An Investigation of the Current Status of Aquatic Physical Activity in K-12 Public School Physical Education Programs in the State of Florida Angela Kishaun Beale

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THE FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE CURRENT STATUS OF AQUATIC PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN THE STATE OF FLORIDA

ANGELA KISHAUN BEALE

A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2005

The members of the Committee approve the Dissertation Angela Kishaun Beale defended on October 4, 2005

______Susan K. Lynn Professor Directing Dissertation

______Sandi Milton Outside Committee Member

______Kristie Walsdorf Committee Member

______Charles H. Imwold Committee Member

Approved: ______

Charles Imwold, Department Chair, Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education

The Office of Graduate Studies has verified and approved the above named committee members.

This dissertation is dedicated to my loving family. To my courageous mother, Ingrid Kathel Fluellen, who dared to dream, be strong, excel, and pray everyday for our safety, strength, and courage. To my encouraging sister, Jennifer Robin Beale-Collier, whose fortitude compelled me to go on. To the loving memory of my father Robert Guy Beale whose spirit, warmth, and love will be a blessing to my life forever. I love you with all of my being daddy. To my essence Sage Ife Tawfeeq, let this be your legacy.

iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This aquatic physical activity study would never have been completed if it were not for the many helpful physical educator’s, across the state of Florida; and all those in my corner all the many years of this journey. First, I feel compelled and would like to thank my committee members: Dr. Susan K. Lynn, whose fire burns bright as a beacon for all to follow and learn; Dr. Kristie Walsdorf, whose guidance encourages and nurtures; Dr. Sande Milton, whose vision helps one to see all possibilities; Dr. Charles Imwold, for saving us all from sudden disaster as we enter our professional worlds of research and Dr. E. Newton Jackson, who will never let a student give up. Cynthia Bailey, words can not thank you for always helping save students from themselves. To you all thank you for not allowing me to quit. Your guidance is one that I will not ever forget, and will strive to live up to. You were my mentors, teachers, practitioners, advisors, and outstanding professionals. Thank you. I would like to especially acknowledge Mr. Stephen Griffin for sharing his expertise in online survey design and computer, and Mrs. Betty Brown, and Robert Fowler for not allowing me to slip into the statistic abyss. Mrs. Jenny Grill, your wisdom for editing stretches beyond your years. I would be remiss if I did not recognize the wonderful staff at Florida State Universities College of Education, Mr. Ken Tellis, for his strong shoulders and leadership, Mrs. Gwen Johnson, for her wisdom and kindness, Mrs. Rhonda Hester for your friendship, and all of the student workers, Toya, Tiffany, and James, I would not have made it without you. To Florida’s Department of Education and the Florida Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, for their guidance and assistance throughout this research process, I thank you. In addition special thanks is extended to Dr. Bob Rider who helped me to begin my journey as the advisor that showed me the way to the water at Gretchen Everhart, I thank you. Dr. Tom Ratliffe, thank you for your willingness to educate. Dr. Monica Lepore, at West Chester University, for her constant courage and guidance to sail the unchartered seas of Adaptive Aquatics and her guidance for helping others find their voice, creating opportunities for me to

iv discover my own capabilities. To my girls Dr. Kimberly Burgess, and Donya Andrews-Little you were the wind beneath my wings. I cannot thank you enough. Those who travel the road less traveled could not make it without the support of their family. To my grandparents Alice and John Beale, Valeria Kreps and Lee Montgomery, I thank you for setting my example. Mom and Jerry, Jen, Ervin, Sloane, Chase, and Chandler, I could not find the words to thank you all for your words of encouragement and acts of constant support. To all of my Aunts and Uncles, Aunt Imogene, Uncle Johnny, Aunt Gwen and Uncle Michael, Aunt JC and Uncle Gary, Aunt Trish and Uncle Greg, Aunt Iris and Tweh thank you for you words of encouragement and support. To all of my cousins I love you. Aliya, Corey, Guy-Guy, Mike-Mike I love you all, and thank you for standing by me during my most difficult times. Jamil and Jalena thank you for the supported road trips, shoulders to cry on, and party relief, I needed it more than you know. Amber and Autumn, thank you for the supportive email messages. To all my dearest friends I would have been lost without you a long time ago, thanks for all the love, telephone calls and support beyond measure. Mia, Monica, Darlise, Kala, Dara, Michele, Lauri, Steph, Afiya….where would I have been if you ladies didn’t keep a constant eye on me. You encouraged me when I was giving up on myself. To my future Dante, Capri, and Sage, my life truly has gained new meaning; your love has carried me thus far. Tawfeeq equals prosperity and we are going to leave our mark on the world.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables ...... Page vii Abstract ...... Page x

Chapter 1 Introduction...... Page 1

Background Issues Surrounding Aquatic Physical Activity...... Page 1 Statement of the Problem………………………………………………...... Page 5 Promoting Aquatic Physical Activity (APA)…………………………...... Page 5 Purpose and Significance of the Study………………………………...... Page 7 Need for Status Studies on APA in PE……………...... Page 7 Research Questions……………………………………………………...... Page 8 Theoretical Framework: An Introduction……………………………… .....Page 9 Assumptions and Limitations…………………………………………… ...Page 10 Definition of Terms………………………………………………………...Page 11

Chapter 2 Review of Literature…...... Page 13

Theoretical Framework...... Page 13 Attitudes towards Physical Education…...... Page 16 How Culture and Gender Shape Attitudes towards PE ...... Page 17 Current State of PE in K-12 Public Schools ...... Page 18 Measurements of Attitudes in PE ...... Page 21 Attitudes toward APA...... Page 23 Cultural Differences in Attitudes toward APA...... Page 23 How aquatic Instruction Influence Attitudes toward APA...... Page 25 Importance of APA in PE ...... Page 27 Advantages of Implementing Aquatic Curricula ...... Page 28 Beneficial properties of aquatic environments ...... Page 28 Physiological Benefits ...... Page 30 Psychological and Social Benefits...... Page 32 Challenges in Implementing Aquatic Curricula ...... Page 33 Fear of Water ...... Page 34 Addressing Participants Interest ...... Page 35 Conclusion ...... Page 38

Chapter 3 Methodology…...... Page 40

Design of Study ...... Page 40 Study Population and Sample ...... Page 40 Instrumentation and Methodological Rigor...... Page 41 Validity ...... Page 42

vi Reliability ...... Page 44 Data Collection ...... Page 45 Methodological Limitations...... Page 49

Chapter 4 Results...... Page 52

Research Question One...... Page 53 Research Question Two ...... Page 55 Research Question Three ...... Page 58 Research Question Four...... Page 71 Research Question Five ...... Page 72 Research Question Six ...... Page 76 Research Question Seven...... Page 80 Descriptive Results… ...... Page 85 Comments from Teachers...... Page 92

Chapter 5 Discussion, Conclusion, Recommendations…...... Page 95

Discussion of Findings...... Page 95 Conclusion Based on Data Analysis...... Page 103 Implications for Future Research...... Page 104 Recommendations...... Page 105 Conclusions ...... Page 106

APPENDICES ...... Page 107

A Florida Geographic Regions ...... Page 108 B Aquatic Physical Activity Survey...... Page 110 C Human Subjects Committee ...... Page 116 D Introductory Electronic Mailing...... Page 118 E Follow-up Electronic Mailing...... Page 121 F Final Electronic Mailing ...... Page 123

REFERENCES ...... Page 124

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... Page 135

vii LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Unintentional-Injury Deaths by Age and State...... Page 4 Table 2: Leading Causes if Unintentional-Injury Related Deaths...... Page 6 Table 3: Survey Questions...... Page 43 Table 4: Respondents’ use if APA as an Elective or required component ...... Page 54 Table 5: How Long APA has been Included in Respondents PE Programs...... Page 54 Table 6: Time Spent on APA Instruction in a School Year...... Page 54 Table 7: Types of APAs Offered in Respondent’s PE Programs ...... Page 56 Table 8: Percent of Students Participating in APA Classes ...... Page 56 Table 9: Accredited Aquatic Systems used by Respondents in K-12 PE...... Page 57 Table 10: Frequency of Various Techniques used for Grouping Students in APA Classes...... Page 57 Table 11: Types of After School/Intramural/Athletic APAs Used by Respondents...... Page 58 Table 12: The Goal of APA Curricula: To Teach Water Safety...... Page 59 Table 13: The Goal of APA Curricula: To Teach Swimming...... Page 60 Table 14: The Goal of APA Curricula: To Increase Students’ level of Daily Functioning...... Page 60 Table 15: The Goal of APA Curricula: To Develop Students’ Recreational Activity ...... Page 61 Table 16: The Goal of APA Curricula: To Promote Drowning Prevention ...... Page 61 Table 17: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: APAs are considered to difficult for the students ...... Page 62 Table 18: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: Lack of Trained Personnel...... Page 63 Table 19: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: Budget Limitations...... Page 63 Table 20: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: Lack of Interest in APA as a part of PE Among Students...... Page 64 Table 21: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: Lack of Interest in APA as a part of PE Among Professionals ...... Page 64 Table 22: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: Not Considered a Physical Education Priority Choice for Students...... Page 65 Table 23: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: Lack of Aquatic Facilities...... Page 66 Table 24: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: Scheduling Conflict ...... Page 66 Table 25: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: Legal/Safety ...... Page 67 Table 26: Reasons why APA is NOT Included in Physical Education: Other…...... Page 68

viii Table 27: Feelings about APA: Public Schools should be Responsible for Providing APA ...... Page 68 Table 28: Feelings about APA: APA is not Feasible for Students ...... Page 69 Table 29: Feelings about APA: Coursework/Inservice Training are Needed ...... Page 70 Table 30: Feelings about APA: APA Should be Offered in K-12...... Page 70 Table 31: Feelings about APA: Drowning Prevention Should be a Part of PE Programs ...... Page 71 Table 32: Access to On-Site Aquatic Facilities ...... Page 71 Table 33: Accessibility of Possible APA Locations...... Page 72 Table 34: Feelings of Capability for Teaching an APA Unit in PE...... Page 73 Table 35: APA(s) that Respondents Felt Capable of Teaching ...... Page 73 Table 36: Certifications Held by Respondents ...... Page 74 Table 37: Respondents that have attended an APA Workshop...... Page 74 Table 38: APA Workshops are Beneficial for the Goals of PE...... Page 75 Table 39: Willingness to Attend an APA Workshop Offered by the State or District ...... Page 75 Table 40: Respondents’ Level of Swimming Ability ...... Page 76 Table 41: Respondents’ use of APA...... Page 76 Table 42: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA: I believe the goal of APA is to Increase Students Level of Daily Functioning ...... Page 77 Table 43: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA: Lack of Aquatic Facilities...... Page 78 Table 44: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA: Scheduling Conflict ...... Page 79 Table 45: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA: Legal and Safety Issues...... Page 80 Table 46: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA: Providing APA for Students is not Feasible in Today’s Public Schools ...... Page 81 Table 47: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA: Lack of Trained Personnell/Training...... Page 82 Table 48: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA: Lack of Aquatic Facilities...... Page 83 Table 49: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA: Part of the Responsibility of APA Should Lie With the Public School ...... Page 84 Table 50: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA:Providing APA for Students is not feasible in Today’s Public Schools...... Page 85 Table 51: Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA:APA should be offered in Public School PE Programs for Students Whenever Possible...... Page 85 Table 52: Demographic Information of Respondents Schools...... Page 86 Table 53: School Location...... Page 87

ix Table 54: Duties and Teaching Responsibilities of Respondents...... Page 87 Table 55: Attained Degree Level of Respondents ...... Page 88 Table 56: Ethnic Identification of Respondents...... Page 89 Table 57: Gender of Respondents...... Page 89 Table 58: Age of Respondents...... Page 90 Table 59: Years of Teaching Experience...... Page 90 Table 60: Respondents Professional Affiliation ...... Page 91 Table 61: Respondents Request for Summary of Results...... Page 91

x ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study was to investigate the current status of Aquatic Physical Activity (APA) in K-12 public school physical education programs in the state of Florida. If steps are ever to be taken to effectively promote APA in Florida public schools, efforts must be made to assess the current standing of such programs. Seven research questions guided the study. In general, questions focused on the extent and types of aquatic programs used in Florida public schools, the attitudes of physical educators towards APA, the accessibility of aquatic facilities, the professional qualifications of educators relative to teaching APA, and the varying uses of APA based on school level and based on school location in Florida. A quantitative approach was used to conduct this research utilizing a survey technique. The principal research design was a descriptive cross-sectional design. The population for this study consisted of physical educators in Florida K-12 public schools. Data was collected through a self-administered on-line survey in an effort to gather descriptive information. Descriptive statistics including frequency distributions and percentages were used to analyze the participants’ responses to the questions. Analysis of Variance was reported and discussed. The research questions were answered by the information gathered from the survey questionnaire. Additionally any unsolicited qualitative comments offered by participants regarding the study were used to provide more depth and meaning for quantitative data. The following conclusions were reached based on the analysis of data from this study: a) the majority of physical education professionals do not use APA within their physical education classes; b) instructional swimming is the most commonly used type of APA in Florida’s public school physical education programs; c) the majority of physical education professionals agree that APA is a valuable component within a program, but that the barriers (e.g., lack of aquatic facilities, scheduling conflicts, safety issues, feasibility, lack of training) toward implementing an APA program are many; d) most physical education professionals do hold aquatic certifications; e) the majority of physical education professionals have not ever attended an APA workshop or training; but would be willing to attend an APA workshop within their school district were workshops

xi offered; and f) the majority of physical education professionals did not have access to on- site aquatic facilities.

xii CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This dissertation examines the current status of Aquatic Physical Activity (APA) in K-12 public school physical education programs in the state of Florida. This first chapter is divided into several subsections which introduce the reader to pertinent background issues, present the problem, purpose and significance of this study, outline the research questions, present an introduction to the theoretical framework, and explain the assumptions and limitations at work in this study.

Background Issues Surrounding Aquatic Physical Activity To fully grasp the challenges facing APA in Florida's K-12 physical education programs, it is necessary to understand general health and fitness issues facing Americans. It is also important to be familiar with the ways in which APA can act as a viable fitness option for young people. And because aquatic skills can potentially save lives, it is valuable to have some knowledge of water safety issues.

General Fitness Levels of Americans Healthy People 2010: National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention objectives report that achieving the vision of “healthy people in healthy communities” as paramount (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2000; 1996). Moreover, participation in a physically active lifestyle, including participation in public school physical education programs from a youthful age, can promote physical activity for a lifetime, enhancing participants overall health, well-being, and quality of life (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 1997; Corbin, Dale, & Pangrazi, 1999; Raitakari, et al., 1994). Corbin, Lindsey, Welk, & Corbin (2002) defined health as the optimal well-being that contributes to an individual’s overall quality of life. The term quality of life describes a state of wellness, particularly pertaining to an individual’s ability to participate in enjoyable activities with little or no limitation, and independence within a supportive environment (American Association for Active Lifestyles & Fitness

1 [AAALF], 2004; Corbin et al., 2002; Corbin et al., 1999). However, even with national reports confirming the contributions and benefits of physical activity on one’s health and quality of life, 60% of American adults avoid regular physical exercise. Moreover, nearly half of young Americans between the ages of 12 to 21 fail to engage in regular vigorous physical activity (Hall, Kuga, & Jones, 2002; USDHHS, 2000; 1996). National reports and multivariate studies of exercise determinants recount findings regarding physical activity and the national population. These reports have identified that the lowest rates of physical activity are among, a) women, b) people with lower incomes and less education; and c) minority populations, especially African Americans and Hispanic Americans, who were less physically active than White Americans (Ainsworth, Berry, Schnyder, & Vickers, 1990; Corbin et al., 2002; Eyler et al., 2002; Richter, et al., 2002; Quarterman, Harris, & Chew, 1996; USDHHS, 2000). Literature has shown that sedentary living early in life tracks to inactive living in adulthood (Corbin et al., 2002; Gorden- Larsen, Adair & Popkin, 2002; Raitakari, et al., 1994; USDHHS, 2000; [CDC], 1997, 1996). Research has indicated that the early years of human development provide a window of opportunity which may help prevent chronic health diseases such as heart disease, osteoporosis, and obesity (CDC, 1997, 1996; Corbin, et al., 1999; Corbin et al., 2002; Gorden- Larsen et al., 2001; USDHHS, 2000). In an age where obesity is on the rise, it is imperative that young people are encouraged to be physically active through a variety of physical activity options.

Aquatic Physical Activity as a Fitness Option for Young People Physical education overall should strive to provide students with a vehicle to develop an awareness of physical activities and a resource for acquiring skills which they will be able to use throughout their lives. Thus, by exposing students to a variety of physical activities within physical education classes, they can begin to build a resource of physical activities which they can use for a lifetime. Research by Fromel, Vasendova, Stratton, & Pangrazi (2002), has affirmed that among high school girls’ activities swimming was identified as one of the most popular types of physical activity, both in and out of school. Ironically, many schools do not offer APA as an activity for fostering overall physical activity. Thus, the utilization of a

2 variety of activities, specifically APA, within physical education programs, can provide students with the chance to increase their levels of physical activity and fitness, while simultaneously enhancing the motor, cognitive, and affective objectives set forth by physical education professionals. The American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness, Aquatic Council [AAALF] (2004) affirmed that the application of aquatic knowledge and skills not only improves an individual’s physical fitness, but also establishes a framework for a lifetime of physical activity and wellness. In many physical education textbooks, aquatic programs are viewed as an invaluable method of physical activity for its ability to yield physiological, psychological, and social benefits for students (AAALF, 2004; American Red Cross, 1981; Christie, 1984; Conaster, Block, Lepore, 2000; Crueton, 1946, Fromel et al., 2002). Physical education professionals maintain that aquatic programs are valuable programs serving critical needs. Historically, aquatic physical education programs have served large numbers of individuals with disabilities, due largely to the unique physical properties that water has on the human body. However, it should not go unnoticed that for a large segment of the population “Aquatic Physical Activities” (APA) comprise one of the two top recreational priorities (AFT, 1983; Cardon et al, 2004; Christie, 1984; Elder & Campbell, 1997). Additionally, the American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness Aquatic Council [AAALF] (2004) recommends that individuals of all ages, both with and without various physical, sensory, or mental disabilities, participate in aquatic instruction and activity because it enables them to develop lifetime management skills. Water Safety and Young People In 2000, there were 3,482 unintentional drownings in the United States, an average of nine people per day, not including individuals who drowned in boat related incidents (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2003). More than 50% of drowning deaths occur in residential pools, with other drowning deaths occurring in public pools and other natural bodies of water. Findings further revealed that children under five years of age and adolescents between the ages of 14-24 have the highest rates of drowning deaths (Dworkin, 2002; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2002; American Academy of Pediatrics, 1993) (Table 1). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

3 [CDC] (2003) reported that in 2000, males comprised 79% of the people that drowned in the United States. Additionally, findings revealed that in 2000, the overall-drowning rate of African Americans was 1.4 times higher than that of White Americans, with African American children, ages 5-19, drowning at 2.4 times the rate of White American children.

Table 1 Unintentional-Injury Deaths by Age and State

1 to 4 Years 5 to 14 Years 15 to 24 Years Florida 1.Unintentional 1. Unintentional 1. Unintentional 1. Motor Vehicle Injuries Injuries Injuries 2. Falls • Motor Vehicle • Motor Vehicle • Motor Vehicle • Drowning* • Drowning* • Drowning* 3. Poisoning • Fires, Burns • Fires, Burns • Poison 4. Drowning* • Ingestion of • Firearms (solids/liquids) food, object • Mechanical • Firearms 5. Choking • Mechanical suffocation • Falls suffocation • All other • All other • All other unintentional unintentional unintentional injuries injuries injuries 2. Cancer 2. Homicide and 2. Congenital 3. Homicide legal intervention Anomalies 4. Congenital 3. Suicide 3. Homicide and Anomalies 4. Cancer legal intervention 5. Heart Disease 5. Heart Disease 4. Cancer 6. Suicide 6. Congenital 5. Heart Disease Anomalies 7. Chronic obstructed pulmonary disease

Adapted from “Drowning and Aquatic Injury Facts”, Dworkin (2002).

4 The inclusion of swimming lessons and other aquatic activities is important for safety reasons because swimming is a common leisure activity, as well as one of many ideal activities which can be taught in schools. Additionally, swimming is easily applied and often practiced in recreational settings (AAALF, 2004; American Red Cross, 1981; Cardon et al., 2004; Christie, 1984; Fromel et al., 2002). Moreover, with drowning deaths evident as a problem, a viable solution to answer this need would be the incorporation of aquatic curricula in the K-12 schools.

Statement of the Problem Currently there is no baseline data, investigating APA in Florida's K-12 physical education programs. The present study will provide descriptive insight into questions concerning region, attitudes, accessibility, qualifications, and experiences of physical education teachers with regard to APA. Moreover, this study will provide a specific measure of the extent to which APA is being utilized in physical education programs in Florida.

Promoting Aquatic Physical Activity Horejsi (1991) surmises, and this researcher agrees, that one of the most significant challenges in promoting the use of APA is for individuals to become confident participants within aquatic mediums; a skills set which would simultaneously aid in limiting the number of drowning deaths. Through the acquisition of this knowledge, it is hoped that participants will become successful in learning the skills needed to participate safely and with confidence in aquatic environments. Nationally, a “critical need” or problem is the desire to reduce the number of unintentional injury deaths that occur in the United States. As reported by the National Safety Council-Report on Injuries in America (2002) the overall number of deaths as a result of unintentional injuries was 99,500 with 19,000 deaths occurring in public places or places used in a public way not involving motor vehicles. Additionally, there was a public fatal injury reported occurring every 5 minutes, with a disabling injury occurring every 1.5 seconds, with one of the five leading causes of death being drowning (National Safety Council [NSC], 2002) (Table 2).

