E-content for B.A Third Year (History Honours) Paper VIII (C)

History of (1855-1953)

TOPIC NO. 2- CZAR II: REFORMS

By Dr. Divya Kumar Assistant Professor Department of History B.D College Patliputra University Patna [email protected]

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Czar Alexander II : Reforms

LESSON PLAN

Introduction Alexander II- A Brief Profile Condition of Russia at the Time of His Accession His Reforms His Foreign Policy An Assessment of His Reforms

INTRODUCTION

Czar Alexander II of Russia, the successor of Czar Nicholas I is known in history for the numerous reforms he introduced in his country since the days of . Interestingly, his reign from 1855 and 1881, that is, till his death, can be divided into two phases. His progressive policies on the domestic front found expression only in the first decade of his reign, the reformist zeal unfortunately being cut short after an bid on him in 1866. Thereafter, following his father’s footsteps, Alexander II reverted to suppression. Likewise, his foreign policy too showed a combination of liberalism and conservatism, depending on the countries and circumstances.

ALEXANDER II- A BRIEF PROFILE

Alexander II was born in on 29th of April, 1818. He was the eldest son of Czar Nicholas I and Charlotte, the daughter of Frederick William III of Prussia. His earlier name was Alexander Nikolaevich. Belonging to the

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Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov House,he became the from 1825 onwards. He was the Czar of Russia from 2nd of March, 1855 till 13th of March, 1881. He was also the King of Poland and the Grand . Alexander II held a deep interest in European languages and mastered many. In 1837, he earned the distinction of being the first Romanov heir to visit . Like Peter the Great, he gained varied experience by touring Europe between 1838 and 1839 which widened his mental horizons.

CONDITION OF RUSSIA AT THE TIME OF HIS ACCESSION

Russia under Czar Nicholas I (1824-55) remained a conservative country because of the ruler’s fear regarding any kind of progress. Consequently, the intellectual atmosphere disfavoured any kind of reform with strict curtailment of freedom of thought and its expression. Thus, there was a constant struggle between the liberal and conservative groups. The liberal group drew inspiration from Western Europe. Moreover, many royal families of Europe trusted neither Nicholas I nor his . Then, the passing away of Nicholas I when the (1853-56) was still in progress brought Alexander II on the Russian throne. His first year was spent in prosecution of the war and negotiations of peace after the Fall of Sebastopol (September 1855). Realizing the necessity of peace, he signed the in 1856. Those were troubled times with loss of imperial prestige. Also, evils like bribery, theft and corruption were rampant in the humiliated and exhausted Russia. Czar Alexander II ‘s activities between 1856 and 1861- Between 1856 and 1861, Russia had a glimpse of the reformist zeal of Alexander II which otherwise had been unwitnessed earlier because till then, he had always been an obedient son, supporting his father’s autocratic rule. He was convinced that the restoration of imperial prestige coupled

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 3 with regeneration of Russian military and state power was the need of the hour. Strongly believing in the fact that the reforms needed ‘to come from above than from below’, he immediately took the following steps:- ● The survivors of the Decembrist movement (1925) were allowed to return after twenty- five years of exile. ● Restrictions imposed on universities were relaxed. ● Foreign travel was allowed. ● Censorship of the press was relaxed. People were not averse to monarchy. So ,his reforms got full support even from intellectuals like . Russia seemed to have awakened from a heavy slumber after the Crimean War.

HIS REFORMS

Encouraged by the positive response of the people, Alexander II introduced large scale reforms between 1861 and 1865. 1. EMANCIPATION OF SERFS AND END OF (1861) - ​ This was the first and the most important reform of Alexander II. The condition of the serfs who comprised nearly one half of the population in 1860, was degrading, having drawn criticism from even Nicholas I. While one-half was under royal families, the other half was controlled by the nobility and Church. Intellectuals particularly the literary men as Gogol in his ‘Dead Souls’ and Turgenev in his work ‘Memoirs of a Huntsman’ made people aware of the misery of serfs and peasants. During the Crimean War, soldiers had to be sent on many occasions to quell their rebellions. Certain reasons propelled the emancipation. It was both morally and economically unjustified. On the moral front, it was a blot on humanity as it curtailed human freedom. Economically, it favoured an archaic agricultural system with both the landlords and the peasants employing traditional means.

