Excerpts
TITLE COMPOSER SECTION TIME METER Lincolnshire Percy Grainger I, mm. 1 - 71 1 min. 21 sec. 6/8 Posy Second Suite in Gustav Holst I, mm. 1-110 1 min. 46 sec. 212 F Variations on Charles Ives mm. 1 - 60 2 min. 26 sec. 3/4 America
The compositions were chosen for a number of reasons. First, they were technically accessible to the novice conductors. Only two different beat patterns were required (two pattern and three pattern), and although there were moments of expressive tempo change within two of the excerpts, there were no points in the music where time stopped completely and was reestablished (e.g., fermatas). Secondly, despite the technical accessibility of the pieces, all three excerpts contained some variety of stylistic changes. The conductor was therefore offered the opportunity to reflect those changes or ignore them through his gestural vocabulary. Thirdly, all subjects reported an acceptable level of familiarity with each composition. An acceptable level 41 of familiarity was defined by these criteria: (a) all subjects had either performed or conducted each composition on more than one occasion, (b) each subject responded positively when asked if he could recreate each excerpt mentally without visual or aural prompting, and (c) all three compositions are considered by the wind band community to be well known and of high quality (Gilbert, 1992).
All stimulus recordings were digitized at 11 kHz/8 bits using the Macintosh
SoundEdit™ program and the following equipment at the Music Perception Lab at The
Ohio State University: (a) a Macintosh SE/30 computer, (b) a Magnavox Professional screen (Mac Color Display), (c) a Sony 8-Channel Audio Mixer MX-P21, (d) a Sony
Compact Disc Player CDP-30, and (e) a Nakamichi 480 Two-Head Cassette Deck.
Pulse Markers. During the act of conducting, a conductor is constantly making decisions, both conscious and unconscious, regarding the allocation of his or her attentional resources. These decisions are based on the needs of the ensemble as well as on the structural content of the composition. Since ensemble needs cannot be anticipated, the present study focused on the examination of cognitive activity during moments in which the structural content of the composition would most likely require the conductor’s attention. Using the Macintosh Macromind Director™ software program, pulse markers were embedded in the digitized recordings of the three compositions during specific moments in the music when conductor awareness was potentially heightened and a unique cognitive response indicative of a decision-making process could be expected (i.e., evoked potential waveform). Macintosh SoundEdit™ allowed for placement of the pulse markers to be accurate within one l/100th of a second. Leo Boyle HI served as an expert consultant in embedding the pulse markers.
An XCMD resource file was employed to send a TTL pulse from the Macintosh to the
Dell brain mapping computer at the moment each pulse marker occurred in the music, 42 and a square wave pulse marker was embedded in the EEG record.
The location of each pulse marker was determined by examining the phrase structure of each excerpt and by the subsequent identification of specific moments of musical change which would require the conductor to alter his or her focus of attention
(see Tables 3,4, and 5). Each moment included one or more of the following changes or events: (a) the onset of a new musical phrase, (b) a dramatic shift in orchestration,
(c) a dramatic shift in dynamic level, and/or (d) a significant entrance (cue).
Certain mechanical restrictions affected the identification of the moments mentioned above. Analysis of brain processing patterns requires a two-second segment in the EEG record that surrounds (precedes, follows, or both precedes and follows) each marked moment in the music; therefore each moment was separated by two or more seconds. The accepted standard is to acquire 32 seconds of EEG data for accurate
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analysis. Therefore, a minimum of sixteen marked segments were required. A total of 49 segments were identified and marked within the
Grainger, Holst, and Ives excerpts. Each marked segment was manually identified and extracted from the ongoing EEG record, subjected to FFT analysis, and stored as a binary FFT file. This data set was then compared between novice and expert conductors.
Instruments
Macintosh. All stimulus recordings were played through a Macintosh Ilsi computer during data collection. The recording options (i.e., Grainger, Holst, Ives) were displayed on a 14” Apple color monitor. The monaural recordings were routed through Telephonies TDH Series stereo headphones and adjusted to a comfortable loudness setting throughout the assessment. Tafals 3
Placement of Pulse Markers within Musical Scores
LINCOLNSHIRE POSY (“LISBON") by PERCY GRAINGER
MEASURE BEAT DYNAMIC LEVEL EVENT 1 2 mezzo forte new phrase 14 1 forte cue 17 2 mezzo forte new phrase 28 1 forte cue 33 2 piano new phrase 36 2 forte dynamic shift 43 2 fortissimo cue 49 2 mezzo piano new phrase 53 1 mezzo piano cue 56 1 mezzo piano cue 60 1 forte orchestration shift 63 .. 2 ...... mezzo piano orchestration shift 69 l forte cue 70 1 forte cue 71 l forte cue
Table 4
Placement o f Pulse Markers within Musical Scores
SECOND SUITE IN F (“MARCH") by GUSTAV HOLST
MEASUREPULSE DYNAMIC LEVEL EVENT 1 1 forte cue 3 1 forte cue 11 1 forte new phrase 19 1 piano new phrase 27 1 forte new phrase 35 1 forte new phrase 42 2 forte cue 46 2 mezzo forte cue 61 2 piano cue 77 2 piano cue 81 l fortissimo cue 93 l fortissimo cue 110 l fortissimo cue 44
Table 5
Placement o f Pulse Markers within Musical Scores
VARIATIONS ON AMERICA by CHARLES IVES
MEASUREPULSE DYNAMIC LEVEL EVENT 1 1 fortissimo new phrase 5 1 piano new phrase 9 1 fortissimo new phrase l3 1 fortissimo cue 15 1 piano orchestration shift 17 1 fortissimo new phrase 23 1 piano orchestration shift 25 1 fortissimo new phrase 29 1 piano new phrase
32 ...... "'" 1 ”' forte cue 33 1 piano new phrase 38 1 forte cue 39 1 piano new phrase 46 1 mezzo forte cue 47 1 piano new phrase 53 1 piano new phrase 54 1 forte cue 56 1 forte cue 58 1 forte cue 59 2 fortissimo cue 60 3 forte cue
Brain Atlas HI. The BioLogic Systems Corporations’s Brain Atlas HI is a computer-based system designed to measure the electrical activity of the brain (Miller,
1989). The hardware consists of a Dell® AT 486 CPU, a Dell 14” UGA Monitor, a 90 megabyte IOMEGA® Bernoulli, and a 20 channel subsystem for analog-to-digital signal conversion, filtering and amplification. The Bio-Logic Brain Atlas 7.145 software program was used. Amplifier calibration was held within a 2% gain (+ or -), and digital filtering was set a t. 1 and 30 Hz with 60 Hz filters on. The sampling rate for the EEG data collection was set at 128 samples/sec. 45
Pilot Study
Three individuals (separate from the six subjects) each agreed to participate in a pilot assessment session. The following protocol was determined based on the results of those sessions.
Protocol Description
Information Collected Before Assessment. Four forms were collected from each subject prior to assessment: (a) a consent form (Appendix B), (b) the Edinburgh
Handedness Inventory (Appendix C), (c) the Modified Edinburgh Handedness Scale
(Appendix D), and (d) a personal information form (Appendix E).
Subjects received the consent form a minimum of ten days prior to assessment.
The consent form detailed information regarding the excerpts to be conducted and the assessment procedures. Study scores of each composition were provided upon request.
The Edinburgh Handedness Inventory was created “to provide a simple and brief method of assessing handedness on a quantitative scale for use in neuropsychological and other clinical and experimental work” (Oldfield, 1971, p. 97).
Hemispheric differences tend to be present in persons who do not share the same handedness. All subjects identified themselves as right-handed, but since handedness is calculated by degrees it was important to match subjects by the degree of their right- handedness.
The Modified Edinburgh Handedness Scale was used to extend the precision of the Edinburgh Inventory in the case of any confusion or uncertainty on the part of the subject. 46
Personal information that was pertinent to this study included sex, age, handedness, performing experience, conducting experience, educational experience, employment status, and medical history regarding brain or head trauma, hearing loss, and general health.
Preparation of the Subject. After each subject arrived at the clinic, he was given a short orientation regarding the equipment and the procedures in an attempt to alleviate any confusion or anxiety. Each subject was fitted with an electrocap, which is a cap made of an elastic nylon net material. Each electrocap contains 21 sewn-in tin electrodes. The cap was placed on the head much like a bathing cap, and adjusted so that the electrode placement corresponded to the International 10-20 System (see Figure
2).
Fpl Fpz Fp2
C3 C4 T4
P4
Figure 2: International 10-20 electrode placement: Top view. 47
The alignment of the electrocap is based on the location of bony landmarks found on the head. The cap must be equidistant between the inion (protuberance in the middle of the back of the head) and the nasion (bridge of the nose directly under the forehead), and the preauricular notch (depression of bone in front of the ear canal) found on either side of the head. Once the electrocap was in place, all scalp sites were cleaned with an abrasive cleanser (Omniprep) and a saline, gel-like substance (Electrogel) was injected into each electrode to establish the electrical contact between the scalp and the sensor.
Finally, two electrodes were attached to the mandibles (located on the lower jaw bone, two thirds of the distance from the tip of the jaw to the back of the jawbone) to serve as a linked reference site.
When the subject was comfortable, goggles and headphones were fitted. The opaque lens in the goggles eliminated all visual stimulus. The headphones served two purposes: (a) they helped to mask any ambient room noise while subjects were silendy imaging, and (b) they delivered the aural stimulus from the Macintosh computer to the subject during listening tasks.
Pre-Task Checks. An impedence check was completed immediately following the initial electrocap fitting, and once again after all tasks were completed. Impedance is the electrical resistance between the skin and the electrode, expressed in Kohms. The impedances were kept below 5 Kohms and were balanced across all channels within 3
Kohms.
A sample activity demonstration was conducted to allow the subject to view the
EEG display on the computer screen as the electrical activity in his brain was being spontaneously measured and recorded. Each subject was made aware of the size and shape of normal EEG wave forms. 48
The subject was encouraged to engage in various head movements (blinking, tightening the jaw muscles, yawning, etc.) to demonstrate the result of excess muscle tension on the normal EEG display. These “false readings” are known as artifact.
Each subject was warned that EEG segments contaminated with artifact would have to be edited out of the total record. Suggestions were given for avoiding future artifact during data collection tasks.
Auditory threshold was measured by presenting a 1000 Hz tone burst to both ears beginning with a decibel level of 90. Tones were reduced by 5 dB approximately every three seconds. Each subject was asked to raise a hand when the tone bursts were no longer audible. The last dB level perceived by the subject was noted and recorded as the auditory threshold.
Tasks. The protocol checklist can be found in Appendix F. The checklist identifies all tasks in the order that they were completed.
1. Baseline Measurements - Seven baseline EEG measurements were recorded and filed for each subject: (a) Eyes-Open Task, (b) Eyes-Closed Task, (c) Auditory
Task, (d) Mental Imagery of Auditory Task, (e) Kinesthetic Task, (f) Mental Imagery of Kinesthetic Task, and (g) the Auditory Evoked Potential Measurement (AEP).
These measurements were necessary to establish normative values for each individual, and were used as points of comparison with the musical tasks. The following is a description of each of the baseline tasks:
a. Eves-Open Task and Eves-Closed Task - The subject was asked tn relax and concentrate on the natural rhythm of his breathing. He was then instructed to focus his eyes on the blank computer screen and sit motionless for two minutes. He was asked to repeat the above while wearing goggles which allowed eye muscles to relax and which eliminated all visual stimulus. Each subject continued to wear goggles 49 throughout the remainder of the assessment because they greatly reduced artifact resulting from excess eye motion, eye dryness, and so forth.
b. Auditory Task and Mental Imagery of Auditory Task - Brain electrical activity was collected for the following two task events: (i) The subject listened to one minute of the pre-recorded baseline auditory stimulus. He was instructed to simply perceive the stimulus without judgment, (ii) Immediately following the presentation of the baseline auditory stimulus, the subject was asked to recreate the experience mentally for a total of one minute. Each subject sat in total darkness and total silence during the imaging process.
c. Kinesthetic Task and Mental Imagery of Kinesthetic Task - Brain electrical activity was collected for the following two task events: (i) The subject was instructed to stand and make arm and hand motions in a random, unpattemed fashion.
He was told to combine both fluid and angular gestures and to avoid any repetitive movements (such as beat patterns), (ii) Immediately following the baseline kinesthetic stimulus, the subject was asked to recreate the experience mentally for a total of one minute. Each subject sat in total darkness and total silence during the imaging process.
d. Auditory Evoked Potential Measurement (AEP) - Since subjects were categorized by their experience level as conductors (novice and expert), one of the major differences between the two groups was a difference in chronological age. This difference necessitated an additional measurement to determine if age was a variable which affected the speed of auditory processing.
Each subject was asked to discriminate between tone bursts of two different frequencies (2000 Hz and 1000 Hz). He was asked to count the number of “high pitched sounds” (2000 Hz) he heard, and to ignore the “low pitched sounds” (1000
Hz). A positive peak in the electroencephalographic record known as the P300 occurs 50 in the central or parietal area of the brain approximately 300 msec after the onset of the target stimulus (2000 Hz), but not after the ignored stimulus (1000 Hz). This peak is a well-documented electrophysiological component of the AEP and is tied to focused and sustained components of attention (Languis & Miller, 1992). The latency of the P300 was compared across all subjects (please see earlier discussion for more detailed information, pp. 22-24, and pp. 30-31). The latency range for the novice conductors was 280 msec - 324 msec, with a mean of 297.3 msec. The latency range for the expert conductors was 264 msec - 340 msec, with a mean of 288.0 msec. Based on the latency results, age was not determined to be a variable in the speed of auditory processing (see Table 6).
Table 6
Auditory Evoked Potential Results
Su b je c t LATENCY AMPLITUDE LOCATION Novice A 288 msec 18.95 uv Fz Novice B 280 msec 15.78 pv Cz Novice C 324 msec 11.16 uv P4 Expert D 346 msec 6.17 uv P3 Expert E 260 msec 16.74 uv Pz Expert F 2& msec 16.83 uv Pz
2. Conducting Tasks - The subject was asked to stand, use a baton, and imagine himself in front of a performing ensemble during all conducting-related activity. Each subject wore goggles at all times, which eliminated all visual stimulus and helped to reduce artifact. The musical excerpts were presented in the following order: (1) Grainger, (2) Holst, and (3) Ives. Each excerpt was divided into six tasks which isolated various combinations of auditory stimuli, psychomotor acts, and mental imagery. The following is a description of each of the conducting tasks: 51
a. Listen Only - The subject was told to sit quietly as if he was a member of an audience, and listen passively to the excerpt.
b. Image Only - The subject sat quietly and mentally imagined himself sitting passively in an audience listening to the same excerpt.
c. Listen/Conduct - The subject stood and conducted (with baton) to the recording of the excerpt.
d. Image/Conduct - The subject stood and conducted (with baton) to his own internal image of the excerpt.
e. Listen/Image - The subject stood motionless and imagined himself conducting an ensemble as he listened to a recording of the excerpt.
f. Image/Image - The subject stood motionless and imagined himself conducting an ensemble as he recreated his own internal image of the music and the conducting movements.
Post-Task Check. The impedances were measured again at the end of the brain mapping session to ensure that recorded data were accurate.
Data Reduction
Each subject’s brain electrical activity was recorded during the auditory, kinesthetic, and imagery tasks. An average of 39.1 minutes of total raw EEG was stored for each subject. All raw EEG files were manually edited, saving only those segments which were artifact-free. This reduced the usable data to an average of 27.1 minutes per subject, with a range of 17.7 minutes to 33.6 minutes.
Pata Analysis of EEG FFT files. An FFT file was calculated for each task from the raw artifact-free
EEG files. The artifact-free segments across all subjects ranged in length from 18 to 52
144 seconds, with an average of 68.2 seconds per task. Each FFT file was then used to generate a set of twelve integrated brain maps, which identified brain activity in 2 Hz increments between 0.00 and 29.50 Hz. The data were examined in three different ways: peak microvolt levels, absolute power, and relative power.
Peak microvolt levels across all four frequency ranges (delta, theta, alpha, beta) were obtained for each task at each scalp site using The Brain Mapping Utilities
Program (BMUP), version 2.03 (Roberts, Miller, & Languis, 1988). Absolute power and relative power values were obtained using options built into the Brain Atlas III.
Absolute power refers to the sum of the squares of the amplitudes found within each frequency range at each scalp site. Relative power refers to the percentage of total power for each frequency range at each scalp site. All three versions of data presentation were considered. Upon close examination, the absolute theta, absolute alpha, and relative beta power values were deemed most appropriate for analysis (see
Tables 9 - 26 in Appendices G, H, and I).
Mean microvolt values. The general cognitive requirements associated with each of the six musical tasks remained the same across all three excerpts (Grainger,
Holst, Ives), although the excerpts themselves were by no means identical. The FFT files which were generated for each task identified an averaged representation of the cognitive brain response during that particular task, rather than a detailed picture of what occurred within the structure of the excerpt itself. Therefore, the brain electrical activity measured during the three musical excerpts were pooled to create a mean value for each musical task. For example, the microvolt values recorded at each individual scalp site during the Grainger Listen Only task, the Holst Listen Only task, and the Ives
Listen Only task were averaged to create a single mean microvolt reading at each site for the Listen Only task. The raw data from which the means were derived are found in 53
Tables 27 - 44 in Appendix J.
Interpolation. Electrode sites T3 and T4 often revealed a condition known as
“temporalis” just over the muscles that control the movement of the lower jaw.
Temporalis is the result of excessive tension in the muscles of the jaw. Electrical activity from muscles shows up as artificially increased microvolt levels in the beta frequency. When this occurs, values must be interpolated from the surrounding
unaffected sites. Microvolt values that have been interpolated due to temporalis or other
instances of excessive tension are clearly marked.
EP files. An EP file was calculated for each task which utilized a recorded
musical example. Two-second epochs were manually extracted at each of the 49 event
pulse markers found within the Listen Only and the Listen/Image tasks (the
Listen/Conduct task was not included due to excessive artifact). Those epochs which
were artifact-free were pooled to create a normative file for each task. Finally, the
normative files were pooled for each subject across imagery conditions to create a
“grand mean” for novice conductors and a “grand mean” for expert conductors. Each
“grand mean” file represented the electroencephalographic summation of 49 moments
of potentially heightened cognitive awareness. It was hypothesized that these
moments, taken in combination, may reveal evidence of the evoked potential
waveform.
Summary
The electrical brain activity from six conductors was recorded and saved as they
each completed tasks of aural imagery, kinesthetic imagery, conducting imagery (a
combination of aural and kinesthetic imagery), music listening, and conducting. FFT
files were generated for all tasks; microvolt values from all four frequency bands (delta, 54 theta, alpha, beta) at all scalp sites were available for analysis. After examining absolute power values, relative power values, and peak microvolt values within all four frequencies for every task, it was determined that the processing patterns of interest were most clearly revealed in the following areas: (a) absolute power values in the theta and alpha frequency bands were identified as most appropriate for individual subject analysis, and (b) relative power values in the beta frequency band were identified as most appropriate to compare subjects across all tasks.
The evoked potential (EP) files were reduced by one third because of the presence of excessive artifact in the Listen/Conduct task (these files were deleted). Data from the Listen Only task and the Listen/Image task were pooled to create a single mean novice file and a single mean expert file. Each file was examined for evidence of the evoked potential waveform.
In the following chapter, the data will be presented in the form of six case studies. The results from each subject will be closely examined, and patterns across subjects will be pointed out. Data will be converted from a numerical format to a line graph format to facilitate visual comparison between tasks. 55
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Introduction
This research project is an exploratory study of the psychophysiological processes of six conductors during conditions of musical imagery, musical listening, and conducting. Due to the small size of the subject population and the exploratory nature of the study, the results cannot be generalized, but rather should be used as a guide to encourage future research in this area.
Organization of the Chanter
This chapter begins by discussing the decision-making process regarding the data analysis, including the reduction of data, the examination of certain frequency bands, and the absolute and relative power calculations made from the original FFT microvolt values. The four original research questions are then restated and discussed individually. The final section of the chapter involves the presentation of the data, which includes a detailed examination of each subject and a preliminary comparison of experience levels (novice and expert).
Data Analysis
The analysis of electroencephalographic brain processes is a highly complex endeavor. Thousands of data points are stored by the computer for each second of
EEG recording. The interpretation of this enormous amount of data is only made possible by choosing to focus on finite and well-defined areas of information based on 56
(a) findings of previous research, (b) nature of the tasks, and (c) type of brain wave analysis used. This focus makes analysis possible, but also by definition eliminates a number of potential discoveries in those areas left unexplored. After considering many options, certain choices were made regarding the data analysis which were deemed to best suit the purposes of this study.
EEG Frequency Analysis. After brain waves were discovered by Hans Berger in 1929, researchers classified the brain waves generated in the human brain into four groups based upon the speed of propagation each second (called Hertz or Hz). The four brain wave frequency groups are: (a) delta waves (0.5 - 3.5 Hz), (b) theta waves
(4 - 7 Hz), (c) alpha waves (8 -13 Hz), and (d) beta waves (14-30 Hz). Delta waves are commonly seen during sleep but theta, alpha, and beta waves are associated with cognitive processes.
The two frequency bands which were examined in detail for this study include theta (Tables 9 -14), and alpha (Tables 15 - 20). The beta band (Tables 21 - 26) was examined only superficially due to the abundance of contaminating artifact Each table represents a single subject and identifies the |iv values for each task at each scalp site.
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Since brain waves are essentially sine waves, mathematical algorithms taken from physics and engineering have been used for fifty years to analyze and quantify brain wave electrical activity. The most common algorithm used is Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). FFT calculates the area under the curve of each brain wave in microvolts (|iv). Thus, FFT is a measure of the power in brain waves and can be calculated in absolute or relative values as defined below.
1. Absolute power. A number of options are made available by the Brain Atlas regarding the presentation of the raw data. Absolute power is the sum of the squares of the actual brain wave amplitudes found within each frequency range at each scalp site. 57
Squaring the values is done to account for the nature of sine wave transformation in
FFT. In other words, absolute power represents the total amount of electrical activity recorded at a given scalp site for a defined frequency band during a given task.
Absolute power values are displayed in the theta and alpha tables (Tables 9 - 20).
2. Relative power. Absolute power values are most appropriate when only one individual’s brain waves are analyzed. Since each individual’s brain processes are unique, the data which were gathered are extremely difficult to compare across subjects. Some individuals have much higher brain wave values than others across all tasks. One way to overcome this obstacle is to convert the absolute microvolt values into relative power format. Relative power refers to the percentage of total power for each frequency range at each scalp site. It is obtained by taking each value in the absolute power table and calculating its percentage of the total absolute power. Relative power values are displayed in the beta tables (Tables 21 - 26).
Discussion of the Research Questions
The original research questions presented in Chapter One of this document were used as a guide to direct the examination of data collected from each of the six subjects.
To communicate the results more clearly, the numerical data were converted to a line graph for each of the study tasks. Each graph follows the same format: the x-axis represents the twenty-one scalp sites described in Chapter Three, and the y-axis indicates either the microvolt level recorded at each of the scalp sites (absolute power) or the percentage of total microvolts found within a specific frequency band at a specific scalp site (relative power).
The results pertinent to Research Questions #1 and #2 will be presented in graph form for each subject (Novice A, Figures 3 -16; Novice B, Figures 17 - 30; 58
Novice C, Figures 31-44; Expert D, Figures 45 - 58; Expert E, Figures 59 - 72; and
Expert F, Figures 73 - 86). Each graph will be described in detail, focusing on the visible similarities and differences between the tasks in question. Since both the theta and the alpha frequency bands are included in this portion of the data analysis, two graphs (theta and alpha) will represent each of conditions described below. To facilitate comparisons of individual graphs across subjects, each specific type of graph has been coded N (novice) or E (expert).
Research Question #1: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between an eyes-cbsed resting position (baseline) and active musical tasks
(imaged and actual)?
This question simply asks whether there is evidence present in the EEG record that the brain is functioning differently between a condition of resting and tasks of active musical activity. First, all baseline aural and baseline kinesthetic tasks were grouped together to determine their relationship to Baseline Eyes-Closed, and to determine their value as true baseline tasks (these tasks were not intended to produce cognitive activity). Table 7 indicates the description and abbreviation of all baseline tasks. The line graphs from each of the five baseline tasks were combined to produce a single baseline condition: (11 Baseline Condition: compares all baseline tasks -
Baseline Eyes-Closed, Baseline Auditory, Baseline Imagery of Auditory, Baseline
Kinesthetic, and Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic. Baseline Condition graphs have been labeled N1 and N2 for each novice conductor, and El and E2 for each expert conductor.
Secondly, to show the differences between the Baseline Eyes-Closed task and all musical tasks most clearly and efficiently, the musical tasks were also grouped into four distinct conditions: (a) auditory, (b) auditory imagery, (c) kinesthetic, and 59
(d) kinesthetic imagery. Each of these conditions compares certain musical tasks based on cognitive activity and task type. Table 8 indicates the description and abbreviation of all musical tasks.
Table 7
Baseline tasks
BASELINE TASK DESCRIPTION ABBREVIATION
Baseline Eyes-Closed Task Think only of one’s own BEC breathing Baseline Auditory Task Listen to random sound BAU patterns Baseline Imagery of Imagine random sound BIA Auditory Task patterns Baseline Kinesthetic Task Make random hand and BKI arm movements Baseline Imagery of Imagine making random BIK Kinesthetic Task hand and arm movements
Table 8
Musical tasks
m u SiCa l t a s k s DESCRIPTIONABBREVIATION
Listen Only Task Listen to recorded musical l 6 excerpt Image Only Task Imagine recorded musical l6 excerpt Listen/Conduct Task Listen to recorded musical LC excerpt and conduct Image/Conduct Task Imagine recorded musical iC excerpt and conduct Listen/Image Task Listen to recorded musical u excerpt and imagine conducting Image/Image Task Imagine recorded musical ii excerpt and imagine conducting 60
The musical tasks were combined into the following four musical conditions:
(1) Auditory Condition (N3. N5. E3. E5 ): compares Baseline Eyes-Closed with all musical tasks that include auditory stimulation - Listen Only, Listen/Conduct, and
Listen/Image; (2) Auditory Imagery Condition (N4. N6. E4. E61: compares Baseline
Eyes-Closed with all musical tasks that include auditory imagery - Image Only,
Image/Conduct, and Image/Image; (3) Kinesthetic Condition (N7. N9. E7. E91: compares Baseline Eyes-Closed with all musical tasks that include physical motion -
Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct; and (4) Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (N8. N1Q.
E8. E10): compares Baseline Eyes-Closed with all musical tasks that include kinesthetic imagery - Listen/Image and Image/Image.
Research Question #2: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between types and levels o f imagery (aural, kinesthetic, and combined)?
While Question #1 focuses on the differences between a baseline task and active musical tasks, Question #2 probes the relationship between the active tasks themselves.
First, how are the non-imagery tasks related to the imagery tasks? For example, is there anything present in the EEG record which may indicate a relationship between listening to a recorded musical excerpt and imaging that same excerpt? To facilitate a quick visual comparison of non-imagery and imagery tasks of similar orientation, the
Auditory Condition graph and the Auditory Imagery Condition graph have been placed on the same page for each of the subjects. The Kinesthetic Condition graph and the
Kinesthetic Imagery Condition graph have also been placed on the same page for each of the subjects. A sixth condition was created to accentuate this relationship: All
Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition (Nil. N12. Ell. E12): compares
Baseline Eyes-Closed with musical tasks that require all imagery (Image Only and
Image/Image) and musical tasks that require no imagery (Listen Only and 61
Listen/Conduct).
Secondly, Question #2 asks whether or not aural imagery and kinesthetic imagery are distinguishable. Is there evidence in the EEG record that may lead us to believe that aural imagery and kinesthetic imagery are separate functions within the brain? A seventh condition was created to explore this potential relationship. Auditory
Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (N13. N14. E13. E141: compares all tasks that include auditory imagery (Baseline Auditory Imagery, Image
Only, and Image/Conduct) with all tasks that include kinesthetic imagery (Baseline
Kinesthetic Imagery and Listen/Image).
Research Question #3: Do the junctional brain processes of expert conductors differ from the functional brain processes o f novice conductors while performing and imaging identical musical tasks?
One of the main goals of this research was to identify possible differences in the cognitive brain processes between novice and expert conductors while they were engaged in activities related to the act of conducting. It was hoped that the identification of these differences may guide the improvement and development of conducting pedagogy by providing physiological indicators of certain goal behaviors present in the expert conductors. While norms have been established in some areas of brain research
(e.g., P300 latencies), there are none available for musical brain research. Therefore, one can only examine the characteristics present in the cognitive brain processes of successful conductors while they are conducting, and hope to identify patterns that may indicate a standard to which all novice conductors can strive for. This may be an idealistic goal, because electrical brain patterns are highly unique across individuals when one is measuring something as complex as the perception and production of music. However, this does not mean that the answers are not there; they may simply 62 be very difficult to locate.
Since it is impossible to directly compare the absolute power values between subjects, a relative power format was used to compare the percentage of beta found within each subject’s EEG during each of the eleven tasks that comprised this study
(see Tables 7 and 8 for a description of the 11 study tasks). Each task will be represented by a line graph to allow for a quick and easy comparison between subjects
(Figures 87 - 97). The beta frequency band was chosen as the comparison unit because of its relationship to high levels of cognitive activity and mental intensity.
Research Question #4: Do conductors show evidence of an evoked potential waveform in the two seconds surrounding a significant musical event (one which requires a specific response or gesture from the conductor) found in a given composition?
The evoked potential waveform is well established in the brain literature as an indicator of cognitive arousal elicited by an external stimulus. Musical studies which have examined the evoked potential waveform have traditionally used multiple presentations of a stimulus that is well-defined, such the recognition of a five-tone pitch pattern or the discrimination of small melodic intervals. Research which investigates the relationship between the evoked potential waveform, cognitive arousal, and the perception of music as a unified whole has not been attempted. It may be argued that the perception of isolated musical elements does not equate to the perception of an intact musical experience, therefore EP research has yet to reveal much about cognitive response during music listening or performing.
This study attempted to identify an EP waveform during the perception of a recorded musical excerpt, as opposed to the perception of an isolated musical element.