5 Table 2 Leading Causes of Unintentional-Injury Related Deaths, United States, 2003

Motor Vehicles 44,000 Poisoning 15,700 Falls 14,500 Suffocation by inhalation or ingestion of 4,200 food or other object Drowning* 4,100

Adapted from “National Safety Council-Reports on Injuries in America: Injury Facts (2003).

Presently, Florida is ranked third in the United States behind Alabama and Louisiana with regard to having the highest rates of drowning deaths with Miami-Dade County leading the state (Barket, 2003, National Center for Health Statistics [NCHS], 2000). Though some counties in the state have minimal drowning deaths, there is consensus for the need to create programs or opportunities to battle this statewide problem (Barket, 2003; Children’s Services Council of Palm Beach County, 2000; Citizen, 2003; Office of the Medical Director Pinellas County Emergency Services, Waite, 2002; Orlando-Orange County Health Department, 1999; Porter, 1999). With its large number of aquatic environments (natural water resources, public and residential pools), a viable solution for the state of Florida would be to incorporate aquatic curricula in K-12 schools to serve as a way for decreasing the number of unintentional injury deaths attributed to drowning. To date, according to the Florida Department of Education, APA in the public schools is offered in the following areas: a) Adaptive Aquatics; b) Beginning Swimming; c) Intermediate Swimming, and d) Water Safety. Unfortunately, APA is only offered at the high school level, and then as an elective not a requirement, even though the majority of unintentional drowning deaths occur among a larger age range of children (i.e., 5 to 18). Supporting the value and

6 benefits of APA within public school physical education programs, appears to be an ideal and valuable option for promoting life-long fitness and safety. State of Literature on Aquatics in K-12 Schools There is a substantial amount of literature which exists in the area of aquatics on special populations. Consequently, the majority of research conducted on the benefits of aquatic physical activities on the “normal population” is specific to the area of exercise science. Therefore, there remains a scarcity of information with regard to the use of aquatics in K-12 public school physical education programs. Due to the rarity of literature on the effects of APA in K-12 programs, it is necessary to make inferences from the wealth of literature in other areas. However, making generalizations from one body of research to another must be examined carefully. Research should be designed to investigate how, why, or where, opportunities occur, and if that occurrence is problematic, discover how that problem can be elevated. Hence, it is the goal of the researcher that this baseline data, investigating APA in Florida's K-12 physical education programs, will help to promote APA as a healthy and potentially life-saving behavior for school-aged children, particularly those children in Florida public school physical education programs.

Purpose and Significance of the Study If steps are ever to be taken to effectively promote APA in public schools, we must first assess the current standing of such programs. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the status of APA in physical education programs in Florida’s public schools in an effort to promote APA as a healthy and potentially life-saving behavior for school-aged children, particularly those children in Florida. The second is contributing sound research to the under explored area of APA in K-12 programs.

Need for Status Studies on APA in Physical Education Physical education has been plagued by program reduction, reorganization, and even the elimination of programs. Thus, as K-12 physical education changes to meet the needs and new challenges of students and the field, physical education programs should be closely examined to investigate how they have evolved in their attempts to advance

7 the field. Supporters of physical education programs have inundated pedagogical literature with studies on aquatic activity. However, research investigating the concept of utilizing aquatic physical activities to evoke student participation at the K-12 level is minimal. Thus, in an effort to face the future and adapt to change, gathering more current information is vital. To date, 2004-2005, there has been no current research concerning the use of APA in physical education programs in the state of Florida. The information and conclusions gathered from a status study can provide a scientific basis for decision-making and give direction to future action for the planning and development of new programs or the modification for existing ones. Additionally, the significance of this study will enable physical education faculty to educate future instructors, practitioners, policy makers, and researchers, by equipping them with the latest knowledge and thinking in relation to the risks, safety, benefits, and concerns of utilizing APA within a physical education curriculum. Furthermore, the current status of APA programs, facilities, and personnel qualifications of physical education professionals in Florida will be documented. Efforts aimed toward research and aquatic curricula in physical education will not only contribute to the body of literature in the field of physical education, but can also effect policy changes which may contribute to a reduction of yearly drowning deaths in Florida. Simultaneously, such policy changes could affect aquatic safety and fitness at the K-12 levels in the state. Therefore, it is hoped that this study will initiate a networking process among National Aquatic Agencies, policy makers, and public school physical education programs.

Research Questions The purpose of this study is to investigate the current status of APA for students in K-12 public school physical education programs in the state of Florida. Seven research questions guide this study: 1. What are the frequency and extent of aquatic programs in physical education programs in Florida’s public school systems? 2. What are the types of physical education aquatic programs that students are participating in within Florida’s public school systems?

8 3. What are the perceptions, attitudes, and feelings of physical education professionals relative to utilizing APA as a part of physical education programs in Florida’s public school systems? 4. How accessible are pool facilities (i.e. school, recreational, and private) for aquatic participation in Florida’s public school systems? 5. What are the professional qualifications, experience, and training background of physical education professionals relative to teaching APA in Florida’s public school system? 6. Is there a difference in the attitudes of physical education professionals based on school level and the use of APA? 7. Is there a difference in the attitudes of physical education professionals based on location of school in state and the use of APA?

Theoretical Framework: An Introduction Fishbein's (1967), “Theory of Reasoned Action” suggests that it is possible to gain some understanding of a person’s intentions by measuring his/her attitude toward performing a behavior. Hence, in the case of the present study, physical education professionals were asked to identify their attitudes toward the use of APA in an effort to gain further insight. If an aquatic program is an intended goal, it becomes imperative that the program be well planned and executed by physical educators in an effort to help students develop their full potential. Based in the Theory of Reasoned Action, which will be discussed more in depth in Chapter Two of this study, attitudes toward APA have been associated with the degree to which a person will employ the use of an activity (Fishbein, 1967). How do physical education professionals view APA? Some physical educators may view it as a wonderful activity to be utilized for helping students increase their levels of physical activity. Others may only see APA as a hindrance and lawsuit waiting to happen. Therefore, the researcher deemed it necessary to attain information regarding the current status of APA through the eyes of the “gatekeepers”, physical education professionals currently in the field.

9 Assumptions and Limitations In this subsection, the assumptions, limitations, delimitations, and definitions of terms for the study are presented. Assumptions The following assumptions for this study are acknowledged: 1. It is assumed that the participants selected to provide the data for this study have the necessary knowledge and information needed to complete the questionnaire. 2. It is assumed that participants will respond with truthful answers to the survey items and not provide responses that he/she thinks are socially or professionally desirable. 3. It is assumed that the instrument developed was appropriate for accurately determining the status of APA in K-12 physical education programs in the school systems being studied during the 2004-2005 school year. 4. It is assumed that the majority of the participants for this study will follow the instructions and complete the survey. 5. It is assumed that APA is a good idea

Limitations To an extent many research studies are limited by characteristics of the methods utilized to collect data. This study will utilize an electronic mail- online survey questionnaire in order to collect this information; thus the following limitations will be placed upon this study: 1. All respondents will have to open email attachments or input a particular website address to respond to the questionnaire. Some participants may use computers but will still have difficulty with these operations. 2. Some respondents may not be “computer literate." 3. One of the greatest and most studied disadvantages of using mail or online surveys is the low response rate. 4. All respondents contacted may not respond to or return the questionnaire. The significance and value of this study is based on a positive response rate. 5. Some respondents may find it difficult to read lengthy text documents. 6. All respondents may not be able to access personal electronic mail accounts.

10 7. Results are limited by the extent to which the respondents interpret and understand the statements on the questionnaire. Careful attention was provided in the development and construction of the questionnaire in an effort to minimize the above limitations. The conclusions will be formulated after thoroughly considering these limitations.

Delimitations The following delimitations are placed upon the study: 1. The study took place in K-12 public school physical education programs during the 2004-2005 school year. 2. The study was conducted using a survey with a large population consisting of physical educators in K-12 public schools in the state of Florida. 3. The study was administered using self-administered electronic mail surveys with a large population consisting of physical educators in K-12 public schools in the state of Florida. 4. The study took place in public schools in urban, rural, suburban areas in the state of Florida in hopes of identifying APA programs in K-12 public schools during the 2004-2005 school year.

Definitions of Terms For the purpose of this study the following terms are operationally defined for a clear interpretation of this dissertation: Aquatic Physical Activity (APA): refers to student participation in an aquatic medium (e.g., aquatic activities, snorkeling or diving, water walking, competitive and instructional swimming, aquatic fitness, aquatic sports, water aerobics and small craft aquatic activity.) Attitudes: A self rated measure of a physical education professional’s view of APA, or his/her opinion toward the use or lack of use of APA. Exercise: a subset of physical activity that is planned, structured, and repetitive and is done to improve or maintain physical fitness (Thomas & Nelson, 2001).

11 Florida Reporting Regions: The state of Florida has been divided into five regions by the Florida Department of Education for writing assessment programs in the state. The regions are labeled as follows: 1) Panhandle; 2) Crown, 3) East Central; 4) West Central; 5) South (see Appendix A). Physical activity: any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that result in energy expenditure (Thomas & Nelson, 2001). Physical fitness: a set of attributes that are either health- or skill-related. Health related- fitness includes cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, and body composition; skill related fitness includes balance, agility, power, reaction time, speed and coordination (Thomas & Nelson, 2001). Status: refers to the existing state or condition; the existing state or condition of APA in K-12 physical education programs in the state of Florida.

12 CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

One of the most significant issues of study in this dissertation is understanding attitude formation and how attitudes can influence the use and nonuse of aquatic physical activity in K-12 physical education programs. The goal of this chapter is to create a consciousness of the dilemmas, benefits, and need for Aquatic Physical Activity (APA) within public school physical education programs. It is an aim of this chapter to shed light on the psychological, physiological, and sociological benefits that can derive for students as a result of a well-planned, quality, APA program. Thus, this chapter will first introduce a theoretical framework dealing with Fishbein's (1967) theory of reasoned action as a way of exploring attitude formation in general terms. The subsequent sections will then progressively become more specifically related to the questions addressed in this study and research on attitudes towards physical education; then towards an examination of APA. It is important to note that this is not a study which deals with specific gender or cultural groups; but the attitudes of particular groups are dealt with as many APA professionals are themselves members of these groups. Additionally, a discussion on the importance of APA in physical education is presented, and the chapter concludes by addressing the challenges in implementing aquatic curricula. Theoretical Framework Can the very way students and teachers think about physical activity be influenced by their attitudes? Research on teaching in physical education has identified that attempting to investigate students’ and teachers’ attitudes through the use of questionnaires and surveys is problematic. Research surmises that to not inquire about participants’ attitudes would be a silencing of those voices which national health reports, physical education programs, and communities are trying to assist (Carlson, 1995; Dyson,

13 1995; Hopple & Graham, 1995; Graham, 1995; Lee, Carter, & Xiang, 1995; Sanders & Graham, 1995). The research for this dissertation involves having a strong understanding of how attitudes are shaped. The theory of reasoned action is one model which provides a conceptual basis which can be transferred to the more specific situation of understanding attitudes of professionals working in the field of APA.

Theory of Reasoned Action Fishbein (1967) states the ultimate goal of the theory of reasoned action is to predict and understand an individual’s behavior. The first step toward understanding is to identify and measure the behavior of interest, once the behavior has been clearly defined, ask what determines the behavior (Fishbein, 1967). The theory of reasoned action views a person’s intention to perform or not perform a behavior as the immediate determinant of the action (Fishbein, 1967). As Fishbein (1967) explains, a person’s intention is a function of two determinants: one, personal in nature; and the other, reflecting social influence. The personal factor is the individual’s positive or negative evaluation of performing the behavior; this factor is termed “attitude toward behavior” or simply an individual’s decision that performing a behavior is good or bad or that he/she is in favor of or against doing the behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The second determinant of intention, as identified by Fishbein (1967) is the person’s perception of the social pressures put on him/her to perform or not perform the behavior in question. This factor is termed “subjective norm”, or simply that individuals will intend to perform a behavior when they feel positively or when others think they should perform it (Fishbein, 1967). For example, create a scenario of two physical educators who have positive attitudes towards using APA as a means of maintaining their cardiovascular fitness, and who perceive social pressures not to use APA. What will be their intentions in this situation of conflict between attitude toward the behavior and the subjective norm? In an effort to respond to this question, Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) state that the relative importance of the attitudinal and normative factors as determinants of intentions must be identified. It is assumed in the theory of reasoned action that the

14 relative importance of these factors depends on the intention that will be investigated. For some intentions, attitudinal considerations might be more important than normative considerations, while for other intentions normative considerations may predominate. Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), state that it is possible to predict and gain some understanding of a person’s intention by measuring his/her attitude toward performing the behavior, their subjective norm, and their relative weights. The theory of reasoned action views attitudes as a function of beliefs. For example, a person who believes that performing a given behavior, such as APA, will defer toward mostly positive outcomes and will have a favorable attitude toward carrying out the behavior. Consequently, a person who believes that performing that same behavior will yield mostly negative outcomes will hold a negative attitude. Fishbein (1967) identified the beliefs that underlie a person’s attitude toward behavior as “behavioral beliefs”; moreover, subjective norms are also a function of beliefs, but are a different type. Subjective norms are mainly a person’s beliefs that specific individuals or groups think that he/she should not perform the behavior. These beliefs underlying a person’s subjective norm are termed as “normative beliefs” (Fishbein, 1967). For example, an APA physical educator is motivated to act in accordance with what he/she believes are the wishes of his/her administration, co-workers, faculty, and environment. If he/she feels that these referents think that he/she should use APA, his/her subjective norm will exert pressure to perform this behavior. On the other hand, if he/she feels that his/her administration, coworkers, faculty, and environment think that he/she should not use APA; he/she will perceive social pressure in an opposite direction. Thus, the subjective norm may exert pressure to perform or not to perform a given behavior, independent of the person’s own attitude toward the behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Figure 1 shows how behavior can be explained in terms of the identified concepts.

15 The person's beleifs that the behavior leads to certain Attitude toward outcomes and his evaluation the behavior of these outcomes

Relative importance of attitudinal and Intention Behavior normative considerations

The person's beliefs that specific individuals or groups think he should or should not perfom the Subjective Norm behavior and his motivation to comply wih specific referents

Figure 1: Factors determining a person’s behavior. Theory of Reasoned Action Source: Adapted from I. Ajzen and M. Fishbein (1980) Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behavior, Prentice Hall.

Attitudes towards Physical Education Attitudes reflect not only the view an individual has toward others, but also might considerably influence interpersonal behaviors. Sulsberger (1973) indicated that attitudes greatly influence an individual’s response to his/her environment. Attitudes also influence students to have positive or negative responses toward physical education (Figley, 1985; Griffin, 1984; Griffin 1985; Hopple & Graham, 1995; Morey, 2000; Ratliffe, Imwold, & Conkell, 1994; Silverman, 1996; Taylor, et al., 2002). Courses in physical education expose students to physical activity, teaching and learning methods, facilities, equipment, and teacher student interaction (Cavanaugh, 1993). Many factors seem to influence attitude formation. Research in physical education contends that student attitudes are influenced by variables which range from teacher behaviors, class context, self-perceptions, curriculum, and peer behavior (Figley, 1985; Griffin 1985; Griffin, 1984). For example, Henry (1993) describes how the school community and school culture can affect the attitudes of the students within that community. Furthermore, studies have shown that students, who do not relate and adapt to the school environment, tend to develop negative attitudes toward school (Carlson, 1995; Figley, 1985; Hopple & Graham, 1995; Morey, 2000; Silverman, 1996; Treasurer, 1997). The assumption of most teachers is that competent students enjoy and like physical education; thus equating ability with a positive attitude regarding physical

16 activity. However, Hopple and Graham (1995) state that there are apparent gaps between what teachers expected their students to learn and the knowledge the students actually demonstrate. This is a reminder to all educators that just because students are taught the required physical education curricular and are successful, they may not have positive attitudes towards physical education. Likewise, societal factors influence students’ attitudes daily. Bandura (1986) stated that adolescents form their attitudes from the influences around them. Students’ attitudes with regard to physical education are primarily influenced by their parents, then, by teachers, coaches and peers (Figley, 1985; Hopple & Graham 1995; Taylor et al. 2002, Morey, 2000). In order to understand how attitudes towards K-12 physical education are formed, it is useful to examine how sociocultural and gender factors influence individuals and groups. It is also necessary to explore the current state of K-12 physical education programs, to learn more about how attitude has traditionally been measured in physical education.

How Culture and Gender Shape Attitudes towards Physical Education Exploratory research in the area of understanding influences on women’s physical activity patterns revealed that though traditional investigations have effectively and primarily studied personal factors (i.e., demographic, cognitive, behavioral, emotional), there are extended reasons that can contribute to a woman’s lack of physical activity (Eyler et al., 2002; Thompson, Allen, Cunningham-Sabo, Yazzie, Curtis, & Davis, 2002; Young He, Harris, & Mabry, 2002). Cultural studies have shown that minority women, specifically African American and Native American women, are more satisfied with their weight, and if overweight, are more likely to feel attractive (Eyler et al., 2002; Richter, Wilcox, Greaney, Henderson, & Ainsworth, 2002; Sanderson, Littleton, & Pulley, 2002). Ethnic minority women feel that White American women are pressured to be thin by society, especially by white men, and that their greater socio-economic benefits enable them to afford things such as child care or memberships to exercise establishments (Sanderson, Littleton, & Pulley, 2002). Eyler et al. (2002) found that both African American women and American Indian women perceived White American women as being "obsessed with thinness." Moreover,

17 literature suggests those ethnic minority women’s perceptions of: family values (i.e., raising children or caring for family members), physical activity, social environment (i.e., safety in urban or rural areas), and cultural issues (i.e., self-image in relation to society, body size, lack of physically active role models, “cultural eating”), all pose some type of barrier toward their physical activity in a beneficial and healthy manner (Eyler et al., 2002; Richter et al., 2002; Sanderson et al., 2002; Thompson et al., 2002; Young He et al., 2002). Tangential to research on ethnic minorities, research on ethnic minority girls in physical education classes, specifically African American and Hispanics, also acknowledges the importance of being physically active (Taylor et al., 2002). A study Taylor et al., (2002) on African American and Hispanic middle school girls revealed that girls do have an interest in physical activity; however, they did not like their physical education classes. Findings revealed that girls felt the physical education teachers favored boys and showed them more attention. Like the women, ethnic minority girls discussed their attitudes toward physical activity. Minority girls expressed concerns about participating in physical education classes, attributing their concern at times to spoiling their hairstyles and make-up through their participation in physical activity (Taylor et al., 2002). Additionally, girls expressed a fear and dislike of sweating and perspiring in the presence of boys. Their overall perception of physical activity was that it interfered with their overall attractive appearance in school (Taylor et al., 2002). Consequently, both ethnic minority women and girls agree with the concept that physical activities provide benefits that are important to their overall health and quality of life, however, they still lack the drive to be physically active.

Current State of Physical Education in K-12 Public Schools The Center for Disease Control and Prevention's “Guidelines for School and Community Programs to Promote Lifelong Physical Activity Among Young People” (1997), confirmed that when compared to boys, girls were also less physically active, with adolescents’ participation in physical activity further differing by race & ethnicity. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) Surgeon General’s

18 Report of Physical activity and Health, (1996) revealed the following regarding adolescents and young adults: • Nearly half of American youths aged 12-21 years are not vigorously active on a regular basis • About 14% of young people report no recent physical activity. Inactivity is more common among females (14%) than males (7%) and among black females (21%) than white females (12%) • Only 19% of all high school students are physically active for 20 minutes or more, five days a week, in physical education classes. • Among high school students, daily enrollment in physical education declined from 42% to 25% between the years of 1991 and 1995 • The percentage of high school students who were enrolled in physical education and who reported being physically active for at least 20 minutes in physical education classes declined from approximately 81% to 70% during the first half of the decade • Well designed school-based interventions directed at increasing physical activity in physical education classes have been shown to be effective. Social support from family and friends has been consistently and positively related to regular physical activity. However, research on ethnic minority women confirms national reports, assenting that from a young age girls are not encouraged to be physically active, which undoubtedly must affect their physical activity levels as they approach adulthood (Eyler, et al., 2002). Physical education teachers are left with the responsibility of attempting to fill the gaps in students understanding by providing culturally responsive curricula that are meaningful and relevant to students both inside and outside of school (James & Griffin, 2000). Education, and/or physical education’s, inability to provide a bridge of understanding about the relevance of physical education as a viable subject area can lead to the development of both negative and positive attitudes toward physical activity (Hopple & Graham, 1995; James & Griffin, 2000).