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By March 1861, Alexander II had already made up his mind. He urged the nobility to take the initiative towards emancipation and called for proposals. Statesmen such as Herzen in London and Chernyshevski in St.Petersburg had a deep impact on him. The Council of State and various secret committees worked out plans. Consequently, in 1861, a decree was promulgated and by the Edict of Emancipation serfdom was abolished. The architects of the emancipation manifesto were Alexander’s brother Konstantin and two members of civil service namely Yakov Rostovtse and Nikolay Milyutin. Principles of the Edict- 1. It gave the Russian serf civil rights, conferring upon him the status of a free peasant. Thus, he was freed from his master’s bondage. 2. To prevent the growth of a landless proletariat, it divided the ownership of soil between the nobles and the peasants. 3. The lord was to receive an amount of money as compensation. Initially, the state would provide it. Later, it was to be paid by the peasants in instalments over a period of forty-nine years. 4. Land was not to be given to the peasant in form of personal ownership. Instead, there would exist communal ownership upon the village group or mir to which the peasant would be ​ attached. 5. The mir held the land and was collectively responsible for the ​ ​ payment made to the lord as compensation. Despite these terms, the benefits of the emancipation could not fully be reaped both by the peasants and lords. For the peasants, the disadvantages were- ​ ● Land assigned to the peasants was generally small and of poor quality insufficient for sustenance. ● This robbed the peasant of the incentive to improve the land’s productivity. Shortage of food grains became frequent.

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● Since the peasant had to pay for his redemption, his financial burden increased. Viewing the dissatisfaction, outstanding arrears had to be cancelled by 1905 to offset revolution. ● The mir exercised unlimited control on the peasant. Since it ​ paid for the redemption money, the peasant was not free to go anywhere on his will. For the lords too, the disadvantages were many. ​ ● Thousands of lords lost their free labour supply. ● Being used to the earlier situation for generations, they faced difficulty in adapting themselves to the new situation. ● The bonds they received as compensation money were not converted in cash. Thus, on evaluation, one finds that there were many shortcomings and the emancipation failed to bring about a wind of change. Nevertheless, the fame of Alexander II rests in history largely due to this reform. Such a move had already been taken in Western Europe way back in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. In Eastern Europe, it was Czar Alexander II who went ahead to grant freedom to serfs. For this, he is known as ‘Czar Liberator’. 2. REFORMS IN THE JUDICIAL SYSTEM ​ The old judicial system of Russia contained at least twenty-five defects. This had called for the attention of Czar Alexander II way back in 1858 when he set up a commission headed by an officer of the Ministry of Law. Based on its suggestions and drawing from the judicial systems of England and , he brought out far reaching changes in 1862. Its main features were ● Separation of the judiciary from the executive ● Trial by jury ● Introduction of the new penal code ● Simplification of the civil and criminal procedure ● A provincial court was set up in each province to settle civil and criminal matters

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● The provincial courts were placed under ten high courts or ‘Chambers of Peace’ ● The right to appoint the judges of the provincial and high courts rested solely with the Czar ● Courts were given the sole right to dismiss the judges ● ‘Justice of Peace’ was given the right to deal with petty cases in rural areas With passage of time, Czar’s efforts bore fruit.

3. EDUCATIONAL REFORMS ​ In 1862, secondary education of girls was brought under the control of the Ministry. In 1863, he went for nominal decontrol of the University faculties. In 1864, two reforms were introduced- that of local self- government and judicial reforms. 4. LOCAL SELF- GOVERNMENT ​ The decree of January 1864 instituted a measure of regional or local self-government through bodies called . In them, three ​ ​ bodies of property holders- the nobles, townsmen and peasants respectively, elected district assembly and later, nominated delegates to their provincial assemblies. It was gradually introduced in all the provinces. Such assemblies dealt with communications, famine relief and hospitals. They supervised local trade and agriculture and above all, education. This was a kind of ‘social revolution’. Despite excessive autocratic control, through such Zemstvos, a definite step was taken ​ ​ towards representative government. In 1870, municipal councils were set up in towns. A new rural and municipal police under Minister of the Interior was set up. 5. MILITARY REFORMS ​ Viewing the Russian debacle in the Crimean War, Alexander II had realized the need for introducing military reforms. He appointed Dmitry Milyutin to supervise the changes. They included

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● enforced on peasantry in 1861, was extended to all classes in January 1874, thus becoming universal conscription ● Reserve forces were extended ● Russian was divided into fifteen military districts ● For the military, railway lines were laid down at strategic places ● in the military and branding of soldiers as punishment were banned.

