Thesis: Female Representation in TV: the case of the superhero genre

Eftychia Misailidou

Master’s Programme in Media and Communication Studies: Culture, Collaborative Media, and Creative Industries Supervisor: Margareta Melin 2018/19 Submission date: Word count: 10.593

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Table of Contents 1. Introduction ...... 3 2. Literature Review ...... 4 2. 1. The Social Problem ...... 4 2.2. The constructionist approach to representation and the need to investigate current culture ...... 5 2.3. Stages of representation by Cedric Clark ...... 6 2.4. Feminist Media Theory ...... 7 2.4.1. The Gaze ...... 7 2.4.2. The Female Gaze ...... 8 2.5 Previous Research ...... 8 2.5.1. Women on Screen and Behind the Scenes in Television ...... 8 2.5.2. Gendered Roles on Television ...... 9 3. Theoretical Framework ...... 10 3. 1. Social Learning Theory ...... 10 3.2. Parasocial Interaction ...... 11 4. Research Aim ...... 12 4.1. Research Questions ...... 12 4.2. Researcher’s Stance ...... 12 5. Methodology ...... 13 5.1. Content Analysis ...... 13 5.2. Sample ...... 14 5. 3. Units of Analysis ...... 15 5.4. Code Book ...... 15 5.5. Methodology discussion ...... 17 6. Findings ...... 17 7. Discussion ...... 21 7.1 Terms of Presence ...... 21 7.2 Gender-based representation ...... 22 7.3 State of representation ...... 23 7.4 The difference between platforms ...... 24 7.5 The effect of Globalization: multidimensional representations or cultural imperialism? ...... 25 8. Implications and Suggestions ...... 26 9. Conclusion ...... 26

List of Figures Figure 1: Characters ...... 18 Figure 2: Leading & In Action ...... 18 Figure 3: Competence ...... 19 Figure 4:Warmth ...... 20

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1. Introduction

While studying sex differences in reinforcement and punishment on prime-time television, Downs and Gowan (1980) discussed about how television can be one of the most influential factors in the development of children’s sex-role stereotypes, quoting many other scholars and authors suggesting that television may “offer an even more stereotypic view of the sexes than other sources (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1974). The year was 1980 and the conclusion came from various researchers that male performers on prime-time television exceeded the number of female characters.

The fact that more than four decades of research and studying television produces the same quantitative results in terms of percentages of male and female characters, reveals much more than the fact that we are still focusing on the importance of television in constructing perceptions and identities.

Even though semiology may not be the most fitting approach to study the main questions of representation, we could borrow some of its main elements to highlight why female representation in TV series is such a culturally crucial subject.

Like discourse analysis, semiology offers the opportunity to discover the meaning that media generates. Successfully communicating and understanding the media meaning involves shared societal system of understanding (Hodkinson, 2017). Barthes (1968) distinguishes the concepts of denotation and connotation in conveying meaning. Denotation relates to an immediate level of meaning, instantly recognized across cultures, while connotation relates to how culture may influence the given, associative meaning.

What those concepts imply is that when the audience watches Sara Lance in TV series DC’s Legends of Tomorrow, they understand immediately that she is a “badass” leader with human qualities, and in a deeper level, that women can be feminine and desirable while also performing activities commonly associated with masculinity; can enjoy a steady and normal relationship while prioritizing their career, be bisexual while having the respect of their peers and…well, surviving, escaping thus the “burry your gays trope”.

This study aims to combine feminist media theory and popular culture to try to evaluate the impact of contemporary media texts. To do so, first we require the appropriate data framework, which is lacking in the particular genre. Filling this way a gap in research on female characters in American superhero TV series and also contributing to the discussion about female representation by presenting unavailable data. The aim is to conclude on the numbers and nature of female representation in the genre and determine whether common gendered characteristics of hypermasculinity and hyperfemininity are being adopted.

During this study, 20 American TV series of the superhero genre in the season of 2018-2019 have been analyzed, using content analysis and by borrowing variables from other relevant

3 studies, so that a definite comparison between genres could be made. The series have been analyzed both in a series and a character level, with characters providing mostly behavioral insights. Because we are consuming entertainment content in a media world of various different platforms, a distinction and comparison between traditional networks and streaming services was necessary.