19 Thus, in an effort to dissipate a detrimental behavior toward physical activity and physical education, research has aimed at achieving the importance of physical activity at the K-12 levels by establishing the following framework for public schools to follow: • Require comprehensive, daily physical education for students in K-12. • Require the hiring of physical education specialists to teach physical education K- 12. • Require that physical activity instruction and programs meet the needs and interests of all students irrespective of sex, race/ethnicity, health status, physical and cognitive ability or disability. • Discourage the use or withholding of physical activity as a punishment. • Increase to at least 50 % the proportion of children and adolescents, grades K-12, who are participants in physical education classes (CDC, 1997). Likewise, Pangrazi, (2003) states that to help create an environment where physical activity is valued and physical education programs are viewed as quality programs, valued by not only teachers but also parents and students, the following components should be utilized: 1. Programs should be organized around content standards that offer direction and continuity to instruction and evaluation. 2. Programs should be centered and based on the developmental urges, characteristics, and interests of students. 3. Programs should be able to make physical activity and motor skill development the core of the program. 4. Programs should include a strong moral and character development component. 5. Programs should emphasize the inclusion of all students regardless of ability level. 6. Programs should ensure that instruction is focused on the process of learning skills first before emphasizing the product (outcome) of skill performance. 7. Programs should teach lifetime activities that students will use to promote their health and personal wellness 8. Programs should help students to develop sensitivity to diversity and gender issues.

20 Measurements of Attitudes in Physical Education The measurement of students’ and teachers’ attitudes in physical education has been accomplished by the utilization of both qualitative and quantitative methods. Researchers who utilize either method of measurement to investigate attitudes usually depend upon carefully gathered information using questionnaires, class and student observations, students, teachers, administrators, parental interviews, and incident reports as major sources of data (Figley, 1985; Griffin, 1985; Griffin 1984; Hopple & Graham, 1994). One of the most common forms of attitudinal measurement is the use of a scale such as the Likert Scale (Cavanaugh, 1993; Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999). The Likert scale is one of the more popular methods used for assessing attitudes (Oskamp, 1991; Thomas, & Nelson, 2001), as it was designed to remove large numbers of judges and items, making it a more accurate attitudinal scale (Oskamp, 1991). Likert scales generally are either five or seven steps consisting of strongly disagree-disagree- undecided-agree-and strongly agree (Baumgartner & Jackson, 1991; Safrit, 1990). The Likert scale requires a numerical expression of an individual’s agreement or disagreement in a series of affective statements. In general, attitudinal scales are created to reflect the responses of subjects, with regard to their positive or negative evaluation of the attitude object. Different variables have been used to study student and adult attitudes toward physical education and physical activity. However, attitudinal measurements being used as a secondary source to direct observations have proven productive in many research studies (Silverman & Subramaniam, 1999). Three of the most researched attitudinal instruments in the field of physical education are the Attitude toward Physical Activity Scale (ATPA), the Children’s Attitude toward Physical Activity Scale (CATPA), and the Physical Education Attitude Scale (PEAS). The CATPA is a revised form of the ATPA, used for children and adolescents (Kaiser, 1988; Kenyon, 1968; Simon and Smoll, 1974). The Attitude toward Physical Activity Scale. The ATPA, an older scale, was developed by Kenyon (1968) for adults. This scale contained 6 dimensions that were concerned with how much each person perceives physical activity: 1) as a social

21 experience, 2) as a health and fitness activity, 3) as the pursuit of vertigo, 4) as an aesthetic experience, 5) as catharsis, and 6) as an ascetic experience. The Children’s Attitude toward Physical Activity Scale. The CATPA scale is the revised form of the ATPA scale, which is best used with children and adolescents grades first through sixth (Simon & Smoll, 1974). Also having 6 dimensions the CATPA contains 8 pairs of bipolar adjectives describing each dimension. The scale focuses on the following areas: 1) social growth: participation in physical activities that give you a chance to meet people, 2) social combination: participation in physical activities that give you a chance to be with friends, 3) health and fitness: participation in physical activities that improve your health and get you into better condition, 4) vertigo: participation in physical activities that could be dangerous and require you to move quickly and change directions, 5) aesthetic: participation in physical activities that have beautiful, graceful movements, 6) catharsis: participation in physical activities that reduce stress, 7) ascetic: participation in physical activities that have long hard practices that require you to give up other things. The Physical Education Attitude Scale. The PEAS is another scale borrowed from ATPA. Developed in 1974 by Sonstroem, the PEAS is used to measure exercise enjoyment as well as perceived confidence. In order to develop this scale Sonstroem borrowed information from the ATPA for one-third of the items and created the rest. This scale has been widely used for seventh through eleventh graders. The questions addressed to the respondents are about their liking for specific sports or group activities. Seven factors were identified, four of which pertained to attraction, and they are as follows: 1) endorsement of physical activity, 2) attraction to robust activity, 3) attraction to running, and 4) attraction to tennis. Hence, one of the principal advantages of a Likert scale is its ability to provide participants with a variety of choices to express their attitudes. Thus, regarding this research a Likert scale will be used to investigate the underlying attitudes of physical education professionals toward APA, in an effort to develop physical education programs striving to develop health conscious and physically active individuals.

22 Attitudes towards Aquatic Physical Activity Aquatic environments have become a very popular setting for fitness and rehabilitation activities (AAALF Aquatic Council, 2004; Norvell, 2000; Winnock, 2000). The needs of numerous populations, from young adults and senior citizens to athletes and individuals with disabilities, can be met in an effectively planned aquatic exercise or activity class (Elder & Campbell, 1997). Midtlyng (1982) affirmed the fact that aquatic physical activity, specifically swimming, appeals to a wide variety of people. APA is not limited by gender or physical ability and research shows that participation in aquatic activities brings physiological, psychological and social benefits (Cardon et al., 2004, Conaster, Block, & Lepore, 2000; Illuzi, 1991). However, even though the benefits are great, APA programs are still greatly underutilized. The following subsections explore how cultural perceptions of APA and instructional styles can shape a population's acceptance of APA.

Cultural Differences in Attitudes towards Aquatic Physical Activity The relationship between ethnic cultures and their participation or use of APA, provides an interesting point of view for understanding the status of APA within physical education programs. Banks and Banks (1989) stated that a macroculture (primary culture) is one of a series of microcultures. In the United States the two predominant microcultures are African American and White American. Microcultures typically share the innermost values and activities of the primary culture; however, it is possible that some of the values and activities of a primary culture can be “alien to certain microcultures” (Banks & Banks, 1989). Pendleton (1975) agrees with this statement claiming that society is controlled by the primary culture (White American microculture) through the allocation of resources and the decision making process; thus the primary culture has controlled the aquatic venue, moreover, individuals' participation in APA or lack thereof. Studies have suggested that culture plays a role in one’s use of and participation in APA (Campbell, 1974; Jackson, 1991; Pendelton, 1975; Wieser, 1995). Within society, a primary culture is the “overall system of mutually ordered public cultures [as they relate] to all activities within the society” (Goodenough, 1981,

23 p.111). Aquatic physical activity is an example of a primary culture activity, which is embraced by one microculture (White American) and discouraged by another (African American) (Weiser, 1995). Pendelton (1975) argued that the macroculture (primary culture), White Americans, have controlled access, or limited African Americans' access to recreational and career opportunities in the field of aquatics, due to exposure to inadequate facilities, limited training beyond the novice level, and the perpetuation of a variety of myths. Jackson (1991) reveals similar rationale for the paucity of minority participation in aquatics: cultural misconceptions, a shortage of facilities, and the need for encouragement. Numerous learn-to-swim programs target minority communities emphasizing pre-school and beginning swimming levels and water safety. However, after acquiring the basic aquatic skills, without opportunities to reinforce what they have learned, or chances to enhance their skills, the novice swimmer will not advance. Weiser (1995) stated that when individuals from the minority microculture, attempt aquatic courses, specifically leadership aquatic courses, they discover that they are unprepared and drop out. Therefore, one can speculate that the lack of African Americans in aquatic roles, and their use of aquatic physical activity, can potentially reflect a problem not only in the field of aquatics but possibly other facets of society. Eisenhart and Cutts-Dougherty (1991) found that individuals’ interpretation of their community varies based upon whether they are a part of the primary culture or a microculture. Weiser (1995) deduces that when individuals from a microculture begin to swim, they enter a world that is unfamiliar in several ways. Not only is aquatics dominated by the primary culture, but the aquatic environment is entirely different from the land/air environment (1995). Research has found that the closer the microculture of the student is to the learning environment, the more academic success that student will be able to achieve (Applebee, 1991; Eisenhart & Cutt-Dougherty, 1991; Heath, 1983; Weiser, 1995). From the initial stages of development, research has found that children are trained at home to see and build on familiar aspects for learning within their academic environments to achieve success (Sinclar & Ghory, 1987). Heath (1983) stated that in schools, language, appearance, and heredity are personal factors that can be subtly or

24 directly challenged. Moreover, types of behaviors that are approved at home are often ridiculed or disapproved of at school. Unfortunately, this gap within the cultures, whether racial, socio-economic or cultural, often causes a misunderstanding between the student, teacher, and the instructional system, resulting in feelings of inadequacy as a learner, and the lessening of his or her aspirations for further learning (Sinclair & Ghory, 1987). Furthermore, research shows that minorities are often pre-victimized by circumstances such as: casual insensitive environments, expressions of disrespect and disdain, low self-esteem, and apparent attempts to lessen and even annihilate the personality of the individual in an effort to fit the more powerful primary culture (Beckman, 1988; Wilson & Justiz, 1988). Therefore, it is viable to conclude that individuals within the primary culture, or upper or middle class socioeconomic brackets, are more successful in the classroom and are more likely to enjoy participation and opportunity in aquatic physical activity than individuals in a microculture of a lower socio-economic bracket.

How Aquatic Instruction Influences Attitudes towards Aquatic Physical Activity Unlike APA classes taught to the primary culture, students within microculture (working class) schools typically are taught to follow the rules (Anyon, 1980). Within this learning environment the teacher is usually the dictator who directs the students, eliminating the opportunity of analyzing situations and appropriate decision making. Many basic level swimming classes reflect a technical value system (Huebner, 1975) similar to what Anyon (1980) described in working class schools. The swimming instructor controls the learning environment, enforces the rules of safety, specifies objectives, and evaluates student achievement. Allington (1991) describes this type of classroom as an assembly line type organization that is typically used in pre-school and beginner (Level 1 through Level 3 classes). In this format, students learn one skill at a station and move from station to station. Students in this learning environment often acquire fragmented basic skills, instead of the holistic experience, and are not stimulated to APA, or to continue their learning experience either in the classroom or the pool (Allington, 1991).

25 Students in a learning environment that reflects an affluent professional or executive elite culture are taught the creation, use and manipulation of symbolic capital or culture through the use of ideas and concepts in language, math, and science (Anyon, 1980). Success can reflect one’s overall academic achievement, success in reading, math, or aquatic skills (Allington, 1991; Anyon, 1980). Weiser, in a paper entitled "Play and Aquatics" stated that there were similarities between the success in swimming skills and the microculture of the swimmers (Weiser, 1995). Findings revealed that swimmers at the pool characterized by the working class microculture often times demonstrated poor body position and stroke mechanics (head up, straight arm pull and recovery, and kick) on the front crawl (freestyle) over very short distances (three to five strokes). Whereas swimmers at the pool characterized as the upper middle class or primary culture demonstrated a high level of skill (good head position and coordinated, effective arm and leg actions) on several strokes over continuous lengths. Thus, the relationship between microculture and learning environment appears to be a factor in promoting aquatic physical activity and aquatic skill development. Pendelton (1975) suggests that with regard to educating different microcultures, new approaches to APA instruction should be developed so that the aquatic instruction can be compatible to the needs of that microculture; thus participation in APA beyond the learn-to-swim level can be encouraged. Though many aquatics texts emphasize the benefits of aquatics through the how’s and why’s of accomplishing swimming skills (American Red Cross, 1990b, 1992a; Thomas, 1989; Turney & Clayton, 1981; YMCA, 1986), the most typical instructional methods that students are exposed to are the aquatic skill and drill concepts. A traditional aquatic curriculum frames tasks or educational activities according to the values accepted by the current curricular practice (Weiser, 1995). Oakes (1986) states that traditional aquatic instruction generally emphasizes teaching in a systematic, factory efficient way, in order to improve the future quality of life. Weiser (1995) notes that aquatics has traditionally stressed individual success attained through mass instruction and practice. The teacher becomes the transmitter of specific knowledge; the students are tested on what has been transmitted (Langer, 1991; Freire, 1970). Weiser

26 (1995) declares that the training materials of the two primary certifying agencies, American Red Cross, and the YMCA, as well as other swimming instructional agencies in the country reflect a strong middle class bias.

Importance of Aquatic Physical Activity in Physical Education Participation in health promoting activities has been identified as an important strategy to maintain the independence and quality of life in persons with chronic or disabling conditions (AAALF, 2001; Lepore, M., Gayle, G. & Stevens, S., 1998). By strengthening one’s body, individuals, both young and old can reduce certain chronic or disabling conditions that might occur during their lifetime. The American National Red Cross Society (1981) produced information concerning seven basic benefits of swimming: 1) Physiological; 2) Recreational; 3) Safety; 4) Social; 5) Educational; 6) Mental; 7) Special (Adapted & Rehabilitative). According to the AAALF Aquatic Council (2004), the application of aquatic knowledge can not only improve an individual’s fitness, but also establish a framework for life long physical activity and wellness. Consequently, the Aquatic Council recommends that individuals of all ages both with and without various physical, sensory, or mental disabilities participate in aquatic instruction and activity enabling them to:

1) Learn specific aquatic skills

2) Take part in leisure recreational activities

3) Develop and maintain appropriate levels of personal fitness and wellness

4) Respond to individual challenges

5) Receive opportunities to socialize with family and friends

6) Take part in competitive aquatic games and activities

7) Have fun by enjoying life through an aquatic medium (Beale, Lynn, & Jackson, 2002). Motivation, communication, and understanding are the some of the key elements for success in a variety of areas. Therefore, the development of positive attitudes and

27 understanding, with regard to physical education should be a focal point for both educators and students alike (NASPE, 1998). Physical education programs strive to provide a multi-dimensional view of physical education that focuses on both the health and skill-related components of fitness through a variety of physical activities (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 1998). Incorporating a variety of activities within the K – 12 physical education curricula will provide students with a repertoire of activities to maintain physical fitness for a lifetime. Unique experiences, including aquatic physical activities, within physical education classes can provide students with the opportunity of enhancing their overall well-being and quality of life (Corbin et al., 1999; Raitakari, et al., 1994).

Advantages of Implementing Aquatic Curricula Aquatic physical activity encompasses a variety of aquatic activities and skills: instructional to competitive swimming, crew, diving, water aerobics, skin and scuba diving, water parks, sailing, motorized ventures, and surfing (AAALF, 2001). National organizations (American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, America [AAHPERD], American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness [AAALF], National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE]) and research support the use of aquatics as a unique medium for motor skills and health related physical fitness development (Cardon et al., 2004; Conaster, 1999; Fricke, 1995; Horejsi, 1991; Lepore, Gayle, & Stevens, 1998; McClelland, 1998; Szajcz, 2001). APA offers a variety of benefits for people of varying physical and mental ability levels due to the properties of the aquatic environment. Additionally, APA has a number of physiological benefits and it offers psychological and social advantages as well. Beneficial properties of aquatic environments. Cicciarella (2003) notes that the water properties of buoyancy and viscosity have a beneficial effect on the human body whether immersed wholly or partially. Positive physical results evident in a study by Cardon et al. (2004), are based in these aquatic properties. Cardon et al., (2004) compared the physical activity levels of 8 to 12 year old students during swimming and non-swimming elementary physical education classes. Utilizing the System for

28 Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) results revealed that students participated in more moderate to vigorous physical activity levels during swimming classes than during their non-swimming classes. As a result of buoyancy, a total or partial immersion in water results in an upward thrust and a degree of weightlessness that enables all students to increase their mobility (Manjone & Mirandy, 1993). These properties permit the human body to participate in a variety of activities and positions where the least amount of energy will be expended, the most freedom of movement will be achieved, and the bones and muscles are able to maintain a relaxed state (Cicciarella, 2003). Though, the viscosity of water creates a level of difficulty that requires participants to use a lot of energy, the utilization of water as a medium for physical activity is ideal. For physical educators aquatic physical activities afford the opportunity to increase and or decrease levels of motor objectives making a task easier or more difficult. For example, a weight lifting lesson could consist of students using water weights (barbells) or their hands in a flat position, maximizing their ability to gain things such as: 1) proper range of motion; 2) body position (targeting muscle area); 3) breathing; 4) strength and conditioning; 5) overall technique. Another example would be to have students practice aqua jogging to help build up their cardiovascular endurance, varying speed, allowing students to feel the difference in intensity from moving faster or slower. Historically, the benefits of utilizing water as a medium for exercise have been acknowledged (CNCA, 1975; Daniels & Davies, 1965; Huebner, 1975; Muhl, 1969; Pendelton, 1975; Torney, 1970), and these benefits extend to special needs populations as well. McCleland (1998) investigated aquatic exercise as it related to the quality of life in adults with multiple sclerosis and found that through the use of aquatic exercise, participants increased their levels of strength, cardiorespiratory ability, and muscular endurance. As a result, participants improved their attitudes toward the overall quality of their lives. Although the sample size was not representative of the total U.S. population of individuals with multiple sclerosis, the results were informative. By conducting this research and providing information with regard to exercise and individuals with multiple sclerosis, occupational therapists and others can assist individuals with or without chronic health diseases with another tool to help maintain their quality of health.

29 Physiological benefits. A recurrent theme in the literature is the physiological benefits and concerns of aquatic activity (Conaster, 1999; Faulkner, 1967; Fricke, 1995; Horejsi, 1991; Lepore, Gayle, & Stevens, 1998; McClelland, 1998; Vickers et al., 1966). Physiologically, the benefits of aquatic programs can be divided into two major areas organic development (physical fitness) and psychomotor development. Organic development involves: 1) Cardio-vascular Endurance (the ability of the heart, lungs, and circulatory system to sustain vigorous activity); 2) Muscular Endurance (the ability of the muscles to sustain activity for a long period of time); 3) Strength (the ability to exert force and power), and 4) Flexibility (one's ability to bend, stretch, and move through a normal range of motion (American Red Cross, 1977).

In terms of psychomotor development, the American Red Cross (1977), recommends that through an enhanced physical fitness level, individuals of all ages, both with and without disabilities, can improve psychomotor functions such as: a) Speed - one's ability to act or move quickly, b) Agility - one's ability to change direction with controlled body movements, c) Perceptual motor factors- balance, kinesthetic sense, laterality, dominance, spatial relationships, visual discrimination, auditory discrimination, eye-hand coordination, eye-hand-foot coordination, and directionality. Motor development units (i.e., aquatic physical activity) should be developmentally sensitive to the individual differences of the learner’s cognitive development to provide the maximum variation in movement experiences within secure and accepting environments (Williams, 1981).

To explore this idea, Simard (1969) conducted a study of APA from a neurophysiologic perspective, investigating children’s ability to learn and execute specific motor skills attributed to swimming. Results revealed those younger children (3 to 6 years) were inconsistent and required constant reminders to “re-isolate” the activity in the motor skills they were trying to learn. However, findings also affirmed that older children (8 years) performed selected motor skills with more consistency. Overall, findings surmised that when children reach the ages of 7 to 9 years they were able to consistently maintain control over specific motor functions with more consistency while another movement was performed simultaneously (i.e., stroking and kicking). After the age of nine there was little or no change in this overall ability (Simard, 1969).

30 Williams (1981) suggests that from this same neurological perspective,

initial APA experiences should include participants in the 3 to 9 year age range, due to the fact that during this time period the foundational elements of motor skills are developing. Thus, an effort to encourage student achievement within APA (motor development) programs for students above the age of 9 (4th through 12th grades) should provide a wide range of movement experiences (Williams, 1981). Therefore, physical education professionals should allow for highly structured aquatic physical activity units focused on maximum activity learning time, encouraging trial and error and problem solving.

Literature on aquatics has indicated that the acquisition of these motor qualities can encourage individuals to participate in aquatic recreation as a lifetime activity (Beale et al., 2002; Conaster et al., 2000; Lepore et al., 1998; Winnock, 2000; American Red Cross, 1977). Unlike dry-land activities, the buoyancy of water supports the body and allows an individual to increase their range of motion. For example, water aerobics incorporates a variety of rhythmic body movements, dance steps, and calisthenics. Additionally, participants are able to burn calories, strengthen muscles, and improve their cardiovascular wellness and flexibility, without causing undo pressure on the joints and muscles. In terms of physical comfort levels, aquatic activities allow participants to achieve tremendous benefits without experiencing the side effects of aches and pains, overheating, sweating, and feelings of exhaustion which are often associated with dry- land activity (Sova, 1995). The primary concepts of aquatic activity for fitness take into account the requirements of individualized programs, the possibility of health restrictions, and the application of national guidelines like Healthy People 2010: Understanding and Improving Health (Beale et al., 2002; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2000). Moreover, APA can provide a new approach to physical fitness and motor skill development through the improvement in individuals’ muscle tone and joint stability (Majone & Mirandy, 2000; Winnock, 2000). NASPE (1998) content standards for high school students, recommend aquatics for demonstrating a student’s competency as a physically educated person; making the use of APA, at the K-12 level, beneficial for all.

31 Though the disadvantages of the use of aquatic physical activities should not be overlooked--higher safety considerations, financial requirements, and accessibility issues, the benefits of participation in aquatic activities should not be ignored.