The stimulus was defined as any moment within the excerpt in which a change in the 63 structural content of the composition would most likely require the conductor’s attention. The changes were further defined as (a) the onset of a new musical phrase,
(b) a dramatic shift in orchestration, (c) a dramatic shift in dynamic level, and/or (d) a significant entrance or cue. A total of 49 musical events meeting the above requirements were identified within the three excerpts. A two-second segment of EEG surrounding each event was extracted and pooled together in an attempt to reconstruct the procedure of multiple stimulus presentation found in previous research. Results were inconclusive. However, the preliminary findings and suggestions for change will be reported to serve as a potential guide for future research in this area.
Presentation of the Data: Individual Analysis
The following is an analysis of Research Questions #1 and #2. Both questions will be discussed on a detailed, individual basis for each of the six subjects. Data from the three novice conductors will be presented first, followed by the data from the three expert conductors.
Novice Conductors
Each novice conductor was enrolled in the School of Music at The Ohio State
University at the time of this study. They all were musically trained instrumental performers who had less than one year of conducting experience prior to the assessment. In general, the novice conductors appeared slightly apprehensive, intimidated, and nervous upon arrival to the clinic. They expressed uncertainty about their abilities to mentally image the three musical excerpts, despite the fact that before assessment they each maintained that they knew the excerpts well enough to reproduce them mentally without the use of a score. During the musical tasks, the novice conductors shared the following tendencies: 64
(1) Musical imagery: virtual motionlessness during the imagery (aural and kinesthetic) tasks. Breathing remained constant, facial expression did not change.
(2) Conducting: used mirrored beat patterns or exclusive use of the right hand.
Few, if any, alterations to basic contour of the pattern.
NOVICE CONDUCTOR A
Research Question #1: Does the functional brain processing of conductors
differ between an Eyes-Closed resting position (baseline) and active musical tasks
(imaged and actual)?
Baseline Condition (Nl. N2): Figures 3 and 4. In the theta frequency (Figure
3), all baseline tasks are virtually identical with the exception of Baseline Kinesthetic
which is at a much higher microvolt level than the other four tasks. It is possible that
motor movement artifact produced this difference, because the Baseline Kinesthetic
contour is very similar to the contour of the other tasks. All tasks peak at Fz, Cz, and
Pz.
The alpha frequency (Figure 4) shows a bit more discrepancy between tasks.
All tasks appear to be very similar throughout the prefrontal, frontal, and central areas,
but begin to diversify in the temporal and occipital areas. Baseline Auditory and
Baseline Auditory Image remain similar, as do Baseline Kinesthetic and Baseline Eyes-
Closed. There is an increase in occipital alpha for all tasks.
Auditory Condition (N3. N5): Figures 5 and 7. There is a difference between
the auditory tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 5) and alpha
(Figure 7) frequencies. All three auditory tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the
parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands, but the deviation is most significant
in occipital alpha. Prefrontal and frontal theta is similar for all tasks, while prefrontal 65 and frontal alpha is significantly higher during the auditory tasks than during BEC.
The auditory tasks Listen Only, Listen/Conduct, and Listen/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In prefrontal and frontal theta,
Listen/Conduct shows the highest microvolt levels of the three auditory tasks. All tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes-Closed shows a peak at Pz. In the alpha frequency, both Listen/Conduct and Listen/Image show higher microvolt levels than
Listen Only throughout the scalp. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for BEC, and only a slight increase in occipital alpha for the auditory tasks.
Auditory Imagery Condition (N4. N6): Figures 6 and 8. There is a difference between the auditory imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure
6) and alpha (Figure 8) frequencies. All three auditory imagery tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands, but the deviation is most significant in occipital alpha. Prefrontal and frontal theta is similar for all tasks, while prefrontal and frontal alpha is significantly higher during the auditory imagery tasks than during BEC.
The auditory imagery tasks Image Only, Image/Conduct, and Image/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency,
Image/Conduct shows slightly higher microvolt levels than the other two auditory imagery tasks throughout the scalp, but most significantly in the prefrontal area. All tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes-Closed shows a significant peak at Pz. In the alpha frequency, there is a strong increase in occipital alpha for BEC, while there is only a slight increase in occipital alpha for the auditory imagery tasks.
Kinesthetic Condition (N7. N9): Figures 9 and 11. There is a difference between the kinesthetic tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 9) and alpha (Figure 11) frequencies. Both kinesthetic tasks deviate negatively from BEC in 66 the parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands, but the deviation is most significant in occipital alpha. Prefrontal and frontal theta is similar for all tasks, while prefrontal and frontal alpha is significantly higher during the kinesthetic tasks than during BEC.
The kinesthetic tasks Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, both kinesthetic tasks are nearly identical throughout the scalp. All tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes-
Closed shows a peak at Pz. In the alpha frequency, Listen/Conduct shows a slightly higher microvolt level than Image/Conduct in the prefrontal and frontal areas. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for BEC, while there is only a slight increase in occipital alpha for the kinesthetic tasks.
Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (N8. N1Q); Figures 10 and 12. There is a difference between the kinesthetic imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 10) and alpha (Figure 12) frequencies. Both kinesthetic imagery tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands, but the deviation is most significant in occipital alpha. Prefrontal and frontal theta is similar for all tasks, while prefrontal and frontal alpha is significantly higher during the kinesthetic imagery tasks than during BEC.
The kinesthetic imagery tasks Listen/Image and Image/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, Image/Image shows a slightly higher microvolt level than Listen/Image in the prefrontal and frontal areas. All tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes-Closed shows a significant peak at Pz. In the alpha frequency, both kinesthetic imagery tasks are nearly identical throughout the scalp. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for BEC, while there is only a slight increase in occipital alpha for the kinesthetic imagery tasks. 67 NOVICE A
BEC
> 50 BAU
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Figure 3: N1 - Baseline Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values
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Figure 4: N2 - Baseline Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values
BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; BAU = Baseline Auditory Task; BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BKI = Baseline Kinesthetic Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; II = Image/Image Task Task; Image/Image = II Listen/Image Task; = LI Image/Conduct = Task; IC Task; Only Listen/Conduct Image = LC = IO Task; Only Listen = LO Task; Closed Eyes Baseline = BEC Absolute theta (|iv Values) Absolute theta (pv Values) 20 10 25 40 15 30 35 40 20 25 30 35 10 15 0 5 0 5 [P'£‘,P,k ll"fcEl-uuuH-Ha.o«cuHo k Figure 6: N4 - Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values Microvolt Theta Absolute in Condition Imagery Auditory - N4 6: Figure 2 E£ U Figure 5: N3 - Auditory Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values Microvolt Theta Absolute in Condition -Auditory N3 5: Figure 5 C 5 P E Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp NOVICE A 2 2 £ 2P o o o M N - BEC LC LO BEC 8 6 NOVICE A
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Figure 8: N6- Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values
BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; Li = Listen/Image Task; 10 = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; □ = Image/Image Task NOVICE A 70
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Figure 9: N7 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values
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Figure 10: N8 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values
BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; □ = Image/Image Task 71 NOVICE A
BEC
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Figure I I : N9 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values
•a so BEC 3 40 CO ■a ■a 30
N Figure 12: N 10 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; 1C = Image/Conduct Task; U = Listen/Image Task; n = Image/Image Task NOVICE A ■ BEC O LO -*— 10 -O LC — n —i—i— i- ...... a.R-o.U-u.U-tt.E{-UUOf-Ha.A.euFoOO Scalp Sites Figure 13: N11 - Ail Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 70 60 /—V (ft BEC £ ■a 50 > > LO 'w'3L 40 cfl 1 30 Si 9 LC I 20 <•0 10 0 U Figure 14: N12 - All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; IO - Image Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; I I : Image/Image Task 73 NOVICE A BIA -O- BIK 10 IC U U.a , UU O. u.o . U,U.U-UuCHCjU0HHtt.Cua.HOOO Scalp Sites Figure 15: N13 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 60 50 BIA 40 BIK 30 20 10 0 a, ,cl a. U. li. U.U,EH(j UUHH<*< a. a. H O Scalp Sites Figure 16: N14 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BIA = Baseline'Imagery of Auditory Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task; IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task 74 Research Question #2: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between types and levels o f imagery (aural, kinesthetic, combined)? All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition (N11. N12~): Figures 13 and 14. In the both the theta (Figure 13) and alpha (Figure 14) frequencies, all music tasks are grouped together regardless of the use of imagery or no imagery. The music variable shows lower parietal and occipital microvolt levels than baseline in both theta and alpha. The music variable shows significantly higher frontal microvolt levels than baseline in alpha only. Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (N13. N14): Figures 15 and 16. In both the theta (Figure 15) and the alpha (Figure 16) frequencies, all music tasks are grouped together and all baseline tasks are grouped together regardless of the use of kinesthetic or auditory imagery. The music variable shows lower parietal and occipital microvolt levels than baseline in both theta and alpha. The music variable shows significantly higher frontal microvolt levels than baseline in alpha only. NOVICE CONDUCTOR B Research Question #1: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between an Eyes-Closed resting position (baseline) and active musical tasks (imaged and actual)? Baseline Condition (Nl. N2): Figures 17 and 18. In the theta frequency (Figure 17), all baseline tasks are virtually identical with the exception of Baseline Kinesthetic which is at a higher microvolt level than the other four tasks. It is possible that motor movement artifact produced this difference, because the Baseline Kinesthetic contour is very similar to the contour of the other tasks. All tasks peak at Fz, Cz, and 75 Pz. In the alpha frequency (Figure 18), all baseline tasks are very similar throughout the prefrontal, frontal, and central areas, but begin to diversify in the parietal and occipital areas. Baseline Kinesthetic shows the highest microvolt level of all tasks in the prefrontal and frontal areas, but is surpassed by Baseline Eyes-Closed in the parietal and occipital areas. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for BEC. The other baseline tasks show only a slight increase in occipital alpha. Auditory Condition (N3. N5): Figures 19 and 21. There is a difference between the auditory tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 19) and the alpha (Figure 21) frequency bands. All three auditory tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the central, parietal, and occipital areas, but the deviation is only slight for Listen/Conduct. Listen/Conduct is the only auditory task which shows higher microvolt values than BEC in the prefrontal and frontal areas for both frequencies. The auditory tasks Listen Only and Listen/Image are virtually identical in both the theta and alpha frequencies, and they show the lowest microvolt values throughout the scalp. Listen/Conduct shows the highest microvolt levels of all tasks in the prefrontal and frontal areas of both frequencies. In the theta frequency, all tasks peak at Fz, Cz, and Pz. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for BEC and Listen/Conduct. Listen Only and Listen/Image show only a slight increase in occipital alpha. Auditory Imagery Condition (N4. N6): Figures 20 and 22. There is a difference between the auditory imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed. All three auditory imagery tasks deviate negatively from BEC throughout the scalp in both the theta (Figure 20) and the alpha (Figure 22) frequency bands, but the deviation is most significant in the parietal and occipital areas. The only exception is found in the 76 prefrontal area. Prefrontal theta shows Image Only and Image/Conduct with higher microvolt levels than BEC, and prefrontal alpha shows Image/Conduct as higher than BEC. The auditory imagery tasks Image Only and Image/Image are virtually identical in both the theta and alpha frequencies, with the exception of prefrontal and frontal theta. Image/Conduct shows the highest microvolt levels of all auditory imagery tasks in the prefrontal, parietal, and occipital areas of both frequencies. In the theta frequency, all tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes-Closed shows a peak at Pz. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for Baseline Eyes-Closed and Image/Conduct. Listen Only and Listen/Image show virtually no increase in occipital alpha. Kinesthetic Condition (N7. N9): Figures 23 and 25. There is a slight difference between the kinesthetic tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 23) and alpha (Figure 25) frequencies. Both kinesthetic tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the central, parietal, and occipital areas in both frequency bands, but the deviation is most significant in occipital alpha. Both kinesthetic tasks show higher microvolt values than BEC in the prefrontal area of both frequency bands. The kinesthetic tasks Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct share similar contours in both the theta and alpha frequencies. Listen/Conduct shows a consistently higher microvolt level than Image/Conduct, most significantly in prefrontal theta. In the theta frequency, all tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes-Closed shows a peak at Pz. There is a fairly strong increase in occipital alpha for all tasks. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (N8. N 10); Figures 24 and 26. There is a difference between the kinesthetic imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 24) and alpha (Figure 26) frequencies. Both kinesthetic imagery tasks 77 deviate negatively from BEC throughout the entire scalp, but the deviation is most significant in the parietal and occipital areas. The kinesthetic imagery tasks Listen/Image and Image/Image are virtually identical in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, all tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes-Closed shows a peak at Pz. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for BEC. Listen/Image and Image/Image show virtually no increase in occipital alpha. Research Question #2: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between types and levels o f imagery (aural, kinesthetic, combined)? All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition (N11. N12): Figures 27 and 2&. In both the theta (Figure 27) and alpha (Figure 28) frequencies, all music tasks except Listen/Conduct are grouped together regardless of the use of imagery or no imagery. Listen/Conduct more closely aligns with Baseline Eyes-Closed, especially in the occipital areas. Listen/Conduct also shows the highest microvolt levels in both prefrontal theta and alpha. Listen Only, Image Only, and Image/Image all show lower parietal and occipital microvolt levels than BEC or Listen/Conduct in both theta and alpha. Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (N13. N14): Figures 29 and 30. In both the theta (Figure 29) and the alpha (Figure 30) frequencies, all imagery tasks are grouped together throughout the frontal, central, and temporal areas. The only imagery task which includes motion (Image/Conduct) shows the highest microvolt levels at both prefrontal theta and prefrontal alpha. Image/Conduct also shows higher parietal and occipital microvolt levels in both theta and alpha, which causes it to more closely align with the baseline imagery tasks (Baseline Auditory Imagery and Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery). Image Only and Listen/Image show the NOVICE B BEC -o- BAU BIA BKI BIK s n h fo n ^ ao m m n ^ ^ in BEC BAU 2 20 BIA n BKI •5 10 BIK ** N Figure 18: N2 - Baseline Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; BAU = Baseline Auditory Task; BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BIG = Baseline Kinesthetic Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; II = Image/Image Task =Image/Image II Task; Image/Conduct = IC Task; Only Image = IO BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task: LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; Listen/Image = LI Task; Listen/Conduct = LC Task; Only Listen = LO Task: Closed Eyes Baseline = BEC Absolute theta ((J.v Values) Absolute theta (pv Values) 40 40 20 25 35 30 10 15 I —i —i —i —i —i —i —i —i —i —i i— i— i— i— t— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— (— i— i— -I— 0 5 Figure 20: N4 - Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values Microvolt Theta Absolute in Condition Imagery Auditory - N4 20: Figure |o.[o.(g.li.tL.u.u.e^uUUf-Hfl.a.£uf-OOo 1 [L IL [Li u. Ct-UUUHHa-^OL. O O O .H L O ^ - a H H U U U - t .C L t c .f .u U t f t f . L O N (M N — « o \ t T N Figure19: N3 - Auditory Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp NOVICE B -O —n o— IC — 10 BEC 79 NOVICE B Tt >© ■-« (N aiaeEaspcfl 5 S P.E £ a . H O O O Scalp Sites Figure 21: N5 - Auditory Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 40 35 30 1 BEC > > 25 -3 ! 20 73 I 15 1 10 5 0 [L| w (L Scalp Sites Figure 22: N6 - Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; 10 = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; II = Image/Image Task BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC - Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; II = II Task; Listen/Image = LI Task; Image/Conduct = IC Task Task; Image/Image Listen/Conduct - LC Task; Closed Eyes Baseline = BEC Absolute theta (fiv Values) Absolute theta (jrv Values) Figure N8- 24:Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 20 25 30 35 10 15 -I—0 5 (JU U* .a, (.<.iHUUUHHa<*ouHOOO O O H u o a- 40 35 2 30 1 25 BEC a cd 20 -O LC t 2 15 9 IC 10 5 0 £.|.g.C:C«S2EPCaSiSPEa:2:jS55S Scalp Sites Figure 25: N9 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 40 35 30 73 > > 25 BEC 3 20 15 £>s 10 < 5 0 Scalp Sites Figure 26: N10 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; Li = Listen/Image Task; n : Image/Image Task NOVICE B BEC -o- LO IO LC n >-1 SNivmNtfOrin ncm £.£.(£.CiLu.u.E:PuuuHHa.d.a.HOOO Scalp Sites Figure 27: N11 - All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC LO LC r-ca .a f) Mp. u. t ' [i. a. ,N i l E P G u U Hp 2 £ 2 o o o Scalp Sites Figure 28: N12 - All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; IO = Image Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; n = Image/Image Task NOVICE B a 20 o --- 1--- 1--- h ...... Scalp Sites Figure 29: N13 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 25 20 BIA I B1K > 15 0 Tt ^ jn ro N jf vo ~ N fM 2 £ P u u O H H ft* H O o o Scalp Sites Figure 30: N14 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task; IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task 85 lowest parietal and occipital microvolt levels in both theta and alpha. NOVICE CONDUCTOR C Research Question #1: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between an Eyes-Closed resting position (baseline) and active musical tasks (imaged and actual) ? Baseline Condition (Nl. N2): Figures 31 and 32. In the theta frequency (Figure 31), all baseline tasks have similar contours. Any differences in microvolt levels occur mainly in prefrontal, frontal, and occipital theta. Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery and Baseline Eyes-Closed show the highest prefrontal and frontal theta levels, and Baseline Auditory Imagery shows the lowest prefrontal and frontal theta levels. However, the two imagery tasks (Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery and Baseline Auditory Imagery) are virtually identical throughout central, parietal and occipital theta. The two non-imagery tasks (Baseline Auditory and Baseline Kinesthetic) appear to be very similar throughout the scalp. All tasks peak at Fz, Cz, and Pz. In the alpha frequency (Figure 32), all baseline tasks are virtually identical. There is an increase in occipital alpha for all tasks. Auditory Condition (N3. N5): Figures 33 and 35. There is a difference between the auditory tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 33) and alpha (Figure 35) frequencies. All three auditory tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands. Prefrontal and frontal theta is similar for all tasks, while prefrontal and frontal alpha is significantly higher during the auditory tasks than during BEC. The auditory tasks Listen Only, Listen/Conduct, and Listen/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, all tasks peak at 86 Fz; Baseline Eyes-Closed also peaks at Cz and Pz. In the alpha frequency, Listen Only and Listen/Image are virtually identical throughout. Listen/Conduct shows a slightly lower microvolt level than the other two auditory tasks, most noticeably in the prefrontal and frontal areas. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for all tasks. Auditory Imagery Condition (N4. N6): Figures 34 and 36. There is a difference between the auditory imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 34) and alpha (Figure 36) frequencies. All three auditory imagery tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands. All auditory imagery tasks are slightly higher than BEC in the prefrontal area in both frequency bands. In the alpha frequency, all auditory imagery tasks remain higher than BEC throughout the prefrontal, frontal, and central areas. In the theta frequency, the auditory imagery tasks Image Only, Image/Conduct, and Image/Image are very similar throughout the central area. Image/Image shows higher microvolt levels than all other tasks in the prefrontal and frontal areas, and Image/Conduct shows a slightly higher microvolt level than all auditory imagery tasks in the parietal and occipital areas. All tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes- Closed shows a significant peak at Pz. In the alpha frequency, there is a strong increase at T6 for all tasks. Kinesthetic Condition (N7. N9V Figures 37 and 39. There is a difference between the kinesthetic tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 37) and alpha (Figure 39) frequencies. Both kinesthetic tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands, but the difference is most significant in occipital alpha. Frontal theta is similar for all tasks, while frontal alpha is higher during the kinesthetic tasks than during BEC. 87 The kinesthetic tasks Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct showed similar contours in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, Image/Conduct was consistently higher than Listen/Conduct, with a greater separation in the parietal and occipital areas. All tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes- Closed shows a significant peak at Pz. In the alpha frequency, Image/Conduct was slightly higher than Listen/Conduct in the parietal and occipital areas, and slightly lower than Listen/Conduct in the prefrontal and frontal areas. There is a fairly strong increase at T6 for all tasks. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (N8. N10); Figures 38 and 40. There is a difference between the kinesthetic tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 38) and alpha (Figure 40) frequencies. Both kinesthetic imagery tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands. Prefrontal and frontal alpha is higher during the kinesthetic imagery tasks than during BEC. The kinesthetic imagery tasks Listen/Image and Image/Image showed similar contours in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, Image/Image is consistently higher than Listen/Image, especially in the prefrontal area and at Fz. All tasks peak at Fz and Cz; only Baseline Eyes-Closed shows a significant peak at Pz. In the alpha frequency, Image/Image is slightly higher than Listen/Image in the parietal and occipital areas, and slightly lower in the prefrontal and frontal areas. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for BEC, while there is a small increase at T6 for the kinesthetic imagery tasks. Research Question #2: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between types and levels o f imagery (aural, kinesthetic, combined)? 8 8 All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition fNl 1. N12); Figures 41 and 42- In both the theta (Figure 41) and alpha (Figure 42) frequencies, all music tasks are grouped together and regardless of the use of imagery or no imagery. The music variable shows lower parietal and occipital microvolt levels than baseline in both theta and alpha. The music variable shows higher prefrontal and frontal microvolt levels than baseline in alpha only, with the exception of Image/Image in the theta frequency band. Image/Image peaks above all other tasks in prefrontal and frontal theta. In both the theta and alpha frequencies, the two music imagery tasks separate from the two non-imagery tasks in the parietal and occipital areas. The non-imagery tasks show a slightly lower microvolt level than the imagery tasks in both cases. Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (N13. N141: Figures 43 and 44. In both the theta (Figure 43) and the alpha (Figure 44) frequencies, all tasks share similar contours. In general, all music tasks are grouped together and all baseline tasks are grouped together regardless of the use of kinesthetic or aural imagery. The music variable shows lower parietal and occipital microvolt levels than baseline in both theta and alpha. The music variable shows higher prefrontal and frontal microvolt levels than baseline in alpha only. Listen/Image is slightly higher than the other two music tasks in prefrontal and frontal alpha, and is slightly lower than the other two music tasks throughout theta. With the exception of prefrontal and frontal theta, Baseline Auditory Imagery and Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery are extremely similar in both theta and alpha. Image/Conduct resembles the baseline tasks in theta and the Image Only task in alpha. 89 NOVICE C BEC LI BAU BIA BKI ■2 20 BIK w * N (S fs m S Tf 00 n W N ^ ^ IT) (f| N ^ SO N (N plftftttE5iii.SsP Figure 31: N 1 - Baseline Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 300 250 «•“ s BIK ^ in m s « ic N Figure 32: N2 - Baseline Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; BAU = Baseline Auditory Task; BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BKI = Baseline Kinesthetic Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task 90 NOVICE C BEC LO a 30 LC £•£• £ Figure 33: N3 - Auditory Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC 3- 40 5 30 IO N ^ 'O •— ■s. .a % e e £ 2 E P 0 u 3 H ft- ft- 0- H O 6 S Scalp Sites Figure 34: N4 - Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; U = Listen/Image Task; IO - Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; II = Image/Image Task 91 NOVICE C 250 200 S *3 BEC > 1 5 0 LO ei I LC « 100 o JS < Scalp Sites Figure 35: N5 - Auditory Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 250 « 200 BEC 150 100 l£(£'[ek Figure 36: N6 - Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; II = Image/Image Task NOVICE C 60 50 ■a > 40 4 30 I 20 10 0 - N N bAAIi.u.hli.IbhuUUhHiLbtcH O O o Scalp Sites Figure 37: N7 * Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 70 60 ■3 50 > BEC £ 40 - o - LI a 30 n S 20 10 0 Scalp Sites Figure 38: N8 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; D = Image/Image Task NOVICE C 250 200 150 CO ■a a 100 9 x>3 < SO ^ £ £ P u u5 P 2 £ 2 H O Scalp Sites Figure 39: N9 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 250 200 •a I 15° 1 2 100 S i < 50 Scalp Sites Figure 40: N10 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; □ = Image/Image Task NOVICE C BEC -Q- LO -♦- IO LC D & 8. a E E EPS VN ^O ^H H £ £ Scalp Sites Figure 41: N11 - All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute llieta Microvolt Values 250 ? 200 S BEC > LO a iso I t 100 I LC i < ■t ci N &E: £ £EEPQo U HH CL £ f t , Scalp Sites Figure 42: N12 - All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; IO = Image Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; U = Image/Image Task NOVICE C BIA BIK IO IC LI 5T> ? v© *■ N (S u.ci. uu8 . u.*2 . E 2D a . 0 - c l H O O O Scalp Sites Figure 43: N13 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 300 s 250 I BIA 73 _. . > 200 > BIK £ 150 ■f 10 ioo I < N fS l^ rn n N ^ ^ IO N « © p« D. ,Q. O. fau H< U* 2 E P G UUHHO.Ci. 2 ho Figure 44: N14 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task; IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task 96 Expert Conductors Each expert conductor was employed as a Professor of Music in a major U.S. college or university at the time of this study. They all had conducted on numerous recordings, had contributed to numerous publications regarding conducting and music education, and were nationally and internationally recognized as major wind ensemble conductors. In general, all expert conductors appeared confident, relaxed, and eager upon arrival to the clinic. There was no expressed concern about the impending tasks; some experts even needed to be reminded of which excerpts they were about to conduct. During the musical tasks, the expert conductors shared the following tendencies; (1) Musical imagery: showed subdued facial expression and minute motor movements in the neck, shoulders, and fingers during imagery (aural and kinesthetic) tasks. Breathing patterns changed frequently. (2) Conducting: gestured equally with the right and left hands. Frequently altered beat pattern size and shape. EXPERT CONDUCTOR D Research Question #1: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between an Eyes-Closed resting position (baseline) and active musical tasks (imagedand actual)? Baseline Condition (El. E2): Figures 45 and 46. In the theta frequency (Figure 45), all baseline tasks are very similar with the exception of a high peak in the occipital area for Baseline Kinesthetic. Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery and Baseline Eyes-Closed are generally at the lowest microvolt levels. Baseline Auditory and Baseline Auditory Imagery are virtually identical in the parietal and occipital areas. All 97 tasks peak at Fz, Cz, T5, and 01. In the alpha frequency (Figure 46), Baseline Auditory Imagery, Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery, and Baseline Kinesthetic are virtually identical throughout the scalp. Baseline Auditory is similar, but with strong peaks at T5 and 01. There is a dramatic increase in parietal and occipital alpha for BEC. Auditory Condition (E3. E5): Figures 47 and 49. There is a difference between the auditory tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 47) and alpha (Figure 49) frequencies. All three auditory tasks deviate negatively from BEC throughout the entire scalp in both frequencies, but the deviation is most significant in occipital alpha. The auditory tasks Listen Only, Listen/Conduct, and Listen/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In prefrontal, parietal, and occipital theta, Listen/Conduct shows the highest microvolt levels of the three auditory tasks. All tasks peak at Fz, Cz, T5, and 01. In the alpha frequency, Listen/Conduct also shows higher microvolt values in the occipital area than either Listen Only or Listen/Image. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for Baseline Eyes-Closed, and only a slight increase in occipital alpha for the auditory tasks. Auditory Imagery Condition (E4. E 6 ): Figures 48 and 50. There is a difference between the auditory imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 48) and alpha (Figure 50) frequencies. All three auditory imagery tasks deviate negatively from BEC throughout the entire scalp in both frequencies, but the deviation is most significant in parietal and occipital alpha. The auditory imagery tasks Image Only, Image/Conduct, and Image/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, Image/Conduct shows slightly higher microvolt levels than the other two auditory 98 imagery tasks throughout the scalp, but most significantly in the prefrontal and occipital areas. All tasks peak at Fz, Cz, T5, and 01. In the alpha frequency, Image/Conduct also shows slightly higher microvolt values in the occipital area than either Image Only or Image/Image. There is a strong increase in occipital alpha for BEC, while there is only a slight increase in occipital alpha for the auditory imagery tasks. Kinesthetic Condition fE7. E91: Figures 51 and 53. There is a difference between the kinesthetic tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 51) and alpha (Figure 53) frequencies. Both kinesthetic tasks deviate negatively from BEC throughout the entire scalp in both frequencies, but the deviation is most significant in parietal and occipital alpha. The kinesthetic tasks Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct are virtually identical in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, the kinesthetic tasks peak at T5 and Ol. In the alpha frequency, the kinesthetic tasks show a slight increase in the occipital area. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (E 8 . E10): Figures 52 and 54. There is a difference between the kinesthetic imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 52) and alpha (Figure 54) frequencies. Both kinesthetic imagery tasks deviate negatively from BEC throughout the entire scalp in both frequencies, but the deviation is most significant in parietal and occipital alpha. The kinesthetic imagery tasks Listen/Image and Image/Image are virtually identical in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, the kinesthetic imagery tasks peak at Fz, Cz, T5, and 01. In the alpha frequency, the kinesthetic imagery tasks show a slight increase in the occipital area. 99 EXPERT D BEC BAU * 40 BIA BKI BIK o.£<[o.u.u.tt.u,Et-.UUUHH0.a.0uH Scalp Sites Figure 45: El - Baseline Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC BAU 2 40 BIA a 30 BKI BIK ^ N (S h W ,N tf> N ^ SC ©. .a . Q. £ £ u- 2 ES P o U 5 ? H cu Ou CL H o S s Scalp Sites Figure 46: E2 - Baseline Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; BAU = Baseline Auditory Task; BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BKI = Baseline Kinesthetic Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task EXPERT D 45 BEC 3 25 I* LO ■s 20 LC £> — NrJr-< Figure 47: E3 - Auditory Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC > 30 25 o. ,o. * 2 . £ £ tu2 SPG 8 Scalp Sites Figure 48: E4 - Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; D = Image/Image Task 101 EXPERT D 80 70 60 73 BEC > > 50 'W'A LO es 4 0 t LC 30 x> < 20 10 0 AAafcftlfcB.Ej-UUUHHO.a-fch oN ofN Scalp Sites Figure 49: E5 - Auditory Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 80 70 60 BEC 50 40 30 10 0 T S'Nr'P.NSfOpmNTrtinffi Nrfvo AAat.li.li.fcEi-yUUHHO.Ii.fcH Scalp Sites Figure 50: E 6 - Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; II = Image/Image Task 102 EXPERT D O(/) BEC S LC I a3 s B.^ftli.ii.li.li.Sl-uUUhhO.fij.HOOO Scalp Sites Figure 51: E7 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values > 30 BEC o.ap,U«U-tt.(JuB-HUUUHHa.d.ft.HOOO Scalp Sites Figure 52: E 8 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; D = Image/Image Task 103 EXPERT D BEC £ 40 LC Scalp Sites Figure 53: E9 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 80 70 60 50 BEC I 40 73 a 30 20 10 0 ftO.&li.ijL.lL.li.EI-gUUhHtt.fca.H 5 Figure 54: E10 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/linage Task; II = Image/Image Task EXPERT D ------■— BEC - LO IO ------0— LC I ------*— n bcL2.£E;££2£PGu3?££:£2i£o<5o U* lb Scalp Sites Figure 55: El 1 - All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC LO Io. 40 LC ^.P-p.U.U.U-.U.EHUUUHHOuft.euHOOO Scalp Sites Figure 56: El2 - All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; IO = Image Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; □ ; Image/Image Task 105 EXPERT D BIA > 40 BIK 9 30 3 20 8 x> p.p.Q.U.li.tt.B.Et-UUUf-'HOuOuo.HOOO Scalp Sites Figure 57: El3 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 45 40 35 BIA > 30 BIK • I 25 20 15 10 5 0 £ 8 .£E; £ £2 £ P G S5 PS 2 £ 2 S s s Scalp Sites Figure 58: E14 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task; IO = Image Only Task; IC : Image/Conduct Task; U = Listen/Image Task 106 Research Question #2: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between types and levels o f imagery (aural, kinesthetic, combined)? All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition (El 1. E12): Figures 55 and 5£. In both the theta (Figure 55) and alpha (Figure 56) frequencies, all music tasks are grouped together regardless of the use of imagery or no imagery. The music variable shows lower microvolt levels than baseline in both theta and alpha. Listen/Conduct shows higher microvolt levels than the other music tasks in prefrontal, parietal, and occipital theta, and in occipital alpha. Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (E13. E141: Figures 57 and 58. In both the theta (Figure 57) and alpha (figure 58) frequencies, all music tasks are grouped together and all baseline tasks are grouped together regardless of the use of kinesthetic or auditory imagery. The music variable shows lower parietal and occipital microvolt levels than baseline in both theta and alpha. Image Only and the Listen/Image are virtually identical in the theta frequency, and they are consistently at the lowest microvolt levels throughout the scalp. Baseline Auditory Imagery, Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery, and Image/Conduct have similar contours but varying microvolt levels. EXPERT CONDUCTOR E Research Question #1: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between an Eyes-Closed resting position (baseline) and active musical tasks (imaged and actual)? Baseline Condition (El. E2): Figures 59 and 60. In the theta frequency (Figure 59), all baseline tasks are virtually identical with the exception of Baseline Auditory shows the highest microvolt levels of all tasks in the central, parietal, and 107 occipital areas. All tasks peak at Fz, Cz, and Pz. In the alpha frequency (Figure 60), all baseline tasks are also virtually identical. Baseline Auditory is at a slightly higher microvolt level than the other tasks at T5, P3, and Pz. There is an increase in occipital alpha for all tasks. Auditory Condition (E3. E51: Figures 61 and 63. There is a slight difference between the auditory tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 61) and alpha (Figure 63) frequencies. Listen Only and Listen/Image deviate negatively from BEC in both frequency bands, but the deviation is most significant in parietal and occipital theta. The Listen/Conduct task shows slightly higher microvolt levels than BEC in prefrontal and occipital theta, and throughout the scalp in the alpha frequency. The auditory tasks Listen Only, Listen/Conduct, and Listen/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. Throughout the theta and alpha frequencies, Listen/Conduct shows the highest microvolt levels of the three auditory tasks. In the theta frequency, all tasks peak at Fz, Cz, Pz, and 01. There is an increase in occipital alpha for all tasks, but the most significant increase is in the Listen/Conduct task. Auditory Imagery Condition (E4. E 6 ~): Figures 62 and 64. There is a slight difference between the auditory imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 62) and alpha (Figure 64) frequencies. Image Only and Image/Image deviate negatively from BEC in both frequency bands, but the deviation is most significant in parietal and occipital theta. The Image/Conduct task shows slightly higher microvolt levels than BEC in prefrontal and occipital theta, and throughout the scalp in the alpha frequency. The auditory imagery tasks Image Only, Image/Conduct, and Image/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. Throughout the theta and alpha 108 frequencies, Image/Conduct shows the highest microvolt levels of the three auditory imagery tasks. In the theta frequency, all tasks peak at Fz, Cz, Pz, and 01. There is an increase in occipital alpha for all tasks, but the most significant increase is in the Image/Conduct task. Kinesthetic Condition (E7. E91; Figures 65 and 67. There is a very slight difference between the kinesthetic tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 65) and alpha (Figure 67) frequencies. Both kinesthetic tasks show slightly higher microvolt levels than BEC in the prefrontal and occipital areas of both frequencies, but the deviation is most significant in occipital alpha. The kinesthetic tasks Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct are virtually identical in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, all tasks peak at Fz, Cz, Pz, and 01. In the alpha frequency, there is an increase in the occipital area for all tasks, but the most significant increase occurs in the kinesthetic tasks. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (E 8 . E10): Figures 6 6 and 6 8 . There is a slight difference between the kinesthetic imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 6 6 ) and alpha (Figure 6 8 ) frequencies. Listen/Image and Image/Image deviate negatively from BEC in both frequency bands, but the deviation is most significant in parietal and occipital theta, and parietal alpha. The kinesthetic imagery tasks Listen/Image and Image/Image are virtually identical in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, all tasks peak at Fz, Cz, Pz, and 01. In the alpha frequency, all tasks show an increase in the occipital area. Research Question #2: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between types and levels o f imagery (aural, kinesthetic, combined)? BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; BAU = Baseline Auditory Task; BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BIG = BIG Task; Auditory of Imagery Baseline = BIA Task; Auditory Baseline = BAU Task; Closed Eyes Baseline = BEC Baseline Kinesthetic Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task Kinesthetic of Imagery Baseline = BIK Task; Kinesthetic Baseline Absolute alpha (pv Values) Absolute theta (pv Values) 20 25 30 35 40 45 10 15 50 0 5 (g.(g>£.U.U.U.u.(i.|-uUUHHcLo-fl.HOOO Figure E2 60:- Baseline Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values Figure- Baseline El 59: Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp EXPERTE ------□— ■— O— □— 0— ■— BIK BKI BIA BAU BEC BIK BKI BIA BAU BEC 109 IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; □ = Image/Image Task Task; Image/Image = Listen/Image □ = Task; LI =Image/Conduct Task; IC Task; Listen/Conduct = Only LC Image = IO Task; Only Listen = LO Task; Closed Eyes Baseline = BEC Absolute theta (nv Values) > •a I s a 5. V 9 9 20 30 35 25 10 15 0 5 Figure E4 62:-Auditory Imagery Conditionin Absolute Theta Microvolt Values Figure E3 61: - Auditory Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values U P H P O U U P £ Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp EXPERT EXPERT E >n u > o- o> eu n ; j h o o o -D LI LC O ♦ LO BEC 110 IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; □ = Image/Image Task =Image/Image □ Task; Image/Conduct = IC Task; Only =Image IO BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task: LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; LJ = Listen/linage Task; Listen/linage =LJ Task; Listen/Conduct = LC Task; Only Listen = LO Task: Closed Eyes Baseline = BEC Absolute alpha (pv Values) Absolute alpha (pv Values) 20 25 10 15 20 25 10 15 0 5 0 5 Figure E 64: Figure E5- 63: Auditory Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 6 - Auditory Imagery Conditionin Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp EXPERT E EXPERT -a o— n o— IC -♦— -Q O * ------BEC LO BEC LI LC 10 EXPERT E BEC - o - LC - ♦ - IC *■* N (N (N n N ^ m m N Tt yO «-< N (S U>ft.p.ftEII.fcSEhuoOHhfctShOOO w |L Scalp Sites Figure 65: E7 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC 3 20 -O LI n —&p.p,ti«U.tt.U.Ef-UUUHHft.ft.a.HOOO N fsr^rnN T rQ ornm N T t't'O ffiN ^’ S5 ’-' JS ra Scalp Sites Figure 6 6 : E8 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; II = Image/Image Task 113 EXPERT E BEC LC 5 Scalp Sites Figure 67: E9 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 16 14 12 10 BEC 8 6 J 4 2 0 TS NfNt^rnNTj-oorrirriNTrTr/lrfiNTr^i^. N <%l Scalp Sites Figure 6 8 : E10 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; II = Image/Image Task BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; IO = Image Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task: II = II Task: Listen/Conduct = LC Task Task; Only Image = Image/Image IO Task; Only Listen = LO Task; Closed Eyes Baseline = BEC Absolute alpha (pv Values) Absolute theta (pv Values) 20 25 10 15 0 5 L h b IL a. ,a *o. Figure E12- All 70: Imagery Conditionvs. No Imagery Condition Figure 69: El Figure1 El - All69: Imagery Condition vs.No Imagery Condition £ £ £ £ £ £ 2 in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values £P u u 3 in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp EXPERT E o rM ------0— ------D- — □ LC n 10 LO BEL n LC LO 10 BEC 114 EXPERT E BIA -O- BIK 10 IC LI ,o,a,O.U-U.U.U.Ef-UUUHHO-a,ft.HOOO Uh U* Scalp Sites Figure 71: E13 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 25 BIA BIK 15 10 5 0 N Tj- T* W) N Tt v© UUHHO.C-2H- Scalp Sites Figure 72: E14 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task; 10 = Image Only Task; IC ■■ Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task 116 All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition (E ll. E12): Figures 69 and 2Q. In both the theta (Figure 69) and alpha (Figure 70) frequencies, Listen/Conduct and Baseline Eyes-Closed consistently show the highest microvolt levels. Listen Only, Image Only, and Image/Image are very similar in all areas with the exception of occipital alpha. Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (E l3. E14): Figures 71 and 72. All imagery tasks are very similar throughout both the theta (Figure 71) and alpha (Figure 72) frequencies. There appears to be no consistency of microvolt patterns across imagery types. In the theta frequency, Image Only and Listen/Image are very similar throughout the scalp, and both show the greatest divergence from Baseline Auditory Imagery, Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery, and Image/Conduct in the parietal and occipital areas. Image Only and Listen/Image are also very similar in the alpha frequency throughout the frontal, central, temporal, and parietal areas. The greatest difference between all tasks in the alpha frequency occurs in the occipital area. EXPERT CONDUCTOR F Research Question #1: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between an Eyes-Closed resting position (baseline) and active musical tasks (imagedand actual)? Baseline Condition (El. E2): Figures 73 and 74. In the theta frequency (Figure 73), all baseline tasks are very similar with the exception of the prefrontal and frontal areas. Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery shows the highest prefrontal microvolt levels, and Baseline Kinesthetic shows the highest frontal microvolt levels. All tasks peak at Fz, Cz, and Pz. 117 All baseline tasks are very similar in the alpha frequency (Figure 74) as well, with the exception of Baseline Kinesthetic, which is consistently lower than all other tasks. Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery shows the highest prefrontal and frontal microvolt levels, and Baseline Auditory Imagery shows the highest parietal microvolt levels. There is an increase at 01 for Baseline Eyes-Closed, Baseline Kinesthetic, and Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery. Auditory Condition (E3. E5); Figures 75 and 77. There is a difference between the auditory tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 75) and alpha (Figure 77) frequencies. All three auditory tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the occipital area in both frequency bands, and in the parietal area in the theta frequency only. Listen/Conduct and Listen/Image show higher microvolt values than BEC in prefrontal theta. All auditory tasks show higher microvolt levels than BEC in prefrontal, frontal, and central alpha. With the exception of prefrontal theta, Listen Only and Listen/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. Listen/Conduct follows a similar contour, but shows higher microvolt levels in prefrontal, frontal, and occipital theta, and lower levels in prefrontal, frontal and occipital alpha. In the theta frequency, all tasks except Listen/Conduct peak at Fz, Cz, and Pz. A slight increase in occipital alpha occurs during BEC; the occipital alpha levels decrease in each of the auditory tasks. Auditory Imagery Condition (E4. E6): Figures 76 and 78. There is a difference between the auditory imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 76) and alpha (Figure 78) frequencies. All three auditory imagery tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands. Aside from Image/Conduct, prefrontal and frontal theta is similar for all tasks. All auditory imagery tasks show higher microvolt levels than BEC in prefrontal, frontal, 118 and central alpha. The auditory imagery tasks Image Only and Image/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. Image/Conduct shows similarities to Image Only and Image/Image in the alpha frequency, but shows dramatic microvolt peaks in prefrontal and frontal theta. In the theta frequency, all tasks except Image/Conduct peak at Fz, Cz, and Pz. A slight increase in occipital alpha occurs during Baseline Eyes-Closed, while the occipital alpha levels decrease in each of the auditory imagery tasks. Kinesthetic Condition (El. E91: Figures 79 and 81. There is a difference between the kinesthetic tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 79) and alpha (Figure 81) frequencies. Both tasks deviate negatively from BEC in the parietal and occipital areas in both frequency bands. All kinesthetic tasks also show higher microvolt levels than BEC in the prefrontal, frontal, and central areas in both frequency bands. The kinesthetic tasks Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, Image/Conduct shows a slightly higher microvolt level than Listen/Conduct throughout the scalp. Baseline Eyes-Closed peaks at Fz, Cz, and Pz, while the kinesthetic tasks show similar peaks at F7 and F8 . In the alpha frequency, Image/Conduct also shows a slightly higher microvolt level than Listen/Conduct throughout the scalp. A slight increase in occipital alpha occurs during BEC, while the occipital alpha levels decrease in each of the kinesthetic tasks. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (E 8 . E10); Figures 80 and 82. There is a difference between the kinesthetic imagery tasks and Baseline Eyes-Closed in both the theta (Figure 80) and alpha (Figure 82) frequencies. Both tasks deviate negatively from 119 BEC in the occipital area in both frequency bands, and also in the parietal area for the theta band only. Prefrontal and frontal theta is similar for all tasks, while prefrontal, frontal, and central alpha is significantly higher during the kinesthetic imagery tasks than during BEC. The kinesthetic imagery tasks Listen/Image and Image/Image are very similar in both the theta and alpha frequencies. In the theta frequency, Listen/Image shows a slightly higher microvolt level than Image/Image in the prefrontal area. All tasks peak at Fz, Cz, and Pz. In the alpha frequency, Listen/Image shows a higher microvolt level than Image/Image in the prefrontal and frontal areas. A slight increase in occipital alpha occurs during Baseline Eyes-Closed, while the occipital alpha levels decrease in each of the kinesthetic imagery tasks. Research Question #2: Does the functional brain processing o f conductors differ between types and levels o f imagery (aural, kinesthetic, combined)? All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition (El 1. E l21: Figures 83 and 84. In both the theta (Figure 83) and alpha (Figure 84) frequencies, all music tasks are grouped together regardless of the use of imagery or no imagery. Two exceptions to this occur in prefrontal theta. Listen Only shows the lowest microvolt levels in this area, and Listen/Conduct shows the highest microvolt levels. Listen/Conduct also lacks the peaks all other tasks show at Cz and Pz. The music variable shows lower parietal and occipital microvolt levels than baseline in both theta and alpha. The music variable produced consistently higher prefrontal and frontal microvolt levels than baseline in alpha only. Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (E l3. E l41: Figures 85 and 8 6 . In both the theta (Figure 85) and alpha (Figure 8 6 ) frequencies, all music tasks are grouped together and all baseline tasks are grouped together regardless EXPERT F BEC -o BAU *------BIA O BKI * BIK m k xf ^ 1^1 rn n \0 N CN £ £ £ EI£ E P U U U H H S< £ H O O O Scalp Sites Figure 73: El - Baseline Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 300 250 BAU =L> BIA BKI 100 J < BIK — NN!'r',N?fPOmmN^jt!nnNS,!OirNM ^.^^.h.U.u.u.EHcjUUHHeu&.euHOOO Scalp Sites Figure 74: E2 - Baseline Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; BAU = Baseline Auditoiy Task; BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BIG = Baseline Kinesthetic Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task 121 EXPERT F ■------BEC -□ LO “♦ LC -0 ------LI Scalp Sites Figure 75: E3 - Auditory Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 60 C/5 8 BEC !> 40 > a. 0 ao.&li.ii.B.ii.EI-uUUHha.tt-a.t- Scalp Sites Figure 76: E4 - Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; IO = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; □ = Image/Image Task 122 EXPERT F 500 450 ^ 400 I 350 BEC > > 300 3 LO 5 250 .& LC 200 5 150 6 < 100 - q.h& £ £ £2 £ uOOhho-<1-q.h& Scalp Sites Figure 77: E5 - Auditory Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 450 400 g 350 BEC > 300 > ~ 250 H 200 Si 1 150 S 3 100 m N >o *— U U O H i—6- 0. 0. H O Scalp Sites Figure 78: E6 - Auditory Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; 10 = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; II = Image/Image Task 123 EXPERT F 60 50 oa •a > 40 A> 30 ■3a Si a 20 ■Os < 10 0 jg.jO-jg.t.&.U-fcSHUUUHHa-Q.OuHOOO Scalp Sites Figure 79: E7 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 73 35 BEC i 3oo= a -Q- U n H 1 I 1---1---1---1---1---1---1---1---1---1---1---1---•---1---1---1---1 1— I) p) 1^ m N -Tt 00 {*■) C^l N It in (f| N IC -■ N N ILftAaEtfcfcShUUUHHtta.HOOO M Un Scalp Sites Figure 80: E 8 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; II = Image/Image Task EXPERT F 450 400 t/i 350 8 ■a 300 > BEC 250 CQ LC I 200 & a iso s < 100 cLB.'a.EESSEPGS 3 SH p H r o- cl ?a, (-2 or 6 S Scalp Sites Figure 81: E9 - Kinesthetic Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values 0 -J 1---1---1---1---1---1---h——1-- 1---1---1---1---1---1---1---1---1---1---(---1 £'t£‘ £ , '^UU?->t" HCu H000 Scalp Sites Figure 82: E10 - Kinesethetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; LI = Listen/Image Task; B = Image/Image Task 125 EXPERT F BEC -0 - LO § 25 - ♦ - 10 LC n NNr-n.Ntw (JU tf< UU Scalp Sites Figure 83: El 1 - All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values 450 400 1 350 BEC > 300 LO 250 # 200 1 150 LC 8 5 100 50 0 —1 sjN hnN tpom n n tt tt vi rn n Tt m B.a.p.U.b.u.ibtx.HuUL)HHa.o.a.H Scalp Sites Figure 84: E12 - All Imagery Condition vs. No Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BEC = Baseline Eyes Closed Task; LO = Listen Only Task; 10 = Image Only Task; LC = Listen/Conduct Task; D ■ Image/Image Task 126 EXPERT F > 40 3 20 Scalp Sites Figure 85: E13 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Theta Microvolt Values BIA BIK 8 150 0 -I— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i— i n 04 |— cn n ^ oo m m n ^ ^ 10 m fsi Tt — n m ^ |ag,CE,ii1EEhuuyH H fcfcSH ooo Scalp Sites Figure 86: E14 - Auditory Imagery Condition vs. Kinesthetic Imagery Condition in Absolute Alpha Microvolt Values BIA = Baseline Imagery of Auditory Task; BIK = Baseline Imagery of Kinesthetic Task; 10 = Image Only Task; IC = Image/Conduct Task; l i = Listen/Image Task 127 of the use of kinesthetic or auditory imagery. The music variable shows lower parietal and occipital microvolt levels than baseline in both theta and alpha. The music variable shows higher prefrontal and frontal microvolt levels than baseline in both theta and alpha, with the exception of Baseline Kinesthetic Imagery in the theta frequency. In the theta frequency, Image Only and Listen/Image are virtually identical. Image/Conduct shows much higher microvolt levels than all other tasks in prefrontal and frontal theta. In the alpha frequency, all music tasks are very similar in the central, parietal, and occipital areas. Listen/Image shows the highest microvolt levels in the prefrontal and frontal areas. Presentation of the Data: Group Analysis Research Question #3: Do the junctional brain processes o f expert conductors differ from the functional brain processes of novice conductors while performing and imaging identical musical tasks? General comparison of absolute power theta and aloha eranhs. In general, all baseline tasks for all subjects were relatively similar and substantially different from the music tasks. This indicates that the microvolt differences that were observed were most likely due to the presence of a musical component, both imaged and non-imaged. Both novices and experts showed a high degree of individual agreement between the Listen Only Task and the Listen/Image Task (see N3, N5, E3, and E5). The effect of kinesthetic imagery on the brain’s electrical output was apparently minimal. A similar result was found when the Image Only Task was compared to the Image/Image Task; the kinesthetic imagery component was not evident based on the microvolt values (see N4, N6, E4, and E6). However, the addition of motor movement to both auditory and auditory imagery conditions did show a substantial 128 change in some subjects (e.g., Figures 19 - 22). The conducting component in Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct seemed to be responsible for the increase in occipital microvolt levels, causing those tasks to more closely resemble the Baseline Eyes-Closed Task. Both novices and experts also showed a high degree of agreement between the Listen/Image Task and the Image/Image task, indicating an ability among all subjects to mentally recreate the recorded excerpt based on the electrical output of the brain (see N8, N10, E8, and E10). Characteristics of relative power beta graphs. Twelve graphs representing each of the study tasks (including the Baseline Eyes-Open Task) allowed a direct comparison between novice and expert conductors using relative beta percentages. Figures 87 - 92 represent the percentage of beta waves present in each of the six subjects during the six baseline tasks, and Figures 93 - 98 represent the percentage of beta waves present during the six musical tasks. A high percentage of beta would most likely indicate a high level of cognitive activity and mental intensity. The range in beta across all tasks and subjects was from a low of 3.0% in Expert F (Listen/Conduct @ F8) to a high of 40.6% in Expert E (Image/Image @ 01). Upon examination of the graphs, two clusters of subjects became apparent throughout all tasks. Expert D and Expert E consistently showed the highest levels of beta, while all novices and Expert F consistently showed the lowest levels of beta. The separation became more evident during music listening tasks and music imaging tasks that did not include a kinesthetic component (see Figures 93,94,97, and 98). During those music tasks which did include a kinesthetic component (Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct), as well as all baseline tasks, no pattern of dominance emerged among subjects. Percentage of beta present Percentage of beta present 25 20 30 35 10 15 20 10 15 25 30 0 5 0 5 , i | t f , a , , p , iue8: BaselineFigureEyes 88: Closed Task inRelative Beta MicrovoltValues Figure Baseline 87: Eyes Open Task in Relative Beta Microvolt Values Itli.li.EhuuuhhS.O'fi.HO Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp u flu H H 0 * t H O O O O O E2 J5! ST H 5® ft- ? ------0— ------— □ A— ■— O— — a *— A— — * ■— — • Expert E Expert Expert F Expert D Expert Novice B Novice Novice C A Novice Expert F Expert Expert E Expert Expert D Expert C Novice Novice B Novice Novice A Novice 129 Percentage of beta present Percentage of beta present 20 iue9: Baseline ImageryFigure of Auditory90: inTask Relative BetaMicrovolt Values L IL(L w * o.fp-fp.U-li-u-ouu-HuuuHHO-ci-a.HOOO Figure Baseline 89: Auditory Task in Relative Beta Microvolt Values Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp ------— □ &— ■— — * — 0 1 » *— — 0 - □ Cs— «— — ■ — Expert F Expert Expert E Expert D Expert B Novice Novice C Novice A Novice Expert F Expert Expert E Expert Expert D Expert Novice C Novice Novice B Novice Novice A Novice 130 Percentage of beta present Percentage of beta present 20 25 iue9: BaselineImagery Figure of Kinesthetic 92: Task in Relative Beta MicrovoltValues 10 30 35 15 0 5 U» tu, tt, , S.o,*2. Figure Baseline 91: Kinesthetic Task in Relative Beta Microvolt Values Scalp Sites Scalp 3 JS 2 £ 2 P o o o S < N ------— 6 — ------£ * «— □— 0— ■— □— *— 0— ■— •— ------Expert F Expert Expert E Expert D Expert Novice C Novice Novice B Novice Novice A Novice Expert F Expert E Expert Expert D Expert C Novice Novice A Novice Novice B Novice 131 Percentage of beta present Percentage of beta present 20 25 40 30 10 35 15 20 40 25 30 35 10 15 0 5 0 5 ..E i2P«3SE£aEI25fiS fi!2EP0«33iSPE M S.S.aEE m U m UU iue9: Image OnlyFigure Task in 94:Relative Beta Microvolt Values Figure Listen 93: Only Task in Relative Beta Microvolt Values Lu-U.tL.E|-uuuHI-tt.“-a.h Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp ------6 * O— □— ■— #— A— □— *— ■— 0— — • ------Expert F Expert E Expert Expert D Expert Novice C Novice Novice B Novice Novice A Novice Expert E Expert Expert F Expert Expert D Expert Novice C Novice Novice B Novice A Novice 132 Percentage of beta present Percentage of beta present 20 25 40 30 35 10 15 10 0 5 ♦ £.£'£'ti-H-u,u.EhuuuHHeua.a.[-000 tuu. n. , o.O, o r i ' / i f T r T N m n r o o f T N i ' r ' - t N t N N N N N iue9: Image/ConductFigure TaskRelative in 96: Beta Microvolt Values Figure 95: Listen/Conduct Task in Relative Beta Microvolt Values Microvolt Beta Relative in Task Listen/Conduct 95: Figure Scalp Sites Scalp Scalp Sites Scalp t t n ^O — n cm ------0— ------A— — □ *— O— £s ■— ♦— □— *— ■— ♦— — Expert F Expert E Expert Expert D Expert Novice C Novice Novice B Novice Expert E Expert Novice A Novice Expert F Expert Expert D Expert C Novice Novice A Novice Novice B Novice 133 Percentage of beta present Percentage of beta present 40 25 45 30 35 20 40 15 25 10 10 15 30 35 0 0 5 5 Jj - fj . . ix. a. u. a|ft|ftli.li,fcli.Ei-uUUI-ho.a.2hoOO |a p , . p U ( < tEHUUUHHf«f-i O O O ft-aiH ,p.,p.,p,U,(i Research Question #4: Do conductors show evidence o f an evoked potential waveform in the two seconds surrounding a significant musical event (one which requires a specific response or gesture from the conductor) found in a given composition? Preliminary findings related to the EP waveform. Although the results from this portion of the study were inconclusive, preliminary findings will be reported here. Three music listening tasks were examined for evidence of the evoked potential waveform: (a) Listen Only, (b) Listen/Conduct, and (c) Listen/Image. During each task, pulse markers identified moments where conductor awareness should have been enhanced due to the structural requirements of the composition. The two seconds of ongoing EEG which surrounded each pulse marker was extracted and pooled for each task for each subject. The three individual novice files were then pooled to create a novice “grand mean” for each task; the three individual expert files were also filed to create an expert “grand mean” for each task. The Listen/Conduct task was eliminated due to excessive artifact, leaving two grand mean files for each experience group (Listen Only and Listen/Image). The following was true for both novices and experts during both the Listen Only task and the Listen/Image task. Two weak, negative EP waveforms maximal over the central and frontal scalp sites were discovered in the proximity of the marked event in both tasks. The first EP occurred between 200 and 300 msec before the marked event, and the second EP occurred between 275 and 400 msec after the marked event. While the amplitude of the waveforms was quite low for all subjects (between -1.2 and -4.0 (iv), it was at least twice the size for experts as for novices in both tasks. The size of the expert waveforms did not change significantly between tasks, with the exception of the -4.0 (iv EP discovered post-stimulus during the Listen/Image task. The size of 136 the novice waveforms did not change significantly between tasks. Summary The electrical brain activity of six conductors was measured as they participated in tasks of aural imagery, kinesthetic imagery, conducting imagery (a combination of aural and kinesthetic imagery), music listening, and conducting. Each task produced a unique signature based on fluctuating microvolt levels at twenty-one scalp sites. These signatures (or patterns) were converted to a line graph format to facilitate comparisons between tasks. Each conductor is represented by fourteen graphs (seven in the theta frequency band and seven in the alpha frequency band). Each graph combines from three to five tasks based on cognitive activity and task type. For example, all baseline tasks were combined into a Baseline Condition graph, all tasks which included an auditory component were combined into an Auditory Condition graph, all tasks which included a kinesthetic component were combined into a Kinesthetic Condition graph, etc. Each graph was examined in detail for each conductor to identify differences between musical and non-musical tasks, and/or between imagery and non-imagery tasks. Novice conductors were compared to expert conductors in three ways: (a) a general comparison of trends found in the fourteen graphs mentioned above, (b) a direct comparison of the percentage of beta frequency found in each of the study tasks, and (c) a report of the preliminary findings related to the evoked potential waveform. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Introduction Understanding the brain’s role in the creation of and reaction to music is one key to the understanding of music itself. While this is an immensely complex puzzle which will most likely baffle researchers for many years to come, the observation of measurable differences that occur in the brain as it processes the musical experience can shed light on one small piece of that puzzle. Since music can be perceived both as an external phenomenon through the perception of pitch, rhythm, timbre, etc., and as an internal phenomenon through the process of mental imagery, both types of experience should be examined. While all musicians perceive music both externally and internally, conductors are unusual in then- extensive use of mental imagery, and thus are the focus of this study. Conductors have no vehicle except the imagination in which to experiment and refine their vision or “schema” of the finished musical product. However, the study of conducting tends to focus on the external experience of hearing and appropriately adjusting an ensemble with physical gesture, quite often ignoring the equally important development of an internal schema. Both aspects are important and vital to the growth of the conductor. It is difficult, if not impossible, to objectively measure a conductor’s ability to mentally recreate a piece of music. Subjective reports by the conductor are not sufficient It may be hypothesized that a conductor has the ability to mentally recreate a piece of music if his or her functional (cognitive) brain processes during actual listening 137 138 and conducting are the same or similar to his or her functional brain processes during mental imagery. It is possible to measure certain functional brain processes related to cognition using an electroencephalograph. The electroencephalograph can record the brain’s electrical activity across the scalp, and has been found to be an adequate reflection of the processing of music and musical imagery (Petsche et al„ 1988). Purpose of the Study The primary purpose of this study was to assess the potential relationship between mental imagery and conducting by comparing the functional (cognitive) brain processes of a conductor engaged in imagery (related to conducting) to the functional brain processes of that same conductor engaged in the act of conducting. A secondary purpose was to describe the differences in the functional brain processes between novice conductors and expert conductors while they were performing identical musical tasks involving conducting and mental imagery. Finally, it was also hoped that the data collected during this study would reveal a “cognitive road map” of musical perception as it occurs within a specific composition, through the examination of functional brain processing at significant musical moments. The following research questions were considered: 1. Does the functional brain processing of conductors differ between an eyes- closed resting position (baseline) and active musical tasks (imaged and actual)? 2. Does the functional brain processing of conductors differ between types of imagery (aural, kinesthetic, and combined)? 3. Do the functional brain processes of expert conductors differ significantly from the functional brain processes of novice conductors while performing and imaging identical musical tasks? 139 4. Do conductors show evidence of an evoked potential waveform (please see pp. 22 - 24 for a detailed explanation of the evoked potential waveform) in the two seconds surrounding a significant musical event found in a given composition? Methodology The focus of this study was to examine the functional brain processes of conductors participating in tasks of listening, imagery, and conducting using a computerized method of EEG collection. Six conductors were chosen to participate. Three conductors had less than one year of formal conducting training, and three conductors had conducted professionally for twenty years or more. Three digitized, recorded excerpts from the wind band literature were chosen to be studied and conducted. Six tasks combining listening, imagery, and conducting were completed for each of the three excerpts. Baseline measurements were compared with the measurements obtained during the musical tasks. The musical tasks included: (1) listening passively to the recorded example of wind band literature; (2) mentally recreating the example of wind band literature without any aural or visual stimulus; (3) listening to the recorded example of wind band literature and physically conducting as if standing in front of an ensemble; (4) imagining hearing an ensemble perform the example of wind band literature while physically conducting; (5) listening to the recorded example of wind band literature and mentally recreating the physical act of conducting; and (6) imagining hearing an ensemble perform the recorded example of wind band literature and mentally recreating the physical act of conducting. In summary, this study explored the differences in cognitive activity during musical tasks ranging from no imagery to complete imagery between subjects with varied conducting experience. 