2. Literature Review

2. 1. The Social Problem

“The clock has run out on sexual assault, harassment and inequality in the workplace. It’s time to do something about it”. This is the statement listed in Time’s Up Movement website. In late 2017 and 2018 we have experienced an instrumental shift in news narrative, as well as consecutive revelations about sexual harassment cases in Hollywood. The social activism, spreading in Social Media with hashtags such as #MeToo and #TimesUp and the empowerment of high profile female professionals sharing openly with the rest of the world what was perceived as common knowledge and unspoken truth, led to the admission of one unbearable facts.

We are indeed living times of crises, however those do not always resemble natural catastrophes, political crises or the doom of nuclear and fanatical war. For all our evolution and civilization pretense, contemporary western societies still exist in social inequalities.

There is a big discussion right now on so many aspects of female representation in popular culture, especially in mainstream genres such as the superhero movies. In May 2017, we witnessed the re-birth of one of the world’s most popular superheroes, the most famous female among them, Wonder Woman. The movie became the -then- only DC movie both cinephiles and critics respected and broke a few box office records. In actress Gal Gadot we got to be inspired by a superhero who is mentally healthy. This Wonder Woman taught the audience a lot about compassion, justice and love. Her belief that not only superheroes can step up, but individuals as well by self- improvement, was prominent throughout the film.

Diana Prince, a.k.a. Wonder Woman could be the ambassador of positive psychology, the scientific study of positive human functioning as Seligman, Peterson and Csikszentmihalyi (2004) have envisioned it. They all believe that there are several aspects that make life worth living and we as people are inclined to fight for them. Diana believes love is one of them. William Molten Marston, the creator of Wonder Woman, contends that women are better equipped to assume emotional leadership, because there isn’t love enough in the male organism to rule this planet peacefully.

On March 2018, after 20 movies and 20 years of a cinematic universe that stands as one of the biggest cultural phenomena of our times, Marvel Studios presented their first female-led movie, with Captain Marvel as depicted by actress Brie Larsson. In its first weeks of official existence Captain Marvel received several contradictory reactions, from trolls of the internet posting inaccurate negative critics for the movie before its release, critics praising aspects of the movie, and audience flocking to the theatres to watch the introduction of a character promised to change the universe, while breaking several records and achieving great commercial success. Marvel Studios timely scheduled the movie premiere around International Women’s Day.

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Both superheroes differ a lot from their male counterparts. In a cultural world full of broken anti-heroes, full of arrogant Tony Starks and Supermen that do not feel in peace with their extra-ordinary nature, both Wonder Woman and Captain Marvel teach us a lot about moral values and justice; they change our ideas about ideal women and established gender roles. Society divides tasks based on gender. Those characters implicate love, kindness and nurture, alongside power, intelligence, resiliency, energy. These are the heroes that young girls around the world may want to imitate.

Long before their appearance though, the small screen has been presenting female characters in superhero series, making them a part of audience’s everyday life. Television series may lack the magnitude of exposure blockbuster movies enjoy, but because of their frequency and periodicity have the potential to affect the audience even more. Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) argues that the researcher should examine characters with whom audiences identify the most, because those are the ones they would likely imitate.

The problem lies in the identification of the nature of those characters in TV, their qualitative characteristics and their importance inside those series. Arrow (The CW, 2012-) for example, which is admittedly the first superhero TV series of the new era that launched a lift-off for the genre and the development of several other series, has been presenting powerful female characters from its inception. Those characters’ features may differ dramatically from Captain Marvel or Wonder Woman. Supergirl (The CW, 2015 - ) on the other hand, which originated from the same universe as Arrow, clearly differentiates in the number of female characters, the lead being female, the number of female characters in power, and many others.

It is implied that a wider and deeper study of female superhero characters in TV is necessary, in order to be able to describe the genre. This is what Layder (2013) suggests as the central problem issue: “the question of how human behavior both shapes, and is shaped by the wider social environment in which it is embedded”.

2.2. The constructionist approach to representation and the need to investigate current culture

"When those who have the power to name and to socially construct reality choose not to see you or hear you ... when someone with the authority of a teacher … describes the world and you are not in it, there is a moment of psychic disequilibrium, as if you looked in the mirror and saw nothing" ( Rich, 1986, p166).

Stuart Hall (1997) suggested that there are three approaches to representation; the reflective, where meaning is thought to lie in the object, the intentional that posits the opposite case with the author imposing their meaning through language, and the constructionist. From those three approaches to representation, the constructionist may be better able to shed a light to the importance of the subject.