Psychological and social benefits. Aquatic activities and aquatic fitness lessons are developmentally appropriate for students because they promote socialization opportunities, in addition to encouraging a lifetime of healthy physical activity (National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 1998). Davies (1932) contends that: In a program of physical education, swimming satisfies the demand in modern education for individual as well as group activity. It is a sport, which may be learned in school.... and which may be carried on long after school….days are completed, when there is a need for healthful activities for leisure time. (p. 170)

Aquatic programs or experiences can improve the self-concept and motor performance of all students (AAALF, 2002, 2001; American Red Cross, 1983; Beale, Lynn, & Jackson, 2002; Block & Conaster, 2002; Carter, 1998; Conaster, 1999; Conaster, Block, & Lepore, 2000; Elder & Campbell, 1997; Illuzzi, 1989; Lepore & Stevens, 1998; McClelland, 1998). In a society where physical strength, beauty, and athletic ability are equated with success, individuals can often have lower levels of self worth. Through participation in APA, success, which is often denied during participation in land-based activities, can enhance individuals’ self-efficacy within the activity and amongst their peers (AAALF, 2004; Winnock, 2000). Group interactions within aquatic venues allow individuals to participate freely and effectively, while providing emotional outlets lessening the evidence of any type of disability. By becoming aware of these properties and their potential impact on the student, physical educators can learn to individualize the inclusive experience of swimming to accommodate individuals both with and without disabilities. The aquatic medium, allows a student with physical impairments to experience a freedom of movement, which they cannot find on land (AAALF, 2004).

32 Challenges in Implementing Aquatic Curricula The factors of aquatic curricula that are important to the development of successful APA programs are the design and usage of facilities, equipment, program purposefulness, safety, and activities. The American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, Aquatic Council (2002) “strives to promote safety guidelines and standards for aquatics” to ensure an environment that is as safe as possible by recommending the following standards: 1) Knowledge about the participants and any possible conditions (limitations) should be known; 2) Every facility must have an Emergency Action Plan (EAP) in writing clearly displayed; 3) Physical education professionals or instructors should have current certifications in CPR, First Aid, or be trained lifeguards; 4) Programs should have the know-how to safely perform aquatic programs and maintain certification by a nationally recognized professional organization, for example having a Water exercise instructor; 5) The aquatic facility should be safe, clear of debris, have proper lighting, heat, ventilation, circulation, and acoustics. Safety is an extremely important issue in the implementation of APA programs. Once safety guidelines have been met and can be maintained, other issues related to participants' attitudes must be taken into account for a program to successfully meet its objectives. The mental attitude that some students/participants have when starting on an aquatic physical activity experience is not always one that results in an ideal learning experience. Objectives that physical educators should be concerned with are: 1) What do students hope to gain from their participation in the class? 2) What benefits can students gain through participation in an aquatic physical activity class? and 3) Did the student select the class or was it a required element. Physical educators face the challenge of developing instruction so that students will develop more constructive attitudes toward aquatic physical activity, and physical education overall. Two areas of significance that must be dealt with in creating safe and successful APA programs are dealing with the

33 fear that affects many people, and learning how to address the interests of APA participants.

Fear of Water Horejsi (1991) notes that there are a number of reasons why people enjoy the water. Before participants can enjoy the water safely, they must learn to participate within an aquatic medium in such a way that their personal safety will be assured. Drowning deaths often occur because participants are not good swimmers due to the way they were taught or learned to swim (Horejsi, 1991). Vickers and Vincent (1966) believe that the hardest part of participating in an aquatic environment is the participants’ ability to overcome their initial fear of water. Moreover, it is believed that people fear water for a variety of reasons usually brought on by the attitudes of people around them (parents, classmates, friends, societal factors, educators, instructors). Horejsi (1991) states that this fear might be a result of the physiological effect of water on the human body (ie: the temperature of the water will affect one’s heart rate). Faulkener (1967) stated that as a result of the human body being immersed in a swimming pool, with a temperature of 27-32 degrees centigrade, the heart rate would decrease. For some individuals, the aquatic medium creates a pressure on the body, which can cause a problem with breathing, thus causing a fear of water. Student achievement in swimming relies on one’s cognitive ability to move comfortably through the water while maintaining a regular breathing pattern (1, 2, 3 breathe, or, 1, 2, breathe, 1, 2 breathe). Additionally, though buoyancy is a property of water that is valuable, that same valuable element may also be a factor, in an aquatic environment, which creates a sense of fear because of the effect water has on one’s balance. A phobia or negative attitudes toward APA, such as pressure put on a novice swimmer or mediocre swimmer to participate in aquatic environments with friends, can sometime develop. Often as a result of social situations novice or mediocre swimmers find themselves in potentially dangerous situations where safety becomes a dire issue.

34 In an effort to promote the use of APA in physical education programs, “fear” of water is one of the most important attitudes of the learner that physical education professional must address. Hicks (1987) poses the question: Water safety personnel must be able to successfully use a combined psychomotor approach to address an incredibly complex task, overcoming the fear of water while in it. Could a Water Safety Instructor (WSI) or physical educator, with additional training, actually enable apprehensive learners to cope with psychological barriers and acquire water skills? (p.98) Earlier research findings show the importance of addressing the issue of fear within the educational medium. Dallam (1976) strongly recommends the urgency of getting youngsters into aquatic activities before they develop a sense of fear. Fisher (1981) and AAALF (2004) agree with the following suggestions for helping to reduce children’s fear: 1) Create a positive environment, 2) Encourage children to acknowledge feelings of fear, 3) Make participation optional, 4) Use a quiet voice to encourage participation, 5) Be aware of children’s readiness or reluctance, 6) Respond to fear with instant assistance, 7) Emphasize individual instruction, 8) Provide positive reinforcement for skill achievement, 9) Lead students from confidence to competence, 10) Provide the “feel” of the desired movement (demonstrate), 11) Share the child’s excitement. Addressing Participants' Interests In any aquatic environment, regardless of size, there is a need for a wide variety of equipment and activities for successful operation (CNCA, 1975, p.135). The Council for National Cooperation in Aquatics (CNCA) (1975) recommends that the design of an aquatic facility, program, or area, should not only meet the needs of the community, school, and participants should incorporate features into the facility that would attract participants to it (p.25).

35 Also for the success of a program, there is the need for the development of comprehensive aquatic programs that meet a wide variety of interest for potential participants (CNCA, 1975, p.188). Therefore, the design of an APA program should not only meet the needs of a community, but should also incorporate those same features into educational settings, specifically physical education programs, that will attract participants to it. Rockwell (1982) stated that very little emphasis has been placed on the importance of evaluating participant interests, even though there have been huge accomplishments made in the area of program design, instructional, and safety fields. Torny (1970) stated that there is an obligation on the part of aquatic administrators to cater to a variety of interests claiming: If you are blessed with adequate aquatic facilities, it is not enough that you do one or two things extremely well. Within reasonable limitations, you must do something for each segment of the public you serve. You must cater to all ages, all interests, and all abilities. In a school you must serve students, faculty, and staff, perhaps alumni and the public; you must provide something for the atypical beginner, and the expert. At a community beach or pool, you should provide something for preschool children, teenagers, workingmen and women, and the senior citizens. You should in any program, in which you are working, identify the interests of all persons who might be served by your program and the endeavor to offer something to satisfy each of those interests (p. 203).

This very recommendation is addressed in a study by Peterson (1989). The purpose of the study was to assess both the aquatic activity and time preference for the Truckee-Donner Recreation and Park District. The recreation district had a joint use agreement with the Tahoe-Truckee Unified School District. Part of the agreement allowed the Recreation District to have sole operation of the community pool located on school grounds. For their physical education classes, students also used the locker room used by the pool users. Without separate locker facilities, neither the students nor the recreational programs were able to operate during school hours. Additionally, evening programs, such as lap swimming, were cancelled due to after hour school events. A

36 questionnaire was distributed to local postal box holders and non-residential pool users (N=5000) in the Truckee-Donner community. The questionnaire consisted of a listed twenty-two types of aquatic programs: lap swimming, recreational swimming, water exercise, senior swimming, therapy swimming, mommy and me lessons, tiny tot lessons, youth lessons-organized workout, adult training-organized workout, water polo, kayaking, inner tube water polo, water volleyball, water basketball, water safety courses, synchronized swimming, scuba diving, snorkeling, spring board diving and other. Although the results revealed disappointed yields, they did strongly indicate that the top 3 aquatic physical activities were: 1) lap swimming, 2) water exercise, and 3) kayaking. Moreover, from this study a comprehensive and beneficial schedule was developed that best served the needs of both the school and the community. Rockwell (1982) investigated the interests and preferences of swim center staff (N=59) and participants (N=255), in regard to the major aspects of aquatic program design, at 16 randomly selected swim centers in Oregon. Findings revealed that there was a strong relationship between their interests with regard to aquatic facilities, aquatic activities, and aquatic program areas. However, there was a low correlation between their interests and to aquatic equipment. Findings further concluded that the evaluation of participants’ interests with regard to aspects of aquatic programming was a valuable tool and would obtain information that would be of considerable importance to aquatic program planners. Results of other studies have echoed this sentiment. Bushman (1976) investigated the development of an aquatic curriculum at a community college. Participants (N=299) were students in physical education classes in one-third of the sections scheduled for the term. Each student was asked to indicate their interests in taking aquatic courses (e.g. scuba, sailing, water polo, swimnastics, swim conditioning, kayaking, diving, and canoeing) by marking “X” to show “some interest”, “XX” for “high interest”, and to leave blank any activities which were of “no interest”. Through the analysis of the surveys, these results provided valuable information to assist in the development of an aquatic curriculum that would best serve the interests, needs of the students, and the development of an effective aquatic curriculum.

37 Another historical but fundamental study by Van Dis (1977) investigated the number of facets associated with aquatics in a nationwide survey of YMCA aquatic facilities. One of the areas investigated was aquatic programming. The survey compared 10 regions of the United States in terms of pool use percentages for different program areas. The program areas consisted of swim instruction, recreation, competition, diving instruction, scuba, fitness, special population swimming, and synchronized swimming. Though results revealed that different regions of the country had minor variations in the percentages of APA, survey research of YMCAs nationwide were able to construct aquatic programs and activities that are currently used today.

Conclusion This review of literature, investigating use of aquatic physical activity in K-12 public school physical education programs in the State of Florida spanned from a discussion of the benefits of physical education programs dedicated to physical activity, the implication of attitudes and ethnicity on physical activity patterns, and the value of aquatic physical activity for physical education programs. Additionally, this review of literature provided an essential point of view about attitudes and problems involved in the push for programs devoted toward physical activity. Finally, it delineates the incorporation of aquatic physical activity into public school physical education programs. Overall physical education provides a vehicle for developing an awareness of physical activities and resources for acquiring skills which students will be able to use throughout their lives. Careful examination of previous data indicates that there is an obvious recognition of the importance of aquatic program use, participation, design, and benefits. Therefore, investigation of the use of aquatic physical activity at the K-12 level would be valuable information for school districts, administrators, physical education teachers, curriculum planning committees, and students. More practical implications are that curriculum-planning committees will be able to acquire knowledge of the present strengths and weaknesses in aquatic physical activity within K-12 public school physical education programs. This researcher agrees with Christie (1981) that aquatics should not be considered as the physical education program in itself; rather, it should be seen as a form of physical education that contributes to the total welfare of the individual. Thus,

38 utilization of aquatic physical activity within physical education can allow individuals, with and without disabilities to improve their quality of life. Finally, the importance of any physical activity lies in its ability to provide opportunities for active participation among all students to bring about skill development and self-improvement, to be inclusive, and to inculcate cooperation, participation, and fair play among all students (NASPE, 1998). Therefore, the third chapter of this dissertation will present the methodology utilized in this research endeavor.

39 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the methodology used to investigate the status of aquatic physical activity within physical education programs in Florida’s public schools. The chapter includes a discussion of the following: design of the study, study population and sample, instrumentation and methodological rigor, data collection procedures, and methodological limitations. Design of the Study A quantitative approach was used to conduct this research using a survey technique. The principal technique used in this study was a descriptive cross-sectional design. Cross-sectional designs provide a portrait of a group during one point in time and are used frequently with standard survey-based instruments (i.e. self-administered surveys) (Fink, 2003; Thomas & Nelson, 2001). Additionally, cross-sectional designs usually take less time to carry out. Thomas and Nelson (2001) states that descriptive research is concerned with status the most prevalent descriptive research technique being the use of the survey. Thus, for purposes of this research a survey/questionnaire instrument was electronically mailed to approximately 90% of physical education professionals in the state of Florida, to investigate the current status of aquatic physical activity in K-12 physical education programs in Florida’s public schools.

Study Population and Sample The population for this study is made up of physical educators in Florida K-12 public schools. According to the Florida Department of Education/ Bureau of Education Information and Assessment Services, the state currently (2004-05) employs 5,385 physical education professionals. The population consists of physical education teachers at four school levels: elementary, middle/junior, high school, and exceptional/adapted schools. Of that number, 2,114 are employed in elementary schools; 1,618 in middle/junior high schools; and 1,626 are in high schools (Florida Department of Education, Education Information & Accountability Services, 2005).

40 The sample was attained from the current listing of physical education professionals as reported by the Florida Department of Education, Curriculum Support. The sample is considered homogeneous based on the fact that throughout the state, curriculum is state directed, duties and tasks of the physical education professionals at each level will be generalized as comparable, and that all public schools in the state of Florida are directed to conduct teacher evaluations in the same way.

Instrumentation and Methodological Rigor The instrument for this study was a survey questionnaire designed by the researcher (Appendix B) to gather descriptive information through the use of the self- administered mail or electronic mail survey technique. A 48-item Likert-type rating scale, separated into 7 categories (Aquatic Physical Activity [APA] in physical education [PE] programs; Types of APA in PE programs; Use of APA in PE; Aquatic Facility Accessibility; Experiences with APA; Participation in APA; and Demographic Information) was designed to gather baseline data which can be used to determine the status of APA in physical education programs and the reasons why APA is or is not utilized. Demographic information was asked to gain descriptive information. The proper selection, arrangement and wording of items according to established, professional standards provided the best guarantee of questionnaire reliability and validity. Items in the survey were developed to answer the study's research questions. In Table 3, research questions and their corresponding survey items are listed. A satisfactory online survey was formulated after a careful study of the mechanics of survey/ questionnaire development. Also, an expert in the area of research/survey design and internet operations was enlisted, in agreement with Bourque and Fielder (2003) and the researcher, to ensure that the proper materials were utilized to evoke the advantage of providing relatively clean data that required little to no end stage processing. Authorities on the subject of surveys have compiled extensive lists of criteria for the design, validation, implementation, item selection, and interpretation questionnaires. Authorities caution researchers on the disadvantages and problems

41 associated with survey/questionnaires, identifying the more common problems that may threaten a study such as the following: 1. Return rates from self-administered mailed or electronic mailed questionnaires are typically low; in a brief investigation of response rates across various online survey approaches, Bourque & Fielder (2003) found lows of around 5% percent to highs of 70% percent with the higher ranges being achieved in professional membership organizations where respondents would be expected to be highly motivated to participate. Though Bourque & Fielder’s investigations were not exhaustive they felt that currently response rates common for online surveys range in the areas of 10% percent to 20% percent. 2. Subjects may misinterpret questions, leave out items, or send in irrelevant information; 3. The questions must be simple and the questionnaire must be brief in an effort to attain high returns (Fink, 2003; Bourque & Fielder, 2003; Litwin, 2003) These dilemmas can be circumvented by taking the time to give careful consideration to the construction of the questionnaire by following professional guidelines and advice. The proper selection, arrangement and wording of items according to established, professional standards provide the best guarantee of questionnaire reliability and validity. Validity Thomas and Nelson (2001) state that validity of a measurement indicates the degree to which the test or instrument measures what it is supposed to measure. Thus, validity refers to the soundness of the interpretation of a test (Thomas & Nelson, 2001). Litwin (2003) stated that validity is an important measure of a survey instrument’s accuracy. A basic objective in constructing a survey is to formulate the questions to yield exactly the information desired (Fink, 2003). A copy of the instrument to be used in this study can be found in Appendix B. The intent of this instrument is to elicit information of both a general and specific nature from physical education professionals in Florida about their use of APA in physical education. The survey for this study underwent revisions based on reliability scores from selected experts and physical education

42 Table 3 Survey Questions Research Questions Study of the use of Aquatic Physical Activity in K-12 Public Schools Survey

1. What are the frequency and extent of Q’s 1-3 aquatic programs in physical education programs in Florida’s public school systems? 2. What are the types of physical Q’s 4-8 education aquatic programs that students are participating in within Florida’s public school systems? 3. What are the perceptions, attitudes, Q’s 9-28 and feelings of physical education professionals relative to utilizing aquatic physical activity as a part of physical education programs in Florida’s public school systems? 4. How accessible are pool facilities (i.e. Q’s 29-30 school, recreational, private) for aquatic participation in Florida’s public school systems? 5. What are the professional qualifications, experience and training Q’s 31-38 background of physical education professional relative to teaching aquatics to students in Florida’s public school systems? 6. Is there a difference in the attitudes of physical education professionals’ Q’s 9-28 & 39 based on school level and the use of aquatic physical activity? 7. Is there a difference in the attitudes of physical education professionals’ Q’s 9-28 & 40 based on school location in the state and the use of aquatic physical activity?

43 teachers. The language used in the survey was written and designed with the intent to be short, simple, clear and concise. To establish content validity, a pilot study of the instrument was conducted in two trials. The first trial run consisted of a review of the questionnaire by three expert professionals (two physical education professionals and one statistician), to provide a valuable critique with regard to the questionnaire format, content, expression of important items, and question deletions/additions. Reviewers indicated that the survey questions were directly related to investigating the status of aquatic physical activity in K-12 public schools in the state of Florida. Content validity is not quantified with statistics, rather it is presented as an overall opinion of a group of trained judges (Litwin, 2003). After the revision of the questionnaire, in accordance with the critiques obtained in the first trial run, respondents who are a part of the intended population were selected for the second pilot study. Face validity, also known as logical validity, is based on a cursory review of items by untrained judges (Litwin, 2003). This was determined in the second trial of the pilot study where respondents indicated whether they found the items on the survey questionnaire instrument to be relevant and meaningful to them in their work of physical education.

Reliability According to Thomas and Nelson (2001), reliability pertains to the consistency or repeatability of a measure. Additionally, the five, seven or more intervals utilized in survey techniques may help increase the reliability of the instrument (Thomas & Nelson, 2001). The goal of reliable measures is to minimize the influence of other variables unrelated to the goal of the measure. Hence, a likert scale was used within the survey with simple exact language. The first trial of the pilot test evoked beneficial input to gain insight regarding the effectiveness and the purposefulness of the survey and its content. Following the first trial of the pilot survey instrument, the instrument was distributed to respondents who were a part of the intended population to ensure inter- observer reliability. The self-administered survey questionnaire was distributed, via email, to ten physical education professionals in the field, and the results were analyzed

44 in a meaningful way to ascertain whether some changes were needed to ensure that the items seemed clear and appropriate. After reviewing comments, those respondents were eliminated from the final population pool used for the formal study. The value of the pilot test for the researcher was that it provided insight into the need to change the sequence of the questions and coding in addition to administering procedures.

Data Collection Procedures

This investigation included the selected population of physical education professionals in the state of Florida during the 2004-2005 school year. Permission to proceed with this descriptive study was requested and granted from the Chair of the Human Subjects Committee, Institutional Review Board through the Vice President for the Office of Research at Florida State University (Appendix C). The following steps occurred to ensure the trustworthiness of the research before the study was officially conducted:

• An expert in the area of research/survey design and Internet operations was enlisted for assistance on a large-scale online survey distribution. This was done to ensure that the proper materials were utilized to evoke the advantage of providing relatively clean data that required little to no-end stage processing.

• Via programmatic meetings through face to face meetings, telephone conversations, and emails, the need to get as many email addresses as possible of physical education professionals was required to achieve maximum research effort.

• The Florida Department of Education, Education Information and Accountability Services, the state level Physical Education Coordinator, and the state level organization of physical education professionals, Florida Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Dance and Sport [FAHPERD] were contacted, to request assistance with research by providing a current listing of physical education professionals and email addresses.

• The Florida DOE physical education coordinator informed the researcher that a detailed listing of the current 5,385 physical education professionals, and district

45 physical education coordinators with email addresses would be provided. However, to date there is no comprehensive email listing of physical education professionals in the state available. Therefore, extraneous efforts were taken to compile a comprehensive active email address listing for physical education professionals in Florida.

• An introductory email regarding the research (Appendix D) was sent to district physical education professionals in order to attain correct email addresses of physical education professionals in their district. The goal was to compile a comprehensive listing of physical education professionals during the 2004-2005 school year.

• Correspondence was established via email and telephone conversations with district physical education coordinators across the state. Some physical education coordinators productively provided email addresses of physical education professionals in their district or provided the initial email set up for education professionals in their school district.

• Physical education coordinators informed the researcher of the following circumstances with regard to maintaining contact with physical education professionals in their district: a) they did not have a comprehensive email listing of physical education professionals in their district; b) teachers used their own private email addresses; c) teachers might not check their district email addresses; d) they still maintained contact with teachers through district mail; e) before providing any information research approval should be granted by the school's district.

• The researcher submitted the research application for conducting research in Miami-Dade County schools. Permission for conducting research in Miami-Dade County public schools was granted by the Executive Director of the Office of Program Evaluation for Miami-Dade County Public Schools. During the current research no other county made such a request.

• District and school websites were investigated to further attain email addresses and initial email setup for physical education professionals. Information was

46 cross-referenced with information gathered from district physical education coordinators and the Florida DOE listing in an effort to validate information.