6. ECONOMIC REFORMS ​ Alexander II tried to stimulate trade and industry. For this, he took the following measures- ● In 1861, Bank of Russia was created ● By the law of 1862, the autocracy was asked to shed some of its privileges ● Textile industry was mechanized ● Communication was improved by a great network of railways. They served the dual purpose of developing the natural resources and defence of the country Such measures ensured freedom which boosted up trade and industry considerably in the and 1870s. Many limited liability companies were also created. The Czar’s reformist zeal continued till his assassination bid in 1866. Thereafter, he unleashed a strong reactionary policy which continued till his death. He began to replace liberal ministers with conservatives. Liberal university courses and subjects encouraging critical thinking had to make way for more traditional curriculum. From 1871 onwards, only students from gimnaziya schools could progress to university. In ​ ​ 1879, governors- general were appointed for prosecuting soldiers in military courts and to send the political offenders to exile. Trials were generally held with the purpose of cautioning against revolutionary activity.

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HIS FOREIGN POLICY

It was a combination of reform and suppression.

Policy towards Finland As the , he favoured reforms with the belief that compared to Russia, reforms in Finland had a better chance to succeed because it was an underpopulated and homogeneous country. Also, its people had shown loyalty towards Russia in the Crimean War and during Polish uprising. In 1863, Alexander II re- convened the Diet of Finland and initiated several reforms which increased Finland’s autonomy within the . These were as follows- 1. He helped Finland establish her own currency, the Finnish markka. 2. Finland got its first railways with entirely her own administration 3. The got the status of a 4. Liberation of business gave impetus to foreign investment and industrial development.

Policy towards Poland Poland had undergone great turmoil since the unsuccessful revolution of 1831. Deputies of Polish nobility inhabited Congress Poland, Western , , Levonia and . Alexander II advised them against having aspirations. From 1855 to 1861, Poland advanced rapidly and took up the question of the serfs by setting up an Agricultural Society. Its ruthless suppression by Alexander in 1861 led to violence which was crushed down heavily. Hurriedly, the Czar sent the liberal-minded Grand- Duke Constantine as the Viceroy but to no avail. In 1863-64, Poland was once again in chaos. Alexander then, stripped Poland of its separate constitution and incorporated it directly in Russia. A policy of complete

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‘’ was unleashed. Russian language was declared the national language and its instruction was made compulsory. Russian officers replaced the Polish ones. The Roman Catholics were divested of their religious rights and prerogatives. was introduced in Lithuania in 1863 and it lasted for the next forty years. There was a ban on native languages such as Lithuanian, Ukranian and Belarussian from the printed texts. Except in Congress Poland, was banned. Due to the sympathies of the French ruler Napoleon III with Poland, the Czar came closer to Prussia. So, the Czar followed a repressive policy in Poland.

Policy towards Czar Alexander II was able to secure the independence of Bulgaria following the treaties of San Stefano and Berlin in1878 after defeating the Ottoman Turks in the Russo- Turkish War of 1877-78. For the first time since 1396 the Bulgarian parliamentarians elected their ruler. The Czar’s nephew Prince became the first ruler of Bulgaria. For his social reforms in Russia and his role in the liberation of Bulgaria, Alexander II came to be known as the ‘Czar Liberator of the and ’.

AN ASSESSMENT OF HIS REFORMS

Czar Alexander II’s reforms met with stiff resistance from the Nihilists who believed in absolute freedom and desisted control by any authority, parliamentary form of government and jury. They believed in bringing about a new order by destroying the previous one by force. After 1866, in wake of the Czar’s severe repression, they became all the more active. Many other groups began to do the same and more attempts to assassinate him ensued between 1879 and 1881. Finally, he was killed on 13th March,1881. It is said that Alexander II’s reforms failed to achieve much and he remained a liberal for only a decade of his reign. His reforms failed to

Dr Divya Kumar, B D College, Patliputra University, Patna. 10 achieve much: he was not really a liberal in his thoughts but brought forth the reforms because they were imperative at that time. Simultaneously, he kept the royal prerogatives unscathed. However, undeniably he loved Russia and tried his best to keep intact its prestige. His series of reforms brought his country to the forefront in the line of Western nations and with all certainty, he can be compared to Peter the Great in many ways.

PROBABLE QUESTION

1. Discuss the reforms of Czar Alexander the Second.

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