According to this approach, things or individuals cannot fix meanings in language. There is of course the material world where things exist, but meaning is being produced by social actors who use conceptual and linguistic systems to make the world meaningful (Hall, 2013). Social actors use arbitrary, not permanently fixed signs to symbolize concepts. In a culture though meaning depends not only on single signs but on groups of signs, on discourses across a range of texts (Foucault, 1972).

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Representation is important for all audiences, but especially for younger audiences who learn the conventions of the culture they belong to. Children “ unconsciously internalize the codes which allow them to express certain concepts and ideas through their systems of representation… and to interpret ideas which are communicated to them using the same systems” (Hall, 2013).

This is how we all belong to a culture, by developing the same conceptual and linguistic universe. For those who are in the position to construct meanings, there is a certain amount of responsibility to equip the audiences with the right meanings. Correct and right may not be the most suitable word, since it is a very arguable concept. Truthful, empowering and inspiring may be more appropriate.

Imagine the effects of the symbolic annihilation pictured by Rich, especially the psychosocial ones on minority “children's developing sense of personal and social identity and perceptions of one another” (Merskin,2008). Or better yet, the positive effects of positive representation.

Seems implausible to accept that Jessica Jones (of the Netflix series “Marvel’s Jessica Jones”) could affect an individual’s psychology in the real world? Yet, it has been proved regularly that television does affect our psychology, and while following the adventures of characters we can relate to, we construct and accept our identity. Those results tend to multiply and invigorate when related to minorities or underrepresented social members, in unprecedented ways.

High school musical Glee (2009-2015) has been effective beyond screen, intersecting pop culture and social issues (Johnson & Faill, 2009) because the show’s content dealt with issues relevant to its target audience, and its characters were so amazingly different from what other high school shows presented, that felt representative of its fans. As farfetched as it might appear, fans of Glee have openly expressed their gratitude towards the show because it saved their lives or set them free of social and cultural oppressions.

2.3. Stages of representation by Cedric Clark

There is a theory about media representation of minority groups by communications scholar Cedric Clark, that though developed with ethnic and racial minorities in mind, is useful for various oppressed groups (Fitzgerald, 2010). In 1969, Clark outlined in an editorial in Television Quarterly his model of predictable stages of treatment in television depictions, due to the commercial nature of the medium. He proposed that there are four stages of minority representation, reflecting the status quo social structure (Fitzgerald, 2010):

1. Non - recognition: A given minority group is not acknowledged by the dominant media to even exist 2. Ridicule: Certain minority characters are portrayed as stupid, silly, lazy, irrational, or simply laughable 3. Regulation: Certain minority characters are presented as enforcers or administrators of the dominant group’s norms 4. Respect: The minority group in question is portrayed no differently than any other group. Interracial relationships would also not appear extraordinary

Although all four stages are of importance, we can highlight two that stand out. Clark suggests that the second stage of ridicule has a striking effect: “The group that is being ridiculed feels that is better, at least, than being ignored. Concurrently, by having a ridicule group to laugh at, members of the dominant culture feel a boost to their self-esteem.”

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Another interesting outcome is how ridicule reactions of protest or violence by the portrayed group lead to regulation. As a way to settle the score, out of the sudden the previously ridiculed group is now portrayed only on the right or normal stage of society.

2.4. Feminist Media Theory

Mainstream national media choose to either under-represent specific groups, or represent them in stereotypical ways. I will not characterize women as a minority in general, but I will borrow the term and consider them as a minority in media for the sake of stereotypical argument. Hall points out how stereotypes may have several effects to the minority group (Hodkinson 2017): a. affect the way they are treated by the dominant majority b. impact the self-esteem and sense of belonging of the group, leading to c. the possibility of development of separate values and identities.

Butler (1990) states that gender should be understood as a series of performances based on what we understand to be female and male. “Gender can be thought of as something that we do rather than something that we are (Hodkinson 2017).

Feminist media theory concerns itself with power and takes gender seriously, as an element that structures identity (Steiner, 2014).

2.4.1. The Gaze

The gaze – “the realization of being seen and interpreted by others, and adjusting one’s conduct accordingly”(Moe, 2015) - has been a central concept within feminist theory, and especially in visual popular media it is related to the male gaze. The male gaze refers to settings where female characters are being created predominantly by heterosexual men, who assess and judge them through their scope and based on their physical appearance.