• FAHPERD permission was granted and email listings of physical education members in the state level organization of physical educators were provided.

• Information gathered from district physical education coordinators, district websites, individual school websites, and FAHPERD membership listing were cross-referenced with the detailed listing provided by the Florida DOE.

• Duplicates, physical education professionals at the post secondary level, and nonfunctioning email accounts were discarded in an effort to create verifiable information. After this process an active email account listing (N=4800) physical education teachers in the state Florida was attained.

The actual study was conducted beginning February 7, 2005 through March 7, 2005. During the data collection period, the following procedures took place:

• The questionnaire/survey was sent via email to physical education professionals (N=4800) at their respective email addresses.

• Participants received an email prompting them to take part in the established research via an online questionnaire at a preexisting link.

• Participants also were directed that if the initial link malfunctioned to please copy and paste the location bar of the browser, or to log in manually to the system at the designated website using their username established via their email and password.

• Participants were asked to read and participate in the study. Their completion of the online survey, gave consent. Included with the questionnaire was an introduction/participation/consent form, explaining the instructions and the purpose of the study.

• The online survey, established at an existing link, prompted participants to respond to the online questionnaire by clicking on the link to be automatically logged on to the system.

47 • The introduction/ informed consent form explained the participants’ rights with regard to their participation in the study, purpose of study, and provided them with the contact information of the researcher and the web designer assuring them of the following: 1) Privacy, 2) Ability to have direct contact with the web designer if they would like to share additional information with the researcher, 3) Ability to receive the results of the study, 4) Ability to express direct concerns regarding the research with the researcher or major professor supervising the researcher if needed.

• After two weeks a follow-up email was sent (Appendix E) to the participants who had not completed the online survey, urging them to complete the questionnaire.

• After four weeks (Appendix F) a final email was sent to participants thanking them for their participation in the questionnaire. Researchers have found that the combined use of advanced letters, follow-up contacts, and incentives can increase response rates (Bourque & Fielder, 2003; Fink (a), 2003). The third and final email transmission containing the initial correspondence, the cover letter, and the questionnaire occurred 5 weeks after the initial correspondence. A response rate of 14% was achieved with physical education professionals, 671 out of 4800, responding to the call for participation. Though at a glance the response rate for the present study may appear low, current research conducted for online surveys has identified response rates in the areas of 10% to 20% percent (Bourque & Fielder, 2003).

• Data analysis was conducted through the use of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 13.0). Simple descriptive statistics including frequency distributions and percentages were used to analyze the participants’ responses to the questions. Analysis of Variance was reported and discussed. The research questions were answered by the information gathered from the survey questionnaire information. Additionally any unsolicited qualitative data provided by participants regarding the study were used to provide more depth and meaning for quantitative data.

48 Methodological Limitations Through the use of an online programmatic survey design, the following efforts were pre-established to evoke maximum participation. Some of the techniques used could serve as limitations during data analysis: • Though literature does support the need for self-administered surveys to stand alone (Bourque & Fielder, 2003; Thomas & Nelson, 2001), meaning that all of the information that a participant would need to answer a question is available, open- ended questions have been noted as revealing more in depth responses, obtaining better data, and taking up less space. Questions for this study were designed in a concise and specific format to make questions as short as possible (Bourque & Fielder, 2003). Additionally, close-ended questions were utilized and double-barreled questions were utilized (e.g., How would you rate….?) at the onset possibly eliminating valuable qualitative data. • Branching and skips where utilized in the hopes of increasing respondents' participation and in an effort to simplify the participants' task. However, the researcher found that possibly the use of the choice such as "not applicable" might have limited the complexity for the researcher during data analysis. Consequently, as a result of branching and skipping utilized in this research, questions provided respondents with the possibility for more than one response. • Participants were not required to respond to all items in an effort to promote participant response. As a result, participants could proceed to the next question without making a selection to a prior question. In the current study data revealed that participants did not proceed to the next question but elected to discontinue the survey. • As a result of the web-based design at the end of the survey both a “Save” and “Finished” button were available. However, the “N” per page could vary because a participant could click the “Save” button and return to the same page after saving the response instead of clicking "Next" which would prompt them to the next page. As a result, participants could decide to save a response and quit the survey. • When participants selected the “Finished” button, the researcher’s raw data revealed the completion of the survey.

49 • When participants selected the “Save” button, the researcher’s raw data appeared as though the survey was not completed, however the information was saved and able to be utilized in the reported results. • Though not apparent in either of the prior pilot studies, the researcher found a possible need to add qualifications or clarity to questions where participants were asked: “Is APA an elective or required component of your school’s physical education curriculum?” Some participants expressed concern, via email, in the following manner: Participant: “I completed the aquatic survey as requested. I emailed suggestions to the survey administrator and thought it would be helpful to express them to you also. I was unable to complete page 2 since this page, after repeated attempts did not come up. Therefore I answered the questions on page 1, and then pages 3-8.”

Survey Administrator to Researcher: “Just making sure you got this. Also page 2 did not come up for her because she answered no to question 1, which means she went directly to question 8 on page 3. It says that on page 1…”

• Fink (b) (2001) states that the process of data management may continue until the last analysis has been performed. These activities require more data coding, entry and cleaning. For the survey, the researcher adopted a standardized measure of physical education professionals’ attitudes toward the use of APA. The measures included questions 9 through 28 of the survey, 20 items, each rated on a scale of 1 to 5. During preliminary data analysis the researcher discovered, however, that 20 of the items' levels of agreement were ordered so that the score of 1 was high and a score of 5 was low (SA=1, A=2, D=3, SD=4, U=5). • Because the goal of the researcher was to identify physical education professionals' level of disagreement to agreement toward the statements regarding their attitudes toward the use or lack of use of APA, during data analysis the researcher had to recode the 20 items so that a 1 was scored as if it were a 5, a 2 as if it were a 4, a 3 scored as if it were a 2, a 4 scored as if it were a 1 and a 5 scored as if it were a 3, (SA=5,A=4, U=3, D=2, SD=1). Results revealed that if the researcher did

50 not recode the data accordingly, (Baumgartner & Jackson, 1991; Sarfit, 1990) the items would not have a common direction, and the researcher would be unable to provide a correct view of physical education professional attitudes toward the use or lack of use regarding APA in physical education programs in Florida’s public schools.

51 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

The data presented in this chapter are the result of forty-eight survey items which were constructed around the seven research questions delineated in Chapter One. The results of the survey are presented in tables. The purpose of the Aquatic Physical Activity in K-12 Public Schools Survey (APAPS) was to gather descriptive data. Descriptive research and statistics provide an arrangement of data depicting the frequency of the occurrence of values (e.g., age, years of APA use in physical education program) and characteristics (e.g., attitudes, demographics) (Fink, 2003b; Thomas & Nelson, 2001). Simple descriptive statistics including frequency distributions and percentages were used. Displayed results provide numerical computation of corresponding survey replies and percentages. The number values displayed include both total number of overall responses for each question (N) in addition to a breakdown of number of physical education professional participants who responded to each category of the questionnaire (n). The final section will present the results investigating the differences between the attitudes of physical education professionals based on school level and use of APA and the attitudes of physical education professionals based on location of school in state and the use of APA. Hence, an Analysis of Variance was utilized to analyze the participants’ responses to specified questions. APAPS is a 48-item Likert type rating scale from strongly disagree to strongly agree (SD=1, SA=5) separated into 7 categories (Aquatic Physical Activity [APA] in physical education [PE] programs; Types of APA in PE programs; Use of APA in PE; Aquatic Facility Accessibility; Experiences with APA; Participation in APA; and Demographic Information). The purpose of the survey design was to gather baseline data, which could be used to determine the current status of APA in physical education programs, and the reasons why APA was or was not utilized. Through the use of an on-line survey technique, participants were able to complete the survey at their discretion. The online survey was electronically mailed to

52 the sample population (n=4800) of physical education professionals as signified by the Florida Department of Education. Of the electronic mailing, 671 responses were obtained from the mailing and follow-up attempt. This response rate resulted in 14% of the population surveyed, with data indicating that participants either elected not to complete the survey or opted to dismiss their participation. The results from the returns will be indicated in the following tables. Reliability and validity were established during prior pilot studies. Accordingly, the total (N) of responses to each page of the survey varied. The frequency and percentages in the results were calculated according to the total number of responses for each question, in so doing, adjusting for missing data (e.g. % of N).

Research Question 1: Frequency and Extent of APA in Florida Schools The purpose of research question one was to determine the frequency and extent of aquatic programs in physical education programs in Florida’s public schools. Tables 4 through 6 and questions 1 through 3 of the survey provide evidence pertinent to this question. When participants were asked to identify whether aquatic physical activity (APA) was an elective or required component of their school's physical education curriculum, only 66 (9.8%) identified APA as such (see Table 4). For purposes of the research, branching and skip techniques were used. Participants with a response of “yes” were directed to questions 2 through question 48. A response of “no” allowed participants to skip to question 8, page 3 of the survey, through to question 48 in an effort to maintain participant involvement and attain additional relevant information. Though prior data (Table 4) suggests that the majority of physical education professionals did not use APA (n= 605; 90.2%), the physical education professionals who responded to this item (n= 63; 33.3%) identified that APA had been used within their physical education programs for durations of 15 years or more (see Table 5). Data indicated that three participants elected discontinue the between questions 1 and 2. Consistent with results from Table 5, when participants were asked to identify how much time was spent on the instruction of aquatic physical activities during an academic year, physical education professionals (39.7%) reported that they devoted a

53 semester or more of APA instruction within their physical education program for students per year (see Table 6).

Table 4 Respondents’ use of APA as an Elective or Required Component (Question 1) Responses n (%) APA is required or an elective 66 9.8 APA not a required component 605 90.2 Total 671 100

Table 5 How long has APA been Included in Respondents' Physical Education Programs Responses n (%) 1-4 years 16 25.4 5-9 years 14 22.2 10-14 years 12 19.1 15+ years 21 33.3 Total 63 100

Table 6 Time Spent on APA Instruction in a School Year Responses n (%) 1-2 weeks 18 28.6 3-6 weeks 20 31.7 Semester or more 25 39.7 Total 63 100

54 Research Question 2: Types of APA Offered in Florida Schools The purpose of research question two was to determine what types of APA students were participating in as a part of their physical education programs in Florida public schools. Tables 7 through 11 (questions 4 through 8) of the survey provided information applicable to this research question. Table 7 reveals participant responses when asked to identify APAs (e.g., Aquatic Sports, Scuba, Aquatic Fitness, Instructional Swimming, and Small Craft Aquatic Activity) that were offered in their respective physical education programs. Most physical education professionals provided more than one response to this item. Collective responses revealed that Instructional Swimming (n=59; 93.6%) was selected most often as the APA used in respondents' physical education programs. Table 8 shows the percentage of students that participated in the variety of APA offered based on a “normal” semester. Data revealed that 10 (15.9%) physical education professionals had 100 percent student participation during their APA instruction. Though prior findings make the availability of 100% student participation a unique finding, the reality of 23 (36.5%) of the physical education professionals reporting less than 25 percent of their students participated in the APA curricula . Relative to the use and frequency of APA among physical education professionals, Table 9 displays respondents' identification of accredited aquatic systems (American Red Cross Aquatic Program, YMCA Aquatic Program, School Board Standard Program, Other, None at all) used when teaching APA in their physical education classes. Many participants provided more than one response to this item. On average, responses revealed that the American Red Cross Aquatic Program was selected most often (n=44; 69.8%) as the accredited aquatic system used by physical education professionals with 7.9% of physical educators identifying that they did not use an accredited aquatic system when conducting an APA Unit within their physical education curriculum.

55 Table 7 Types of APAs Offered in Respondents’ Physical Education Programs (n=63) Options Number choosing % of respondents choosing each each option option Instructional Swimming 59 93.6 Aquatic Fitness 16 25.4 Aquatic Sports 12 19 Scuba 4 6.3 Small Craft 4 6.3

Table 8 Percentage of Students Participating in APA Classes n (%) 100% 10 15.9 75% 13 20.6 50% 2 3.2 25% 15 23.8 Below 25% 23 36.5 Total 63 100

The grouping techniques that physical education professional utilized to motivate and influence the student learning process were the focus of Table 10. Physical education professionals’ ultimate goal in any activity is to help the student see the lifelong value of every lesson or activity. Rink (2002) states that the learning experiences and tasks teachers design are the primary mechanism for subject matter competence as well as motivation and work on student personal growth. Thus, it is not enough to be able to identify that students need to learn to swim, but how that assignment will be designed for group instruction to help motivate or add to the students' growth. Table 10 shows the frequency of various grouping techniques used by participants. Findings show that the

56 majority of physical education professionals 25 (39.7%) considered the criterion of “Grade level” when grouping students for their APA classes.

Table 9 Accredited Aquatic Systems used by Respondents in K-12 Physical Education (n=63) Systems Used Number choosing % of respondents choosing each option option American Red Cross 44 69.8 Other 15 23.8 School Board Std. Program 11 17.5 None at All 5 7.9 YMCA Aquatic Program 4 6.3

Table 10 Frequency of Various Techniques used for Grouping Students in APA Classes Techniques used n (%) Grade Level 25 39.7 Skill/Ability Level 23 36.5 Gender 2 3.2 Other 3 4.8 None 10 15.9 Total 63 100

Tables 7 and 8 reveal the APA’s offered in physical education programs and the proportional distribution of student participation. Table 11 includes participants that were redirected (n=605) from question 1 of the survey. Consequently, review of the raw data reveals that the number of respondents (n= 671) decreased between questions 1 and 8. Data showed that 49 respondents elected not to respond to the remaining questions, quitting the survey. Literature suggests, and the researcher agrees, that this occurrence is a result of the difficulty attributed to survey research. In conducting online surveys a researcher must attempt to determine a large population’s motivation for responding to a

57 survey. It was for this reason the researcher made the criterion of identifying the specific group of physical education professionals in the state of Florida with the hope that the strong appeal from the contact, introduction email (Appendix D), and follow-up email (Appendix E) that accompanied the survey, would serve to motivate the involvement of participants through their full completion of the survey. Table 11 illustrates the types of after school/intramural/athletic APAs in which students at respondents' respective schools participated. Total response (n=622) revealed that participants identified “None at all”, 417 times (67.0%), with regard to type of after school APA in which students participated. However, consistent with the findings from Tables 7 and 8, Instructional Swimming was selected most often (n=134; 21.5%) as the type of after school/intramural/athletic APAs in which students participated.

Table 11 Types of Afterschool/Intramural/Athletic APAs Used by Students (n=622) Options Number choosing % of respondents choosing each item each item None at all 417 67.0 Inst. Swimming 134 21.5 Aquatic Sports 97 15.6 Aquatic Fitness 20 3.2 Scuba 18 2.8

Research Question 3: Physical Educators' Perceptions of APA The purpose of research question three was to investigate the perceptions, attitudes, and feelings of physical education professionals relative to using APA as a part of physical education programs in Florida’s public school systems. Questions 9 through 28, of the survey presented information significant to this research question. Participants were asked their level of agreement (SD=1; SA=5) relative to the statement “I believe the goal of APA curricula is to teach water safety skills (e.g. survival and rescue skills)”. Findings show that the majority of physical education professionals

58 had an overall high agreement level (SA=278, 44.7%; A=279, 44.9%) believing that the goal of APA curricula was to teach students water safety skills (see Table 12).

Table 12 The Goal of APA Curricula: To teach water safety skills n (%) Strongly Agree 278 44.7 Agree 279 44.9 Disagree 22 3.5 Strongly Disagree 7 1.1 Undecided 36 5.8 Total 622 100

With regard to the statement “I believe the goal of APA is to teach swimming skills”. Participants identified positive levels of agreement (SA=239, 38.4%; A= 333, 53.5%) pertaining to the goal of APA being to teach swimming lessons (see Table13). Consequently results in Table 13 were consistent with prior findings from Tables 6, 8, and 11. When asked to identify their level of agreement with regard to the statement “I believe the goal of APA is to increase students’ level of daily functioning (e.g. health & fitness)”. Responses once again revealed a positive level of agreement (SA=247 (39.7%; A=322, 51.8%) showing that physical education professionals believed the goal of APA curricula should be to increase students’ level of daily functioning (see Table 14). Participants’ level of agreement with regard to the statement “I believe the goal of APA is to develop students’ recreational activity (e.g. fun & socialization)” remained consistent with prior belief statements (Tables 12 and 13). Results revealed a positive level of agreement pertaining to this statement (SA= 204, 32.8 %; A= 342, 55.0%) (see Table 15).

59 Table 13 The Goal of APA Curricula: To teach swimming skills n (%) Strongly Agree 239 38.4 Agree 333 53.5 Disagree 21 3.4 Strongly Disagree 3 .5 Undecided 26 4.2 Total 622 100

Table 14 The Goal of APA Curricula: To increase students’ level of daily functioning (e.g. health & fitness) n (%)

Strongly Agree 247 39.7 Agree 322 51.8 Disagree 18 2.9 Strongly Disagree 2 .3 Undecided 33 5.3 Total 622 100

60 Table 15 The Goal of APA Curricula: To develop students’ recreational activity (e.g. fun & socialization) n (%)

Strongly Agree 204 32.8 Agree 342 55.0 Disagree 36 5.8 Strongly Disagree 2 .3 Undecided 38 6.1 Total 622 100

Participants’ level of agreement with regard to the statement “I believe the goal of APA is to promote drowning prevention” displayed firm levels of agreement from respondents (SA=316, 50.9%; A= 256, 41.2) making it evident that participants felt APA curricula should empower students by arming them with drowning prevention skills. Additionally, these results support current literature (USDHHS, 2000; NSC, 2003), which stresses that drowning deaths are a problem that need to be dealt with (see Table 16).

Table 16 The Goal of APA Curricula: To promote drowning prevention n (%)

Strongly Agree 316 50.9 Agree 256 41.2 Disagree 22 3.5 Strongly Disagree 3 .5 Undecided 24 3.9 Total 621 100

61 Questions 14 through 23 of the survey asked participants to identify their levels of agreement (SD=1; SA=5), with regard to statements on why they felt APA was not included in physical education. The initial statement in this area investigated was, “APAs are considered too difficult for the skill level of the students”. Responses showed an unyielding level of disagreement (SD=217, 35.0%; D=300, 48.5%) regarding this statement (see Table 17). Additionally, results correspond with the literature on aquatics (AAALF, 2004; American Redcross, 1977; Beale et al., 2002; Christie, 1981; Norvell, 2000; Midtlyng, 1982; Conaster et al., 2000) depicting APA as a skill and activity adaptable for the ability levels of all students.

Table 17 Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: APAs are considered difficult for the students’ skill level n (%)

Strongly Agree 3 .5 Agree 25 4.0 Disagree 300 48.5 Strongly Disagree 217 35.0 Undecided 74 12.0 Total 619 100

The statement “Lack of trained personnel/training” showed that there was an overall level of agreement (SA=92, 14.8 %; A=275, 44.4 %) (see Table 18).

Table 19 summarizes participants’ level of agreement regarding the statement “Budget Limitations/Finances." Results revealed that participants' total responses showed an affirmative level of agreement in response to this statement (SA=406, 65.4 %; A=151; 24.3 %).

62 Table 18 Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: Lack of trained personnel n (%)

Strongly Agree 92 14.8 Agree 275 44.4 Disagree 137 22.1 Strongly Disagree 68 11.0 Undecided 48 7.7 Total 620 100

Table 19 Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: Budget Limitation n (%)

Strongly Agree 406 65.4 Agree 151 22.5 Disagree 24 3.9 Strongly Disagree 16 2.6 Undecided 24 3.9 Total 621 100

Table 20 presents data relative to the statement “Lack of interest in APA as a part of physical education among students”. Findings acknowledged that participants expressed an overall level of disagreement concerning this statement (SD= 158, (25.5%); D=320, 51.6%) as a possible reason why APA is not included in some physical education programs.

63 Table 20 Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: Lack of interest in APA as a part of physical education among students n (%)

Strongly Agree 15 2.4 Agree 68 11.0 Disagree 320 51.6 Strongly Disagree 158 25.5 Undecided 59 9.5 Total 620 100

The statement “Lack of interest in APA as an asset for physical education among physical education professionals” depicts an overall level of disagreement (SD=126, 20.3%; D=307, 49.5%) among physical education professionals with regard to this statement (see Table 21).

Table 21

Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: Lack of interest in APA as an asset for physical education among PE professionals n (%)

Strongly Agree 23 3.7 Agree 100 16.1 Disagree 307 49.5 Strongly Disagree 126 20.3 Undecided 64 10.3 Total 620 100

64 Table 22 represents data relative to the statement “Not considered a physical education priority choice for students." Data showed that though there was a positive percentage of physical education professionals who agreed with this statement (A=199, 32.1%), the majority of participants had a higher level of disagreement (D=228; 36.8%) in response to this statement. Situational circumstances can play a large part in why something occurs, hence the researcher found it valuable to have participants respond to the statement “Lack of aquatic facilities." Responses showed that there was a high level of agreement among physical education professionals that lack of aquatic facilities was a reason why APA was not included in physical education (SA= 497, 80.0 %; A= 65, 10.5%) (see Table 23).

Table 22 Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: Not considered a physical education priority choice for students n (%)

Strongly Agree 43 6.9 Agree 199 32.1 Disagree 228 36.8 Strongly Disagree 80 12.9 Undecided 70 11.3 Total 620 100

In connection with the statement “Scheduling conflicts," findings showed that the majority of physical education professionals surveyed had a positive level of agreement toward this statement (SA=175, 28.2 %; A= 166, 26.8 %) making it apparent that participants felt scheduling conflicts attributed to the lack of APA in physical education (see Table 24).