140 This study also examined the cognitive brain activity which occurred during specific moments in the music listening process, when conductor awareness was potentially heightened and a unique cognitive response indicative of a decision-making process could be expected. Using the Macintosh-based Macromind Director™ software program, pulse markers were embedded in the digitized recordings of the three wind band excerpts at the precise moment when one or more of the following significant events occurred: (a) the onset of a new musical phrase, (b) a dramatic shift in orchestration, (c) a dramatic shift in dynamic level, and/or (d) a significant entrance (cue). A total of 49 events were marked within the three excerpts. Two-second epochs were manually extracted from the ongoing EEG record at each of the 49 event pulse markers during those tasks which included music listening. The epochs were pooled to create a normative file for each of the listening tasks. These files were examined for evidence of an evoked potential waveform and compared between novice and expert groups. Summary of Results Individual Analysis. The following is a brief summary of individual subject results as they relate to Research Questions #1 and #2: 1. Novice Conductor A (Figures 3 -16): All music tasks reflected a 20 - 50 piv decrease from baseline in the parietal and occipital areas, and a 20 - 35 (iv increase from baseline in the prefrontal and frontal areas (most prominently in the alpha frequency - e.g., Figure 8). While the Baseline Kinesthetic Task showed the highest |iv values of all baseline tasks (Figure 3), this was not reflected during the conducting tasks (Figure 9). Music tasks shared a surprisingly similar pattern regardless of the presence or type of imagery (e.g., Figure 16). 141 2. Novice Conductor B (Figures 17 - 30): All music tasks except those which included physical conducting (Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct) reflected a 15 - 25 (xv decrease from baseline in the parietal and occipital areas (e.g., Figure 21). Unlike Novice Conductor A, Novice Conductor B showed an increase from baseline in the prefrontal and frontal areas only during those music tasks which included physical conducting (most prominently in the theta frequency - e.g., Figure 19). The Baseline Kinesthetic Task showed a similar pattern when compared to Baseline Eyes-Closed (Figures 17 and 18). Motionless music tasks reflected nearly identical patterns regardless of the presence or type of imagery (e.g., Figure 28). 3. Novice Conductor C (Figures 31-441: Novice Conductor C produced a much higher p.v level of alpha than either Novice Conductor A or B, but the patterns were similar. All music tasks reflected a decrease from baseline in the parietal and occipital areas, and an increase from baseline in the prefrontal and frontal areas (only slightly in the theta frequency - e.g., Figure 34; most prominently in the alpha frequency - e.g., Figure 35). Novice Conductor C showed an interesting peak during the Image/Image task at scalp site Fz (Figure 41). Patterns between music tasks were inconsistent; some music tasks showed great similarity (e.g., Figure 33), others were very dissimilar (e.g., Figure 37). 4. Expert Conductor D (Figures 45 - 581: All music tasks (except those in the theta frequency that included physical conducting) reflected a 20 - 50 |xv decrease from baseline in the parietal and occipital areas (e.g., Figure 47). Like Novice Conductor B (and unlike Novice Conductors A and C), there was not an increase in prefrontal or frontal p.v levels during music tasks; all music tasks remained at a lower (iv level than Baseline Eyes-Closed throughout the scalp (e.g., Figure 50). Two interesting peaks emerged at T5 and 01 (left hemisphere) for nearly all tasks; this pattern was most 142 prevalent in the Baseline Kinesthetic Task (Figure 45), and the Baseline Auditory Task (Figure 46). Nearly all music tasks reflected this peak pattern (e.g., Figure 48), but to a lesser degree. Motionless music tasks in the theta frequency reflected nearly identical patterns (e.g., Figure 55); all music tasks in the alpha frequency were also very similar (e.g., Figure 56). 5. Expert Conductor E: While Novice Conductor C produced levels in the alpha frequency that spanned from 25 - 250 pv, the alpha levels observed from Expert Conductor E extended from only 3 - 21 pv. Despite the small range, patterns were similar to Novice Conductor B and Expert Conductor D. Music tasks that did not include motion dropped away from baseline in the parietal and occipital areas; music tasks that did include motion showed higher pv values than baseline in the prefrontal area (e.g., Figures 61 and 62). Because of the small scale, pv contours across all tasks (baseline and music) seemed amazingly similar (e.g., Figure 72). However, certain music tasks did appear to show nearly identical patterns which were separate (if only slightly) from the Baseline Eyes-Closed Task (e.g., Figure 66). 6. Expert Conductor F: Like Novice Conductor C, Expert Conductor F produced extremely high alpha levels. Again, despite the pv level, patterns appeared to emerge that were shared with other subjects. Expert Conductor F showed very similar patterns to Novice Conductor A when comparing music tasks to baseline tasks. All music tasks reflected a decrease from baseline in the parietal and occipital areas, and most music tasks reflected an increase from baseline in the prefrontal and frontal areas (e.g., Figure 78). In the theta frequency, those conditions which included motion (LC and IC) showed the highest pv levels in the prefrontal and frontal areas (Figures 75 and 76). The Baseline Kinesthetic Task did not show a similar pattern of dominance (Figure 73). Like Novice Conductor C, patterns between music tasks were 143 inconsistent; some music tasks showed great similarity (e.g., Figure 80), others were very dissimilar (e.g., Figure 83). Group Analysis. The following is a brief summary of group results (novice and expert) as they relate to Research Questions #3 and #4: 1. Comparison of Musical TasksJEieures 3 - 86): Upon examination of all theta and alpha graphs, four interesting patterns emerged related to the music tasks; (a) all subjects showed a decrease from baseline in the parietal and occipital areas in all musical tasks; (b) all but one subject showed an increase from baseline in the prefrontal and frontal areas in one or more musical tasks; (c) in all experts and one novice, the presence of motor movement altered the p.v pattern in the music tasks to cause them to more closely resemble a baseline task; and (d) all subjects showed a surprising similarity between non-imaged and imaged tasks. 2. Comparison of Beta Percentages (Figures 87 - 98): As reported in Chapter 4 (pp. 128 - 134), the relative beta graphs were created to allow a direct comparison between novice and expert conductors. When relative power is used, inherent differences in (iv values can be ignored between subjects; in this case, the percentage of beta present during each task was recorded and compared. During the baseline tasks, the electrical output in the beta frequency ranged from approximately 5% - 35% for all subjects (Figures 87 - 92). However, an interesting division was noticeable in the music tasks that did not include motor movement (Figures 93,94,97, and 98). Experts D and E continued to produce from 15% - 35% beta (although Expert E reached 40% beta in the Image/Image task), while the novices and Expert F dropped to 5% - 20% beta during the same music tasks. Like the theta and alpha graphs discussed above, those music tasks that included motor movement (Listen/Conduct and Image/Conduct) tended to resemble the baseline tasks (Figures 95 144 and 96). 3. Evoked Potential Waveform: Results from this portion of the research were not significant. However, two weak, negative waveforms were located just before and just after the marked moments in the recorded musical examples. The first negative waveform resembled a contingent negative variation (CNV) waveform, which typically represents the anticipation of an event. The presence of such a waveform could possibly represent the anticipation of musical change; an expectancy pattern of this sort should ideally be present if the subject is familiar with the score. Experts produced a stronger pre-stimulus CNV than novices in both the Listen Only task and the Listen/Image task. The second negative waveform (post stimulus) resembled the N400 component of the Auditory Evoked Potential waveform (see p. 24), which is thought to be elicited after the perception of a semantic incongruity (e.g., an unexpected final word in a sentence). The presence of the N400 may represent the conductor’s cognitive adjustment to the musical changes that identified each marked moment In a recent study which examined the AEP response of musicians to harmonic and melodic intervals, results indicated that musical intervals may be viewed as meaningful words even when presented in isolation (Cohen, Granot, Pratt, & Bameah, 1993). Although this study focused on the P300 rather than the N400, it does indicate a possible relationship between music and language. The post stimulus waveform produced by experts was twice the size of the waveform produced by novices during the Listen Only task; it was four times the size of the novice waveform during the Listen/Image task. 145 Conclusions and Implications It is difficult to come to any conclusions based on the EEG data of only six subjects. However, upon close examination of the results, certain patterns will be pointed out. The following suppositions are based on the observation of the functioning brain processes of six unique human beings during a single assessment session. Suppression of theta and alpha. In the theta and alpha frequency bands, music tasks often appeared to suppress activity. Microvolt values were consistently lower in the temporal and occipital areas during music listening and imaging tasks than during all baseline tasks for all subjects. In the theta frequency, microvolt values were also lower in the frontal area during the majority of the music tasks for all subjects. In the alpha frequency, the subjects were divided: Novice B, Expert D, and Expert E showed lower frontal |Ltv levels than baseline, and Novice A, Novice C, and Expert F shower higher frontal (iv levels than baseline. It is possible that the suppression of one or more frequency bands could reflect a corresponding increase in another frequency band. The decreased levels of theta and alpha may have been accompanied by an increase in beta. The beta frequency band was not examined in detail in this study due to the presence of contaminating artifact. If artifact could be eliminated, an investigation of the beta frequency band may prove very interesting. In a recent study which examined the usefulness of the EEG as a tool for music research, the beta frequency band was found to be the most indicative of music processing (Petsche, Richter, von Stein, Etlinger, & Filz, 1993). The present study defined the beta band as 14 - 30 Hz; the Petsche study divided the beta band into three separate units: (a) beta 1:13-18 Hz, (b) beta 2: 18.5 - 24 Hz, and (c) beta 3: 24.5 - 31.5 Hz. Petsche suggested that the uppermost range of the beta band was the most 146 revealing regarding musical processing; he went on to suggest that essential information may be found in frequencies even above 32 Hz. Unfortunately, present technology limits that exploration. Increase in frontal alpha. The discussion above assumes that a decrease in alpha would reflect an increase in arousal. However, according to the Luria Model of Brain Functioning, the opposite is true. The Luria Model suggests that the frontal and prefrontal lobes of the brain comprise the “unit for the regulation and verification of activity,” and that an increase in alpha in this area represents an increase in executive functioning (Languis & Miller, 1992). Three of the six subjects showed strong frontal alpha in the music tasks, and weak frontal alpha in the baseline tasks. These subjects also showed a substantial drop in occipital alpha from baseline during the music tasks. This “X-shaped” pattern is especially clear in the results from Novice A (e.g., Figures 7 and 8). Motor movement. Many of the music tasks showed similar ^tv patterns in both novice and expert conductors despite the presence or type of imagery. However, when motor movement was combined with music tasks (i.e., conducting), the p.v patterns were frequently altered. Many times the addition of motor movement caused the pattern of the music task to more closely resemble baseline (i.e., lack of cognitive activity). See, for example, Figures 21 and 22. In some cases, the physical motion may have contributed to distorted readings, although EGG that displayed that type of artifact was edited out before FFT analysis took place. Also, the Baseline Kinesthetic task did not always reflect this tendency. Similarity across tasks. At the outset of this study, it was hypothesized that expert conductors should possess a more vivid sense of mental imagery than novice conductors, due to their experience, talent, hours of mental score study, etc. It was 147 therefore surprising to discover that all nearly all subjects produced similar p.v patterns between non-imaged music tasks and imaged music tasks. This becomes plainly apparent when comparing the Auditory Condition to the Auditory Imagery Condition (e.g., Figures 5 and 6), or the Kinesthetic Condition to the Kinesthetic Imagery Condition (e.g., Figures 9 and 10). While these similarities were quite evident in the theta and alpha frequency bands examined in this study, one should not assume that identical patterns would be found in the beta frequency. Due to contaminating artifact (especially in the temporal regions), the results from the beta frequency were not necessarily reliable. If techniques can be developed to eliminate or substantially reduce artifact, this may be an interesting area to explore in the future. Recommendations for Further Study The following recommendations are made based on the results of this study and the realistic limitations of brain research: 1. Narrow the focus of the research to reduce the complexity of data analysis. For example, limit the study to one type of imagery and one level of experience. This would allow for a more detailed examination of the immense amounts of data already inherent to EEG collection, and would also provide an opportunity to assess a greater number of subjects because less time would be involved in the collection process. While each frequency band may reveal interesting information, it may be wise to focus on the beta frequency based on the findings of recent research. For example, Petsche and colleagues (1993) found that the beta band functioned independently of the theta and alpha bands during tasks of music listening and music imagining, according to the measurement of coherence increases across hemispheres. Further, there was 148 “reasonable suspicion” (p. 124) that information pertinent to music processing might be discovered in data beyond 32 Hz. Finally, the novelty of this type of research makes it tempting to simply “explore the unmapped terrain”: Ask a finite number of easily definable questions to improve the significance of the study. 2. If this research is to be applicable to the field of music education, or more specifically conducting education, it is important to continue to study the experts. It is not unusual to memorize their rehearsal techniques, imitate their gestures, or attend their conducting symposia, but to probe the very nature of their thought processes as they are enveloped in their art has not been a priority. With the brain mapping technology available today, and with the advances certain to come in the near future, there are countless secrets waiting to be discovered. 3. By the same token, if this research is to be relevant to the student population, it is important to continue to study the novice conductor as well. Based on this research, it seems likely that the novice conductor is capable of extremely vivid musical imagery. Is this an untapped resource that may improve conducting education? A logical follow-up to this study would be to devise a teaching technique that incorporates the use of musical imagery in the conducting curriculum, and compare it to the more traditional techniques of teaching physical gesture. If the novice is to be studied, however, it may be prudent to equalize the population by examining the true beginner before any formal conducting education has taken place. 4. If two levels of experience are chosen to be examined at one time, it may be interesting to compare non-musicians to expert conductors in tasks related to conducting but which do not require any conducting training: for example, listen to a short recorded excerpt and imagine it immediately; watch a short videotape of a 149 conducting pattern and imagine it immediately; etc. The differences in these two populations may be more obvious than the differences between novice conductors and expert conductors. 5. Certain researchers (e.g., Petsche) are choosing to focus on the examination of musical processing by presenting their subjects with diverse musical examples such as Schonberg’s 6 Kleine Stticke, op. 19, and Mozart’s Sonata in Bb Major, K. 333. While it may be fascinating to observe the changes in electrical brain functioning during diverse musical selections, the patterns of processing may be obscured with such a method if data are pooled. It may be wise to focus on the processing of multiple presentations of one stylistically homogenous excerpt from one composition, or single presentations of many similar styles. The current study pooled the data from three diverse selections, which may have skewed the results. 6. One way to elaborate upon this particular examination would be to focus on the data from only one of the excerpts (Grainger, Holst, or Ives) to discover any other interesting patterns. Or, it may be interesting to examine the deviation between readings from all three excerpts within a single subject. Were the readings consistent? Were they more consistent for experts than for novices? Perhaps a variation on this study could be to examine the processing of well-known excerpts to little-known or newly learned excerpts. Are similar patterns of deviation evident? 7. Certain researchers (e.g., Cohen) are choosing to focus on the processing of smaller musical units such as harmonic intervals, melodic intervals, or even short harmonic progressions. It is easier to control variables during the presentation of musical elements than it is to account for all the differences found between actual compositions. While the latter may be the more “life-like” approach, it may be necessary to focus on the smaller musical elements to build a solid research base from 150 which to expand. One design possibility pertinent to conductors may be to examine the processing of smaller musical phrases or melodies with embedded errors, and compare them with the processing of phrases without errors. This may be especially appropriate for research involving the evoked potential waveform. 8. Evoked potential research in music should not be abandoned, despite the fact that it resulted in fairly inconclusive findings here. There are a number of reasons why the methodology used in this research may have been inadequate: (a) While the “significant moments” identified in the musical excerpts may indeed have evoked a heightened cognitive state from the conductors involved, it is possible that the moments were too diverse to be pooled together as one stimulus type. If looking for the EP waveform, it may be useful to identify moments that are nearly identical stylistically, metrically, dynamically, etc. within one excerpt, (b) A two-second epoch was extracted from the ongoing EEG surrounding the marked moments. There is a strong possibility that the evoked potential waveform occurred outside of these limiting parameters, (c) Combining data from three different excerpts may have been unrealistic. The unique characteristics of each composition (instrumentation, dynamic range, tempo, etc.) could have contributed to the lack of consistent patterns. (d) Combining data from only three different human beings may also have been unrealistic. While each group (novice and expert) shared similar characteristics, it became quite evident that their functional brain processes could not be so easily categorized. Individual results may have revealed something explicit that the group results inadvertently obscured. 9. The N400 component of the EP waveform may prove to be extremely valuable to music researchers due to music’s relationship with linguistics. If the N400 can be evoked during semantic incongruities, it is possible that it may also be evoked 151 during violations of “musical syntax” within a musical statement such as a scale or chord progression. This is an area which could produce exciting results. 10. In the present study, the conductors may not have been aware of the significance of the marked moments; the researcher assumed that the moments would be significant. During the traditional measurement of the AEP waveform, the subject is told to respond only during the infrequent presentation of the high tones and to ignore the low tones, thus making him or her aware of the significance of one type of stimulus over another. Perhaps in the future, conductors should be told that certain specific types of gestures or responses are pertinent to the study, thereby raising their awareness and increasing the possibility of producing the AEP at those moments. It may be interesting to inform only half of the subjects that these moments are important, and compare their responses to those who were not informed. 11. The evoked potential stimulus in this study was represented by moments within the musical compositions which one would expect would produce a heightened awareness in the conductors due to their structural importance. For example, a single fortissimo cymbal crash occurring at the dynamic peak of a phrase would most likely draw the attention of the conductor. It was hypothesized that this “heightened awareness” would manifest as some component of the auditory evoked potential waveform. When using a more traditional paradigm, the stimulus is presented at a precise moment to allow the researcher to predict with great accuracy the moment(s) of neural response to that stimulus. During the act of conducting, however, it is impossible to know exactly when the conductor is cognitively preparing for or responding to an event. He or she may anticipate the cymbal crash many seconds before the event actually takes place, and may contemplate it many seconds after it occurs. In fact there may never be a “moment” of anticipation or reaction; the general 152 state of awareness may be present throughout the entire composition. The “cognitive journey” that the conductor experiences as he or she maneuvers through the musical landscape of a composition may or may not be capable of being measured by the typical evoked potential waveform. However, the CNV, which measures expectancy, may prove to be an appropriate evoked potential paradigm in this type of musical task. 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Canadian Journal of Applied Sport 158 Sciences, 10, 171-177. Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality; principles and implications o f cognitive psychology. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Co. Oldfield, R. C. (1971). The assessment and analysis of handedness: The Edinburgh inventory. Neuropsychologia, 9, 97-113. Pechura, C. M., & Martin, J. B. (Eds.). (1991). Mapping the brain and its functions. Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press. Peronnet, F., Farah, M. J., & Gonon, M. (1988). Evidence for shared structures between imagery and perception. In M. Denis, J. Engelkamp, & J. T. E. Richardson (Eds.), Cognitive and neuropsychological approaches to mental imagery, 357-362. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff. Petsche, H., Lindner, K., Rappelsberger, P., & Gruber, G. (1988). The EEG: An adequate method to concretize brain processes elicited by music. Music Perception, 6(2), 133-160. Petsche, H„ Richter, P., Von Stein, A., Etlinger, S., & Filz, O. (1993). EEG coherence and musical thinking. Music Perception, 11(2), 117-152. Piperek, M (Ed.). (1981). Stress and music. Vienna: Wilhelm Braumiiller. Prausnitz, F. (1983). Score and podium. New York: W. W. Norton & Co. Restak, R. M. (1987). The brain. National Forum, 67(2), 4 -1 2 . Reynolds, H. R. (1993). Guiding principles of conducting. BD Guide, 7 (4), 2 - 12. Richardson, A. (1966). Mental practice: A review and discussion - Part One. The Research Quarterly, 38(1), 95-107. Richardson, A. (1966). Mental practice: A review and discussion - Part Two. The Research Quarterly, 38(2), 263-273. Richardson, J. T. E. (1980). Mental imagery and human memory. London: Macmillan Press. Roberts, R. L. (1988). Effects of time averaging versus single trial alignment averaging on the characteristics o f the event related potentials. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH. Roberts, R. L., Miller, D. C., & Languis, M. L. (1988). Brain mapping utilities program. Columbus, OH: BioTech Interface Co. Ross, S. 