Building on previous work on “the gaze” by intellectuals and social theorists, such as Jean- Paul Sartre (1958) and Michael Foucaoult (1975), Laura Mulvey in her essay “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema” (1975) was among the first feminists to extend the notion to the oppressive effects on socialization on women. She studied the visual arts and recognized the gender asymmetry of entertainment industries, where “the portrayal of women in various forms of film were primarily aesthetic in purpose” (Moe, 2015).

What Mulvey stated then, is that in male-dominated media landscape, women can only identify with a passive object to be looked at, and that gives them a “presence” (Oliver, 2017). In result, people understood that women have no agency in media, no identity. Mulvey continued her work on the male gaze, throughout the decades. By highlighting Mulvey’s work through different situations, Oliver (2017) suggests in an article that the male gaze is more relevant, and more dangerous than ever.

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2.4.2. The Female Gaze

Actress Alyssa Milano is a vocal advocate of public breastfeeding, emphasizing the problem of the current debate in the hyper-sexualization of breasts by society, when their biological function is breastfeeding. Following her actions, Raeann Ritland (2018) analyzed “the visual design and composition of four distinct breastfeeding photographs posted by Alyssa Milano to her Instagram. Milano used visual elements from the male gaze - exposed female body, intimate camera angles and shots, soft and subtle lighting – to destigmatize breastfeeding.

With this case Ritland is attempting to show the ability to disrupt the male gaze. The Milano example ingeniously demonstrates what Kaplan (2010) has previously asked: “is the gaze necessarily male?” The Female Gaze by Gamman and Marshment (1988) suggests that work presented from a female perspective can challenge the patriarchal status quo.

Kaplan (2010) reminds us of the existing dichotomies in narrative: male/female; dominant/submissive; active/passive; nature/civilization; order/chaos; matriarchal/patriarchal. To overcome those, female characters should do more than simply occupy the masculine role.

In the cultural industry during the past few years women have made some progress as filmmakers and producers, allowing diverse female characters to emerge in TV and film. Which only points to the importance of production status.

When talking about media and their effects, we rarely or lastly consider about production. We talk about content and context and the user, but not the starting point of the media text: who made it and how (Mayer, 2013). This is puzzling because subsequently we tend to ignore critical questions like, who decides what is to be produced? Do the media give people what they want? And do people know what they want?

Production is extremely important though, because it is indicative of changes in the popularization and industrialization of culture, of cultural transformation and it may provide an answer to our main questions (Habernas, 1991). The word “production” infers both a basic human quality and a social process (Mayer, 2013).

Mayer provides an insightful point in the need for studying production related to the need to understand producers’ relationship to ideology, how they understand and communicate the world. Producers seem to possess an enormous and determinant power over content creation. If specific content does not fit their ideology or interests, it does not get produced.

2.5 Previous Research

2.5.1. Women on Screen and Behind the Scenes in Television

Every year, the Center for the Study of Women in Television & Film from the San Diego State University tracks representation of women in prime-time television. Because it has been compiling a report called “ Boxed In 2017-18: Women On Screen and Behind the Scenes in Television” for 26 years, the project could defined as the most comprehensive historical

8 record on the subject. It examines dramas, comedies, and reality programs appearing on the broadcast networks, basic and premium cable channels, and streaming services (Boxed In, 2018). Although the entire report presents thought-provoking findings, I will concentrate on those most relevant to this paper. By studying separately programs across platforms the study states that (Lauzen 2018):

1. Overall, 68% of the programs considered featured casts with more male than female characters in 2017-18. This presents no change from 2016-2017. 2. Across platforms, females comprised 40% of all speaking characters and 40% of major characters. 3. By platform, females accounted for 41% of all speaking characters on broadcast network programs, 40% on cable programs, and 39% on streaming programs. 4. The percentage of female characters featured on broadcast network programs in 2017-18 was lower than it was nearly a decade earlier in 2007-08. 5. Overall, female characters were younger than males. 6. Viewers were more likely to know the occupational status of male characters than female characters, while males were more likely than females to be seen at work and actually working. 7. Female characters were more likely than male characters to play personal life-oriented roles such as wife and mother. 8. Males were twice as likely as females to be portrayed as leaders. 9. Overall, women comprised 27% of creators, directors, writers, executive producers, producers, editors, and directors of photography working on broadcast network, cable, and streaming programs in 2017-18. This represents a decline of 1 percentage point from 28% in 2016-17. 69% of programs employed 5 or fewer women in the behind-the-scenes roles. 10. Women comprised 22% of creators working on all of the programs considered in 2017-18. This represents a decline of 1 percentage point from 23% in 2016-17. 11. Programs with at least 1 woman creator featured more major female characters than programs with exclusively male creators. 12. On programs with at least 1 woman creator, females comprised 47% of major characters. On programs with exclusively male creators, females accounted for 38% of major characters. 13. On programs with at least 1 woman creator, women comprised 27% of directors. On programs with exclusively male creators, women accounted for 13% of directors.