65 Table 23 Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: Lack of Aquatic Facilities n (%)

Strongly Agree 497 80.0 Agree 65 10.5 Disagree 25 4.0 Strongly Disagree 20 3.2 Undecided 14 2.3 Total 620 100

Table 24 Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: Scheduling Conflicts n (%)

Strongly Agree 175 28.2 Agree 166 26.8 Disagree 157 25.3 Strongly Disagree 54 8.7 Undecided 68 11.0 Total 620 100

Legal and Safety issues can be a hindrance for any programmatic venture; thus, the researcher found it beneficial to ask participants to respond to the statement “Legal/Safety Issues." Responses showed there was a clear consensus that legal/safety issues were significant factors contributing to the lack of APA within physical education programs (SA= 244, 39.4%; A=217, 35.0%) (see Table 25)

66 Table 25 Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: Legal/Safety n (%)

Strongly Agree 244 39.4 Agree 217 35.0 Disagree 92 14.8 Strongly Disagree 31 5.0 Undecided 36 5..8 Total 620 100

Table 26 revealed participants’ responses pertaining to the statement “Other” reasons explaining why APA was not utilized in physical education programs. Responses showed the majority of physical education professionals were largely undecided in response to this item (U= 422, 68.8%). For questions 24 through 28, Tables 27 through 31, participants were asked to identify their level of agreement (SD=1; SA=5) concerning how they felt about APA in the context of the statements. Review of the data in response to the statement, “Part of the responsibility of providing APA instruction should lie with the public schools in the state of Florida” is summarized in Table 27. Of the participants that responded to this item, the majority showed a substantial level of agreement (SA=174, 30.1%; A=277, 47.9%). Complementary review of data revealed that 44 participants did not respond to this item, discontinuing the survey the middle of the way through.

67 Table 26 Reason Why APA is Not Included in Physical Education: Other n (%)

Strongly Agree 46 7.5 Agree 86 14.0 Disagree 47 7.7 Strongly Disagree 12 2.0 Undecided 422 68.8 Total 613 100

"Providing APA for students is not feasible in today’s public school system," was the statement-heading question 25. Though responses show there was a positive level of agreement in response to this statement, and among physical educators the majority of respondents disagreed with this statement (SD=87, 15.1%; D=195, 33.7%) showing they felt that APA was feasible for today’s public school system (see Table 28).

Table 27 Feelings about APA: Public schools should be responsible for providing APA n (%)

Strongly Agree 174 30.1 Agree 277 47.9 Disagree 66 11.4 Strongly Disagree 16 2.8 Undecided 45 7.8 Total 578 100

68 Table 28 Feelings about APA: APA is not feasible for students n (%)

Strongly Agree 70 12.1 Agree 180 31.1 Disagree 195 33.7 Strongly Disagree 87 15.1 Undecided 46 8.0 Total 578 100

In regard to the statement “Special coursework and in-service training specifically in Aquatics is needed to adequately implement APA into physical education curriculums” physical education professionals showed a substantial level of agreement towards this statement (SA=270, 46.7%; A=274, 47.4) (see Table 29). Additionally, findings suggest that APA coursework and in-service training; specifically in aquatics, adequately implemented within physical education curriculums might increase the use of APA not currently available (see Table 1). The statement “APA should be offered in public school physical education programs for students whenever possible”, revealed that even though prior results showed that APA was not being used (Table 1), the majority of participants displayed a noteworthy level of agreement in response to this statement (SA= 259, 44.8 %; A=269, 46.5 %) (see table 30). The final attitudinal statement of the survey, question 28, prompted participants to respond to the statement “Drowning Prevention should be a required component of a physical education program”. Concurrent with literature on drowning deaths in the state of Florida (Barket, 2003, Orlando-Orange County Health Department, 1999, Citizen, 2003, Children’s Services Council of Palm Beach County, 2000, Porter, 1999, Office of the Medical Director Pinellas County Emergency Services, Waite, 2002), participants that responded to this item agreed (SA=267, 46.2%; A=209, 36.2%) that drowning

69 prevention should be a required component of a physical education program (see Table 31).

Table 29 Respondents’ Feelings about APA: Coursework/Inservice training are needed to teach APA n (%)

Strongly Agree 270 46.7 Agree 274 47.4 Disagree 20 3.5 Strongly Disagree 5 .9 Undecided 9 1.6 Total 578 100

Table 30 Respondents Feelings about APA: APA should be offered in K-12 physical education whenever possible n (%)

Strongly Agree 259 44.8 Agree 269 46.5 Disagree 22 3.8 Strongly Disagree 3 .5 Undecided 25 4.3 Total 578 100

70 Table 31 Feelings about APA: Drowning Prevention should be a part of physical education programs n (%)

Strongly Agree 267 46.2 Agree 209 36.2 Disagree 56 9.7 Strongly Disagree 8 1.4 Undecided 38 6.6 Total 578 100

Research Question 4: Accessibility of Aquatic Facilities The purpose of research question four was to investigate the accessibility of pool facilities for physical education professionals to conduct APA within their physical education programs. Questions 29 and 30 of the survey presented information pertinent to this research question. Participants were asked if their schools had on-site aquatic facilities available for their physical education programs. Results remained consistent with prior findings (see Table 1) with the majority of participants who responded to this item indicating they did not have access to on-site aquatic facilities (see Table 32). In an effort to maintain participant motivation and involvement, branching and skip techniques were used redirecting a response of “yes” to question 31, and a “no” to question 30.

Table 32 Access to On-site Aquatic Facilities n (%) Yes 64 11.1 No 514 88.9 Total 671 100

71 With the frequency of responses indicating that the majority of respondents (n=514) did not have on-site aquatic facilities available, participants were requested to identify any aquatic facilities they might have access to for their physical education programs. Participants were able to select more than one response for this item. Frequency of responses showed that most of the participants still indicated that they had no access to aquatic facility (n=239, 46.4%). However, an ample number of participants (n=197, 38.3%) indicated that they did have access to a City or County recreational facility (see Table 33).

Research Question 5: Professional Training in Teaching Aquatics The purpose of research question five was to probe the professional qualifications, experiences, and training background of physical education professionals relative to teaching aquatics in Florida’s public school systems. Questions 31 through 38 of the survey present information significant to this research question. Table 34 summarized the data collected when participants were asked to respond to the question “Do you feel capable of teaching an APA unit in your physical education program?” Responses demonstrated that the majority of the physical education professionals felt positive about their ability to instruct an APA unit in their physical education programs (see Table 34). Once again branching and skips techniques were incorporated redirecting a response of “yes” to question 32, with a response of “no” to question 33, in an effort to maintain participant motivation.

Table 33 Accessibility of Possible APA Locations (n=514) Distribution of APA Number choosing % of respondents Program Locations each option selecting each item City or County Rec. Facility 197 38.3 College/University 61 11.8 School or District Facility 33 6.4 Other 56 10.8 None at all 239 46.4

With 58% of physical education professionals responding that they felt qualified to teach an APA unit within their physical education programs, the researcher found it valuable to ask participants to identify any APA (s) which they felt capable of teaching (see Table 35). Participants were able to select more than one response for this item. Results remained consistent with prior findings (Tables 7 and 8) showing that the majority of physical education professionals felt more adept at instructing Aquatic Fitness and Instructional Swimming APA (s) (see Table 35).

Table 34 Respondents’ Capability to Teach APA as a Unit in Physical Education n (%) Yes 334 58.0 No 242 42.0 Total 576 100

Table 35 APA(s) that Respondents Felt Capable of Teaching (n=334) Options Number choosing % of respondents each option selecting each item Aquatic Sports 142 42.5 Scuba 91 27.2 Aquatic Fitness 311 93.1 Instructional Swimming 227 67.9 Small Craft Aquatic Activity 125 37.4

The use of aquatic certification and training are valuable tools which assist physical education professionals in developing successful aquatic programs. Hence, respondents were asked to identify any certifications or training which they held in relation to APA. Participants were able to select more than one response for this item.

73 Responses showed that relative to aquatic program standards used for teaching APA (see Table 9) the most frequently used certification by participants was “First Aid/CPR” certification (n=469,81.4%), with the lowest response among respondents being “Adaptive Aquatics” (n=27, 4.6%) (see Table 36). When respondents were asked if they had ever attended a workshop teaching APA the most frequent response was “no” (n=486, 84.7%) the majority had never attended an APA workshop (see Table 37). Table 38 shows responses from the participants that responded “yes” to question 35 (n=88, 15.3%) (see Table 37). Respondents were asked to identify if they found their exposure to an APA workshop beneficial for the purposes of their goals of physical education. Results revealed that the majority of respondents (n=76, 86.4%) felt their attendance at an APA workshop was helpful for the purposes of their physical education goals (see Table 38). Concurrently, further review of the raw data revealed that two respondents elected not to respond to item 37 and elected to discontinue the survey.

Table 36 Certifications Held by Respondents (n=576) Options Number choosing % of respondents each option selecting each item Water Safety Instructor 140 24.3 Life guarding 167 28.9 Adaptive Aquatics 27 4.6 First Aid/CPR 469 81.4 None at all 86 14.9

Table 37 Respondents who attended an APA Workshop Responses n (%) Yes 88 15.3 No 486 84.7 Total 574 100

74 Table 38 Respondents’ Finding APA Workshops Beneficial n (%) Yes 76 86.4 No 12 13.6 Total 88 100

Table 39 presents the data gathered from respondents who responded “no” to question 36 (see Table 37). Participants were asked “Would you consider attending a workshop on teaching APA if one was offered in your district or at a state conference?” Of the participants who responded to this item, the bulk of physical education professionals responded “yes” (n=378, 78.9%) that they would attend an APA instructional workshop if one were offered in their district or at a state conference; consequently, enhancing their professional development (see Table 39). Additionally, the data revealed that seven participants did not to respond to this item and elected to discontinue the survey.

Table 39 Respondents’ Who are Willing to Attend an APA Workshop Offered by the State or District n (%) Yes 378 78.9 No 101 21.1 Total 479 100

As a result of investigating the use of APA within physical education programs the researcher felt that it would be valuable to inquire among physical education professionals about their personal use of APA and swimming ability. Findings showed that the greater part of physical education professionals considered themselves intermediate level swimmers (n=302, 53.6%) (see Table 40) with most physical education professionals taking part in APA ranging from once or twice a month to a minimum of 3 or more times per year (see Table 41).

75 Table 40 Respondents’ Level of Swimming Ability (Self-Report) n (%) Advanced 212 37.7 Intermediate 302 53.6 Beginner 43 7.6 Non-Swimmer 6 1.1 Total 563 100

Table 41 Frequency of use of APA n (%) Once or more a week 73 13.0 Once or twice a month 116 20.6 3 or more times per year 129 22.9 Once or twice a year 47 8.3 None 198 35.2 Total 563 100

Research Question 6: Influence of School Level on Professionals' Attitudes The purpose of research question six was to determine if there were significant differences in the attitudes of physical education professionals based on the level of school (Elementary, Middle/Jr. High, High School, and Adaptive/Special Ed) toward the use or lack of use of APA. Questions 9-28 (attitudinal) and 39 (school level) of the survey presented information pertinent to this research question. A One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine if there were significant differences in the attitudes of physical education professionals based on level of school (Elementary, Middle/Jr. High, High School, and Adaptive/Special Ed) toward the use of APA. Levels of significance were found on various attitudinal statements (Item #’s 11, 20, 21, 22, and 25) (Appendix B). No significant differences

76 were found on other items ((Item #’s 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24, 26, 27 and 28) (Appendix B). The results of the ANOVA produced statistical significance between school levels in response to the statement “I believe the goal of APA is to increase students’ level of daily functioning (e.g. health & fitness) (Table 42). A Tukey’s post hoc comparison of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to identify the differences between levels of school. Responses indicated that Elementary physical education professionals disagreed that APA would increase students' level of daily functioning when compared to Middle/Jr. High School professionals’ attitudes concerning this statement. Mean differences show that Elementary physical education professionals were 1/3 of a standard deviation (s.d.) lower than Middle/Jr High School physical education professionals concerning this statement (effect size (e.s.) = .32 = how big a difference in standard deviation (s.d.)) (see Table 42).

Table 42

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA) “I believe the goal of APA is to increase Mean SD students’ level of daily functioning” Elementary 4.175 .784

Middle/Jr. High 4.377 .629

High School 4.326 .691

Adaptive/ Spec. Ed. 4.333 .651

(* Significance = p<.05; F=2.9; df=3, 556; p=.034)

In relation to the statements on why physical education professionals felt APA was not included in physical education, questions 14 through 23 of the survey, results of the ANOVA produced significant p values (p<. 05) among the following statements: 1) “Lack of aquatic facilities”; 2) “Scheduling conflict”; 3) “Legal/ Safety Issues”; and 4) “Providing APA for students is not feasible in today’s public school system”.

77 A Tukey’s post hoc comparison for ANOVA was used to identify the differences between levels of school. Mean responses indicated that physical education professionals' attitudes at the Elementary and Middle/Jr. High schools were significantly different from High School physical education professionals' regarding the statement “Lack of aquatic facilities”. Mean results show that Middle/ Jr. High Schools had the strongest complaint about not having facilities. High School physical educators had fewer complaints than Middle and Elementary, a quarter of a s.d. difference, from Elementary and Middle School physical educators (e.s. = .24) (see Table 43).

Table 43

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA) “Lack of aquatic facilities” Mean SD

Elementary 4.675 .845

Middle/Jr. High 4.755 .702

High School 4.368 1.238

Adaptive/ Spec. Ed. 4.333 1.167

(* Significance = p<.05; F=4.810; df=3, 556; p= .003)

Amid results concerning the statement “Scheduling Conflict”, Tukey’s post hoc comparison revealed significant differences between mean responses of Elementary and High School physical education professionals, with Elementary physical education professionals agreeing that “scheduling conflict” is a problem more often than High School physical education professionals (e.s.=.27) (see Table 44).

78 Table 44

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA) “Scheduling Conflict” Mean SD

Elementary 3.675 1.307

Middle/Jr. High 3.364 1.353

High School 2.985 1.398

Adaptive/Spec. Ed. 3.666 1.154

(* Significance = p<.05; F=8.255; df=3, 556; p= .000)

The ANOVA revealed significant differences between levels of school, in determining that “Legal/ Safety Issues” could effect whether APA was being used. However, the Tukey’s post hoc comparison did not detect any group differences in response to this statement (see Table 45).

Finally the statement “Providing APA for students is not feasible in today’s public school system”, post hoc results revealed that Middle/Jr. High School and High School physical education professionals’ attitudes regarding this statement were significantly different, from Elementary. Middle/Jr. High School and High School physical education professionals’ responses regarding this statement were lower than those of Elementary School physical education professionals (e.s.=.28).

Table 45

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA) “Legal and Safety Issues” Mean SD

Elementary 3.957 1.205

Middle/Jr. High 4.000 1.125

High School 3.652 1.320

Adaptive/Spec. Ed. 4.250 1.138

(* Significance = p<.05; F=2.818 df=3, 556; p= .038)

This possibly indicates that Middle/Jr. High School and High School physical education professionals feel that APA is a feasible activity, while Elementary physical educational professionals agree more with the infeasibility of the use of APA (see Table 46).

Research Question 7: Professional Attitudes toward APA Based on Geographic Location

The purpose of research question seven was to see if there was a difference in the attitudes of physical education professionals based on school location in the state of Florida (Panhandle, Crown, East Central, West Central, South) (Appendix A) toward the use or lack of use of APA. Questions 9-28 (attitudinal) and 39 (school level) of the survey presented information pertinent to this research question.

80 Table 46

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA) “Providing APA for students is Mean SD not feasible in today’s public schools” Elementary 3.136 1.331

Middle/Jr. High 2.761 1.263

High School 2.709 1.273

Adaptive/Spec. Ed. 2.333 1.154

(* Significance = p<.05; F=5.194 df=3, 556; p= .002)

The results of an ANOVA produced statistically significant p values (p< .05) regarding why physical education professionals felt APA was not included in physical education, based on school location in the state (Panhandle, Crown, East Central, West Central, South). Levels of significance were found on various attitudinal statements (Item #’s 15, 20, 24, 25, and 27) (Appendix B). No significant differences were found on other items ((Item #’s 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 26, and 28) (Appendix B). Significant differences were found in response to the following items: 1) “Lack of trained personnel/training” (Table 47); and 2) “Lack of aquatic facilities” (Table 48). A Tukey’s post hoc comparison was used to identify the specifics of group differences based regions in the state. Tukey’s analysis revealed significant differences between the mean responses of physical educators located in the “Crown” region and physical educators in the “Eastern Central” region of the state, with physical educators in the Crown region agreeing more often that “Lack of trained personnel” was a problem regarding the lack of use of APA than physical educators in the Eastern Central region of the state (e.s.= .41) nearly a ½ of a standard deviation lower than physical educators in the “Eastern Central” region (see Table 47).

81 Table 47

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA) “Lack of trained personnel/training” Mean SD

Panhandle 3.356 1.122

Crown 3.627 1.234

East Central 3.092 1.313

West Central 3.492 1.213

South 3.227 1.301

(* Significance = p<.05; F=2.702; df=4, 557; p= .030)

In response to the statement “Lack of aquatic facilities”, Tukey’s post hoc comparison was used to identify the specifics of group differences. Post hoc comparisons discovered that physical education professional attitudes regarding the statement “Lack of aquatic facilities” was significantly different between physical educators in the Panhandle and physical educators in the Crown region of the state, with physical educators in the Panhandle agreeing that “Lack of aquatic facilities” was a problem more often identifying why APA was not used in physical education curricula than physical educators in the Crown region of the state (e.s.=.43) (see Table 48).

82 Table 48

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA) “Lack of aquatic facilities” Mean SD

Panhandle 4.863 .346

Crown 4.302 1.300

East Central 4.543 1.043

West Central 4.734 .789

South 4.521 1.056

(* Significance = p<.05; F=3.509; df=4, 557; p= .008)

Regarding statements on how physical educators felt about APA in varying regions of Florida the results of the ANOVA produced statistically significant p values (p<.05) among the following statements: 1) “Part of the responsibility of providing APA instruction should lie with the public schools in the state of Florida”; 2) “Providing APA for students is not feasible in today’s public school system”; and 3) “APA should be offered in public school physical education programs for students whenever possible”.

Tukey’s post hoc comparison was used to identify the specifics of group responses. In response to the statement “Part of the responsibility of providing APA instruction should lie with the public schools in the state of Florida”, analysis discovered that physical education professionals' attitudes regarding this statement in the Panhandle were significantly different from physical education professionals in the Southern region. Physical educators in the southern region agreed more often that it is the responsibility of public schools in Florida to teach APA, than did physical educators in the Panhandle (e.s.= .45) (see Table 49).

83 Table 49

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA)

“Part of the responsibility of APA should Mean SD lie with public schools” Panhandle 3.712 .964

Crown 3.767 1.109

East Central 3.880 1.142

West Central 3.901 1.061

South 4.147 .833

(* Significance = p<.05; F=3.091; df=4,557; p=.016)

Addressing the statement “Providing APA for students is not feasible in today’s public school system” Tukey's analysis revealed significant differences between the mean responses of physical education professionals in the Panhandle and physical education professionals in the Crown and Southern regions of the state regarding this attitudinal statement, with physical educators from the Crown and Southern regions disagreeing that APA for students is not feasible in today’s public school system (Crown (e.s.) = .59; Southern (e.s.) = .51, respectively) (see Table 50).

Finally, as responses related to the statement “APA should be offered in public school physical education programs for students whenever possible”, Tukey's analysis revealed a significant difference between physical education professionals’ attitudes in the Panhandle region of the state when compared to the Southern region of the state, and with physical educators in the Southern region agreeing more often that APA should be offered for students whenever possible (e.s. = .463) (see Table 51).

84 Table 50

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA) “Providing APA for students is Mean SD not feasible in today’s public schools” Panhandle 3.328 1.291

Crown 2.558 1.119

East Central 2.986 1.346

West Central 3.007 1.339

South 2.668 1.247

(*Significance = p<.05; F=4.448; df=4,557; p=.002)

Table 51

Mean Response Differences for Attitudinal Statements on APA (1=SD; 5=SA) “APA should be offered in public school PE Mean SD programs for students whenever possible Panhandle 4.1507 .72017

Crown 4.3256 .64442

East Central 4.3046 .79994

West Central 4.2576 .82537

South 4.4847 .67910

(*Significance = p<.05; F=3.112; df=4,557; p=.015)

Descriptive Results In an effort to give additional insight to the study, demographic information is reported with some of the prior descriptive results; this combination of data assists in depicting not only the current status of APA but also physical education professionals' attitudes toward the use of APA. Data was collected on the following areas: Grade level,

85 school location, teacher responsibilities, education level, race and ethnicity, gender and age, years of teaching, professional affiliation, and requests for the summary of results.