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Shucard, J. L., & Shucard, D. W. (1990). Auditory evoked potentials and hand preference in 6-month old infants: Possible gender-related differences in cerebral organization. Developmental Psychology, 26(6), 923-930. Sink, P. (1989, February). Music listening behaviors and localizing related brain junctions. Paper presented at the Symposium on the Psychology and Acoustics of Music, Lawrence, KS. Springer, S. P., & Deutsch, G. (1981). Left brain, right brain. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. Stedman 's Medical Dictionary (25th ed.). (1990). Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. Stroud, S. L. (1991). An examination o f five active university band directors selected as exemplary conductors. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Stuss, D., Picton, T., & Cerri, A. (1988). Electrophysiological manifestations of typicality judgment. Brain and Language, 33,260-272. Suinn, R. M. (1980). Psychology in sports. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess. Tait, M. (1985). 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Journal of Research in Music Education, 2 5,150-164. Weaver, R. L. (1985). Imaging: A selected bibliography. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 262 440) Weber, R. J., & Brown, S. (1986). Musical imagery. Music Perception, 5(4), 411- 426. Wilson, S. C., & Barber, T. X. (1978). The creative imagination scale as a measure of hypnotic responsiveness: Applications to experimental and clinical hypnosis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 20(4), 235-249. Wittrock, M. C. (1977). The human brain. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Zalanowski, A. H. (1990). Music appreciation and hemisphere orientation: Visual versus verbal involvement Journal of Research in Music Education, 38, 197-205. APPENDIX A Human Subject’s Review Form 161 162 HL'.IAM SUBJECTS R £7t” J COMMITTEE T3i OntO STATE KltVESStTY ’.ISEAItCH PROTOCOL: SfHO]79 BRADI .XAFFISG A/ID HICilEJ CORTICAL. PRCCLSSiS. “ a r llii I . L - in .jti CONSENT TO IN VESTICATIO.VAL TREATMENT OR PROCEDURE L . hereby aulhoriae or direct Nl rrli.-i tsr-uis nn or assaaates or assistants of his or her choosing to perform the foUowing britnw ni or prercJtittt (JrsrL r tit general terms). SESSION ONE: An elsttlc nylon iso (much like i swlmaiinv rs-l wi-h T) te—ri will «■. Olic-d on eiY child's held In rIrk tin hrsln w arn white mv thllj don slm pt. leim i-r tnV i liA ■ m J i.j *•1)111):. trtl Ihlnhlne. Thr w trtilii will m ihe I m inted nlcture of brain ictlvltv for each m b - ______ letyttii or nam e of subject) The esperimenlal (research) portion of the treatment or procedure in to astrii briin eiec^icjl irt:vilv dorin« «rh"rl r*1 .—H U tm lr^ *mWo »rd Vt ••test t-nlr *ht*j€ire*«octM*es. This is done as pari of an investigation entitled: Brain M s-e in e of l iitl-rt Cortical P te c f r s 1. Purpose of the procedure or treatment tsibi It ptnrrnedln my child's hrsln so edunlari may he able to s.stslirudcoH In 1/ac-lnn the (u rte 2. Poilible appropriate alternative methods of treatment: f may chansc not In have BY child eartlcirale. et I rosy withdraw tnvchlid tinn. 3. rbiwn.nl.swa a apt rfst's .nsancs-ahly In Ksnapetad; SPSSION ONT; My rhlM ~ l» h *y« discn-fnrt f~w the inuenen of the cap -> endn.s. nn the ersln where thr sensors ate nlarr J. This usually la its le.l than half an hour after the Sim on are Iskennff- (. Antidpated duration of subject's riripadnn; The ntocrdure will lahr arpiosiraaw'y two ;.s h-jure IKss+»,artarswUdppthar has prosided information about the procedure described above, about my tights as a subject and he/she ans-ered all questions to tny satisfaction. I understand Hu* may contact him/her should I have additional questions. )'' 'She has espljined the risks described at.. .e and I understand them; he/she has also olfcred lo captain possible nsks or complications. I understand (hat I am free to withdraw my consent and participation in this project at any time after notifying the project director without prejudicing future care. No guarantee has been given to me concerning this treatment or procedure. I have read and fully understand the consent form. I sign it freely and voluntarily. A copy lias been given to me. am Dale______Tone pm Signed ______;------ISubtcct) Witrvsztcs)______if Rrqiarud ^ ^ — ------IPerusn Aumorucd lo Convent lor Suotni • If nssiui.t Jl I cemfv that I have personally completed all blanks in this form and eaplaincd liiem lo the subiect or lus/lic: representative bciotc requesting the sub|cct or his/her representative to sign it. S a r d ^7— *rr Auiherurd Rrpmcnuiibvi APPENDIX B Subject Consent Form 163 164 To: Conductors participating in brain mapping study From: Elizabeth Jackson, researcher Re; Preparations for participation April 28, 1993 D ear______, Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. This letter is intended to inform you of some of the basic principles and procedures that you should be aware of before being brain mapped. One of the purposes of this study is to learn more about how musical information is processed in the brains of conductors during the act of conducting. It is imperative, therefore, that you come to the clinic prepared to conduct the following excerpts from memory: 1. “Lisbon” (movement one) from the Lincolnshire Posy by Percy Grainger: entire movement 2. “March” (movement one) from the Second Suite in F by Gustav Holst: mm. 1 - 110 [to letter H] 3. Variations on "Am erica" by Charles Ives, transcribed for band by William E. Rhoads and based on the orchestra version by William Schuman: mm. 1 - 60 [to letter H] Scores will be provided for you if you do not own your own copies. If for any reason you feel unable to conduct the above excerpts, please withdraw from this study immediately. Data collection will take place between May 1, 1993 and June 6, 1993. Specific appointments will be made with each of you individually. Please be prepared to spend between two and three hours at the clinic, which is located at 4900 Reed Road, Suite 202, Upper Arlington, Ohio. I will be happy to provide you with transportation to and from the clinic. The procedures used in this study are NON-INVASIVE; in other words, there will be no foreign substance of any kind introduced into your body. You will simply be requested to wear an elastic nylon cap (similar to a swimming cap) containing twenty sensors which are used to measure your brain waves (EEG). Small amounts of a saline, gel-like substance will be inserted into each sensor to lower the impedance between the sensor and your scalp (the gel may come into contact with your hair, but will 165 cause no permanent damage). Your hair should be clean and free of any hair spray, etc. before you arrive to further ensure an accurate reading of the electrical activity present directly under your scalp. Once you have been ‘hooked up’, you will be asked to perform various tasks relating to the conducting of the Grainger, Holst, and Ives excerpts. Remember, no scores will be available during the data collection period. Following the procedure you will be given a color copy of a sample of your brain maps. Please contact me if you have any questions or concerns. If you wish to participate in this study, sign the Subject Consent Form and return as soon as possible. I will be in touch with you shortly to set up a data collection time that is most convenient for you. Thank you again for your interest. Your participation will be greatly valued and appreciated! Sincerely, Elizabeth Jackson H: (614) 764-4672 W: (614) 292-5272 SUBJECT CONSENT FORM I consent to participate in the brain mapping study conducted by Elizabeth Jackson. I understand that I am free to discontinue my participation at any time. I understand that my identity will not be revealed in any publication resulting from this study. Further, I understand that this study is not a measure of my musical abilities, and that I will not be placed in any son of physical or psychological jeopardy. Signed: ______ D ate: .______ Please sign and return to: Elizabeth Jackson 105 Hughes Hall 1899 College Road The Ohio State University Columbus, OH 43210 APPENDIX C Edinburgh Handedness Inventory 166 167 EDINBURGH HANDEDNESS INVENTORY N am e ______Date of birth ______Sex ______ Please indicate your preferences in the use of hands in the following activities by putting + in the appropriate column. Where the preference is so strong that you would never try to use the other hand unless absolutely forced to, p u t ++. If in any case you are really indifferent put + in both columns. Some of the activities require both hands. In these cases the part of the task, or object, for which hand preference is wanted is indicated in brackets. Please try to answer all the questions, and only leave a blank if you have no experience at all of the object or task. LEFT RIGHT 1 W riting 2 D rawing 3 Throw ing 4 Scissors 5 T oothbrush 6 Knife (without fork') 7 Spoon 8 Broom (upper hand) 9 Striking Match (match) 1 0 Opening box (lid) i Which foot do vou prefer to kick with? ii Which eye do you use when using only one? (e.g.. telescope) L.Q. Leave these spaces blank DECILE APPENDIX D Modified Edinburgh Handedness Scale 168 169 HANDEDNESS INVENTORY (Modified Edinborough Handedness Scale) Marlin 1.. Languis, Excellence in Learning, Inc. 1991 Name Dale ______ Handedness Score = ____% * Number of LH blood relative!) ______ A. Chock any (blood relative) member of your family who is left handed .’ Yourself Your Father ___ Your Mother ____ Broilter/s (how many) ___ Sister/s (how many) ___ Father'family: Your Gr.tndlallier ___ Your Grandmother ___ Mother's family YourGrctndfallier ___ Your G randm other ___ B. Were you ever required lo change the hand you used naturally to eat/write? If yes. please describe the circumstances. C. Did you ever have a broken arm or injury that required you lo use die liand you did mil use naturally to cat/write? If yes. please describe the circumstances and liow king you were requited lo use Hurt hand. REQUIRED ITEMS: NOTE - Children under 10 yrs. should lie asked to demonstrate liand/lcg/cyc used with object. Which hand do you use primarily to Right Left Either equally 1. to write your name ______ 2. lo draw a happy face ______ 3. to open a box ______ 4. lo cut with scissors ______ 5. to cat food ______ 6. lo strike a match 7. to 0|)en a light jar X. to brush your iccih 9. Which fool do you use to kick a hall? ______ 10. Look at a spot on the wall through a hole made by your thumb and index finger held at extended arm length; then bring your hand hack until you touch your face while slill looking at the spot. Which eye did you touch? ______ Score; HfRitiht - (/Left (ignore V either cuuallv ilems)! X I(K) = Handedness S c o re ______% {/(Right + (/Left (ignore V either equally items) | OPTIONAL ITEMS (Use optional items if Ks is unclear about Required Items or LH Relatives.) 11. Which hand/arm is stronger? ______12. Which foot/leg is stronger? ______13. Which side of your body is larger? ______14. Clasp your hands: which thumb is on top? ______13. Which eye do you use to sight with a gun or through a telescope? ______16. Which of your curs is best lo catch a dim conversation? ______17. Which ear do you use with a telephone? ______IX. Which hand do you use lo paint or sketch? ______19. Which fool would you use to step on a spot on the flour? ______20. Which hand/arm do you use for batting or similar .s|x>ris? ______APPENDIX E Personal Information Form 170 171 PERSONAL INFORMATION FORM for persons participating in Jackson Research Project Spring, 1993 A. PERSONAL INFORMATION Please complete the following: 1. Name:______2. Address:______3. Phone: ______4. Age: 5.Date of Birth (Mo./Day/Yr.): ______6. Sex: (M/F):______B. EDUCATION/EMPLOYMENT 7. Are you currently enrolled at a college or university? ______YES NO a. If YES, please list your rank and major: ______Rank (jr. " , etc.) Major b. If NO, please identify your current employer: ______C. MUSICAL EXPERIENCE 8. Please identify your major instrument(s): ______9. Please indicate your performing experience in the following ensembles: a. band and/or wind ensemble: _____(vrsl b. orchestra: ______(yrs) c. choir: ______(vrs) 10. Please indicate your conducting experience: a. as a student:______(yrs) b. as a professional: ______(vrs) D. MEDICAL HISTORY 11. Do you have any history of: a. head trauma?:______a. hearing loss?: ______YES NO YES NO 12. Would you characterize your present health as (please check one): a. good b. average c. poor ______13. Please check all that describe you: I am right-handed: ___ I am left-handed:____ I am ambidextrous:_ APPENDIX F Protocol Check-List 172 173 NAME-______DATE;______ I. . PRE-TEST INFORMATION (collect before brain mapping session) 1. Consent form ______2. Edinburgh Handedness Inventory ______3. Languis modified version ______4. Personal information sheet ______n. PRE-COLLECTION CHECKS 1. Impedance check ______2. Sample activity ______3. Artifact demo ______HL_ EILES (XX= first and last initials of subject) A, .BASELINE time start______time finish_____ 1. LXXBEO (baseline eyes open) ______■______2. LXXBEC (baseline eyes closed) ______3. LXXBAU (baseline auditory) ______4. LXXBIA (baseline auditory image) ______5. LXXBKI (baseline kinesthetic) ______6. LXXBIK (baseline ldnesthedc image) ______'UiirrtM) Oz*^£p{- in • ■ q T%.p/euf->> B,-GRAINGER " - J — 7. LXXGLO (Grainger listen only)* ______8. LXXGIO (Grainger image only) ______9. LXXGLC (Grainger listen conduct)* ______10. LXXGIC (Grainger image conduct) ______11. LXXGLI (Grainger listen image)* ______~ 12. LXXGII (Grainger image image) ______C, HOLST 13. LXXHLO (Holst listen only)* ______14. LXXHIO (Holst image only) ______15. LXXHLC (Holst listen conduct)* ______16. LXXHIC (Holst image conduct) ______17. LXXHLI (Holst listen image)* ______18. LXXHII (Holst image image) ______p ives 19. LXXILO (Ives listen only)* ______20. LXXIIO (Ives image only) ______21. LXXHjC (Ives listen conduct)* ______22. LXXIIC (Ives image conduct) ______23. LXXELI (Ives listen image)* ______24. LXXIQ (Ives image image) ______(* = embedded markers should be in use • activate the Oz channel!) iRUvfip*'' e)^o £W- o_y~ E. AUDITORY EVOKED POTENTIAL 25. LXXAEP (P300) ______IV. POST-TEST MEASURE 1. Impedance check______APPENDIX G Data Tables 9 -14: Absolute Power within the Theta Frequency Band 174 Table-2 Novice A: Absolute microvolt values within the theta frequency BEC BAU B1A BKI B1K LO IO LC IC LI II Fpl 2 i i 24. i 23.0 48.4 25.3 17.8 19.0 24.1 25.4 18.9 21.8 Fpz 20.6 24.9 22.1 48.2 22.9 17.4 19.2 23.5 25.2 17.8 20.9 Fpl 19.5 23.7 11.3 48.0 10.4 17.0 18.S 11.0 25.1 l4.1T 20.0 F7 10.9 25.9 13.9 37.4 14.8 15.7 16.4 20.7 21.4 16.4 16.9 F3 33.7 43.3 35.4 61.6 39.2 25.5 25.1 10.0 "10.1 24.7 27.4 Fz 37.4 47.6 30.1 70.3 39.9 28.6 29.4 33.3 34.3 27.1 31.7 F4 33.5 40.4 34.3 72.3 34.3 25.7 26.0 31.3 31.3 24.7 28.6 F8 17.0 21.4 19.2 43.4" 17.2 15.3 15.7 22.1 11.4 147 16.5 T3 21.1 14.4 25.3 35.0 28.8 11.7 10.4 11.7 12.1 11.0 10.8 C3 30.1 34.7 30.0 30.8" 34.8 14.8 15.4 18.0 18.7 15.3 16.5 Cz 37.8 42.7 35.5 66.1 37.5 11.7 20.0 25.2 16.7 117 13.9 C4 26.1 30.8 14.0 50.4' 17.2 14.0 13.4 18.1 16.3 13.0 ....13.3 T4 16.4 18.8 15.7 34.4 14.4 9.4 9.0 13.4 11.4 10.7 9.8 T5 23.3 27.6 27.5 37.2 29.3 8.4 7.2 7.3 8.5 7.5 6.8 P3 r j 26A 29.3 27.0 44.5 30.0 0.8 8.8 0.4 10.1 8.4 7.9 Pz 28.3 31.4 17.0 51.1 30.4 10.1 9.1 10.8 10.9 8 7 ' 0.0 P4 23.5 27.8 11.9 41.7 25.3 8.3 7.1 8.6 8.5 7.4 7.6 T6 17.5 ll.8 18.7 34.1 20.0 3.0 4.7 6.5 5.9 5.3 4.9 Ol 25.5 30.2 30.1 45.1 29.3 6.6 6.3 "'T3 7.3 6.7 5.6 Oz 23.8 28.3 28.0 45.2 27.7 5.3 5.0 5.5 5.7 5.5 4.6 02 13.1 27.3 27.0 "..43. f 26.9 5.1 4.T 3.3 5.3 5.4 4.5 Table IQ Novice B: Absolute microvolt values within the theta frequency BEC BAU BIA BKI B lk LO io LC IC Ll II Fpl 17.5 19.9 17.5 25.4 17.9 l4.4 19.1 31.5 22.2 14.5 13.6 Fpz 17.0 20.1 17.4 25.8 18.4 14.1 19.0 31.2 21.8 14.3 13.5 Fp 2 16.5 20.4 17.4 25.2 19.0 13.8 19.1 30.9 Ti.3 14.2 13.6 F7 15.1 15.7 17.6 "22.3 13.8 11.3 14.4 19.3 15.8 11.3 11.4 f 3 25.2 28.0 28.4 40.4 25.9 18.8 22.4 2$.l 24.2 1$.$ 18.1 Fz 32.4 35.4 34.5 44.5 00 23.4 28.9 35.7 27.5 25.2 23.2 f 4 25.7 2$.o 27.7 30.8 26.5 18.7 24.0 30.2 21.5 20.4 l$.l F8 15.5 19.9 16.4" 17.1 17.6 12.0 15.5 15.T 15.2 12.5 12.0 T3 16.8 17.2 I9.i 24.6 14.4 11.6 11.7 15.7 13.8 11.1 11.6 C3 25.6 27.5 27.2 46.4 23.9 17.8 16.4 21.6 18.4 17.8 15.1 Cz 34.6 3$.4 36.2 48.4 32.5 26.9 24.2 31.6 26.3 25.4 21.7 C4 23.$ 26.8 23.6 29.6 22.1 16.4 16.6 20.3 15.6 16. i T4.4 T4 15.9 18.7 17.3 18.1 16.0 11.6 13.3 18.$ 11.2 12.1 11.8 T5 22.4 21.2 21.5 26.3 19.1 11.6 10.5 17.4 16.6 io.8 10.7 P3 26.2 25.8 24.6 32.9 23.1 14.7 13.0 19.3 16.6 13.8 13.0 Pz 30.7 31.9 27.3 37.7 25.9 18.0 15.5 22.T 17.8 16.8 15.6 P4 25.$ 27.2 21.6 30.6 22.3 14.2 13.3 17.3 14.7 13.4 12.3 T6 22.4 22.4 17.5 23.8 i$.8 10.2 10.3 15.6 14.0 10.3 $.6 Ol 26.4 24.2 22.3 27.9 23.$ 12.3 11.5 24.7> 23.0 10.9 11.0 Oz 26.0 23.8 21.5 26.7 23.5 11.7 11.3 22.9 21.0 10.7 10.5 0 2 26.4 24.3 '21.3 26.5 23.8 11.9 11.6 23.6 21.0 11.0 10.6 Table 11 Novice C: Absolute microvolt values within the theta frequency BEC BAU BIA BKI BIK L6 IO LC IC LI II Fpl 28.9 24.9 10.4 24.5 ^3.8 25.1 31.6 29.7 32.5 ‘in .3 40.5 Fpz 28.0 24.2 18.8 24.1 32.4 25.6 32.1 29.6 33.6 27.7 42.9 Fp2 ”27.0 23.6 18.3 23.7 $1.0 26.2 $2.6 29.5 $4.7 28.1 45.4 F7 24.4 10.7 16.9 ±0.1 21.8 19.2 22.0 21.8 2$.$ 18.3 22.7 F3 412 $6.0 28.7 $7.9 44.1 27.1 $8.0 32.9 38.4 $0.8 48.3 bo Fz 5 l4 4$.5 33.4 48.0 54.9 35.7 45.0 51.6 40.2 os oo bo F4 44.3 $7.0 29.4 41.4 4$.4 27.9 37.8 $2.5 40.$ $1.0 49.7 F8 22.3 10.2 14.7 10.0 2l.6 19.7 22.0 20.3 2$.7 18.8 25.9 T3 23.9 18.4 18.1 21.0 18.3 14.4 18.4 17.6 21.6 12.6 18.2 £$ $6.6 $1.2 27.6 32.5 $0.o l4.0 20.$ 16.4 24.0 16.8 22.1 Kji Cz 50.6 42.1 37.8 46.2 41.0 2$.l $0.2 25.2 35.4 "15.2 be C4 $9.5 36.0 28.1 $4.4 $4.5 17.4 23.7 17.2 26.1 19.0 26.6 T4 23.0 21.5 15.2 19.7 20.5 11.6 15.9 ll.$ 16.0 11.9 16.7 T5 32.3 27.3 24.2 28.2 22.0 10.4 15.8 11.1 19.0 10.0 16.8 CM P3 36.5 32.6 38.0 $3.7 "22.2 10.2 16.6 10.8 oo 10.4 18.1 Pz 44.7 $8.5 36.0 39.4 33.5 1$.2 21.1 1$.8 27.6 ” 1 $.7 22.9 P4 39.4 $4.4 29.1 $4.0 $$.7 11.7 19.0 12.3 23.9 12.6 20.5 T6 35.8 29.7 2$.7 30.9 26.6 13.1 19.2 12.7 24.4 13.8 19.8 Ol 35.9 32.4 25.4 30.5 2$.7 9.0 15.4 8.0 T2.6 0.0 17.7 Oz 33.0 29.4 23.1 28.2 22.1 6.5 13.4 7.0 20.3 6.7 14.7 N > to 02 32.$ 28.0 211 00 22.4 6.9 14.0 7.9 20.9 7.4 14.4 Table 12 Expert D: Absolute microvolt values within the theta frequency BEC BAU BIA BKIBIK LO IO LC IC LI II Fpl 25.4 24.7 23.2 31.4 23.8 15.3 17.0 21.7 22.2 15.9 17.6 Fpz 24.2 22.6 21.5 28.5 23.2 14.0 16.6 26.4 26.4 15.0 16.2 Fp2 23.o 16.6 16.9 25.8 22.7 12.6 14.2 19.2 18.7 14.1 14.6 F7 26.6 27.2 29.1 34.0 23.4 16.2 20.0 24.4 25.5 16.9 20.7 F3 37.4 38.1 32.1 35.8 28.0 22.3 22.2 23.8 25.1 22.6 22.8 Fz 42.5 43. i 33.2 33.4 32.2 24.7 23.8 24.1 24.6 24.3 25.5 F4 32.6 '30.8 28.5 26.2 28.5 18.6 18.5 20.0 20.8 i'6.6 20.1 F8 20.9 17.7 20.2 21.7 22.7 10.5 12.0 19.3 19.2 13.1 14.8 T3 29.5 33.4 36.0 38.1 24.8 16.6 T3.? 23.8 26.1 16.6 19.0 C3 $7.3 38.6 36.5 36.3 29.2 26.1 21.3 23.3 23.6 20.8 21.5 Cz 39.4 42.8 16.6 36.3 32.2 22.5 21.9 23.5 23.6 22.7 26.3 C4 29.1 30.3 28.6 24.1 25.3 14.8 16.1 16.6 17.3 16.6 16.6 T4 19.6 18.6 21.0 16.1 19.1 8.8 9.7 14.6 14.6 6.2 10.8 T5 36.4 46.9 A m 52.2 34.7 21.7 22.3 30.3 36.8 26.6 22.7 P3 3 6.2 41.6 '42.3 41.6 31.8 18.8 20.3 22.9 23.7 18.5 21.0 Pz 35.6 36.3 $6.4 36.1 26.6 16.9 17.7 19.6 20.6 17.0 19.5 P4 33.4 33.6 32.5 29.3 27.0 15.3 16.2 17.5 17.6 16.5 17.2 T6 27.7 27.8 27.6 29.3 24.1 12.0 13.7 20.6 19.3 13.4 15.7 Ol 37.7 49.3 §6.4 72.6 38.8 20.1 20.7 34.1 31.6 20.7 22.6 Oz 35.5 43.3 44.6 58.7 34.2 16.8 18.0 28.4 26.6 18.0 19.7 0 2 36.4 46.0 40.7 56.3 31.7 i5.6 16.8 25.8 24.8 17.6 18.6 Table 13 Expert E: Absolute microvolt values within the theta frequency BEC BAU BIA BKI BIK LO IO " t d IC LI II Fpl 12.3 16.2 13.6 15.8 16.0 i l l 12.0 16.0 17.8 12.5 12.4 Fpz 11.7 15.0 11.5 14.9 14.6 11.1 11.1 15.0 11.1 11.6 11.1 F pl 11.0 13.9 l l .l 14.6 13.3 10.2 10.1 14.1 14.6 16.8 10.7 F7 12.3 15.2 13.1 15.7 15.0 11.3 11.4 15.6 16.3 12.5 12.3 F3 24.7 29.5 14.4 25.2 27.6 20.2 20.7 25.2 111 11.4 21.7 Fz 30.8 38.2 32.1 29.0 11.1 11.4 14.1 20.0 30.2 25.7 27.0 f 4 23.6 21.4 11.0 20.9 23.5 17.4 17.4 12.1 11.6 "i8:i "l'S.l F8 8.8 11.1 £.3 10.2 10.3 7.7 7.8 11.5 10.3 8.8 8.1 T3 16.9 11.1 17.0 11.1 20.1 13.3 13.9 18.1 18.0 15.1 15.1 C3 24.5 36.4 14.1 26.3 17.5 18.0 18.5 22.3 11.8 20.1 10.8 Cz 29.5 48.8 35.7 11.1 20.0 ll.3 ll.7 24.9 11.4 18.1 ..22.1 C4 20.9 30.0 20.1 18.0 20.8 13.8 14.3 17.5 T O 11.8 11.1 T4 8.3 11.2 7.4 9.7 9.0 6.0 6.0 9.7 0.0 1.1 6.5 T5 25.9 80.8 14.4 28.6 18.1 17.5 18.5 118 28.1 1 5 3 19.9 P3 25.2 19.0 27.7 27.7 27.9 11.0 17.9 22.5 28.6 10.6 10.8 Pz 29.7 47.6 34.5 11.7 30.1 18.1 19.3 18.1 24.3 21. i 20.6 P4 11.0 33.1 24.7 17.8 22.1 13.6 " '14.0 .. 18.0 16.6 "" 11.1 11.0 T l 15.0 ll.8 11.8 12.2 14.6 8.6 9.6 13.2 14.8 0.8 10.2 Ol 21.0 19.8 21.6 23.9 14.9 13.8 14.9 25.3 14.4 16.2 17.3 Oz 19.3 27.1 22.4 20.9 21.5 11.1 i l l 13.1 22.1 14.2 ll.O 02 18.7 25.8 11.1 19.2 10.1 11.4 11.4 22.7 23.0 13.6 18.9 Table 14 Expert F: Absolute microvolt values within the theta frequency BEC BAU BIA BKI BIK LO IO LC IC LI II FPi 28.2 26.3 21.6 31.7 38.3 20.1 29.9 40.5 42.1 29.6 26.0 to Fpz 28.3 23.6 21.6 29.3 36.9 19.6 29.6 43.0 44.8 © ....23.6 Fp 2 28.4 21.0 21.7 27.1 35.5 19.1 29.3 45.7 47.9 16.6 25.7 F7 23.2 27.5 26.2 46.3 31.7 17.9 23.5 38.0 51.1 21.6 21.3 F3 33.0 46.6 29.3 43.8 42.2 29.2 31.3 31.4 ..34.3 """31.6 31.3 Fz 39.8 56.6 35.8 60.3 43.0 33.8 36.2 35.9 46.4 34.4 36.7 F 4 33.1 33.3 29.5 42.7 33.3 23.3 28.0 31.4 44.3 '" 23.6 27.2 F8 18.6 15.3 17.8 22.2 21.5 14.7 19.3 40.0 50.0 18.7 18.7 T3 25.2 51$ 23.9 33.9 33.5 16.6 20.4 21.4 ""2$.6 19.4 18.5 C3 37.3 48.5 53.5 "'"44.$ 43.6 33.0 31.9 25.1 25.7 31.8 30.7 Cz 43.9 51.8 42.7 47.6 48.1 33.6 33.7 26.2 "'"'28.4 14.4 33.1 C4 31.6 29.4 31.2 29.6 29.4 2$.4 21.1 17.8 21.3 24.1 23.5 T4 14.4 12.2 i$.4 13. i 13.8 9.8 10.3 13.5 13.$ 12.3 11.5 T5 32.1 39.2 28.4 33.7 30.3 19.4 20.5 17.4 22.7 21.6 19.0 P3 38.4 46.2 53.2 35.7 34.4 28.0 23.3 17.2 18.7 27.0 27.1 Pz 46.9 49.7 39.9 34.0 45.1 34.8 29.9 17.6 21.5 26.4 33.7 P4 33.6 24.5 3i.6 27.1 31.6 20.4 18.6 13.8 19.0 21.3 21.9 T6 24.7 25.2 2 Data Tables 15 - 20: Absolute Power within the Alpha Frequency Band 181 Table 15 Novice A: Absolute microvolt values within the alpha frequency BEC BAU b iA BKI BIK LO IO LC IC LI u Fpl 15.0 14.6 11.5 15.7 12.5 36.0 40.0 49.5 42.8 45.8 44.9 Fpz 14.0 14.4 11.3 15.1 12.3 35.7 39.9 48.9 43.1 45.5 44.3 Fp2 14.8 T4.2 11.1 14.6 12.2 35.5 30.8 48.3 43.4 45.2 43.6 F7 13.1 13.6 11.4 14.1 11.8 32.2 35.2 45.6 37.0 40.6 40.0 Ui f 3 20.9 18.4 14.9 19.1 16.1 00 1*1 " 41.4 50.6 44.0 47.5 46.2 Fz 24.3 2 6.6 17.1 20.7 18.1 42.4 47.0 54.2 48.3 52.3 51.6 F4 22.6 18.3 15.4 26.8 16.2 41.5 45.7 51.7 48.3 50.8 " 48.0 F8 13.7 11.9 9.4 13.7 10.3 33.7 37.1 44.8 4 i .2 42.3 40.7 t 3 17.7 17.3 14.3 18.2 17.4 24.9 25.0 34.1 36.3 31.4 36.5 C3 27.5 19.1 l6.2 22.2 21.3 30.9 .....31.1 40.2 35.4 38.1 38.7 Cz 33.4 23.1 18.6 26.5 23.0 34.8 37.5 44.0 40.6 42.2 ■ 46.0 £4 25.3 16.0 13.7 21.7 17.3 29.5 30.0 35.2 " 34.2 35.8 33.9 t 4 16.1 16.2 9.2 21.8 14.5 24.2 30.4 36.8 33.8 33.3 34.5 T5 34.9 19.7 T0.5 36.9 23.7 14.6 15.3 25.0 22.0 TO 10.8 P3 45.4 21.7 20.1 33.8 29.6 18.4 18.4 28.1 24.2 24.2 22.6 Pz 51.8 24.6 22.6 37.6 34.9 18.3 10.4 23.9 23.5 21.6 2o.0 P4 42.2 22.1 19.5 39.0 31.0 15.0 16.1 20.3 22.5 19.7 ” 18:4 T6 27.2 15.4 ' 14.5 36.8 22.0 13.6 13.4 18.4 20.1 17.5 16.2 O il 67.7 34.6 33.7 76.8 41.6 18.7 17.1 25.9 2l.8 21.9 19.2 OzH 62.2 32.7 33.6 65.9 46.5 12.2 11.8 16.1 13.9 14.6 12.6 021 68.5 34.2 40.5 73.7 49.8 17.0 16.4 22.6 23.4 26.6 19.8 Table 16 Novice B: Absolute microvolt values within the alpha frequency BEC BAU B1A tik i BIK LO 16 Lc IC LI II Fpl 9.4 9.4 6.9 15.8 4.i 5.9 5.8 15.5 12.0 7.0 6.8 lEjf 4.5 9.7 6.8 16.0 4.0 5.8 5.7 15.0 11.5 6.9 6.7 Fp2 9.1 9.