2.5.2. Gendered Roles on Television

Numerous studies have examined the role of character gender in primetime television. Hether & Murphy (2009) used content analysis to study 1,291 health-related storylines from the ten most popular American television programs in the span of three seasons, intending to measure “ the frequency of male and female characters in prominent roles and how storylines differed with the sex of the ill or injured character”. Results showed a significantly higher number of male characters, while their stories were more educational, serious and likely to take place in a medical setting.

Fisher et al. did a content analysis on 3,000 programs from the 2001-2002 and 2002-2003 TV seasons, focusing on LGBT representation. McDade-Montez (2016) studied the sexualization of young characters. She did a content analysis of 32 episodes from the ten most popular children’s TV series and revealed that female characters were more commonly

9 portrayed in a sexualized manner than were male characters.

A quantitative content analysis by Sink & Mastro (2017) analysed the depictions of gender on primetime Television. They analyzed 89 programs and 1,252 characters across 9 broadcast and cable networks, stating that contrary to popular belief the current state of primetime television does not comprise a golden age for female characters. They pointed that female characters are still under-represented in comparison to male, and that there are several gender stereotypes persisting in Television; stereotypes such as the dominant man or the sexually provocative woman.

In fact, sexuality is one of the most prominent portrayal of women on television (Scharrer, 2012), while Dill & Thill’s (2007) research emphasize that the most common gendered portrayal is that of “hyper-masculinity” and “hyper-femininity”. Scharrer (2012) links hypermasculinity to the acceptance of physical violence as inevitable for male behavior and a desire for action and adventure.

Dill & Thill’s research also highlights commonly held notions, that women should be the objects of men’s heterosexual fantasies. Portrayals of women in media are often described as negative (Collins, 2007). Greenberg (1980) found that males gave more orders and made more plans than female characters in primetime programming.

In summary, most of the analyses in TV content are using the method of content analysis, probably because there is a need to gather data and establish connections. Yet, there is a shortage of analysis in the specific genre, with most of the research focusing generally on primetime series or on drama series. Some new studies are beginning to discuss differences in content platforms. Lastly, but most importantly, depictions of gender on television reveal two consistent patterns (Sink & Mastro, 2017). Women appear at a rate below their proportion of the U.S. population, which could consequently be applied for other countries that are watching U.S. series. And they are “largely confined to a narrow set of roles on television that emphasize sexuality, idealized beauty standards, and gender stereotypic occupations/lifestyles” (Scharrer, 2012).

3. Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of this study is guided by the theories of Social Learning Theory and Parasocial Interaction.

3. 1. Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) argues that researchers should examine characters with whom audiences identify the most, because those are the ones they would likely imitate. In his research spanning 30 years (1977, 1986, 2002, 2004) he demonstrated that people are more likely to mimic a behavior demonstrated, than one simply recommended. “Seeing someone similar to oneself overcome obstacles and succeed in the face of adversity enhances individuals’ beliefs in their own abilities—or self-efficacy—with regard to a particular behavior” (Hether & Murphy, 2009).

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He also proposes a set of factors that increase the probability that models would influence the behavior of the observer (Potter & Ware, 1987), which includes characteristics about the observer’s behavior, learning process and conditions of performing learned behaviors. Later, Bandura (2001) also pointed that media influence the audience socially by connecting individuals to particular social settings.

Social Learning Theory has been used as a theoretical framework to study specific media effects on behavior; indeed research has shown a definite connection between media exposure and sexual conduct, aggressive behaviors, and addictive behaviors (Paredes, Cantu & Graf, 2013).

3.2. Parasocial Interaction

Another theory underlying the importance of television is that of Parasocial Interaction, that explains how younger audiences select character rs in TV shows to look up to as role models (Giles, 2009). Moreover, through the regularity of interactions embedded in television programs, audiences form relationships and turn to those characters for guidance. Representation in TV gets even more important because of the probability for young children and adults to turn to same-sex characters, thinking of them as role models (Hoffner, 1996).