Grade Level Participants were asked to best characterize the grade level of their schools. The most frequently characterized school level was the “Elementary” level (n=256, 45.7%). The second most characterized school level was “Middle/Jr. High School”, with the lowest characterized level identified by respondents as “Adaptive/Special Ed.” (see Table 52)

Table 52 Demographic Information of Respondents’ Schools n (%) Elementary 256 45.7 Middle/Jr. High 151 27.0 High School 141 25.2 Adaptive/Special Ed. 12 2.1 Total 560 100

School Location For school location, the highest percentage of participants hailed from the “Southern” region of the state, with the two lowest reporting regions being the Panhandle and Crown regions (see Table 53)

Teacher Responsibilities When respondents were asked to identify any or all of the following positions and teaching responsibilities that described their status at their schools, the option most frequently selected was Option A “Physical Education Teacher” (n=497; 88.4%). The options with the two lowest reported positions were “Aquatic Instructor” and “Adapted Aquatic Instructor” (see Table 54).

86 Table 53 Location of Respondents’ Schools in the State n (%) Panhandle 73 13.0 Crown 43 7.7 East Central 151 26.9 West Central 132 23.5 South 163 29.0 Total 562 100

Table 54 Duties and Teaching Responsibilities of Respondents (N=562) Number choosing % of respondents each option selecting each item Physical Education Teacher 497 88.4 Physical Ed. Dept. Head 140 24.9 Aquatic Instructor 18 3.2 Adapted Aquatic Instructor 8 1.4 Other 80 14.2

Education Level When asked to identify their education level, the majority of participants identified that that they had attained a “Bachelor” degree (n= 354, 63.0%), while approximately 34.0% of respondents held a Master's degree. Only three percent of the respondents held a degree higher than Master's (see Table 55).

87 Table 55 Attained Degree Level of Respondents n (%) Bachelor 354 63.0 Masters 191 34.0 Specialist 7 1.2 Doctorate 10 1.8 Total 562 100

Race and Ethnicity With regard to ethnic identification the most frequently identified ethnic group among respondents was “White not Hispanic Origin” (n=481, 85.7 %). The second most frequently identified group was “Black not of Hispanic," with the lowest number of respondents (n=2, .4%) identifying themselves as “American Indian or Native American” (see Table 56).

Gender and Age When respondents were asked to identify their gender, results show that a larger number of surveys were completed by females (347) than males (214). Further analysis of results show that 23.8% more of the respondents that participated in the study were female (see Table 57).

88 Table 56 Ethnic Identification of Respondents n (%) American Indian 2 .4 Black, not of Hispanic Origin 46 8.2 Asian or Pacific Islander 4 .7 Hispanic 28 5.0 White, not of Hispanic Origin 481 85.7 Total 561 100

Age distributions revealed that the highest percentage of respondents identified themselves in the 41-50 year old category, with the 51-60 year old age group containing the second highest percentage. The lowest age range identified by respondents was from the 61+ category (see Table 58).

Table 57 Gender of Respondents n (%) Female 347 62.0 Male 214 38.0 Total 562 100

89 Table 58 Age Distribution of Respondents n (%) 20-30 78 13.9 31-40 122 21.7 41-50 194 34.5 51-60 163 29.0 61+ 5 .9 Total 562 100

Years of Teaching Experience When asked to identify years of teaching experience, responses show that the majority of respondents had been teaching for 21 years or more (n=196, 34.9%). The second group majority consisted of respondents having 11-20 years of teaching experience. The lowest number of survey participants identified a range of 6-10 years of teaching experience (see Table 59).

Table 59 Years of Teaching Experience n (%) 0-5 116 20.6 6-10 91 16.2 11-20 159 28.3 21+ 196 34.9 Total 562 100

90 Professional Affiliation Professional affiliation has been identified as an important component of a professional’s development within his or her field. Hence, physical education professionals were asked to identify any or all of the professional organizations of which they were members. The majority of respondents selected Option B “FAHPERD” (n=240, 42.7%) as the group in which they held membership, while approximately 37.5% of respondents selected membership with some “other” unlisted professional organization or as being a nonmember (see Table 60).

Table 60 Respondents' Professional Affiliation (N=562) n (%) AAHPERD 139 24.7 FAHPERD 240 42.7 NASPE 61 10.8 AAALF 14 2.4 Other 211 37.5

Request for Summary of Results Finally, participants were informed that they could receive a summary of the results of the study. Total responses revealed that the majority of physical education professionals (n=364, 64.8%) that participated in the study identified that they would like to attain the summary of the results (see Table 61).

Table 61 Respondents Request for Study Result n (%) Yes 364 64.8 No 198 35.2 Total 562 100

91 Comments from Teachers The following are a few comments that respondents emailed to the researcher concerning the survey. These comments were not solicited and were not a part of the original study; however respondents were encouraged to contact the researcher or web designer to clarify any questions, receive results of the study, or to share any comments or concerns if so desired. While not every physical education professional made additional comments, some of the comments provided further insight into the current status of APA in K-12 physical education programs in the state of Florida. Additionally, some comments provided professionals' views for possible causes for the lack of use of APA within physical education. In their comments, physical educators expressed a strong desire to see more aquatics programs implemented and cited a lack of aquatic facilities as a major hindrance to APA. As one educator explained, "I have been working in Aquatics since 1981…I so wish our county (Levy) had access to aquatic facilities. I certainly would teach it heavily." Others echoed this view and expressed frustration with the lack of facilities, "I feel strongly about the importance of implementing instruction in aquatic sports in this area, as well as all of Florida. I just relocated to Santa Rosa Beach Area and the South Walton School District. I taught and coached swimming and diving in New York and I can’t believe that there is a lack of facilities this close to the beach…." One 39-year veteran teacher expressed discontent not only with the lack of APA programs, but also with the overall status of physical education programs in the state, "…it is incomprehensible that of all the places in the country swimming is not a regular part of the P.E. program here in Florida. Additionally the entire bent on P.E. in the state is beyond belief. Once your posture becomes politically correct it will be presented as if it is a new idea by the powers that be." However, lack of facilities was not the only barrier that stood in the way of offering APA. One respondent noted that liability issues were a significant factor. Another educator noted their area could not "afford" an aquatics program because of other pressing priorities, "…to the best of my knowledge, there is no aquatics program in

92 my area at this time. We are a title one school and just try to stick to the basics, as, at this time, academics is our main concern."

Several respondents noted their schools did not have swimming facilities and that local students used public pools or facilities at places like the YMCA. One teacher implied that at that teacher's school a YMCA course was offered for the youngest learners, "Aquatic P.E. is nonexistent in the elementary level due to lack of access to pools. Kindergarten classes do provide swimming lessons at the local YMCA during the year for two weeks, provided a parent signs the liability waiver.” Several respondents expressed great concern regarding water safety issues. One teacher, who had taught water safety courses wrote, "You’d be surprised how many kids do not know how to swim…There might be some physical education teachers who do not know how to swim…” Several physical educators explained that their schools did have water safety instruction, these programs did not always bring learners in contact with water, “…the closest thing that I get to doing any “aquatic” teaching is using the American Red Cross “Whales Tales” program to teach water safety. I have never had a class near, let alone in, water.” One respondent described an innovative water safety program and stressed the fact that learners need to have access to aquatic facilities: My school is located in walking distance from Indian River Community College in Fort Pierce. Through a partnership with the college swimming and diving team we created a program called “First to Float” designed to teach all first graders how to float. We take a walking field trip for two days--each student has two free 45 minute lessons with these swimmers/divers. The student/teacher ratio is about two or three to each teacher. The first day is an introduction with emphasis on safety--we use the Red Cross water safety program. The second day is completely in the water. The goal is to teach floating in an effort to keep from drowning. This program has been in effect for about six years. Our county tried to get water safety into the schools but it’s a rather silly program. They want us to teach water safety without the water. No program will be effective if the kids do not get in the water.

93 Others who provided comments were interested in offering APA in their schools and/or districts, and some were currently doing so. In several responses, aquatic instructors expressed a desire to help others implement or improve programs, while those in the process of creating programs noted that they were interested in learning more and looked forward to the results of this study. Overwhelmingly, those who responded showed great support for APA: “Hello, I just wanted to commend you for your attention to aquatic sport. I am a former competitive swimmer and currently have been teaching lessons for 10 years. I am also a former swimming and water polo coach. I strongly believe that knowledge and ability in water is extremely important for everyone to know. I would love to be able to teach an aquatics unit as a part of our PE curriculum. Water sports are so important and an option for those people that have trouble with what I call land sports. If there is anything further that I can be of assistance with please let me know. I would love to help.” These comments provide a more in-depth view of physical education professionals’ thoughts and opinions regarding the use of APA. Additionally, they give further insight into the challenges that physical education professionals face.

94 CHAPTER 5 DISSCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS

The purpose of this study was to investigate the current status of aquatic physical activity (APA) in K-12 physical education programs in Florida’s public schools. The aim of this chapter is to expound upon the results; then make the appropriate interpretations from data and teachers' comments. Additionally, this chapter will discuss conclusions based on the data analysis as well as recommendations for future research.

Discussion of Findings The present study investigated relevant research and data related to the use of APA in K-12 physical education programs in Florida, and the consequences and implications of physical education professionals' attitudes toward the use or lack of use of APA. Though the current study may have supported many physical education professionals’ speculations regarding the use or lack of use of APA in K-12 physical education programs, findings also help to affirm the need for more information and further research on the topic. At the onset of any study a theoretical or conceptual framework should be identified to help to frame the overall purpose of one’s research. In an effort to achieve this goal Fishbein’s (1967) theory of reasoned action was utilized to provide the “central piece” for the research plan of the present study. Ennis (1999) states that “the theoretical framework is to provide a structure that identifies and describes the major elements, variables, or constructs that organize your scholarship….. It is used to hypothesize, understand, or give meaning to relationships among the elements that influence that influence, affect, or predict, the events or outcomes specified by you.” Fishbein's (1967), “Theory of Reasoned Action” suggested that it is possible to gain some understanding of a person’s intentions by measuring his/her attitude toward performing a behavior. Hence, in the case of the present study, the researcher created a survey instrument that would help to identify physical education professionals attitudes toward the use and purpose of APA in K-12 physical education in an effort to gain further insight into how they viewed the relevance of APA in K-12 physical education, and to more clearly understand their intentions toward the use or lack of use of APA.

95 Research Question One Research question one investigated the frequency and extent of aquatic programs in K-12 physical education in Florida’s public schools. In the present study 90.2% of the respondents identified that they did not use APA as an elective or required component within their physical education programs. Further analysis of data revealed that the majority of respondents did not have access to an aquatic facility. With the Florida Department of Education (FLDOE) already having APA programmatically assigned in statewide curricula to grades 9-12 within the state, responses from the current study merely verify the lack of use of APA in K-12 physical education. Though aquatic literature in physical education supports the utilization of APA at every level (AAALf, 2004; AFT, 1983; Cardon et al., 2004) for individuals of all ages, both with and without various physical, sensory, or mental disabilities, some participants within the current study agreed with the statewide mandate of APA for high school levels only. One participant remarked, "I work at an elementary school. I do feel an aquatic program is important at higher grade levels. Your survey does not apply to me.” Other participants at the elementary level seemed to disagree with this statement echoing the sentiments of the literature stating, "As a P.E. teacher, I think that APA activities are a must for every child entering into the elementary setting…” These statements are important when one considers the statistics set forth concerning the level of unintentional drowning deaths occurring among children ages 5 to 18, with Florida among the top three states having the highest rates of drowning deaths (Barket, 2003; NSC, 2002; NCHS, 2000). NASPE (1998) states that aquatic activities and aquatic fitness lessons are developmentally appropriate for all students because they promote socialization opportunities while promoting a unique medium for motor skills and health related fitness development. Therefore, the occurrence of the 9.8% of physical education professionals who identified APA use within their physical education programs for years (see Tables 5 - 10) show results diametrically opposed to the apparent lack of use of APA currently evident in the literature of physical education as well as in results of the present study (AAALF, 2002; 2001; American Red Cross, 1983; Beale et al., 2002; Block and Conaster, 2002; Cardon et al., 2004; McClelland, 1998; Szjacz, 2001).

96 Research Question Two Research question two asked about the types of physical education aquatic programs students were participating in within Florida’s public schools. The current study revealed students were provided with and participated in a variety of APA (Instructional swimming, Aquatic fitness, Aquatic sports, Scuba, Small craft activity) within their physical education classes (see Table 7), with instructional swimming identified by 93.6% of respondents as the APA most often used within physical education programs. The identification of instructional swimming by participants in this study not only agrees with the researcher’s opinion concerning the value of APA, but also speaks strongly for physical education programs and professionals who desire to create opportunities for students to attain survival and physical skills that will keep them healthy and safe for a lifetime. Information shared by some respondents provided a perspective relevant to achieving this purpose: “Miami-Dade County public schools offer a program entitled “Learn to Swim”. This program was developed to teach basic swimming and water safety skills to approximately ten thousand students, annually. Approximately, ten certified teachers that are also water safety instructors and lifeguards rotate 7-8 schools every ten weeks. Students who participate in this portable pool program and qualify are also tested in a “deep water” pool to demonstrate and receive evaluation on learned skills. All exceptionalities can benefit from water activity, either to learn aquatic skills or for therapeutic purposes. It is our desire that the Learn to Swim program will allow students to enjoy swimming for a lifetime.”

In the present study, participation in APA is viewed as a mechanism that physical education professionals can utilize to provide a new view of physical fitness and motor skill development. In addition, the NASPE (1998) content standards recommend aquatics as an activity for demonstrating a student’s competency as a physically educated person, making the use of aquatic activity ideal for K-12 physical education programs. Such benefits are also supported by research. For example, Simard (1969) conducted a study of APA from a neurophysiologic perspective, investigating children’s ability to learn and execute specific motor skills attributed to swimming. Results

97 revealed those younger children (3 to 6 years) were inconsistent and required constant reminders to “re-isolate” the activity in the motor skill they were trying to learn. However, findings also affirmed that older children (8 years) performed selected motor skills with more consistency. Overall findings surmised that when children reach the ages of 7 to 9 years, they were able to consistently maintain control over specific motor functions with more consistency while another movement was performed simultaneously (i.e.: stroking and kicking). After the age of nine there was little or no change in this overall ability (Simard, 1969). Williams (1981) suggests that from this same neurological perspective, initial APA experiences should include participants in the 3 to 9 year age range due to the fact that during this time period the foundational elements of motor skills are developing. Therefore, physical education professionals should allow for highly structured APA units focused on maximum activity learning time, encouraging trial and error and problem solving. Moreover, literature on aquatics has indicated that the acquisition of these motor qualities can encourage individuals to participate in aquatic recreation as a lifetime activity (American Red Cross, 1977; Beale et al., 2002; Conaster et al., 2000; Lepore et al., 1998; Winnock, 2000).

Research Question Three Research question three investigated the perceptions, attitudes, and feelings of physical education professionals’ relative to using APA as a part of physical education programs in Florida public schools. Consistent with the literature on aquatics, most of the participants in this study had positive attitudes with regard to the benefits of APA (Questions 9-28). Participants’ positive attitudes were consistent with the goals of physical education to provide students with a vehicle for developing an awareness of physical activities and resources for acquiring skills throughout their lives. Results clearly revealed that physical educators’ attitudes regarding the barriers attributed to the lack of APA in physical education programs were also consistent with the literature including issues such as scheduling conflict, lack of certification, and training (refer to Tables 12-31). Moreover, literature suggests that culture plays a role in one’s use of, and participation in APA, thus limiting exposure to APA through the allocation of resources

98 and decision making when in comes to participation in aquatic venues (Weiser, 1995; Jackson, 1991; Pendelton, 1975;Campbell, 1974). However, it is not the goal of this research to overlook the concerns of the participants in this study or the concerns set forth in the literature with regard to the true capabilities of APA when used to achieve physical educational goals.

Cardon et al., (2004) compared the physical activity levels of 8 to 12 year old students during swimming and non-swimming elementary physical education classes. Utilizing the System for Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT), results revealed that students participated in more moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) levels during swimming classes than during their non-swimming classes clearly advocating the use of APA in K-12 physical education. However, “Healthy People 2000” (USDHHS, 1996) states that in an effort to increase physical activity levels children should participate in MVPA during at least 50% of a physical education class. Results did reveal that 41% of the swimming lessons and 77% of the non-swimming physical education lessons did not reach the 50% MVPA engagement. Hence, overall, based in Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action the current study and Cardon et al., (2004) could suggest that with physical educators believing that participation in APA could lead to beneficial outcomes their overall attitude toward using APA will be very positive. Hence, this researcher, and others studies have agreed, that aquatics should not be considered as the physical education program; rather, it should be seen as a form of physical activity that contributes to the total welfare of the individual (Cardon et al., 2004; Christie, 1981).

Research Question Four Research question four addressed the issues of pool accessibility and revealed other barriers in regard to the use of APA. Interestingly enough, results regarding this question were also addressed among the attitudinal responses of participants in this study. Overall results revealed that 88.9% of physical education professionals did not have access to an aquatic facility (see Table 32). Participants shared their feelings of why they felt APA was not included in physical education:

99 “Aquatic programs are very limited in public school settings due to many factors: 1) instructional time, 2) access to aquatic facilities, 3) liability, 4) trained personnel…. Miami-Dade County has a great program K-5. We, Seminole County Public Schools, only teach swimming at the high school level in those schools that have pools on their campuses (3 of our 8 high schools)….At K-5 level, there is so much academic instruction that it is mandated and required that unless an aquatic facility is nearby, aquatics is not feasible, even then it becomes a scheduling issue. Other issues involve dressing and the teacher/pupil ratio for safety.” Other participants felt that some of these barriers, though apparent, were not viewed as insurmountable. One participant shared the following: As a practitioner, I tried to develop a community partnership with the city recreation facility adjacent to my school. We had planned to teach water safety, water fitness activities, and water polo in our sport education curriculum. I had secured the partnership of the Red Cross and planned to implement their Junior Guard Start Program. Here are some of the deterrents I ran into: 1. Scheduling: 50-minute classes which had to include a 15-minutes each way walk, plus dress out time. I could not get the faculty to agree to block schedules. 2. Liability and risk management concerns from the district office. Neither myself nor my teaching partner had a current WSI certification. Since we do not teach it in our district both of us let the certification expire since our undergrad days. 3. Difficulties with the facility. Maintenance of the pool and scheduling of the appropriate number of lifeguards during the school day. 4. Parents were supportive, but not able to volunteer to assist, so we would have an appropriate ratio of adults to student in the water. To reflect upon the earlier discussions relevant to this study, the factors of aquatic curricula that are important to the development of successful APA programs are the design and usage of facilities, equipment, program purposefulness, safety, and activities

100 (CNCA 1975; Peterson, 1989; Rockwell, 1982; Torney 1970). The aquatic facility should be safe, clear of debris, have proper lighting, heat, ventilation, circulation, and acoustics. As has been noted in the present study, safety is an extremely important issue in the implementation of APA programs. However, once safety guidelines have been met and can be maintained, other issues related to participants' attitudes can be taken into account to create a program to successfully meet the objectives of physical education. Effective APA programs are possible. Participants in this study have expressed their desires for assistance and guidance; thus, it is imperative that school districts, administrators, curriculum planning committees, district coordinators, curriculum specialists, parents, aquatic organizations, and physical educators begin to create collaborative relationships in an effort to foster the use of APA within K-12 physical education programs.

Research Question Five Research question five asked participants to identify their professional qualifications, experience and training background, relative to teaching aquatics for students in Florida’s public school systems. AAHPERD, Aquatic Council (2002) stated that physical educators or instructors should possess current certifications in CPR, First Aid, or be a trained lifeguard. Moreover, physical education professionals should have the know-how to safely perform aquatic programs and maintain certification by a nationally recognized professional organization, (e.g. having a Water safety instructor (WSI) certification). Results of the present study revealed that most physical education educators were professionally qualified in the recommended areas as suggested by AAHPERD, Aquatic Council, and meeting FLDOE requirements for the use of APA (see Table 36). However, participants once again shared the downside of trying to maintain their professional certifications. As this respondent explained,"…since I do not have aquatic facilities at my school for aquatic activity, I no longer keep my WSI current, although I have been certified in the past.” Another educator expressed a similar situation, "…I held a WSI and lifeguard certification the first several years of teaching physical education at another school in

101 Ohio. We did have a 4th grade swimming program for years but because of financial issues they were omitted from the physical education curriculum…" These findings in the study were consistent with the results which showed that 84.7% (see Table 37) of physical education professionals had never attended an APA workshop or training. Though physical education professionals who had attended a workshop (15.3%) identified they found the APA workshop beneficial for their goals in physical education, the need to provide physical education with aquatic instruction was apparent. Moreover, participants did reveal their willingness to attend an APA workshop and learn (see Table 39). This study reveals, the possibility that training could effect change in the implementation of APA within physical education, as well as in forging cooperative relationships among school districts, curriculum specialists, national aquatic agencies, and education professionals. Physical education professionals need to feel competent in their ability to teach physical education to all students. It was evident in the current study that 58% (Table 34) of participants who responded felt capable of teaching an aquatic unit in their physical education programs. Yet, the most common APA used by students within physical education programs (Instructional swimming) was also the APA that participants felt most comfortable teaching (67.9% see Table 35). However, there were participants who were comfortable teaching other areas of APA. For example, one respondent wrote, “I have also taught water aerobics for years at the YMCA. Water exercise is one of the most comprehensive aerobic and strengthening exercises there is. Our swim team consists of the healthiest, strongest athletes we have.” Another participant described a program which utilized other kinds of aquatic skills, “I currently have (5) classes in which I spend two months canoeing and fishing. The class is called Outdoor Education and we have to turn away students as I can handle only 32 to 35 students per class.” There is the need for the development of comprehensive aquatic programs that meet a wide variety of interests for potential participants (CNCA, 1975, p.188). Creating such an environment where students can enjoy water safely and learn to participate within an aquatic medium is necessary. APA programs should not only meet the needs of a community, but should also incorporate those same features that will attract participants

102 to it. But to design such programs, physical educators need to be trained and feel competent in the area of aquatics. The findings of the current study suggest that the use of training workshops focused on aquatic instruction, risk management, and aquatic certifications (WSI, CPR, First Aid, Life guarding) would help physical education professionals in the present study be more prepared to incorporate an APA unit within their physical education programs. Research Questions Six and Seven Research questions six and seven asked if there were differences in the attitudes of physical education professionals based on school level, location of school in state, and attitudes toward APA. In the current study significant differences in attitudes among physical education professionals were identified based on school level and location of school in the state (refer to Table 42). Significant differences between Elementary and High school level physical education professionals remained consistent with the fact that APA in the state of Florida was programmatically assigned to grades 9-12. Therefore, the researcher surmised that the disparity between groups could be directly attributed to the pre-established curricula design. Concerning locations of schools in the state (see Table 42), the researcher attributed the fact that physical education professionals' exposure, training, and the availability of aquatic facilities in the southern region of the state were more abundant than other regions in the state. Therefore, this researcher finds credence in surmising that this lack of availability, with regard to resources and support, in other regions of the state can definitely contribute to the overall differences among attitudes of physical education professionals in other regions of the state.