$ 6.7 16.2 4.0 5.7 5.6 l4.5 11.1 6.8 6.5 F7 8.6 8.5 7.1 12.4 7.5 5.3 5.4 11.6 8.5 5.6 5.6 F3 12.1 12.1 9.3 16.6 4.5 7.0 7.4 13.5 10.2 7.7 ”8.5 Fz 14.1 14.6 10.7 18.5 ii.7 8.6 5.3 15.7 11.0 "4.5 9.5 F4 l2.4 15.5 4.2 15.8 l0.7 7.1 6.5 14.8 10.4 “ 5.2 7.8 F8 £.0 4.8 7.1 12.7 4.5 5.2 4.6 14.5 9.5 5.8 5.5 T3 10.4 10.4 9.3 16.0 l0.5 7.6 8.6 14.5 10.1 8.1' 7.7 C3 l5.4 12.7 10.7 16.3 l0.4 0.5 7.1 11.4 5.7 12 7.2 Cz 16.7 14.9 11.9 18.7 l5.l 8.4 8.7 15.7 lo-^ 4.2 8.5 C4 13.0 13.4 11.2 14.6 11.0 00 0.5 6A 11.5 h-J 7.7 0.4 T4 10.5 10.5 9.1 12.8 l0.7 6.5 6.8 15.1 8.0 4.5 8.7 T5 15.7 12.5 11.0 10.5 12.6 6.3 6.7 14.0 10.0 "5.4 6.9 P3 16.5 13.5 11.8 17.2 i2.4 6.5 6.6 10.9 8.2 " 6.6 6.7 Pz 20.4 16.0 13.7 14.8 15.5 7.8 7.4 11.2 9.1 7.7 7.3 P4 20.9 13.4 12.8 18.0 14.5 7.5 6.6 11.9 9.0 '8.0 7.2 T6 25.5 14.2 12.4 18.6 l0.5 8.4 7.2 17.5 11.9 4.0 8.0 Ol 22.9 15.3 13.2 21.6 10.1 7.7 ..1.6 25.5 19.0 7.8 8.3 ' Oz 26.5 15.1 13.5 21.3 t— be 7.8 7.2 25.5 17.4 8.2 8.1 0 2 35.5 16.5 14.5 22.7 18.5 9.3 7.8 27.1 20.5 10.4 9.5 Table 17 Novice C: Absolute microvolt values within the alpha frequency J “ EC BAU BIA B k i BIK 1 6 16 L t IC LI 11 Fpl 36.5 29.5 26.6 18.4 ii.i ii4.o 90.9 96.8 71.4 128.5 83.8 Fpz 36.3 19.5 16.6 28.7 30.2 113.3 90.6 96.6 71.5 " 118.1 83.9 36.1 29.4 27.1 19.6 29.4 122.6 90.3 96.4 71.6 127.6 "■ 84.6 00 F7 30.4 22.8 20.5 24.2 24.1 104.4 77.9 SO 61.9 169.1 74.9 f 3 46.7 36.1 33.8 34.8 37.7 110.8 91.1 94.5 74.9 123.9 83.T Fz 57.7 45.2 43.4 44.9 42.7 138.8 105.9 108.3 87.2 141.7 98.3 f 4 51.5 38.8 37.5 43.1 38.3 130.8 98.9 102.1 — 81.9 131.4 91.9 F# 33.3 21.5 12.5 17.1 22.4 110.2 81.4 87.3 67.6 111.6 75.9 T3 39.8 37.1 39.9 18.4 41.3 66.1 55.9 62.0 61.3 66.6 65.8 1 3 52.1 411 36.8 14.7 62.7 83.5 57.1 64.3 50.4 "” 75.8 59.1 Cz 57.8 48.1 45.0 43.1 41.1 110.6 79.7 88.1 73.7 162.8 79.1 £ 4 67.0 61.6 34.6 34.2 71.9 86.8 69.7 62.7 53.1 79.9 66.7 t 4 47.4 41.1 29.6 79.4 50.3 65.5 55.5 49.8 48.3 65.5 54.1 T5 139.9 117.9 109.1 91.0 116.5 48.5 79.1 ” '43.6 78.6 66.5 92.9 P i 96.0 83.6 61.9 35.0 96.2 3l.0 44.6 13.6 44.9 ■33.1 51.5 Pz 84.1 72.4 42.7 44.4 73.7 44.7 50.1 35.2 44.1 46.6 46.7 P4I 117.6 98.0 67.9 79.0 131.4 44.5 64.7 33.1 55.1 51.1 66.6 T6 232.5 176.1 181.8 n s .i 262.7 714.1 152.1 94.3 115.0 148.1 157.9 Ol 249.1 228.7 161.6 1613 171.0 65.8 107.1 58.1 161.9 00 SO lll.O Oz 186.0 184.5 116.1 139.0 156.4 41.4 78.3 37.7 70.4 51.8 "83.1 00 0 2 | 166.7 164.1 126.4 i46.2 174.9 46.7 81.9 41.7 72.9 55.9 00 ■ Expert D: Absolute microvolt values within the alpha frequency BEC BAU B1A BKI BIK LO IO LC IC LI II Fpl ii.7 18.3 17.6 18.8 17.8 14.9 11.8 15.5 12.1 15.4 15.2 Fpz 21.2 17.2 16.5 18.0 17.6 14.0 11.1 14.9 11.4 14.6 ..... 14.0 Fp2 20.8 i0.2 15.5 17.3 17.4 13.2 10.0 14.3 10.7 13.8 12.9 F7 21.8 10.4 10.9 24.1 10.3 15.9 15.2 17.1 16.2 16.4 18.1 to © f 3 31.8 20.5 27.2 26.2 22.9 u> 15.8 17.8 16.4 10.5 19.0 Fz 36.8 20.3 29.0 27.5 2 0.0 22.8 17.0 20.0 16.7 21.0 19.8 F4 3l.O 23.7 22.7 23.4 23.1 18.4 14.0 17.7 14.6 17.0 16.5 F8 20.0 15.4 14.8 18.0 17.4 12.1 11.8 15.0 13.7 12.8 13.0 t 3 24.0 25.7 22.5 20.0 17.5 14.9 16.8 17.6 17.7 is:4 17.6 C3 34.6 32.0 28.2 27.6 23.1 18.4 16.6 16.7 15.6 18.2 17.2 Cz 40.6 31.4 30.4 27.4 27.2 21.9 17.3 18.7 10.8 19.0 18.9 C4 30.8 23.4 22.2 19.8 20.8 14.7 13.4 14.0 12.4 12.5 T3.0 t 4 22.7 IS.'3 17.4 '" 1(5.3 18.5 10.5 14.0 17.1 16.5 10.6 14.7 T5 40.2 54.2 34.0 33.2 31.8 22.2 21.1 21.2 2o.O 22.2 P3 46.5 47.2 31.9 28.7 26.8 18.3 16.9 15.4 i4.2 lO.O 16.5 K> Pz 48.2 34.5 00 o 25.7 23.9 14.5 13.3 13.5 ii.0 Til 13.2 P4 51.9 29.3 27.1 23.4 20.0 15.1 15.5 10.2 13.9 14.0 15.7 T6 5l.O 28.1 2 0.0 25.4 40.0 10.4 26.0 33.5 28.4 26.8 30.9 Ol 63.1 60.1 35.3 42.0 30.6 18.7 15.7 25.3 22.0 21.1 18.7 Oz 0l.3 45.1 31.5 38.6 35.7 13.1 12.6 22.6 20.4 17.2 15.1 021 77.0 38.1 31.8 40.2 40.3 15.3 15.7 29.1 23.8 22.7 20.1 Table 19 Expert E: Absolute microvolt values within the alpha frequency BEC BAU BIA BKI BIK l6 IO LC IC Ll 11 Fpl 5.4 5.6 5.1 7.5 7.7 5.2 5.1 7.3 7.6 5.0 5.9 Fpz 4.9 5.0 4.4 6. S 7.0 4.6 4.7 6.7 6.9 4.6 5.4 Fp2 4.4 4.5 IS 6.1 6.3 4.1 4.2 6.1 <5.2 4.2 4.9’ F7 6.0 7.3 6.7 S.6 8.0 5.8 6. 2 8.2 8.2 ' 6.1 7.0 F3 9.1 9.7 8.6 11.0 11.9 8.1 7.9 10.1 10.1 7.8 8.<5 Fz 10.4 i0.5 8.6 11.3 13.2 8.5 8.6 10.4 10.2 1 .1 9.1 f 4 7.7 7.5 63 8.8 10.1 6.4 6.7 8.8 8.8 6.7 7.4 F8 3.5 '1.6 3.0 4.6 4.9 3.2 3.3 5.0 5.4 3.6 " 4.6 t 2 8.8 l0.8 7.9 11.3 10.0 7.0 7.8 11.3 10.9 8.2 9.4" 00 c 2 10.0 111 12.4 11.8 8.1 0 0 10.7 10.6 8.7 9.4 t z 11.6 14.6 11.2 13.4 13.2 9.2 9.9 ii.2 11.1 " 9.2 10.4" C4 8.0 8.8 6.7 9.0 5.8 6.1 7.8 8.0 “ 5.9 ..... 63 t 4 3.9 3.9 3.2 63 3.9 2.1 3.2 6.8 6.5 "" 2.5 4.2 T5 12.8 17.7 10.9 15.3 9.1 19.0 12.4 12.7 10.6 10.9 P2 12.6 17.4 10.8 15.0 12.8 8.9 9.8 13.2 12.4 10.4 10.7 Pz 13.6 15. i 12.6 15.2 13.1 9.6 10.3 12.8 ....12.1 11.0 11.2 P4 1(5.3 13.9 11.1 12.5 10.2 7.5 7.9 10.4 11.5 """ 8.2 8.9 T 6 7.8 10.2 10.0 10.9 8.0 6.4 6.8 9.7 11.9 7.3 7.5 O il 14.2 19.2 16.2 20.8 16.0 9.4 10.1 21.2 19.9 13.2 13.9 Oz| 13.4 17.3 16.1 18.7 13.8 8.3 9.2 18.3 18.4 11.7 12.4 021 14.2 17.4 17.9 lS.7 13.3 9.2 9.9 19.1 21.1 12.4 13.7 Table 20 Expert F: Absolute microvolt values within the alpha frequency I BEC | BAU | felA | BKI I blK Lb ib LC It) LI 11 Fpl 119.3 125.5 110.3 77.6 141.4 299.7 244.9 t b s * 143.9 i i i A 278.6 FPJ 118.3 114.3 107.3 73.3 143.6 146.0 246.1 207.1 241.5 317.4 279.1 Fp2 117.4 123.3 104.3 69.2 145.9 292.3 247.4 105.8 239.1 ""311.6 174.7 F7 81.0 $2.9 89.7 67.8 79.6 122.7 181.3 171.0 201.9 230.0 lo$.i F3 167.2 171.0 163.8 l i 4.6 189.0 361.1 244.6 265.4 ” 316.1 377.5 343.6 Fz 213.2 111.3 196.4 130.9 258.0 429.2 367.1 3l4.8 """ 363.4 "453.6 414.1 F4 179.7 187.2 165.1 102.5 116.4 311.6 343.7 279.3 314.4 415.6 380.9 F8 90.1 $7.5 $2.8 49.9 108.7 134.1 216.3 117.6 "i9$.l 166.1 145.4 T3 73.5 62.7 44.1 64.4 66.7 151.1 124.3 138.6 153.1 ^45.4 154.2 C3 188.3 184.5 272.6 140.6 201.6 327.1 286.7 276.4 313.0 320.7 315.1 Cz 144.9 147.1 191.9 180.4 141.$ 405.0 378.5 ""374.1 417.6 "413.4 405.3 C4 180.2 210.4 169.5 238.8 147.1 3ll.$ 252.8 164.6 '335.5 340.1 T4 63.8 42.4 57.6 29.3 53.9 122.0 126.1 161.1 161.0 " 151.8 146.6 T5 134.0 104.9 121.3 67.4 112.0 80.3 73.5 51.9 57.5 " $1.3 "" $3.3 P3 168.5 166.1 14$.4 116.1 163.4 176.5 145.4 145.2 156.1 151.6 179.8 Pz ll6.6 186.9 296.7 158.3 189.9 210.7 184.0 230.5 134.4 143.1 121.1 P4 160.0 1154.4 ” 314.4 87.2 151.1 119.6 125.8 48.1 T615 135.0 156.1 T6I 227.7 217.6 250.2 71.5 189.1 155.7 151.3 68.4 168.0 "TS2.4 171.2 O l| 258.4 102.8 209.7 114.6 204.6 131.1 131.0 16.4 43.1 l'35.6 134.4 Oz| 200.3 173.6 169.7 93.8 164.1 87.4 77.6 57.1 71.9 — 88.2 46.6 021 186.0 172.3 173.0 93.0 151.5 84.2 71.8 64.7 00 0 ” 14.3 90.9 APPENDIX I Data Tables 21 - 26: Relative Power within the Beta Frequency Band 188 Table 21 Novice A: Percentage of total power in the beta frequency BEO BEC tokx) blA BKI BIK LO io LC t c LI 11 Fpl 14.0 15.5 ii.8 i4.3 6.8 15.3 10.4 9.1 b.i 8.6 9.0 9.6 Fpz 14.0 1 5.4 13.7 14.9 10 15.7 16.0 "8.8 7.3 7.2 8.5 9.0 Fp2 l3.0 15.7 14.4 15.5 3.1 16.1 0.5 8.6 6.4 5.9 s:i 8.4 F7 17.1 18.0 16.4 16.2 7.3 15.9 11.6 10.7 7.5 8.4 10.9 11.2 F3 11.9 15.2 12.3 14.5 6.7 14.8 0.4 8.4 6.6 6.7 8.5 8.4 Fz 11.6 14.5 11.5 14.2 6.6 14.7 8.8 8.0 6.1 5.0 7.6 7.5 f 4 11.3 14.6 12.3 15.1 6.3 118 8.7 8.0 6.4 6.4 7.5 7.7 F8 l4.4 18.3 16.9 11.5 5.4 17.1 9.3 8.9 6.3 5.7 0.2 9.2 T3 *16.4 *18.9 *18.7 *19.5 *8.7 *17.4 *11.3 *13.3 *9.3 *16.4 “ *TT4 *13.1 C3 13.2 17.3 1 14.1 17.9 8.6 i l l 11.0 11.0 7.1 7.3 10.1 10.1 t z 10.7 15.3 ii.4 13.5 7.6 14.4 7.9 7.8 T.S 4.0 7.6 1.0 C4 12.1 17.8 15.3 18.6 8.4 16.1 8.8 9.2 6.7 6.6 8.1 ■9.2 T4 *15.4 *10.4 *118 *16.7 *8.0 *18.2 *11.2 *ll.5 *9.1 *16.2 *16.4 *12.3 TS 18.8 2i.4 23.5 14.3 *10.3 20.3 14.2 18.3 13.2 13.2 16.9 18.1 P3 15.4 17.2 18.5 20.0 0.7 16.4 12.4 13.8 6.5 4.9 11.3 12.2 Pz 13.0 15.7 16.0 17.6 8.9 15.2 10.4 10.9 5.8 5.7 0.7 9.0 P4 l3.8 17.3 14.4 19.7 9.5 16.6 11.4 i'2.5 6.4 6.5 10.2 11.4 T6 19.4 22.2 21.l 24.0 *10.3 11.4 15.6 10.5 14.2 18.3 14.6 . .... - T18.4 r 5 Ol 20.6 18.8 22.2 23.8 12.6 18.8 11.7 26.4 ' '1.4 7.1 14.3 Oz 10.6 19.2 2i.8 23.5 12.6 19.2 18.4 li.3 6.9 6.4 15.4 14.5 02 l8.8 18.6 16.0 22.8 11.0 18.9 14.6 19.1 7.2 6.7 13.8 T3'9 * These figures are based on interpolated data. Table 22 Novice B: Percentage of total power in the beta frequency BEO BEC b Au biA BKI B1K LO IO LC I t LI II Fpl 24.1 9.2 $.5 13.3 6.3 12.0 9.2 8.7 * i i 0 14.1 i s i 9.7 Fpz 18.8 9.3 8.6 13.5 6.5 12.1 8.8 8.5 * 11.0 12.2 12.8 0.8 Fpl 13.5 9.5 8.7 13.7 6.7 ii .i 8.3 8.2 16.6 16.3 16.2 9.8 F7 17.6 13.4 12.9 17.0 9.0 14.7 11.9 10.8 i6.4 14.8 il.6 ll.2 F3 12.4 11.5 10.7 i3.0 8.5 12.8 10.4 0.7 12.9 ii.8 10.5 10.2 Fz 10.8 11.0 10.1 13.2 ” 8.6 12.3 0.6 0.2 10.2 9.2 9.6 9.7 F4 12.2 11.7 10.9 11.8 9.5 11.9 10.3 9.6 12.9 12.7 10.9 10.3 F8 17.8 l4.0 13.6 15.4 10.4 15.7 11.8 11.1 13.5 14.1 12.5 12.8 T3 *16.8 *l4.i *14.0 *16.7 *11.3 *16.3 *14.0 *13.8 *17.8 *17.0 *14.4 *14.6 C3 14.0 13.4 12.2 14.4 10.7 15.1 11.3 12.3 14.0 13.7 11.8 13.2 Cz 11.6 11.6 10.8 l3.0 10.0 11.7 T6.6 10.3 13.3 12.1 10.3 10.6 C4 13.7 l3.6 13.1 13.7 12.3 15.2 11.1 11.0 WA 14.4 13.3 12.9 T4 *16.8 *14.5 *15.1 *l6.3 *13.2 *16.9 *14.0 *14.7 *18.1 *lS.l *16.6 *15.5 T5 18.7 15.9 17.0 "TO 16.3 19.2 17.8 l8.2 23.2 22.5 18.7 18.5 P3 15.9 13.9 13.9 15.5 13.5 16.1 13.7 13.0 17.3 15.7 13.8 14.6 Pz 14.2 13.2 i l l 14.4 li.0 14.5 12.2 12.7 13.5 13.8 ll.5 13.1 P4 15.6 14.3 15.1 16.6 13.8 16.0 13.6 14.1 18.0 16.5 14.9 16.6 T6 10.0 16.5 18.5 10.0 16.8 10.0 18.2 lO.0 15.8 25.7 10.1 56.0 Ol 10.0 16.1 17.9 19.8 17.3 20.2 18.1 10.8 10.1 11.4 19.4 10.8 Oz 18.7 16.0 18.5 10.0 17.3 16.4 17.9 19.8 18.9 56.4 19.4 19.9 02 18.5 15.6 19.0 16.4 17.5 56.3 17.7 i0.6 29.7 26.8 18.9 19.6 * These figures are based on interpolated data. IaMg23 Novice C: Percentage of total power in the beta frequency BEO BEC BAU BIA bK i BIK LO 16 LC IC LI II Fpl 14.2 12.2 14.4 14.7 11.4 11.3 8.3 io.5 lo .i l3.3 7.4 8.8 . FPJ 14.7 12.3 14.fi 14.9 11.1 11.3 8.4 10.4 10.2 13.3 7.4 8.7 Fp2 15.2 12.4 15.1 15.1 16.7 11.2 8.6 16.3 10.2 " H I. 2 2.4 8.5 F7 24.9 13.5 112 17.1 13.9 14.3 9.3 ll.6 11.7 14.8 8.3 11.2 F3 l4.1 12.4 13.4 13.8 12.0 11.5 8.4 16.1 9.8 11.9 7.3 9.3 Fz 11.7 11.5 12.6 12.4 10.9 10.7 8.2 9.6 10.0 11.2 7.4 8.7 F4 13.0 11.6 13.2 13.2 ll.O ll.2 fi.7 10.0 10.9 12.1 00 "" 6.6 F8 16.6 12.8 14.7 16.9 12.4 13.5 11.0 12.4 14.1 8.5 11.4 T3 22.3 15.3 15.3 17.0 17.4 14.2 “ 16.4 11.6 12.7 "14.6 6.6 12.7 C3 14.2 l3.1 116 15.8 l l 6 12.2 00 VO 11.9 11.1 14.9 7.9 11.5 Cz 12.6 11.8 12.7 12.7 12.1 12.0 7.7 16.5 6.2 11.3 7.5 ' 6.8 C4 13.1 11.4 12.5 15.2 13.7 10.1 6.6 16.8 11.7 14.3 8.7 11.6 T4 14.1 15.2 13.7 15.7 18.1 l4.l 12.1 11.2 17.1 2l.O 16.8 14.6 T5 25.6 12.7 15.9 16.6 16.5 "14.2 16.4 14.0 17.4 17.5 "H 2:fi 14.3 P3 19.6 l3.0 16.4 17.4 16.5 13.8 14.6 17.3 00 16.3 14.0 15.6 Pz 16.9 12.8 ' 112 17.1 i6.3 14.3 11.3 16.2 11.5 14.2 ii.fi 14.6 P4 17.5 11.2 14.6 16.1 13.9 6.4 ”12.2 14.6 13.8 13.7 11.9 14.4 T6 21.3 8.7 11.5 11.1 11.4 7 .4 10.2 16.1 11.1 13.0 8.4 11.2 Ol 27.0 6.7 12.9 111 12.8 12.3 i4 .i 14.4 17.8 16.4 12.0 13.9 Oz 24.4 10.1 12.6 15.8 13.1 12.2 114 ilf i 17.3 20.0 11.3 13.0 02 22.6 10.6 13.0 15.0 13.7 11.0 14.7 13.7 18.1 20.9 11.5 12.2 Table 24 Expert D: Percentage of total power in the beta frequency BEO BEC BAU biA BK1 BIK Lb ib Lb IC LI 11 Fpl 21.5 21.5 24.0 23.9 12.2 18.2 23.4 18.5 13.2 18.2 18.5 20.2 Fpz 22.0 19.6 '23.4 23.6 11.3 17.3 23.3 17.7 12.8 17.2 18.0 19.8 Fp2 22.4 17.6 11.8 13.2 10.4 13.3 23.2 16.9 12.4 16.2 17.5 19.4 F7 20.7 23.1 13.4 24.3 13.4 19.9 23.1 21.3 17.1 20.6 19.8 20.2 F3 19.5 22.7 22.1 22.7 14.6 19.7 23.0 22.0 17.7 22.7 21.9 " 23.9 Fz 19.1 20.9 21.5 12.3 16.1 191F 23.4 21.8 18.5 23.3 23.3 23.9 F4 22.0 l l . l 12.3 "54.0 15.1 18.7 24.5 21.8 18.4 21.9 24.2 24.3 F8 20.8 17.7 21.2 23.3 10.4 15.0 21.3 18.8 14.1 15.8 18.3 19.1 T3 *23.8 *25.1 *23.7 *26.5 *18.3 *23.9 *26.5 *23.3 *23.0 *26.6 *23.8 *27.1 C3 24.1 23.9 25.3 26.4 18.9 23.3 25.8 25.2 22.0 26.1 ...24.4 27.1 Cz 23.0 23.4 23.7 23.6 17.9 20.9 24.4 23.3 19.1 24.0 23.3 24.7 C4 13.3 Id.6 15.8 17.7 19.3 23.8 28.7 27.8 22.8 23.3 30.8 29.0 T4 *23.5 *13.2 *25.0 *26.1 *20. Ol 28.4 31.6 24.7 29.9 24.7 5 7TT 31.9 OJ p bo 23.0 27.3 34.3 31.7 Oz 28.9 30.2 23.0 28.4 25.7 27.1 29.4 27.5 25.9 28.2 31.9 28.3 0 2 29.5 30.7 29.7 29.2 23.3 29.0 32.2 29.2 29.3 31.8 34.9 31.3 * These figures are based on interpolated data. Table 25 Expert E: Percentage of total power in the beta frequency I BEO | BEC | BAU I MX | BKI | BIK LO IO LC IC LI II Fpl 21.9 22.0 21.5 19.8 12.5 18.8 15.7 17.3 11.7 14.2 19.0 20.8 Fpz 21.8 20.2 22.5 20.3 12.3 18.8 15.8 17.5 11.7 ... 14.3 ■"W.2 20.5 Fp2 21.8 18.4 22.6 20.8 12.1 18.6 16.0 17.7 11.8 14.5 19.4 20.2 F7 22.7 5'8.4 23.9 25.5 18.6 27.8 21.9 23.8 17.0 19.8 23.6 25.8 F3 17.8 19.3 l6.9 19.1 16.8 26.2 16.6 18.0 16.7 T8.5 18.7 20.3 Fz 15.5 15.& 15.1 16.6 15.5 17.8 15.0 16.4 15.2 16.9 12.6 18.4 F4 15.1 i5.o 17.2 15.7 10.2 18.7 15.5 16.9 11.4 15.2 18.6 19.9 F8 15.2 20.4 21.8 26.6 16.4 21.9 18.1 19.7 14.3 16.7 21.7 23.3 T3 *20.0 *25.7 *21.3 *25.1 *19.1 *25.2 *22.7 *24.3 *56.6 *23.1 *24.5 *26.4 C3 17.8 21.9 19.1 23.6 19.0 21.6 26.6 22.0 19.4 22.6 21.6 24.6 Cz 15.9 17.4 14.9 16.8 16.2 18.1 16.6 18.5 16.5 19.5 18.4 .... 26.4 C4 17.4 19.3 17.6 19.3 17.3 18.1 18.5 21.3 15.6 18.8 ... 26.2 T4 *19.9 *23.1 *20.2 *21.6 *20.5 *23.6 *23.1 *25.5 *16.7 *21.8 *25.7 *27.4 T5 19.6 26.7 20.9 26.2 20.3 26.3 25.7 27.1 ' 26.5 21.6 27.7 29.3 P3 19.9 26.8 21.2 26.6 21.2 26.7 25.9 27.4 25.8 27.9 27.8 29.6 Pz 19.3 22.2 llO 21.4 18.4 20.5 21.5 23.0 19.0 23.4 ” 2£T 25T P4 20.8 24.6 18.9 22.5 '23.8 24.1 26.5 27.1 23.4 26.7 27.0 29.3 T6 27.0 29.7 21.2 25.0 27.7 29.1 32.7 35.5 26.3 3o.o 35.3 36.3 o i 26.4 34.8 26.1 31.6 30.9 34.7 35.5 35.6 35.1 36.9 38.5 46.6 Oz 26.5 34.0 25.9 29.6 31.3 34.2 34.6 36.1 33.3 55.5 ...38.6 36.6 02 26.8 24.2 25.8 28.1 32.0 34.7 35.1 36.4 31.9 34.6 38.7 39.9 * These figures are based on interpolated data. Table 26 Expert F: Percentage of total power in the beta frequency BEO BEC BAU BIA BKI BIK l6 IO LC IC LI II Fpl 11.7 9.0 4.5 10.6 7.5 7.7 6.3 6.0 3.8 4.7 6.5 7.6 — gPf 11.5 9.0 9.0 10.2 7.4 7.2 6.2 4.3 3.7 4.6 *4.3 *7.4 Fp2 11.3 8.9 6.4 9.9 7.3 6.7 4.0 4.7 3.7 " 4.4 *5.8 *7.1 F7 18.6 i2.0 9.7 18.2 9.3 8.6 7.1 4.1 3.0 4.8 4.4 4.5 F3 19.3 12.7 10.7 i'4.2 4.8 4.4 7.4 6.7 5.1 4.4 4.2 2.2 Fz 15.7 11.7 9.7 11.8 8.6 8.6 6.8 6.3 5.1 5.4 4.1 2.4 F4 17.4 11.5 9.6 12.8 8.5 8.8 6.6 4.4 5.0 5.4 4.2' "2.4 F8 19.5 Kid 8.7 15.6 4.8 8.7 4.3 6.0 5.0 4.2 4.7 5.8 T3 *18.9 *14.7 *12.5 "■*14.8 *13.1 *12.0 *f0.5 *10.4 *8.0 *9.9 *9.2 *m:i C3 22.3 16.3 13.0 15.4 12.0 11.0 9.0 8.5 5.1 7.8 8.1 ... 8.5 Cz 18.4 12.8 11.5 11.-2 8.7 9.7 7.9 6.7 4.6 5.4 2.0 7.4 C4 20.9 14.3 15.0 11.7 10.4 11.8 4.1 2.5 6.1 7.2 8.2 8.5 T4 *21.9 *15.8 *12.4 *13.6 *11.8 *11.6 *4.8 *9.4 " *4.1 - *9.1 *9.9 T5 15.8 15.8 14.8 16.7 17.9 16.1 15.4 17.5 15.4 12.2 14.4 16.0 P3 21.0 17.4 15.2 14.4 14.5 15.7 12.8 13.1 7.9 4.8 12.8 12.0 Pz 22.8 16.7 15.6 13.0 11.7 16.0 i2.8 11.0 4.0 7.2 12.5 11.2 P4 23.5 18.7 21.9 13.8 16.1 18.8 14.2 R"4 12.2 12.8 15.0 14.1 T6 25.4 15.2 14.0 13.5 18.3 17.2 14.1 14.6 18.5 18.2 14.4 15.5 Ol 18.3 11.8 11.4 12.7 18.4 14.4 11.4 11.2 ....14.2 14.2 4.5 11.7 Oz 18.7 12.4 11.7 i2.4 18.8 15.4 11.7 11.5 17.3 14.0 10.4 "1X0 0 2 19.8 l4.0 12.5 12.4 14.2 18.0 13.9 15.1 17.7 17.2 " 15.8 " 15.5 * These figures are based on interpolated data. APPENDIX J Raw Data Tables for All Music Tasks 195 Table 27 Novice A: Absolute power within the theta frequency band (Actual p.v values for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO GIO HIO n o GLC HLC ILC GIC HIC IIC GLI HLI ILI GII tin m Fpl 18.4 15.5 19.6 2 i.4 20.4 18.6 25.8 23.0 25.5 24.3 27.2 24.6 19.0 2o.i 17.6 23.8 i6.4 22.2 Fpz 17.6 14.9 19.7 20.4 19.2 18.0 22.6 22.9 24.9 24.1 27.7 23.9 17.4 18.8 17.2 22.9 18.3 21.5 Fp2 16.9 14.3 19.5 19.5 15.1 18.1 21.5 22.8 24.5 25.6 28.2 25.2 16.6 17.5 16.8 22.6 17.5 20.8 F7 16.2 14.8 16.2 17.7 16.7 14.2 21.5 26.1 26.4 16.8 27.5 20.6 17.6 18.6 15.7 17.8 15.6 17.0 F3 27.6 25.2 25.5 27.6 26.5 25.4 28.6 26.8 28.7 28.8 55.7 28.1 26.0 25.9 22.5 28.7 25.4 28.1 Fz 50.2 25.6 36.0 56.6 51.2 26.4 52.6 54.4 52.6 54.7 57.2 56.6 27.2 27.0 27.6 54.8 22.5 52.8 f 4 26.1 22.8 28.1 26.6 27.6 25.4 56.8 52.5 56.7 56.1 54.5 26.2 24.4 24.6 25.2 50.5 25.5 31.8 F8 15.0 12.9 l 8.6 15.6 16.1 l5.5 19.2 24.6 22.6 16.0 27.4 20.9 14.7 14.6 15.2 17.6 15.6 17.6 T3 12.6 16.5 11.6 li.5 6.7 16.6 l i .6 11.6 11.6 11.6 14.2 10.4 11.2 12.1 9.7 ii.5 lo.2 10.2 t 3 l8.5 15.2 16.5 17.5 14.6 15.4 17.6 16.1 17.5 17.6 21.8 16.6 l4.6 17.6 15.6 17.5 16.4 15.7 Cz 24.4 18.8 2i .6 22.7 2o.2 16.8 25.6 26.6 24.8 25.4 56.5 24.5 21.6 22.1 16.8 27.6 2i.5 23.2 £4 112 12.9 16.5 15.6 15.5 15.5 12.6 18.6 12.2 15.5 18.6 l4.8 15.5 14.5 15.2 16.1 14.2 15.2 t 4 9.7 7.9 16.2 8.6 8.5 16.6 12.8 15.5 15.6 11.1 14.6 6.8 16.5 16.5 16.6 6.8 6.4 16.5 T5 8.8 7.9 8.4 7.5 5.9 8.2 8.0 7.4 6.5 9.2 9.6 6.8 7.8 7.9 6.7 6.7 7.4 6.3 P3 11.0 8.6 6.7 9.4 7.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 8.8 16.1 11.8 8.6 8.5 6.5 7.7 8.6 7.9 7.5 Pz 11.1 8.6 10.7 9.6 8.4 6.5 16.7 11.6 16.1 16.5 12.2 16.1 8.8 6.6 8.1 16.5 8.4 8.2 P4 8.7 7.2 9.6 1 4 6.6 7.6 8.1 6.4 8.4 8.2 9.6 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.6 8.5 7.0 7.4 T6 6.2 4.8 6.6 4.5 4.1 5.6 5.6 7.7 6.1 5.4 7.4 5.6 5.6 5.1 5.5 5.1 4.6 5.1 Ol 6.6 6.0 7.5 6.2 5.4 7.4 6.6 7.5 6.5 7.5 8.6 5.7 6.6 6.8 6.5 6.2 5.5 5.1 Oz 5.4 4.5 5.6 5.0 4.6 5.5 5.6 5.6 4.7 5.6 6.8 4.4 6.1 5.5 5.2 5.2 4.5 4.5 62 5.2 4.5 5.6 4.5 4.4 5.2 5.6 6.6 4.5 5.5 6.4 4.2 6.1 4.6 5.1 4.8 4.1 4.5 la b le 28 Novice B: Absolute power within the theta frequency band (Actual fxv values for all music tasks) GLO HU) TOT g i6 W n o g Lc HOT "TO" TO" kit DC GLI tlL l ILI <311 Pill III Fpl i4.6 13.1 15.4 13.4 17.6 15.9 39.3 37.4 17.6 28.4 20.6 17.6 14.1 15.6 13.7 13.6 14.9 12.2 Fpz 13.7 13.4 15.1 13.4 17.7 16.0 33.0 38.2 17.3 27.6 26.9 16.8 13.7 15.7 13.6 13.6 14.8 12.2 F p l ii.s> l3.7 l4.8 23.5 116 1 6 .1 36.7 36.2 16.7 26.8 21.2 15.6 13.3 15.8 13.3 13.8 14.7 12.3 £7 i l l 1 6 11.3 13.6 13.1 12.2 16.6 25.9 13.3 21.3 12.3 13.9 16.6 ii.4 i2.6 10.6 13.3 10.3 f 3 21.5 i3.6 19.2 16.6 16.1 26.1 36.3 34.4 22.7 26.6 20.1 23.5 00 00 26.3 20.6 16.8 18.1 19.3 Fz 16.1 19.6 14.1 34.1 15.5 27.6 37.7 46.6 28.9 30.3 25.8 26.4 24.1 26.3 23.2 22.7 22.1 24.7 f 4 lo .o 17.1 l8.6 1 1 3 11.3 " in 26.6 38.2 22.8 23.8 21.5 16.1 16.3 23.1 18.7 18.3 17.9 21.1 F8 11.5 11.7 11.8 16.1 16.3 13.6 21.3 40.3 14.6 17.4 13.6 12.4 12.7 14.0 16.7 12.0 12.3 11.6 T3 14.6 1 4 10.6 ll.6 111 16.6 16.I 19.2 ii.7 18.5 11.5 ii.3 11.6 11.9 16.3 11.7 11.3 10.0 1 1 . 6 C3 l3.3 111 16.6 15.5 16.7 20.4 "26.3 18.2 19.7 17.6 18.5 15.7 16.6 00 OO 13.6 13.8 15.9 Cz 33.1 21.4) 15.1 14.6 11.6 23.3 26.5 39.3 26.1 27.7 23.7 25.4 23.6 27.6 25.5 21.8 19.5 23.7 C4 19.4 14.7 15.6 16.14 i5.8 17.2 17.6 23.4 i7.6 16.1 15.4 15.2 15.6 l7.4 15.2 14.4 12.8 16.0 t 4 13.3 10.7 10.7 13.14 ll.3 11.5 16.6 26.3 13.7 12.5 ii.3 6.8 11.5 12.6 12.7 12.2 12.3 10.9 T5 12.5 11.2 11.1 9.8 10.4 11.4 15.9 23.0 13.4 20.6 14.5 14.7 10.6 10.9 10.6 11.9 10.5 9.7 F3 16.B 13.4 14.6 12.7 ll.2 14.6 18.0 24.2 i'5.6 18.6 15.4 16.3 13.3 14.4 13.6 14.0 12.3 12.7 Pz 2 l.5 16.1 16.3 l4.6 14.1 17.3 26.3 27.6 18.3 18.6 17.2 17.7 16.6 17.7 16.0 16.3 13.4 15.2 P4 16.4 i3.1 i3 .o ll.5 l l.4 15.0 16.4 19.7 13.9 15.6 14.3 14.3 13.8 13.6 12.6 13.1 12.0 11.9 T6 i 0.7 lO.l 9.14 10.0 16.3 10.3 14.6 20.2 12.0 13.5 l4.3 12.3 6.6 16.3 16.5 10.0 9.8 9.0 Ol 13.6 11.5 11.9 16.6 11.3 12.5 22.7 34.6 16.5 28.6 22.8 17.5 11.3 16.7 16.7 il.6 11.3 9.8 6z 12.8 16.4) 11.4 16.4 11.3 12.1 21.4 31.2 16.1 25.8 21.1 16.2 11.6 16.6 16.3 11.2 10.9 9.4 O l 11.9 11.l 11.6 u.o 11.6 "12.3 21.6 31.0 16.5 ESS 21.6 16.3 11.4 16.6 16.8 11.1 11.2 9.5 Table 29 Novice C: Absolute power within the theta frequency band (Actual p.v values for all music tasks) 6 l 6 HLO ILO 616 035 7 S E T W ILC 7 J f c “ Hie UC GL1 tfu ILI GII HI1 III Fpl 32.8 19.4 23.2 13.7 33.4 31.8 25.9 33.7 29.3 35.0 35.2 27.3 18.5 19.5 34.0 47.1 22.0 52.4 Fpz 33.3 19.7 23.9 23.6 33.8 33.9 23.6 34.0 29.2 37.5 35.3 27.9 19.4 18.9 34.8 51.3 22.7 54.8 Pp2 33.9 20.0 24.7 13.6 39.3 35.0 "'i3.'4' 34.3 23.9 40.2 35.5 18.4 30.4 18.3 35.7 55.6 23.4 57.3 Pi 26.1 l4.4 17.2 16.3 23.5 10.6 i3.1 23.9 13.4 20.8 13.1 20.9 18.6 15.1 li.3 24.9 13.4 29.8 F3 31.6 11.3 28.5 31.6 46.1 35.9 3l.3 31.9 34.5 41.9 38.7 34.6 30.0 2 1 6 39.7 60.6 26.0 58.2 Fz 39.6 28.9 38.7 40.3 53.6 50.6 41.2 43.3 45.0 55.5 53.6 45.6 40.8 17.9 51.0 87.6 35.0 83.7 © F4 30.-1 13.7 19.4 34.3 41.3 36.4 19.1 37.7 00 47.0 40.3 33.5 31.7 11.6 38.7 65.4 28.3 55.5 1*8 24.9 i6.5 17.7 20.2 15.1 20.7 16.6 14.8 19.4 13.9 26.0 16.3 11.4 14.3 10.7 33.4 18.1 26.1 13 i 7.5 11.1 14.3 17.4 19.6 13.3 13.2 19.9 19.6 25.1 13.0 16.5 i 1.6 10.8 14.3 22.3 9.8 22.6 C3 15.4 13.3 13.1) 14.7 10.9 15.2 17.1 15.2 16.9 32.7 10.6 18.8 15.6 14.4 l7.3 31.5 14.2 20.5 Cz 21.6 l l .7 25.9 36.9 19.4 24.3 26.1 14.3 14.6 47.3 30.3 18.7 14.3 23.7 27.6 45.1 25.8 33.4 C4 15. 8 17.2 19.3 31.1 11.1 16.6 ' 17.7 18.0 16.0 36.5 23.0 18.8 18.9 15.9 22.2 36.8 19.9 23.0 14 12.4 10.6 ll.7 11.3 14.5 11.0 9.6 14.1 10.3 11.7 14.7 10.6 11.6 9.6 13.6 24.8 11.8 13.5 T5 8.7 10.7 11.7 23.3 l3.1 10.3 3.9 12.0 11.4 31.4 14.9 10.6 8.7 9.9 11.3 26.9 9.8 13.6 P i 8.8 10.1 11.1 16.5 l l . i 10.8 10.3 9.9 12.3 36.4 16.3 12.7 9.8 9.9 11.6 29.5 10.0 14.7 Fz l2.4 ll.5 14.1 33.4 15.4 14.6 13.8 11.7 14.9 45.6 1 9 .5 17.7 11.9 13.4 14.8 34.1 15.0 19.7 F4 10.8 11.1 l i f t 31.1 13.4 ll.5 l l . l 12.8 12.8 40.0 16.4 15.4 ii.5 11.7 14.5 31.7 12.8 17.1 16 14.3 11.0 12.9 30.3 14.3 12.5 9.0 16.7 ll.5 37.6 18.9 16.8 11.8 14.1 15.6 30.2 12.9 16.2 Ot 8.3 9.0 9.7 17.3 10.3 8.7 7.4 9.2 10.2 43.9 13.3 10.7 7.7 8.1 l l . l 8.0 13.6 d>z 6.1 6.1 7.2 15.7 7.5 7.1 5.7 7.2 8.2 4i.O 10.9 9.0 5.8 5.8 8.6 27.1 6.3 l0.7 02 1 1 5.9 7.6 15.5 7.7 7.7 5.3 9.1 3.8 40.6 l l .8 10.2 6.3 7.0 9.0 25.7 6.8 10.6 VO 00 Table 30 Expert D: Absolute power within the theta frequency band (Actual iiv values for all music tasks) GLO HLO nx> GIO rtio ilo dLd HLC 1LC die H ie lie GLIHLI ILI GII liii ni Fpl 1 P3 17.8 22.2 16.4 15.5 17.6 22.9 19.4 22.5 22.6 12.2 25.1 w © 00 15.2 15.2 24.7 19.8 17.5 25.7 Pz 16.5 19.5 14.8 12.5 15.9 24.8 16.6 19.6 25.2 15.2 12.1 29.4 15.6 14.6 22.1 18.9 16.6 23.7 P4 14.7 17.9 15.2 16.6 14.4 25.2 14.2 12.2 21.6 13.3 15.1 26.4 13.3 12.5 26.7 15.5 14.6 22.6 T6 10.6 15.9 16.6 9.5 ll.l 20.4 15.6 22.8 25.9 14.6 15.2 28.5 16.2 11.5 18.7 12.5 12.7 2i.8 Ol 17.4 25.5 17.5 16.4 17.5 28.3 51.6 55.6 55.1 22.6 29.7 43.1 16.6 16.9 29.2 19.4 19.7 28.6 IN 00 6z 14.2 21.6 14.7 15.5 15.5 25.1 25.6 51.5 12.5 24.4 58.9 15.8 14.9 25.2 l6.9 16.8 25.4 02 1 5 .6 20.2 15.5 12.1 14.7 23.6 22.4 25.1 29.8 14.9 22.1 52.5 15.2 14.4 25.5 15.8 15.9 24.2 VO vO Table 31 Expert E: Absolute power within the theta frequency band (Actual pv values for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO GIO HIO n o GLC kLC 1LC (jIC HIC lie GLI HLI ILI GII HII ni Fpl 12.1 i l o n .2 u .8 10.8 13.5 i6.4 15.5 16.4 17.4 18.2 17.7 12.5 11.5 14.4 i6.4 14.0 12.9 Fpz 11.0 12.0 10.4 10.5 10.2 12.5 15.1 14.9 15.0 15.6 17.0 15.9 11.4 10.9 12.5 9.7 13.0 12.0 Fpl 9.9 11.0 9.6 9.4 6.7 ll.4 14.6 14.5 14.7 14.6 15.8 14.2 16.4 16.4 11.2 6.1 i2.o l l . l F / 10.1 12.0 i 1.9 11.7 16.1 12.5 14.4 16.4 l6.2 14.8 16.7 18.5 12.4 11.5 14.7 16.6 14.2 14.6 F3 20.1 19.8 20.7 2o.2 18.5 24.5 24.2 25.6 24.6 2l.8 27.4 27.4 2i.4 20.1 HT ±0.1 24.5 20.5 o SO Fz 23.0 24.5 23.6 21.6 22.8 29.1 26.5 28.4 26.2 25.6 44.5 24.0 25.4 27.7 24.5 4 l.l 25.5 F4 17.1 17.8 17.4 15.5 16.8 26.6 21.2 22.5 22.6 21.6 21.9 24.2 16.5 16.5 16.6 16.4 16.4 18.7 F8 7.5 7.9 7.8 6.7 8.1 8.5 14.6 ii.6 16.4 io.2 6.8 16.6 7.7 8.2 8.5 6.6 8.4 6.0 '1“J i i . i 14.4 15.6 14.2 12.5 16.1 14.6 18.1 22.1 14.6 18.6 20.8 14.5 14.4 12.6 14.4 l6.8 15.1 (J3 16.6 17.6 16.8 16.8 16.7 22.6 16.6 24.5 24.4 26.4 24.2 24.6 26.6 16.2 21.1 18.6 21.1 18.1 Cz 19.1) 21.9 22.2 ls>.6 ±0.4 25.4 22.6 24.2 27.2 25.5 27.1 26.7 22.5 24.8 24.1 21.5 24.6 2 2 . 6 c4 12.9 l4 .l 14.4 12.6 14.2 16.6 16.2 18.2 l 8.2 12.6 17.2 16.2 14.6 15.5 15.2 14.4 15.5 16.5 14 6 . 2 5.8 5.1i 5.5 5.6 6 . 6 8.6 11.2 6.2 6.8 6.4 10.5 5.6 2.6 6.5 5.4 6.7 7.6 lb 15.3 17.2 19.9 16.7 16.6 22.1 19.7 24.0 26.2 20.9 23.6 26.7 19.0 18.4 21.0 20.0 21.0 18.7 P3 14.7 16.7 19.4 16.1 16.2 21.4 18.2 24.4 25.3 26.2 24.1 25.8 18.7 17.6 26.5 16.4 26.4 18.3 Pz 16.4 l 8.2 19.5 17.9 12.6 22.6 2i.5 24.4 25.6 24.8 24.8 25.4 22.6 26.2 21.1 26.1 21.5 20.4 P4 l i . l 14.3 14.4 14.4 14.6 17.5 15.5 16.6 21.2 16.6 18.6 21.7 17.2 14.6 16.4 14.6 16.4 16.9 16 7.9 8.7 $.1 9.6 8.6 11.6 6.8 14.1 15.2 14.2 14.4 16.6 16.4 6.4 6.6 9.4 16.4 10.9 Ol 10.9 14.8 15.7 14.6 14.7 16.4 22.9 26.4 26.6 16.6 27.4 25.6 16.4 15.1 17.1 17.7 16.5 17.7 Oz 9.7 12.9 14.7 11.9 14.0 14.4 26.4 24.1 25.6 18.8 24.6 24.1 14.7 14.1 14.8 15.2 14.4 15.4 02 9.5 12.1 12.7 ll.4 12.3 14.5 16.2 23.9 25.6 26.6 26.6 24.6 14.5 12.5 14.7 14.6 14.4 14.4 Table 32 Expert F: Absolute power within the theta frequency band (Actual |iv values for all music tasks) 6L6 hl6 ILO 616 W ”m r 6L6 T n r tLC riit lit 6 l i hLi ILI GII -m r "TIT Fpl 19.1 2o.5 2o.8 23.7 36.8 27.2 6 33.9 47.2 65.1 31.6 29.3 36.8 36.8 27.3 18.0 25.3 34.8 Fpz 18.3 19.8 20.6 25.9 37.1 25.7 0 37.7 46.3 69.1 33.4 32.6 32.9 31.3 26.4 18.5 24.8 34.3 Fp2 17.6 111 26.3 26.2 37.4 24.3 6 41.8 49.6 73.7 35.2 34.7 33.2 31.9 25.5 19.1 24.3 33.8 Fv 18.6 l7.4 i7.6 23.5 23.6 23.3 6 35.6 46.3 68.6 36.6 34.6 26.3 22.5 22.0 13.6 22.0 26.3 F3 28.9 29.4 29.3 24.9 32.2 37.6 6 23.7 37.1 44.9 31.4 27.4 26.1 34.1 32.8 24.1 32.8 36.9 Fz 31.6 34.2 33.3 28.7 37.2 42.6 6 36.2 4 I .6 33.3 33.7 32.3 29.7 37.1 36.5 3l.l 36.8 42.3 P4 24.3 26.1 28.3 24.5 28.6 31.6 6 36.6 32.2 68.8 31.4 32.8 24.5 28.6 27.3 22.6 27.0 32.1 F8 14.1 14.2 13.9 26.3 17.6 i9.9 6 41.8 38.3 65.6 56.1 34.3 19.6 19.7 16.9 16.6 18.1 21.3 14 114 15.4 17.1 21.7 16.8 22.7 6 20.4 22.4 25.1 26.8 25.9 18.4 19.6 20.3 12.8 21.8 20.8 C3 34.6 32.6 32.4 24.9 36.6 46.2 6 22.5 27.7 27.7 22.5 26.8 22.3 37.6 33.2 22.8 33.4 35.9 Cz 314 313 41.0 28.3 33.4 46.1 6 23.0 29.4 33.9 23.6 27.7 23.7 39.3 38.3 28.1 37.7 ^9 .5 £4 23.'? 