Parasocial interaction is firmly related to the psychology of imaginary relationships (Cohen, 2004) and lately researchers study the relationships viewers form with TV characters, not solely in terms of idolization and imitation, but in a more interactive way, similarly to how they study other types of social relationships (Rubin & McHugh, 1987).

Initially defined as intimacy at a distance (Horton & Wohl, 1956) and seen as a poor substitute for the lonely, now parasocial relationships are considered as a more respectable form of relationships (Cohen, 2004). Rubin et al. (1985) stated that viewers tend to think of their favorite characters as old friends.

In relation to television, it makes absolute sense for the viewers to form that kind of relationship with specific characters. It lies in the nature of the medium, and more specifically in its techniques of storytelling. To ensure a stable audience, creators and producers have to follow approaches that provide the viewer the opportunity to do more than passively watch an episode. Especially in cases of shows that air on national networks with the traditional schedule of one episode per week, those relationships have the ground to grow. Not only because of the larger amount of time one spends with a character, but also because they follow discussions on plot and storylines, spoilers, cliffhangers, or interviews of the actors.

Several studies using attachment theory, have indicated the effect of those relationships to the viewer. Cole and Leets (1999) presented the fact that parasocial relationships are more often formed by anxiously attached television viewers. Cohen’s study (2004) showed that breaking those relationships – when a show is ending or a character leaves the show - leads to negative emotions, “similar to those experienced after the dissolution of social relationships”.

Other studies showed that a preoccupied attachment style in viewers is connected with people using characters as idealized mirrors for the self (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2004). Greenwood, Pietromonaco & Long’s research (2008) pointed out the importance of understanding who is more vulnerable to develop role models out of media icons and the association in the process, because those role models may not always be beneficial and 11 healthy. Their study also proved that “the domains of wanting to be like and look like a same-sex character are the most salient interpersonal parasocial motivations for anxious ambivalent women”.

4. Research Aim

4.1. Research Questions

The aim of this study is to fill the gap of detailed description of the presence of female characters in American superhero TV series. The following research questions relate to some essential information needed to conclude on representation:

RQ1: How are female characters in the superhero TV series represented in comparison to male characters? RQ2: Are female characters in the superhero TV series under or over represented in terms of presence, in relation to time on screen and time speaking? RQ3: Are female characters in superhero TV series represented with gender-based characteristics?

Research Question 1 relates to the total state of representation in this specific genre and does the necessary comparison with male characters. There could be no conclusion if we did not know not only what is the portrayal of women in the genre, but also if it differs to that of men and in what way. Research Question 2 relates to more practical aspects, which in television and film relate to time on screen, importance of character to the narrative and the viewer or even time speaking. Although some of those aspects in contemporary storytelling may not reveal enough just on their own.

One of the most important questions for female representation in general and in this genre specifically, in my opinion, is whether female characters are developed with traditional gender-related characteristics. Representation does not equal only presence, therefore positive representation must connect to characteristics a role model should have. It is not the same for this genre to have a female character as a supporting relation to a male protagonist and to be at the center of the narrative and action.

4.2. Researcher’s Stance

As a growing child, student, media editor, advertising professional, and then student once more, I have always found how specific media texts can affect our lives, personalities, identities and actions, simply fascinating. I believe that most of us choose parts of culture and we attach our thoughts and worries to them, in part because we don’t understand pieces of ourselves, in part because we need role models and stories to encourage and empower us.

I also believe that specific social groups are more in need of positive media representation than others, exactly because they do not get it, because they have to fight for it. Might it be related to gender, race, sexual orientation, or other factors much simpler, like a growing kid that seeks imagination and creativity that they cannot enjoy in their real life.

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That is why I have almost exclusively followed that kind of subjects whenever I get the opportunity to do research. There is also a level of personal involvement in that, because I feel that I have been empowered by media myself.

On the other hand, popular culture that involves science fiction or is comics - based is culture I love, and therefore I should point from the beginning that there is some enthusiasm in my working with those texts. Also, I have been following all the selected TV series from the beginning, and I am fairly acquainted with their characters and storylines.

Blaikie ( 2009) mentions that as researchers we have to decide what kind of relationship we have with the researched, independently from the selected method. Borrowing from Blaikie, I would say that I am more like an insider, “thoroughly immersed in that social world”.