Conclusions Based on the Data Analysis The overall purpose of this study was to investigate the current status of APA in physical education programs in Florida’s public schools. The following conclusions were reached based on the analysis of data from this study: 1. It was concluded that the majority of physical education professionals do not use APA within their physical education classes. However, APA has been used by physical education professionals in the state for years within their

103 physical education programs for the recommended benefits of aquatic participation and for promoting health and wellness.

2. It was concluded that Instructional Swimming is the most commonly used type of APA in Florida’s public school physical education programs.

3. It was concluded that the majority of physical education professionals agree that APA is a valuable component within a program, but that the barriers (lack of aquatic facilities, scheduling conflicts, safety issues, feasibility, lack of training) toward implementing an APA program are many.

4. It was concluded that most physical education professionals do hold aquatic certifications in the areas of First Aid and CPR, but for the successful implementation of an APA unit within physical education classes, teachers would benefit from additional certification in the areas of WSI and lifeguard training.

5. It was concluded that the majority of physical education professionals had not ever attended an APA workshop or training. However, if provided with the opportunity to attend an APA workshop within their school district, they would be willing to participate.

6. It was concluded that the majority of physical education professionals did not have access to on-site aquatic facilities.

Implications for Future Research The following statements are topics for future research based on the present study and the researcher's experience in conducting it: 1) Further investigation into the attitudes of physical education professionals and students toward the use of APA would be beneficial. For example conducting a qualitative study investigating the procedures, protocol, implementation, and teaching techniques that physical educators use to incorporate APA within their physical education curriculum.

2) Further investigation into the functioning of physical education programs that have pre-existing APA units as a part of their physical education curriculum is

104 a possible area of study. By investigating a physical education program that has successfully implemented APA within their curriculum a model could be developed to serve as a “How to Guide for Implementing APA within a Physical Education Program”.

3) Due to the lack of training across the state, investigating the effect of aquatic training workshops on the attitudes of physical education professionals at the various school levels is a possible area of study.

4) Further investigation into the barriers that affect the use of APA in K-12 physical education should be carried out. With the present study identifying the problems physical educators face when attempting to use APA studies could be investigated to formulate methods on how those barriers can be minimized?

5) In the current study, on-line methods of inquiry were utilized with a low response rate possibly being a direct result. Due to the lack of a pre-existing email listing, the replication of the present study using a traditional mail-out survey technique might possibly yield a larger response.

Recommendations It was the hope of the researcher that the data collected from this survey would provide a starting point for the investigation of the implications and use of APA in K-12 physical education programs in the state of Florida. There are many factors and barriers to be considered. Hence the data obtained in this study represents a minimal amount of information from which conclusions and recommendations can be drawn. While there is an increased interest in the beneficial uses of APA at the K-12 level in physical education, this researcher contends that more research is needed in the area of K-12 physical education and the use of APA. The following guidelines to improve the status of APA in K-12 physical education programs in Florida’s public school systems were based on the findings, interpretations, and conclusions drawn from the data: 1) Aquatic programs or units should be designed into the curricula of all school levels, not only just (9-12) the High School level.

105 2) APA training and certification workshops should be held in districts to enhance professional development. 3) A need for methodical improvement in school districts and teacher preparatory programs with emphasis on aquatic training and the implementation of aquatic units. 4) An increase in funding physical education programs to enable school districts to utilize proper facilities, equipment, and to update the certifications of staff. 5) A collaborative relationship between parents, recreational organizations, school districts, national aquatic organizations, and physical education professionals should be established to develop programs within K-12 physical education that utilize APA. Conclusion The purpose of this study was to summarize the data gathered through the use of an online survey developed specifically for use in this study. The key question was “What is the current status of APA in physical education programs in Florida’s public schools?” The results from the current study showed despite the fact though APA use within physical education was minimal, physical education professionals in this study do use and value the use of APA in their physical education programs. Moreover, physical education professionals find the use of APA beneficial for all students in K-12 physical education. The current study did not attempt to gather data concerning the reasons that teachers did not have APA as a part of their physical education curriculum. However, comments from the physical education professionals and the review of literature provided some possible explanations as to why APA was or was not used in K-12 physical education programs. Also, if APA was used, how those pioneering physical education professionals made that great attempt.

106

APPENDIX A

FLORIDA REPORTING REGIONS

107 FLORIDA REPORTING REGION N=562

Crown: n=43, 7.7%

Panhandle: n=73, 13.0%

East Central: n=151; 26.9%

West CentralCentra n=132, 23.5%

South: n=163, 29.0%

Panhandle Region: Escambia, Santa Rosa, Okaloosa, Walton, Holmes, Washington, Jackson, Bay, Calhoun, Gulf, Liberty, Franklin, Gadsen, Leon,Wakulla, Jefferson, Madison, Taylor.

Crown Region: Hamilton, Columbia, Baker, Nassau, Duval, Clay, Bradford, St. Johns, Flagler, Putnam, Alachua, Suwanee, Lafeyette, Dixie, Gilchrist, Levy, Alachua, Union, Marion, Citrus.

East Central Region: Volusia, Lake, Sumter, Orange, Seminole, Indian River, St. Lucie, Martin, Okeechobee, Osceola.

West Central Region: Hernando, Pasco, Hillsborough, Pinellas, Manatee, Polk, Highlands, Hardee, Desoto, Sarasota, Charlotte, Lee, Glade.

Southern Region: Collier, Hendry, Palm Beach, Broward, Miami-Dade, Monroe.

108 APPENDIX B

AQUATIC PHYSICAL ACTIVITY in K-12 PUBLIC SCHOOLS SURVEY

(APA)

109 Aquatic Physical Activity in K-12 Public Schools Survey

Directions: Please read and answer each question in the questionnaire. Mark the letter, by clicking on the circle with the mouse, that best represents whether you (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided or Mark the letter(s) that best indicate your response. If you want to change an answer use the mouse and select another response before moving to the next question.

Definition: The term Aquatic Physical Activity (APA) in the following statements refers to all kinds of activities, including recreational aquatic activities, such as: snorkeling or diving, competitive and instructional swimming, aquatic fitness, aquatic sports, and small craft aquatic activity.

Aquatic Physical Activity in Physical Education Programs 1. Is APA an elective or required component of your school’s physical education curriculum? A = Yes; If yes go to question #2; B = No; If no go to question #8

2. How many years, have you used APA as a part of your physical education program? A = 1 – 4 yrs B = 5 – 9 yrs C = 10 – 14 yrs D = 15 or more years

3. How much time is spent on the instruction of aquatic physical activities in a year? A = 1 – 2 weeks B = 3 – 6 weeks C = Semester or more

Types of Aquatic Physical Activity in Physical Education Programs 4. Which of the following APA’s are offered in your physical education program? (Mark all that apply) A Aquatic Sports (e.g Water Polo & Synchronized Swimming) B Scuba (e.g. Snorkeling & Diving) C Aquatic Fitness (e.g. Water Aerobics) D Instructional Swimming E Small Craft Aquatic Activity (e.g. Canoeing, Sailing, Surfing)

5. Based on a normal semester what percent of your students participate in the APA curricula? A 100% B 75 % C 50 % D 25 % E Below 25 %

6. Please identify the accredited aquatic system used when teaching APA in your physical education classes? (Mark all that apply) A American Red Cross Aquatic Program B YMCA Aquatic Program C School Board Standard Program D Other E None at all

110 7. What criteria are considered when grouping students for their APA classes at your school? A Grade level B Skill level/ Ability level C Gender D Other E None at all 8. In what type(s) of after school/intramural/athletic APA, if any, do students at your school participate? (Mark all that apply) A Aquatic Sports (e.g Water Polo, Synchronized Swimming, Small Craft Aquatic Activity (e.g. canoeing, sailing, surfing) B Scuba (e.g. Snorkeling & Diving) C Aquatic Fitness (e.g. Water Aerobics) D Instructional Swimming E None at all

Use of Aquatic Physical Activity as a Part of Physical Education Programs For each statement mark the letter that best represents how you feel? 9. I believe the goal of APA curricula is to teach water safety skills (e.g. survival and rescue skills) (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 10. I believe the goal of APA is to teach swimming skills (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 11. I believe the goal of APA is to increase students’ level of daily functioning (e.g. health & fitness) (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 12. I believe the goal of APA is to develop students’ recreational activity (e.g. fun & socialization) (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 13. I believe the goal of APA is to promote drowning prevention (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided

For each statement on why APA is not included in physical education, mark the letter that best represents how you feel? 14. APA’s are considered too difficult for the skill level of the students (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 15. Lack of trained personnel/training (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 16. Budget limitations/Finances (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 17. Lack of interest in APA as apart of physical education among students (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 18. Lack of interest in APA as an asset for physical education among physical education professionals (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 19. Not considered a physical education priority choice for students (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 20. Lack of aquatic facilities (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 21. Scheduling conflict (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 22. Legal/Safety Issues (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 23. Other (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided

111 For each statement mark the letter that best represents how you feel about APA? 24. Part of the responsibility of providing aquatic physical activity instruction should lie with the Public schools in the State of Florida… (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 25. Providing Aquatic Physical Activity for students are not feasible in today’s public school system…. (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 26. Special coursework and inservice training specifically in Aquatics is needed in order to adequately implement aquatic physical activity into physical education curriculums…. (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 27. Aquatic physical activity should be offered in public school physical education program for students whenever possible…. (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided 28. Drowning Prevention should be a required component of physical education program? (A) = Strongly Agree, (B) = Agree, (C) = Disagree, (D) = Strongly Disagree, (E) = Undecided

Aquatic Facility Accessibility Please mark the letter(s) that best indicate your response. 29. Does your school have an on-site aquatic facility for use by the physical education program ? A = Yes; If yes go to question #32; B = No; If no go to question # 31 30. What locations, if any, does your physical education program have access to for an APA program to take place? (Mark all that apply) A City or County Recreational Facility B College/ University C School District Facility D Other E None at all

Experiences with Aquatic Physical Activity Please mark the letter(s) that best indicate your response. 31. Do you feel capable of teaching an APA Unit in your physical education program? A = Yes; If yes go to question # 33; B = No; If no go to question # 34 32. What APA (s) do you feel capable of teaching? (Mark all that apply) A Aquatic Sports (e.g. Water Polo; Synchronized Swimming; Aquatic Volleyball) B Scuba Diving/Snorkeling C Swimming (e.g. Competitive and or Instructional) D Aquatic Fitness (e.g. Water Aerobics, Aquatic Wt. Lifting) E Small craft Aquatic Activity (e.g. Jet Skiing, Tubing, Canoeing, Kayaking, Surfing) 33. Do you have any of the following certifications or training? (Mark all that apply) A Water safety instructors certificate (WSI) B Lifesaving/Life guarding C Adaptive aquatics training certificate D First Aid/CPR certificates E None at all 34. Have you ever attended a workshop on teaching APA? A = Yes; If yes go to question # 36; B = No; If no go to question # 37 35. Do you feel that attending an APA was helpful for purposes of your physical education goals? A = Yes; If yes go to question # 38; B = No; If no go to question # 38 36. Would you consider attending a workshop on teaching APA if one was offered in your district or at a state conference? A = Yes; B = No

112 Your participation in aquatic activities

37. How often do you participate in APA? A Once or more a week B Once or twice a month C 3 or more times per year D Once or twice a year E None at all

38. How would you classify your swimming ability? A Advanced B Intermediate C Beginner D Non-Swimmer

Demographic Information 39. What best characterizes the grade level for your school? A Elementary B Middle School/Junior High School C High School D Adaptive/Special Education

40. What region is your school located in? A Panhandle B Crown C East Central D West Central E South

41. What is the highest level of degree obtained? A Bachelor B Masters C Specialist D Doctorate

42. Which of the following positions and teaching responsibilities describe your status at your school? (Mark all that apply) A Physical education Teacher B Physical Education Department Head C Aquatic Instructor D Adapted Aquatic Instructor E Other

43. Gender: A = Female; B = Male

44. What is your age range? A 20-30 B 31-40 C 41-50 D 51-60 E 61+

113 45. How many years have you been teaching physical education? A 0-5 B 6-10 C 11-20 D 21 or more

46. Please mark the appropriate space to indicate your race/ethnicity A American Indian or Native Alaskan B Black, not of Hispanic Origin C Asian or Pacific Islander D Hispanic E White, not Hispanic Origin

47. Please identify the professional organizations of which you are a member? (Mark all that apply) A AAHPERD B FAHPERD C NASPE D AAALF E Other

48. Would you like a summary of the results of this study? A = Yes; B = No

Thank you for your participation

114 APPENDIX C

HUMAN SUBJECTS COMMITTEE IRB APPROVAL FORM

115

116 APPENDIX D

INTRODUCTORY EMAIL/INFORMED CONSENT

117 February 7, 2005

Dear Physical Education Professionals:

I am Angela K. Beale a graduate student under the direction of Dr. Susan Lynn in the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education, College of Education at Florida State University. I am conducting a research project entitled" An Investigation of the Status of Aquatic Physical Activity Within Physical Education Programs in Florida Public Schools.

In many physical education textbooks, and supported by national organizations, aquatic activity is viewed as an invaluable method of physical activity for it's ability to yield physiological, psychological, and social benefits for students. Additionally, aquatic curricula can help students to establish a framework for a lifetime of physical activity and wellness. Therefore I am conducting a study to explore the use of aquatic activity in K-12 public school physical education programs.

As physical education professionals, I understand the time pressures under which you work, especially during this time of year. Therefore, I appreciate your time even more. With your help I truly feel that the information compiled from this survey will be useful to our field and will not rot on the shelf with other studies. This study will bring attention to the opinions and needs of Florida Physical Education Professionals.

Your interests and knowledge may be limited with regard to aquatic physical activity or you may use aquatic physical activity extensively. This study is not necessarily to promote aquatic physical activity within physical education programs, but to help understand the attitudes of physical educators in the field. I am interested in your input. Please complete the survey within 2 weeks.

Your participation in this research will involve completing an Aquatic Physical Activity in K-12 Public Schools Survey. The total time commitment would be about 15-20 minutes. Please understand that your participation is completely voluntary and that you may stop at anytime without prejudice or penalty. All of your answers will be kept confidential and identified by a subject code number. The results of the research study may be published, but your name will not be used. Your name will not appear in the results, and no individual responses will be reported. Only group findings will be reported.

There are no foreseeable risks or discomforts if you agree to participate in this study. If you have any questions concerning this research study, please contact my major professor, Dr. Susan Lynn at (850) 644-3007 or via email at [email protected] or me at (850) 644-6015 or via email at [email protected]. Thank you very much for your help, and I hope that the remainder of your school year goes well.

118 To respond to the on-line questionnaire, click on the following link to be automatically logged in to the system.

http://test.fcim.org/aquaticSurvey/autoLogin.asp?username=akbdst23%40aol%2Ecom&p assword=beale

If the above link does not work, please copy and paste it into the address or location bar of a browser. Also if you want to login manually to the system at http://test.fcim.org/aquaticSurvey/index.asp, your username is [email protected] and your password is beale.

After logging in, please complete the questionnaire and press the save button at the bottom of the page. You will only be able to complete the questionnaire once. If you have any questions, please e-mail Stephen Griffin at [email protected] for technical assistance.

Sincerely,

Angela K. Beale

119 APPENDIX E

FOLLOW UP EMAIL

120 February 21, 2005

Dear Physical Education Professionals:

About two weeks ago a questionnaire, seeking your opinion and participation, in a research project entitled “An Investigation of the Status of Aquatic Physical Activity Within Physical Education Programs in Florida’s Public Schools”, was emailed to you.

This study was embarked upon in the belief that the information secured could be used to not only assist students in establishing a framework for a lifetime of physical activity and wellness, but it is a hope that this study will initiate a networking system between National Aquatic Agencies, policy makers, and public school physical education programs.

Presently, Florida is ranked third in the United Stated behind Alabama and Louisiana with regard to having the highest rates of drowning deaths. Though some counties have minimal drowning deaths, there is consensus for the need to create programs or opportunities to battle this statewide problem. Therefore, due to the large number of aquatic environments in the state of Florida, supporting and investigating the value and benefits of aquatic physical activity, within public school physical education programs, is considered valuable.

Therefore, this reminder serves as a method for you to provide your vital input. If you have any questions concerning this research study please contact my major professor, Dr. Susan Lynn at (850) 644-3007 or via email at [email protected] or me at (850) 644- 6015 or via email at [email protected]. Your cooperation and participation is greatly appreciated.

Sincerely,

Angela K. Beale

121 APPENDIX F

FINAL EMAIL

122 March 7, 2005

Dear Physical Education Professionals:

About four weeks ago a questionnaire, seeking your opinion and participation in a research project entitled “An Investigation of the Status of Aquatic Physical Activity Within Physical Education Programs in Florida’s Public Schools”, was emailed to you.

This study was embarked upon in the belief that the information secured could be used to not only assist students in establishing a framework for a lifetime of physical activity and wellness, but as a hope that this study will initiate a networking system between National Aquatic Agencies, policy makers, and public school physical education programs.

Thus, it is with great gratitude that I thank you for the time you took out of your busy schedule to assist me in my educational endeavor. With your help I truly feel that the information compiled from this research will not only be useful in our field, but will also advocate my personal beliefs as well as those of other physical education professionals. This belief stating that aquatic physical activity would be an invaluable tool within any K-12 physical education program.

Once again I thank you for your vital input. If you have any questions concerning this research study please contact my major professor, Dr. Susan Lynn at (850) 644-3007 or via email at [email protected] or myself at (850) 644-6015 or via email at [email protected]. Your cooperation and participation are greatly appreciated.

Sincerely,

Angela K. Beale

123 REFERENCES

AFT: Aquatics for tomorrow. (1983). Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 54(33).

Ainsworth, B.E., Berry, C.B., Schnyder, V.N., & Vickers, S.R. (1990). Leisure time physical activity and aerobic fitness in African American young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 13, 606-611.

Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitude and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Allington, R.L. (1991). Children who find learning to read difficult: School responses to diversity. In E. Hiebert (Ed.), Literacy for a diverse society (pp. 237-252). New York: Teachers College Press.

American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness [AAALF], (2004, January 26). Safety in high school physical education aquatic programs: A position paper of the Aquatic Council American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Retrieved January 26, 2004, from http://www.aahperd.org/aaalf/pdf_files/pos_papers/safety.pdf

American Association for Active Lifestyles and Fitness [AAALF], (2004, January 8). Adapted aquatics: A position paper of the Aquatic Council American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Retrieved January 8, 2004, from http://www.aahperd.org/aalf/pdf_files/pos_papers/adapted_aquatics2PDF

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Angela Kishaun Beale was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1973. With the constant support, prayers, and guidance from her parents and family Angela was encouraged to strive for success. After many accolades as a student and competitive swimmer, on one of the nations nationally ranked and historically African-American swimming teams, PDR, under the coaching of Jim Ellis, she graduated from the Philadelphia High School for Girls’ in 1991 receiving athletic swimming scholarships to numerous institutions. As a scholarship athlete at Howard University, she achieved academic success and growth which lead her to receive both her Bachelor of Arts Degree in English, and Master’s Degree in Therapeutic Recreation in 2000. In the fall of 2000 Angela began work towards a Ph.D. in Teacher Education in Physical Education. With much support and guidance from the faculty and staff in the department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education, the College of Education, and her loving and supportive family, Angela took her love of aquatics and physical education and began carve her research notch focusing on the value of aquatic physical activity within physical education. Angela completed her journey, in the Fall of 2005, receiving her Doctor of Philosophy in Teacher Education in Physical Education. As an undergraduate Academic Advisor, during her final years at Florida State University Angela felt it was her obligation to encourage students to succeed as she was. Angela’s drive to support her community has been a lifelong venture exhibited in her acts of volunteerism and participation with such organizations as Americorps, Camp Disabilities, and Pi Lamda Theta, International Honor Society, Council of Informed Advisors, and Florida Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance to mention a few. Angela believed in supporting anyone who was willing to actively pursue a dream as she had. Love unconditional, Angela is a loving wife, mother, daughter, sister, friend and active member of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority Incorporated.

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