22.9 29.6 16.3 26.1 26.7 6 17.3 16.3 2eT.4“ 18.2 19.4 26.3 27.6 25.6 26.6 23.9 26.3 T4 8.3 16.2 16.8 9.9 9.6 12.1 6 15.3 11.7 26.7 16.4 12.4 12.3 13.4 ll.l 8.2 14.6 11.6 T5 20.0 17.2 i l.o 19.5 15.2 26.9 6 l3.6 l9.8 31.1 19.8 17.3 16.4 26.7 22.6 13.9 21.4 21.7 t>3 26.2 27.4 30.3 19.4 23.9 36.6 6 13.3 26.9 22.6 16.4 17.1 18.1 33.6 27.9 22.3 28.1 30.7 t»z 33.4 36.3 46.6 26.3 28.6 40.9 6 14.4 26.8 25.7 17.7 21.2 22.1 33.5 32.5 3l.O 33.8 36.3 F4 19.9 14.8 26.3 14.4 16.3 25.0 6 12.6 14.9 27.3 14.8 13.6 19.9 23.3 20.8 2o.8 21.3 ThJ T6 18.0 14.3 22.1 13.1 12.9 20.2 6 12.6 13.2 24.6 16.6 14.1 17.4 "24.6 26.5 16.4 17.4 18.6 61 16.6 13.6 16.2 13.5 16.5 18.2 0 13.9 17.1 23.7 16.6 11.1 11.3 18.1 13.7 l2.8 16.9 17.6 6 z 12.6 8.9 12.4 16.5 8.3 13.4 6 is.1 14.7 22.6 14.7 9.6 9.6 12.6 9.4 ll.l i3.2 13.7 62 it.7 7.7 ll.o 9.9 8.4 12.1 0 16.6 16.1 25.6 16.5 16.8 16.6 11.3 ii.s 12.3 12.7 13.5 Note: Due to excessive artifact, the GLC condition (Grainger Listen/Conduct) was unusable Table_22 Novice A: Absolute power within the alpha frequency band (Actual pv values for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO GIO HIO no glC HLC ILC GIC HIC lie GLI HLI ILI GII HII m Fpl 17.1 32.8 58.1 14.3 17.1 58.5 12.5 53.1 62.7 44.5 18.1 45.6 35.1 52.0 49.2 32.1 41.5 59.2 Fpz 16.8 33.0 57.4 23.9 36.4 59.5 31.7 52.5 62.4 44.4 38.5 46.3 36.3 51.6 48.6 31.4 42.8 58.7 Fpl l5.5 13.1 56.6 11.4 15.6 56.1 11.6 51.5 51.1 44.1 18.$ 41.6 15.5 51.1 47.$ 10.7 41.1 58.1 F7 15.0 29.7 51.6 11.5 11.4 50.8 16.5 56.1 55.1 15.1 15.7 l$ .l l l . l 47.4 41.4 29.9 17.5 52.6 F3 l8.4 15.4 61.1 16. l l$.l 5$.6 11.8 55.6 51.1 45.$ 41.1 47.8 1$.8 54.6 48.8 14.1 41.$ 60.7 Fz 20.1 40.5 66.7 l$ .l 41.4 68.4 17.1 518 57.5 56.1 41.0 5i.8 44.1 58.8 54.6 15.8 48.5 67.6 F4 19.5 40.7 64.3 16.7 41.1 68.3 11.1 55.1 55.7 51.7 41.1 51.5 41.6 55.8 53.5 14.5 416 55.1 F8 15.1 11.2 53.$ 1$.6 11.$ 58.7 15.5 4$.5 58.4 44.5 17.6 43.5 11.1 41.4 45.1 18.1 46.5 53.5 Tl 12.1 11.9 1$.4 14.1 11.4 11.1 11.7 14.1 44.1 18.4 30.0 11.4 15.1 17.5 11.5 14.1 29.5 17.7 Cl l5.6 18.5 49.2 l$.6 11.6 44.1 18.5 41.5 56.7 11.8 14.0 18.4 15.6 41.5 15.$ 11.1 15.5 4$.l Cz 17.4 14.6 5 l.l 11.4 36.6 51.4 11.4 45.$ 51.5 41.4 17.7 41.8 l$.o 411 46.5 16.5 18.4 53.7 C4 li.a ll.4 41.1 11.8 16.6 44.4 11.8 15.5 45.4 15.5 l l . l 15.8 11.5 18.1 15.1 15.8 11.$ 44.0 T4 11.7 11.5 15.1 l i .6 15.$ 41.7 18.1 15.1 45.8 oo bo 18.1 14.3 1$.4 15.1 14.1 11.7 15.2 45.5 T5 7.7 19.4 22.6 8.9 15.2 21.9 16.8 22.7 35.4 16.7 20.4 28.9 18.1 22.1 21.2 16.1 19.5 23.8 Pi 10.9 ll.O 11.1 16.8 18.7 15.8 18.8 15.1 19.2 11.$ 11.4 17.4 11.5 25.1 11.8 17.5 11.7 26.5 Pz l l .l 18.8 11.6 11.4 11.1 14.1 18.7 11.4 16.5 15.8 11.5 11.1 10.5 14.6 16.1 15.4 11.5 14.7 P4 £.1 17.5 lo.6 16.1 18.1 i$.5 i5.6 l$.l 15.5 11.7 11.1 11.4 15.5 23.9 18.5 i4.5 18.5 ll.9 T6 8.1 15.1 17.5 1.6 i4.i i8.4 l l . l 15.5 15.4 18.6 i$.4 22.2 11.9 16.7 17.$ 11.5 15.4 19.7 Ol 11.5 22.1 12.5 11.1 18.4 1$.7 12.2 15.7 18.$ 11.8 11.5 lo.o 16.4 11.1 22.2 15.7 16.5 l l . l Qz 7.5 13.2 15.$ $.4 16.8 15.1 14.1 18.0 15.1 18.5 11.0 lo.l 11.5 i4.8 11.8 ll .l l l .l 13.3 Ol 10.$ 17.4 ~Y2.7 l l .l 15.4 li.6 16.4 15.1 11.1 18.1 11.5 16.5 16.4 11.$ 17.8 16.1 18.$ 20.3 IableJ4 Novice B: Absolute power within the alpha frequency band (Actual pv values for all music tasks) g o t (iLO i l 6 g i 6 Hlo no “SET HLC “ILC 75KT IICGLI HLI ILI GII HI1 III Fpl 6.5 6.1 5.0 5.1 6.4 5.8 15.2 19.7 ii.6 14.6 11.9 9.5 6.6 7.4 6.9 7.9 6.1 6.4 Fpz 6.4 6.1 4.9 5.2 6.1 5.7 14.1 20.1 10.7 13.7 12.3 8.6 6.7 7.4 6.6 7.8 6.0 6.2 Fp2 6.1 6.1 4.8 5.3 5.0 6.1 l3 .i 20.6 9.0 12.8 12.6 7.8 6.7 7.4 6.3 7.7 5.9 6.0 P7 5.1 5.5 5.0 4.6 5.6 6.0 0.3 16.6 8.8 0.7 9.0 6.8 5.0 5.8 5.0 6.4 5.1 5.2 Fl 1.6 7.4 6.7 6.3 8.0 7.8 11.0 17.5 11.O 11.2 10.O 8.4 7.0 8.2 7.0 9.7 7.8 7.5 Fz 8.8 9.1 1.6 1.6 8.0 0.1 13.1 21.1 12.8 12.3 “ i 2T6 0.0 10.3 10.3 8.8 10.6 9.0 9.0 F4 7.1 7.6 6.5 5.6 7.0 1 1 11.7 21.0 11.8 10.9 i l l 0.7 8.6 8.4 1.1 8.3 7.8 7.3 f 8 4.$ 5.6 5.2 4.0 4.8 5.0 0.0 24.6 9.0 ' T.8 11.1 8.6 5.6 6.2 5.6 5.8 5.7 4.9 t 3 10.5 6.1 6.0 12.1 6.5 7.1 13.6 20.6 9.3 11.0 io.7 OO 0.8 8.3 6.3 9.2 8.6 5.4 cl 6.6 6.5 6.4 6.6 6.0 7.8 0.8 14.1 10.2 0.1 0.7 7.4 7.5 7.4 6.6 '8.3 7.1 6.3 Cz 1.1 9.1 8.2 13 0.4 9.4 16.8 17.8 12.6 10.8 12.0 9.9 0.6 0.0 8.0 9.6 8.4 7.6 to C4 6.6 1.1 6.1 6.6 6.3 7.2 0.0 15.0 9.6 8.4 9.5 0 0 7.0 8.7 6.6 6.2 7.8 6.7 t 4 6.6 6.1 6.6 8.0 5.7 6.7 10.4 19.0 9.9 6.8 9.4 7.8 0.0 8.4 ii.O 0.1 10.4 6.7 T5 7.0 5.8 6.1 6.5 6.2 7.4 13.4 19.4 0.2 12.4 10.1 7.5 6.1 6.6 6.5 7.2 7.2 6.4 p3 10 6.1 6.5 6.2 6.1 7.4 10.0 13.4 8.4 0.1 8.7 6.8 6.4 7.0 6.4 6.8 7.1 6.2 Pz 8.0 8.3 1 2 6.8 7.0 8.5 11.1 13.6 8.0 0.7 9.3 8.2 7.6 8.2 7.4 7.1 7.9 7.0 p4 7.0 8/) 6.7 6.4 6.4 7.1 11.1 15.4 9.1 0.7 9.3 7.0 7.8 0.3 7.0 6.2 8.5 7.0 t 6 8.0 6.6 16 6.5 6.7 8.3 16.9 24.6 10.0 13.2 12.6 10.0 0.7 10.0 8.3 7.2 8.8 8.0 01 18 1.6 7.6 7.5 7.2 8.0 31.6 30.5 14.3 25.5 18.0 12.7 7.8 7.7 8.0 7.7 9.4 7.7 Oz 7.5 00 Ol 7.3 7.4 6.7 7.5 26.3 29.5 14.6 22.8 18.6 12.2 8.1 8.2 8.3 7.4 9.2 7.8 o2 8.1 11.4 8.5 8.0 7.0 8.4 27.0 36.0 18.2 24.6 22.5 i4.3 10.0 11.4 0.0 8.0 11.2 0.4 labile 25 Novice C: Absolute power within the alpha frequency band (Actual pv values for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO GIO H io UO W u n r iLC (Sit ~mr 'Hi g LI HLI ILI GII HII III Fpl 120.5 143.8 107.6 25.6 157.3 $9.$ 101.8 163.8 64.7 131$ 168.4 79.8 127.0 136.8 101.8 27.6 134.8 89.0 Fpz 118.4 143.7 107.7 25.9 156.3 89.7 106.8 104.5 84.5 13.$ 108.4 80.2 127.4 155.6 101.2 28.1 133.6 90.1 Fp2 116.3 143.7 107.9 26.1 155.2 —8$.1 $$.7 163.3 84.3 13.$ T 08.4 86.6 127.8 134.5" 100.6 38.6 132.4 91.1 F7 101.9 118.6 92.7 22.2 130.9 80.5 $$.3 $4.3 7$.l 13.1 $3.7 67.$ 109.2 il$.3 89.1 33.2 113.8 85.6 F3 113.0 142.1 107.4 30.$ 155.6 86.9 161.4 166.5 80.5 34.1 16$.6 80.8 124.2 148.1 ” $$.4 33.0 127.3 90.8 Fz 129.9 161.6 125.0 “ 3$.$ 177.4 100.4 118.3 115.0 91.6 46.1 117.2 $4.2 143.3' 167.3 114.4 14.3 143.6 107.1 F4 124.5 150.6 117.2 38.5 161.8 $<5.3 108.7 io$.i 88.5 31.1 ii$.o 8$.3 134.5 136.8 “IS'570 4o .7 135.0 100.0 F8 104.8 128.2 97.6 23.8 135.1 $3.1 86.8 $5.6 1$.4 14.3 162.3 76.6 113.7 131.7 8$.4 27.3 114.8 85.6 l 3 68.0 68.9 61.3 26.7 77.3 63.6 60.0 66.8 39.3 48.3 73.5 61.1 71.9 6$.4 36.8 44.8 73.1 79.6 C3 66.3 97.8 86.5 19.8 $3.0 43.4 88.6 59.4 44.8 38.7 63.$ “ 45.3 78.0 83.4 64.6 38.1 72.4 66.9 Cz 100.8 123.7 107.2 45.6 114.3 69.2 102.0 $3.1 6$.5 47.8 100.2 73.0 iio .4 119.9 78.1 45.6 101.5 90.1 C4 71.4 99.7 89.3 52.5 104.0 31.1 18.6 61.2 413 35.4 7i:5 51.3 81.8 87.9 70.0 47.0 87.6 65.5 T4 58.0 76.7 61.9 32.9 80.9 52.7 52.3 31.6 45.4 28.2 63.9 31.7 69.4 68.3 58.7 37.6 65.7 59.0 15 34.3 50.3 60.9 10&.4 70.1 58.7 36.3 46.2 46.4 107.7 58.9 69.3 56.0 58.9 66.6 138.5 66.9 73.4 16.4 P i 35.3 41.3 111 11.4 29.1 I6.1 11.5 7$.l 15.7 1$.$ 18.1 ~ 38.4 32.6 86.1 33.1 35.3 Pz 26.2 46.7 61.3 64.7 31.1 34.4 43.6 34.0 18.0 ” 54.’6 36.6 31.8 34.2 49.7 36.1 66.1 35.5 38.4 P4 26.4 49.9 57.3 94.2 36.1 43.8 46.4 30.2 18.6 70.6 45.8 48.8 43.1 38.1 52.2 97.9 55.1 46.7 72.5 139.4 T6 130.3 178.1 161.6 116.5 81.5 102.0 $9.4 12 3 .0 111.4 130.7 fl7 .$ 177.5 149.2 708.3 ll7 .7 137.7 Ol 54.6 74.3 68.6 177.6 83.7 59.9 43.4 70.5 66.7 176.1 71.1 64.4 73.7 166.8 87.8 1$6.9 78.6 87.6 Oz 35.1 45.2 44.0 147.1 48.1 39.6 16.4 43.1 43.1 13 4 .4 39.7 37.1 46.0 3$.$” 15.6 146.6 51.3 51.7 02 39.2 48.9 51.9 147.8 54.2 43.8 31.7 45.6 47.7 111.3 56.1 46.3 44.6 64.1 3$.6 l40.7 39.8 54.0 204 Table 36 Expert D: Absolute power within the alpha frequency band (Actual )xv values for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO (jIO HIO no GLC HLC ILC (jIC HIC lie (jLI HLI ILI GII HII ni Fpl 12.6 18.3 13.9 8.9 11.7 14.9 i3.i 14.5 l9.0 10.5 10.1 15.7 12.4 15.1 18.7 11.5 15.3 18.8 Fpz 11.7 17.8 12.6 8.1 11.0 14.3 12.4 13.9 18.5 9.9 9.0 15.2 11.3 14.4 18.0 10.5 13.6 18.0 Fpl 10.8 17.4 11.4 7.5 10.4 13.8 ii.8 13.3 17.9 9.4 8.0 14.6 10.3 13.7 17.3 9.5 ll.O 17.3 F7 14.1 17.4 16.1 12.7 14.3 18.6 14.6 16.5 10.1 16.3 l l .l 19.7 14.7 14.9 19.6 13.7 19.9 l0.6 F3 17.8 14.5 l8.6 12.3 15.7 19.5 14.5 16.9 11.0 15.3 11.8 11.0 15.9 19.9 11.7 14.8 19.4 22.8 Fz 20.8 28.6 19.0 13.7 17.0 20.4 16.6 19.9 13.6 16.5 11.3 l l . l 16.8 2l.l 15.0 15.4 i9.l 14.8 F4 16.5 14.1 14.7 11.4 14.5 17.9 14.7 17.8 10.5 13.7 11.4 118 13.3 i6.9 10.9 11.5 15.5 11.5 F8 10.3 16.3 9.7 9.3 11.9 14.1 i3.8 14.5 16.6 11.4 13.4 15.1 9.5 11.5 16.5 9.6 11.9 17.6 T3 14.8 l4.6 15.4 15.1 15.0 20.1 16.8 16.5 19.5 10.0 13.1 10.0 16.1 14.1 18.9 14.1 18.5 20.1 C3 18.8 19.8 16.6 13.3 15.6 10.8 13.6 15.7 10.9 16.6 9.1 10.5 14.9 18.9 10.1 13.5 17.5 10.7 Cz 10.9 26.3 18.4 i4.5 16.5 10.9 15.1 19.1 11.9 18.6 il.8 10.1 15.6 18.8 11.7 15.8 18.4 22.4 C4 14. i 18.8 11.1 10.9 11.5 16.8 ll.l 13.1 16.1 11.1 11.1 14.8 10.8 11.1 15.6 10.8 13.3 16.6 t4 8.8 14.1 8.6 13.9 11.7 15.3 19.6 16.4 15.3 11.8 19.6 18.1 9.0 9.3 13.4 ll .l 15.5 16.6 T5 22.5 25.6 18.5 18.0 17.0 28.4 19.1 21.3 23.3 21.0 17.0 24.6 14.7 21.1 31.5 15.9 22.8 28.0 P3 19.7 19.8 l5.5 13.1 l4.6 22.8 11.4 14.1 19.0 14.3 9.1 18.5 11.5 16.5 21.8 ll.3 16.3 20.8 Pz 14.5 16.8 12.3 lO.l l l .l 11.6 10.4 11.8 18.4 11.1 9.5 15.0 9.9 11.0 15.8 ll.5 11.5 151 P4 14.8 17.0 13.6 ll.l 13.1 20.8 11.1 15.5 10.3 10.6 11.1 19.1 11.7 13.6 11.4 ll.5 i5.i 19.5 T6 18.5 18.8 21.0 11.5 13.1 31.3 30.1 38.5 31.8 18.5 29.8 37.0 2l.l l l . l 3l.O 11.0 33.5 37.1 01 16.7 25.8 13.6 13.0 14.0 20.1 li.4 26.6 11.8 19.1 11.6 18.0 13.4 10.1 29.2 13.9 16.1 16.2 Oz 11.5 17.1 10.7 10.8 10.8 i6.i 17.1 13.5 11.1 15.6 18.8 16.7 13.1 15.7 11.9 11.3 11.9 l l . l 02 13.1 17.6 15.3 13.0 11.8 21.2 11.1 28.8 35.1 16.1 10.8 34.5 19.8 11.6 16.8 16.4 17.5 16.5 Table 37 Expert E: Absolute power within the alpha frequency band (Actual |!v values for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO GIO HIO llo HLC 1LC G1C k ic lit GLI HU ILI dm HU m Fpl 4.6 5.3 5.7 4.4 5.4 5.5 d.l 8.1 7.7 7.0 8.1 6.1 5.0 4.7 5.4 5.5 5.1 7.0 Fpz 4.3 4.7 4.9 4.1 4.8 5.1 5.8 7.3 7.0 6.9 7.3 6.5 4.6 4.4 4.9 5.1 4.7 6.4 Fpl 3.9 4.1 4.2 3.8 4.1 4.1 5.5 6.6 d.3 d.O d.5 6.4 4.3 4.1 4.4 4.1 4.3 5.8 F7 11 5.9 15 5.5 d.5 6.5 d.8 0.5 8.1 1.6 0.4 1.1 5.d d.O 1.1 d.l d.O 8.0 F3 7.9 7.9 Id 7.1 15 8.2 8.0 11.1 l0.5 0.5 11.5 0.4 7.d 1.4 8.4 7.0 00 o 10.0 Fz 8.d 14 Id l o 0.0 8.8 8.2 il.O 11.0 0.1 ll.i 0.5 8.1 7.0 8.1 8.8 8.1 0.0 P4 6.1 6.6 6.3 6.0 7.1 d.O 1.3 0.0 0.1 8.1 10.3 8.0 1.1 d.4 d.5 1.3 7.0 8.0 F8 3.1 3.4 3.1 1.0 3.4 3.1 4.3 5.7 5.1 4.7 5.1 5.7 3.d 3.5 3.1 3.9 3.1 4.5 1“3 6.0 7.1 7.0 d.O 8.1 8.5 0.1 13.3 11.5 0.3 11.8 11.1 7.d 1.4 0.1 7.5 8.0 11.9 C3 7.6 13 8.4 7.8 O.d 0.1 8.d il.8 10.1 0.5 11.1 11.1 8.d 8.1 0.5 7.7 0.1 11.3 Cz 8.8 9.6 9.3 8.4 li.O 10.3 0.5 11.1 ii.5 0.5 i2.d i i .l 0.1 0.4 0.4 0.8 lO.i 11.3 C4 5.3 6.3 5.7 5.3 6.1 6.6 d.6 0.0 1.8 d.O 8.0 8.1 5.8 5.8 6.0 d.O 6.1 7.1 14 1.5 3.1 3.8 1.4 3.4 3.8 5.0 8.0 6.6 4.0 d.4 8.3 1.8 4.4 3.1 4.0 3.0 5.0 T5 7.9 9.8 9.7 8.8 10.2 11.0 11.0 15.5 13.8 11.4 13.5 13.3 10.7 10.1 ll.i 8.8 10.8 13.0 P3 1.7 9.6 9.4 14 10.0 10.0 10.8 15.4 13.5 11.1 13.3 11.8 10.5 0.8 li.O 8.d 10.d 11.8 Pz 8.1 10.1 10.5 14 10.0 ii.d 10.0 13.8 13.1 11.3 14.d 13.4 l0.3 11.3 11.3 0.4 11.1 13.1 P4 6.4 8.0 l o 6.6 1.1 9.4 8.3 11.4 ll.4 8.5 13.1 13.0 8.1 8.4 8.4 1.8 8.4 1ST 16 5.4 7.1 6.1 5.1 d.4 8.1 7.1 10.2 11.1 1.8 11.0 15.0 1.3 1.4 1.3 6.6 7.0 8.0 Ol 7.9 10.1 10.1 10 0.7 ii.7 17.7 24.3 11.5 id.3 14.1 10.1 14.8 11.1 ll.d 11.5 13.1' id.O Oz 6.8 9.4 8.8 1.6 8.0 11.1 l4.d 11.1 10.1 13.4 11.5 10.3 ll.d 10.0 11.5 10.0 11.3 14.^" 02 7.4 10.6 0.5 1 4 0.4 13.0 14.3 11.0 11.1 13.4 ld .l 13.1 11.5 11.1 11.5 11.7 11.5- 16.9 Table 38 Expert F: Absolute power within the alpha frequency band (Actual llv values for all music tasks) g Lo HLO Il o 6 io T fflT tRT 7SKT HLC il c G lc HIC Ik : ■ w HLIILI Gil HII III Fpl 283.9 292.7 322.4 228.2 2)2.1 234.3 6 220.3 166.6 229.6 2 i 8.7 283.3 270.8 1*33.8 345.7 264.9 292.8 278.1 Fpz 281.8 286.9 319.2 226.6 276.5 235.2 0 216.5 l64.) 226.8 217.6 2)9.7 278.2 328.1 346.0 267.5 294.0 275.9 £p2 2)3.8 2&1.2 316.0 225.6 286.6 236.2 6 218.7 162.8 224.2 212.1 2)6.1 285.) 326.6 346.4 270.0 295.3 273.8 Pi 202.6 221.6 234.6 128.4 168.2 170.4 6 122.1 164.9 162.2 122.6 236.9 154.6 248.6 242.4 138.8 213.2 212.3 £3 338.1 358.3 386.4 289.1 3i6.8 261.0 6 2)2.9 252.8 263.8 268.6 365.6 331.2 404.8 396.4 321.6 357.5 350.4 Pz 412.2 4 i).6 452.2 246.2 398.0 358.8 6 33 1.6 268.5 346.6 323.3 426.6 '4 1 5 J 486.2 486.2 386.2 436.7 4l8.8 P4 358.0 262.7 392.6 315.6 386.4 326.7 6 288.5 2) 6.2 153.4 286.8 362.4 352.3 421.6 433.6 368.1 386.8 387.8 PS 222.6 225.5 254.5 162.1 251.0 265.6 6 188.7 169.6 180.5 125.0 233.6 264.8 153.2 286.5 243.2 242.1 246.5 t s 132.5 126.) 156.1 "125.4' 124.8 123.6 6 144.4 132.2 153.8 134.3 1)1.2 133.4 145.7 154.5 l4 i.i 152.8 168.8 £3 233.1 242.8 345.5 221.1 221.9 299.0 6 285.2 267.7 365.8 264.1 365.4 331.3 328.4 362.3 308.2 317.0 350.4 Cz 294.0 396.5 424.5 382.6 372.2 386.5 6 387.4 321.1 402.2 326.2 4)4.3 422.2 442.8 406.7 373.6 422.4 420.0 £4 287.4 282.1 316.6 275.8 353.3 366.2 6 2s 3.5 252.6 256.6 249.8 287.4 362.8 3 i2 .i 331.6 344.8 321.0 354.5 T4 117.6 115.8 122.2 103.6 146.5 125.2 6 164.7 62.6 92.) 55.5 114.8 188.5 128.3 161.2 151.5 142.3 146.0 T5 66.3 90.5 84.1 72.7 87.8 86.0 6 44.0 59.9 88.) 48.2 35.5 82.1 78.8 82.9 71.7 77.4 100.8 t>3 160.8 190.2 128.4 133.6 146.8 163.0 6 144.1 146.3 122.3 130.3 166.5 125.6 158.2 121.0 180.2 152.8 266.4 Pz 216.2 266.4 205.9 168.5 202.3 166.4 6 235.1 226.0 253.3 231.5 234.9 219.3 202.9 152.4 227.1 188.8 247.3 t>4 110.0 111.7 122.1 66.2 148.5 l34.6 6 85.1 111.1 130.2 69 .) 52.5 162.8 126.5 116.) 148.3 143.6 176.8 1 6 148.6 152.2 165.9 146.8 146.7 166.3 6 55.6 81.3 136.4 23.4 114.1 15o.6 174.2 162.5 151.2 170.9 191.5 61 165.2 122.5 154.7 129.6 133.4 132.6 6 28.4 25.4 166.8 81.3 98.9 i 35.6 128.3 143.5 136.8 123.7 142.7 Qz 77.8 OO ISI o 99.5 64.4 62.1 26.2 6 63.1 51.1 28.1 62.4 75.1 )8.6 51.) 88.1 99.3 82.2 90.4 62 96.3" 77.6 84.6 58.1 86.6 26.8 0 22.2 57.1 85.1 21.1 22.8 )6.i 88.5 23.2 33.3 85.0 8). 9 Note: Due to excessive artifact, the GLC condition (Grainger Listen/Conduct) was unusable Table 39 Novice A: Relative power within the beta frequency band (Actual |iv percentages for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO GIO HIO n o GLC HLC ILC GIC HIC u c GLI HLI ILI Fpl i l l 10.4 8.5 9.8 6.2 8.2 16.1 6.9 8.0 10.6 7.1 8.0 9.1 8.1 9.1 8.1 11.6 9.1 Fpz 11.4 10.0 8.6 9.7 8.8 8.0 8.8 6.3 6.9 8.7 6.2 6.6 8.6 8.1 8.9 8.1 10.6 8.3 Fpl 16.5 6.4 8.1 9.6 8.1 7.6 7.5 5.7 5.6 7.6 5.1 5.4 8.6 7.6 8.5 8.1 6.1 7.5 F7 ll.i 12.3 9.1 il.5 16.7 6.6 7.6 5.6 6.6 10.8 6.6 6.6 11.6 9.1 i i .8 16.1 i i .6 11.5 F3 10.8 9.4 8.1 8.6 8.5 7.6 7.6 5.1 7.1 8.1 5.7 6.1 8.7 8.0 8.7 8.6 9.1 8.0 Fz 10.1 8.4 7.8 8.1 7.7 8.6 7.0 4.6 6.6 6.8 5.1 5.6 7.6 7.1 7.8 7.6 8.1 6.9 f4 9.8 8.4 7.8 7.7 8.0 8.1 7.1 5.1 6.6 8.5 5.1 5.6 7.6 7.1 7.8 7.6 8.4 7.0 f 8 16.8 9.2 8.0 6.7 8.6 8.0 7.1 5.4 6.1 7.4 4.1 5.1 8.8 8.6 10.1 8.5 11.0 8.1 t3 15.0 15.1 26.1 14.7 18.7 11.6 16.1 14.4 15.1 16.1 16.1 35.8 14.1 11.8 19.2 14.8 15.8 39.1 c l 11.3 11.3 9.3 11.9 12.0 6.0 8.1 5.1 8.6 9.1 5.4 7.5 10.9 9.0 10.4 10.1 10.6 10.2 Cz 8.7 7.9 7.0 8.2 8.8 6.5 6.1 4.0 6.5 5.8 1.6 5.0 7.9 7.5 7.5 8.5 8.6 7.1 c4 16.6 8.6 7.6 6.4 6.4 8.7 8.0 4.6 7.5 8.1 4.8 6.4 8.1 1.7 8.5 9.6 9.1 9.6 t4 16.6 13.1 ll.4 56.8 4l.4 51.6 55.6 45.6 41.1 5 i.l 46.7 51.5 46.1 11.1 10.7 56.5 56.1 5 l.l T5 10.4 15.4 16.9 17.2 21.4 16.3 17.4 8.9 13.2 19.2 10.3 16.0 19.5 12.8 18.4 21.0 14.6 18.6 Pi 11.4 l l . i 11.5 15.1 16.1 16.1 1.1 4.5 7.4 6.1 4.4 1.6 l l .6 16.6 16.6 13.5 l l .i 12.6 Pz 11.6 10.7 6.4 l l . i i i .6 8.6 7.4 1.8 6.1 1.6 1.6 5.5 l l .6 6.6 6.1 11.4 6.1 9.1 p4 11.6 ll.i 16.5 11.1 l l .i 16.4 1.6 4.2 1.6 9.2 4.5 5.6 i i .6 9.4 16.1 13.4 l6.6 i 6 .i T6 l8.4 15.1 11.4 11.5 11.1 14.4 16.6 16.1 11.5 14.6 11.4 16.5 11.1 l l .i 11,4 13.4 18.5 14.6 6 l 16.6 l6.3 i l l 11.6 16.6 16.9 8.8 4.1 6.6 6.6 5.1 7.1 16.6 11.4 11.5 16.1 17.4 13.1 Oz 16.6 18.1 16.4 15.6 11.5 16.4 8.8 1.1 8.1 8.1 4.4 6.6 17.6 14.1 14.1 17.6 114 14.1 Ql 16.0 l6.1 l4.6 11.4 16.1 14.1 6.1 4.4 8.6 8.4 5.6 6.6 15.8 il.8 11.6 15.4 13.5 il.8 Table 40 Novice B: Relative power within the beta frequency band (Actual pv percentages for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO (jIO Hio n 6 GLC h Lc ILC CjIC HIC lie GLI HLI ILI GII HII ill Fpl 9.9 8.6 9.0 7.8 9.7 8.7 15.6 ii.4 22.3 11.3 9.4 21.7 9.6 7.6 28.8 8.9 9.4 10.8 Fpz 9.0 8.6 8.7 7.9 8.8 8.7 12.0 8.8 18.2 9.3 9.0 18.2 9.5 7.7 21.1 9.1 9.6 10.6 Fp2 8.1 8.5 8.4 8.0 7.9 8.7 9.2 6.7 14.6 7.5 8.6 14.7 9.5 7.8 i4.4 9.4 9.9 10.3 bl 11.0 12.8 11.9 10.4 10.5 11.4 14.4 16.7 15.6 12.6 14.8 16.9 11.7 ll.i 15.1 16.9 12.1 13.6 F3 9.9 10.7 10.6 9.6 9.7 1 $ 14.5 14.6 li.6 16.4 12.1 12.9 io.2 9.6 11.6 8.9 11.4 10.5 Fz 8.8 10.2 9.8 8.6 9.4 9.8 14.2 7.5 9.8 8.3 8.9 16.4 9.6 9.6 10.4 8.5 16.8 9.8 f 4 10.1 10.3 10.5 9.4 9.5 9.9 14.4 12.5 11.9 16.1 l l . i l6.6 11.2 9.5 11.9 9.4 ii.4 10.2 F8 12.3 11.5 11.6 11.0 io.6 i2.o 14.6 11.7 14.9 10.9 12.2 19.1 12.0 10.8 14.8 12.2 ITT 12.7 r4 28.2 40.7 4i.4 44.6 22.7 44.0 25.7 27.1 17.6 18.8 22.6 25.4 44.1 43.3 29.4 41.8 42.0 26.1 c4 12.7 12.4 11.9 12.V 11.4 12.7 l5 .i 15.9 14.7 i2.8 14.6 14.4 11.8 16.9 12.8 11.5 i5 .i I3.1 Cz 10.3 11.0 10.2 io.o 10.4 16.5 14.7 14.4 11.8 11.6 ll.8 14.6 16.7 9.2 io.9 9.2 12.2 10.3 C4 11.9 12.4 11.9 111 li.O il.6 17.1 16.6 14.2 14.1 14.6 16.6 14.1 11.5 14.4 12.6 14.4 12.4 T4 w 25.5 24.9 29.6 42.7 24.4 22.9 19.9 19.2 19.1 26.1 17.9 27.2 51.2 00 00 46.8 46.6 45.6 46.1 T5 17.6 18.6 17.1 18.3 17.0 19.2 21.7 28.5 19.5 21.4 22.3 23.7 19.7 18.2 18.1 16.7 20.3 18.6 P4 14.2 14.0 12.9 14.6 14.2 14.6 17.9 18.9 15.1 15.1 16.6 15.9 14.5 14.4 14.7 14.2 15.9 14.4 Pz 12.7 12.7 11.2 14.4 12.6 11.9 12.8 14.1 14.5 14.6 14.8 14.5 12.9 12.6 12.7 12.1 l4 .l 14.1 p 4 13.5 14.4 12.5 15.0 l4.6 14.6 26.6 18.5 15.4 15.8 15.6 18.6 15.4 14.2 15.6 15.5 15.4 15.8 T6 18.9 18.7 17.0 21.9 20.7 26.1 22.2 46.1 l9.5 25.7 26.9 46.6 19.2 12.2 26.4 20.4 21.6 20.8 Ol 18.8 18.4 17.1 2o.4 19.0 20.2 28.6 44.7 25.4 25.6 29.5 22.1 19.9 19.1 19.4 19.2 19.6 20.6 Oz 18.5 18.0 17.1 2o.i 19.4 26.1 29.1 42.4 25.4 24.4 217 27.6 26.2 18.9 i9.2 19.1 19.4 2 i.i U2 18.4 17.8 16.9 115 114 19.8 41.6 44.2 25.6 26.6 27.2 22.1 19.9 18.6 18.9 19.1 18.6 2i.6 Table 41 Novice C: Relative power within the beta frequency band (Actual fiv percentages for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO (jl6 riio W GLC HLC ILC GIC HIC lie GLI riLi ELI Gil Hll m Fpl io.I 7.1 7.6 15.7 4.5 6.1 4.6 11.0 16.5 i4.i 9.6 i4.4 7.3 4.4 4.1 9.5 7.3 9.7 Fpz 10.6 7.2 7.5 15.5 6.4 9.3 4.9 11.3 10.5 15.9 9.4 14.5 7.3 6.9 8.1 9.1 7.3 9.6 Fp2 10.9 7.3 7.4 15.4 6.4 9.3 4.8 ii.4 16.5 14.4 6.4 14.1 7.3 7.6 4.6 4.7 7.3 9.5 JH7 li.2 7.6 4.0 16.9 7.4 10.4 16.6 13.6 11.0 14.6 10.6 15.4 4.3 7.4 6.1 14.1 4.5 11.1 F3 9.7 7.4 8.0 14.1 6.7 4.4 6.4 io.i 6.7 l4.3 4.4 11.7 7.4 7.0 7.3 11.4 7.9 4.6 Fz 9.6 7.3 7.8 l3.4 6.7 4.1 6.1 10.1 16.6 13.4 4.4 i i .6 7.1 4.9 4.6 6.7 7.5 4.8 F4 10.5 7.7 7.8 14.8 7.1 6.1 16.4 l l . i 11.6 13.4 6.7 13.1 7.4 7.3 4T 16.7 4X 10.0 F8 l l .6 8.0 8.0 15.4 7.4 10.6 11.6 13.1 13.6 14.1 ii.4 15.5 4.1 7.9 9.5 11.9 9.5 ll.7 T3 14.6 8.3 8.7 i4.i 4.4 4.1 16.4 14.6 13.4 16.6 11.7 i4.6 4.1 6.3 6.1 14.0 13.5 1^.6 C3 12.2 7.3 7 l 17.9 4.1 6.7 7.4 il.4 13.1 14.1 16.4 14.6 4.6 1.6 4.4 15.1 6.6 10.3 Cz 9.3 7.1 6.8 14.7 7.6 4.4 4.4 16.4 16.6 14.2 4.4 11.3 4.6 7.1 4.4 ll.4 4.1 4.7 Expert D: Relative power within the beta frequency band (Actual p.v percentages for all music tasks) GLO HLO ELO GIO HIO lib bLC HLC ILC G1C HIC lie bLi HLI ILI GII HII m Fpl 42.3 22.9 44.9 17.4 4o.i 17.9 ii.6 17.8 10.2 18.7 19.6 16.4 19.8 17.8 17.9 43.0 19.6 18.1 Fpz 22.3 22.8 24.9 16.8 18.8 17.5 11.3 17.1 10.0 16.7 18.9 16.0 18.7 17.6 17.7 22.3 19.2 18.0 Fpl 41.3 44.6 44.8 16.3 17.4 17.1 ll.i 16.3 9.9 14.9 18.6 15.7 17.6 17.4 17.5 41.6 18.8 17.8 F7 22.0 22.5 24.8 19.9 43.6 41.1 16.6 43.5 ll.3 46.5 44.1 19.3 46.9 18.4 46.1 23.7 19.4 17.7 F3 44.7 21.2 25.4 41.7 44.4 44.4 18.4 43.5 ll.i 45.4 43.3 19.7 43.9 46.5 4i.4 45.8 44.9 40.9 Fz 45.5 4l.O 45.7 41.9 41.6 41.8 19.3 43.6 14.7 45.4 45.4 l9.5 44.9 43.7 4i.8 45.5 44.9 21.3 f4 43.8 22.9 26.9 44.8 46.5 44.1 18.4 44.8 14.3 44.8 43.3 19.7 45.7 44.1 42.8 46.5 45.1 41.2 f8 4b. 1 40.4 43.4 46.4 16.7 19.5 13.3 19.6 9.9 14.4 16.5 16.4 19.1 17.3 l9.3 4o.4 46.3 16.9 t3 43.9 23.6 36.1 31.3 45.9 48.6 34.8 33.5 17.7 49.6 33.9 46.8 47.6 44.7 47.8 34.7 36.8 44.6 £3 418 43.4 48.3 45.4 44.4 45.8 24.6 47.1 14.8 47.4 47.4 43.8 46.5 44.8 43.9 47.5 36.3 43.5 £z 44.3 42.8 46.4 44.6 24.0 43.9 19.5 43.4 14.5 45.1 44.9 44.1 47.8 24.8 43.4 45.7 46.4 42.2 28.3 46.6 3l.9 49.7 46.4 27.1 24.9 48.6 15.4 46.1 28.3 44.4 31.4 36.4 36.7 49.6 33.6 44.3 t4 33.3 36.3 60.1 41.5 46.4 44.4 34.3 36.5 41.3 33.8 35.6 44.9 43.9 49.6 48.4 4i.6 41.7 43.2 T5 29.1 26.2 36.1 33.9 32.7 30.7 35.7 32.0 21.7 30.8 35.5 33.1 36.0 34.7 28.8 35.5 38.2 28.0 31.7 29.9 37.9 34.8 35.1 34.7 49.4 48.3 17.6 46.8 48.4 46.3 35.6 35.4 31.9 31.7 37.8 48.8 Pz 46.4 47.9 33.7 48.4 49.8 49.4 44.4 44.6 16.3 43.6 45.4 43.4 33.8 31.9 36.8 47.3 34.4 44.5 P4 34.3 29.5 36.5 34.3 34.8 3o.4 47.8 49.4 18.8 48.6 34.6 44.2 34.4 37.8 35.8 34.5 39.5 27.8 T6 36.4 45.7 33.8 37.7 34.3 44.4 33.7 38.5 46.6 37.9 44.9 36.5 31.1 36.6 31.7 36.8 47.7 47.7 bi 36.3 48.0 37.5 49.6 31.5 3i.9 49.7 46.3 44.6 44.7 31.5 47.8 36.3 37.1 36.4 3 i.i 36.4 47.5 Qz 28.4 27.1 34.8 46.4 47.6 48.7 49.4 44.1 41.5 44.9 33.1 46.5 34.5 33.7 49.4 47.6 33.5 44.3 02 34.8 28.9 34.8 48.3 49.6 49.6 36.5 34.7 44.4 36.6 35.9 48.9 35.6 36.6 33.1 3 i.i 36.1 26.8 Tablg-43 Expert E: Relative power within the beta frequency band (Actual p.v percentages for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO gi6 Hl6 n 6 GLC HLC ILC GIC H1C lit (jl! HLI ILI GII HII ill Fpl 16.2 17.5 13.3 14.3 10.6 i3.o 8.2 11.5 15.3 10.2 12.7 10.7 15.7 21.2 20.2 20.3 21.4 20.8 Fpz 16.5 17.3 13.7 15.1 19.4 18.0 9.0 11.4 14.8 10.5 12.8 19.7 16.6 21.2 19.8 19.6 21.2 20.7 Fpl 16.9 17.0 14.2 15.0 19.1 16.1 10.0 11.3 14.2 10.8 12.9 10.7 17.6 21.2 19.4 19.0 20.0 20.6 F7 21.2 23.5 20.9 22.5 23.5 23.3 15.0 15.7 20.2 10.4 17.2 22.7 20.0 25.8 25.9 24.6 26.2 26.7 F3 14.6 18.1 17.0 16.4 i3.3 i6.0 15.5 15.3 16.0 17.2 17.4 20.8 17.2 10.0 19.0 20.0 10.4 21.6 Fz 13.4 16.2 15.5 17.6 16.6 l4.0 13.2 14.1 18.3 15.4 15.4 10.8 16.6 16.0 17.4 17.6 l).6 20.1 F4 14.3 16.8 13.5 17.5 16.6 16.5 7.3 10.0 16.6 11.8 14.9 18.0 18.1 17.8 18.0 18.8 10.8 21.1 f8 l8.4 18.6 17.4 19.0 20.3 10.0 12.3 l2.4 18.1 15.1 16.4 18.5 21.7 22.6 2o.0 21.9 24.2 23.0 T3 28.1 30.1 23.6 20.0 31.5 30.1 25.6 25.0 26.3 26.8 2).2 29.8 28.7 3i.8 30.3 31.4 30.6 32.8 C3 18.5 2i.8 21.6 22.4 22.) 21.0 10.0 17.0 21.4 10.5 20.3 26.2 20.2 22.8 22.8 24.1 23.3 24.5 Cz l4.5 17.7 17.6 20.2 16.7 16.5 15.1 13.6 l8.3 16.2 18.0 24.4 17.8 18.2 10.1 20.5 20.0 20.6 C4 16.3 20.3 16.0 22.0 21.2 20.) 12.2 15.6 18.0 l4.4 18.2 23.) 18.) 20.4 21.6 21.8 22.4 23.5 t4 3l.9 36.0 43.7 32.5 36.3 48.1 36.2 36.4 34.8 24.1 31.4 43.6 38.0 40.4 40.8 43.4 43.1 46.6 T5 24.0 26.9 26.2 27.4 23.5 25.3 23.5 22.1 26.0 25.0 26.5 31.3 26.6 28.7 27.8 30.2 28.3 29.3 p3 24.3 27.0 26.5 27.6 26.6 25.) 26.6 22.3 26.4 25.3 26.6 31.) 26.) 28.) 28.1 30.5 28.6 20.8 Pz 19.4 23.7 21.4 23.4 23.3 22.2 1). 2 1).) 22.2 10.0 21.8 20.3 21.8 23.5 24.6 23.8 25.5 24.3 p4 23.3 27.3 25.3 26.3 23.6 2).i 23.6 2i.O 25.6 22.1 2).8 30.1 26.4 26.7 2).0 30.3 30.3 27.4 T6 32.4 32.6 33.0 30.0 32.6 33.) 32.1 214 28.3 24.6 33.2 32.1 33.6 33.4 34.9 310 36.) 34.4 Ol 35.4 35.9 35.3 38.0 34.2 34.4 40.3 30.0 34.2 33.3 36.6 40.7 37.1 40.1 38.2 42.1 40.4 30.3' Oz 34.6 35.0 34.2 37.7 34.2 33.4 36.5 30.0 31.4 33.4 34.0 30.0 38.2 37.0 37.8 42.3 30.1 37.5 02 35.3 35.4 34.5 38.9 33.0 34.4 36.0 20.5 20.2 34.2 3i.0 37.7 40.0 3).3 38.8 43.3 30.5 37.0 Table 44 Expert F: Relative power within the beta frequency band (Actual pv percentages for all music tasks) GLO HLO ILO GIO HIO n o GLC HLC ILC GIC H it lie 6 l1 HLI ILI GII HII HI Fpl 7.5 5.9 5.7 5.2 4.3 6.5 0 4.3 3.2 4.7 4.4 5.0 8.7 6.2 4.4 io.4 6.4 6.0 Fpz 7.2 5.8 5.6 5.3 5.2 8.5 0 4.0 3.4 4.6 4.2 4.9 11.5 7.7 4.7 13.5 7.9 6.5 Fp2 /.0 5.6 5.4 5.4 6.1 6.6 6 5.6 5.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 14.3 9.5 4.6 16.6 9.4 7.0 F7 8.0 7.1 6.1 2.1 4.2 6.6 0 5.2 2.4 5.4 2.4 6.4 5.4 4.4 4.6 7.1 5.6 4.0 F3 7.9 7.4 6.9 7.5 6.0 4.6 0 5.5 4.2 4.5 5.2 7.4 7.6 5.4 5.5 7.2 7.7 4.6 Fz 7.0 6.8 6.5 6.6 5.6 6.5 0 5.5 4.7 4.5 5.4 5.6 7.3 5.4 5.2 7.4 6.6 6.7 F4 6.9 6.8 6.2 7.4 5.5 6.5 0 5.5 4.6 5.4 5.5 5.4 7.6 4.5 5.5 6.5 6.1 4.3 F8 6.9 6.5 5.4 8.1 4.5 5.5 0 5.1 2.9 5.6 5.1 5.7 4.1 5.5 4.6 5.9 4.2' 5.4 1‘4 10.3 8.5 8.5 llO 9.5 6.6 0 6.6 l l . i 9.1 7.6 24.7 6.7 7.5 7.4 6.5 0° 00 8.1 C3 8.9 9.0 9.1 9.4 4.0 7.1 6 5.1 5.1 7.1 5.2 ll.2 6.5 6.1 7.6 7.6 4.5 7.7 Cz 7.6 8.1 8.1 6.5 7.4 4.5 0 4.6 4.4 6.5 5.6 4.4 7.2 7.5 6.5 7.4 6.2 6.7 C'4 8.7 8.9 9.7 6.4 7.5 4.4 0 4.2 4.4 7.4 5.6 6.5 6.0 9.2 7.4 6.1 l6.l 7.3 t4 9.7 11.1 9.6 14.8 11.0 11.7 0 15.4 16.4 15.6 14.5 24.4 ll.4 11.6 6.7 16.4 14.6 12.0 15 15.7 14.4 16.0 19.1 17.0 15.8 0 17.6 14.2 15.6 14.7 21.2 15.8 15.2 12.8 16.1 18.0 13.9 P3 11.8 12.4 14.2 14.9 15.7 ii.6 0 8.3 1.6 4.5 00 bs 11.4 12.4 12.6 15.2 11.5 14.5 16.5 Pz i l l 12.4 15.8 10.9 11.6 16.4 6 4.5 5.6 7.5 6.6 7.7 11.5 12.6 15.2 16.2 15.7 4.4 P4 17.4 16.3 16.5 16.9 i4 .i i2.4 6 14.6 16.5 12.6 ll.5 14.2 15.5 \6 00 14.7 15.4 15.6 12.8 16 15.6 13.0 15.6 15.6 i5.4 12.2 6 20.8 15.8 14.4 16.1 14.5 14.2 15.5 12.4 15.5 14.2 14.5 U1 13.1 10.5 10.5 12.9 10.5 10.5 0 20.7 12.7 12.4 14.5 12.1 16.0 10.2 6.4 16.5 15.6 11.4 Oz 14.4 10.4 10.3 15.7 4.5 16.6 6 00 o 14.7 14.5 l2.6 14.2 12.5 16.4 4.6 16.5 15.2 12.4 o2 16.3 11.6 11.9 15.2 i i .2 12.4 6 18.0 17.4 26.2 15.1 14.5 14.1 15.4 11.4 15.4 14.5 15.9 Note: Due to excessive artifact, the GLC condition (Grainger Listen/Conduct) was unusable