5. Methodology

5.1. Content Analysis

In order to gather the initial information required by the research aim, I have chosen to use the method of content analysis, defined briefly as “the systematic and replicable examination of symbols of communication, which have been assigned numeric values according to valid measurement rules, and the analysis of relationships involving those values using statistical methods, to describe the communication, draw inferences about its meaning, or infer from the communication to its context, both of production and consumption.” (Riffe, Lacy & Fico, 2014).

There are various reasons why a researcher would choose this method. Of the most important are reliability and validity, as Krippendorff (1980) emphasized. Another relates to the objective and systematic process (Berelson, 1952), that allows the analysis to be carried again and by different researchers and maybe with different sampling. Content analysis forms “replicable and valid inferences from data to their context” (Krippendorff, 1980, p. 21) and “is a systematic and objective means of describing and quantifying phenomena,” (Elo & Kyngas, 2008, p. 108).

While studying media texts such as television series, it is important to study both manifest and latent content (Krippendorff, 1980). Both the superficial content of the text and its underlying, as implied by latent content can illuminate the subject of analysis. In order to study latent content, some kind of qualitative analysis must be made (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). Qualitative interpretation allows the researcher to describe and to be unfettered by a yes/no choice (Burtt, 2013). “By moving back and forth between these approaches [qualitative and quantitative] that the investigator is most likely to gain insight...” (Holsti, 1969).

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As Skill & Wallace (1990) assert, content analysis may not be the appropriate method to establish a cause-effect relationship with audience behavior, but it is able to “provide important insight into the nature and range of models and strategies that are available to the viewing audience”.

5.2. Sample

Deciding on the sample for this analysis has mostly been an easy task, because the framework of the media text itself provided me with the right direction. Since I have chosen to analyze superhero TV series, I had to look at the series of American networks listed at this genre. The networks I looked on include all broadcast and cable networks, and streaming services. The ones that have relevant series on their program are: The CW, ABC, Fox, Freeform, FX, SyFy, Netflix, and DC Universe.

In order to make the sample as contemporary as possible, I have decided to look primarily at current media texts. Therefore, my initial list includes TV series that have been airing during the season of 2018-2019. With those parameters the list includes 20 series:

1. Marvel’s The Punisher 2. The Flash 3. Titans 4. Arrow 5. Marvel’s Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. 6. Supergirl 7. The Gifted 8. Marvel’s Jessica Jones 9. Iron Fist 10. Luke Cage 11. Marvel Runaways 12. Black Lightning 13. Legion 14. Cloak & Dagger 15. Krypton 16. DC’s Legends of Tomorrow 17. Gotham 18. Daredevil 19. Wynonna Earp 20. The Umbrella Academy

In order to decide on which episode from each series to analyze, I have first decided to exclude the season premiere and finale episodes, because they usually differentiate from the rest episodes of the season for reasons of narrative and drawing audiences. In the case of The Flash, Arrow and Supergirl, I had also to exclude episodes of their crossover event, “Elsewords”, which are always special and contain distinguished storylines and sometimes characters as well.

Then, to ensure consistency, I have decided to examine the third episode of the season for each series. This have been a good choice, because the storylines for the season have already

14 been set, and having avoided the narratively special episodes as mentioned above, I could also avoid the so called “filler” episodes for the series with longer seasons (20-22 episodes).

Filler episodes are the ones with no apparent connection to the main storyline of the season, that are added because the screenwriters need to reach a specific number of episodes for the season. Those are usually un-interesting, but most importantly, atypical for the series. Therefore, any conclusions based on filler episodes would be non-representative.

5. 3. Units of Analysis

Both the character and the interaction between characters were the subject of the coding. At the character level, all characters speaking in the episode were included, with major and leading characters adhering to the definitions providing in the code book (as presented in Appendix I). As per other studies, characters with fewer than two lines have not been coded.

Based on other relevant studies, interactions between characters are defined as “exchange containing at least four conversational “turns” or utterances” (Sink & Mastro, 2017). Where this study deviates from others is the included nonverbal interactions, because of the nature of the genre, especially since a usual episode in a superhero series includes interactions in a fight scene or sequence.

5.4. Code Book

In order to decide on the variables that should be examined, I had to look deeper into previous content analyses regarding female representation on TV. The extensive research in Television in general, as well as in other genres has already provided interesting examples of measurements, that could be combined to study the superhero genre.

Therefore, it seemed wise to borrow from those previous studies, using some of the variables they have been establishing to research the quantity and quality of gendered representations. Not only because it would be easier for a novice content analysis researcher like me, but because I could later make correlations with other genres or the total of U.S. series.

As mentioned above, the Center for the Study of Women in Television & Film from the San Diego State University measures the number of characters in all Television, as wells as the differences between network types, which seems more and more relevant to the discussion.

For the reader who is new to the different types of American television’s scripted series, it may seem odd to discuss about the different organizational modes, or more accurately business models in the various networks. Nonetheless, the three “platforms” differ essentially and it is of interest to ascertain whether Crane’s (1992) concept of culture world is relevant; whether organizational structure and culture affect the output in superhero female characters.

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Starting with broadcast television, it should be mentioned that the five big networks, ABC, CBS, NBC, Fox, and The CW, resemble and represent the traditional media and the gatekeepers’ model. The main reason for that is that those networks mostly gain their money through advertising, and additionally through syndication. Making thus their content creation susceptible to what behavioral aspects of the target audience the advertisers want to focus on. They are less progressive and more vulnerable to criticism.

Cable networks on the contrary earn their money through subscriptions regardless of viewing numbers. Shows for them are mostly a vehicle for advertising (Slate, 2012). Traditionally they have been developing the most controversial and provocative series, because they do not have stated obligations to keep their content PG-13. Series such as The L Word (2004 – 2009), Breaking Bad (2008-2013), Californication (2007-2014), The Wire (2008-2018), Mad Men (2007- 2015), would have never aired in broadcast television.

Streaming services like Netflix may also depend on subscriptions, and are therefore free to develop more provocative content, but since their business model is global they have also the opportunity to be more diverse and “work on a wide variety of content to satisfy the diverse tastes of their global audience” (Forbes, 2016). Netflix uses in fact its inclusiveness constantly as a promotional tool, like the streaming service did during 2018 BET Awards with the campaign “Strong Black Lead”, celebrating black artists (Essense, 2018). Both inclusiveness and original content are means to drive sign-ups (Business Insider, 2018).

Another important variable according to the Center for the Study of Women in Television & Film is time speaking for any character, as well as the categorization of characters into major or not. It makes absolute sense to study those variables as well, because seeing a characters is not enough, but what they say, what they do and how often they do it, can lead not only to actual representation, but to actual emotional attachment with that character.

Also, I have incorporated in my research variables related to concepts such as “hypermasculinity” and “hyperfemininity” (Dill & Thill, 2007). The first is associated with macho characteristics, such as physical violence or the desire for action, and the latter with a dependence on male characters and the frequent sexual dominance from them.

Fiske et al (2002) pointed that previous research has found that people associate competence- related characteristics with men and warmth related characteristics with women. To measure how male and female characters differ on those, I followed the example of Sink & Mastro (2016) and some of the variables they have also used.

More specifically, I have borrowed the measurement of dominance, a characteristic associated with male characters, and measured it by measuring physical and verbal aggressiveness, and competence, which has been studied by measuring motivation and intelligence. To be defined as motivated a character would have to be driven or inspired to action. As intelligent based on the character’s demonstrated intellect. Verbal aggression was noted on instances of a character’s verbal assaults on other characters. Physical aggression did not measure just the tendency of a character to physically attack or harm another character, like Sink & Mastro did, but the actual moments of aggression. Those should be

16 distinguished from the moments a character was shown in action, because of the nature of the genre.

Hyperfemininity was measured by using a range of variables used in various other studies. Sexualization and likeability are characteristics that feel obsolete in contemporary genre depictions, therefore I used variables such as compassion, demonstrated affection and emotional distress. As compassionate a character is assessed if they use compassionate words to help someone else. Demonstrated affection was measured only for the character that initiated the action.

Finally, I have decided to incorporate some new variables, that in my opinion are linked to the specific genre and have not been studied – in extent – before. Those relate to the character being seen in action, using their powers if applicable, or being in a fight scene because of the storyline and not due to aggressiveness. A related sub-variable would be whether that character would go in a fight alone or with their team, and whether female characters would be more likely to do the latter.

Another variable, extremely related to the genre, would be that of leading. Superhero teams usually have a leader, many times effortlessly rising or following the status quo. The Avengers have Captain America or Iron Man, Justice League have Superman or Batman, the X-Men have Professor X, Fantastic Four have Mr. Fantastic. It seems interesting to investigate whether TV follows the male leader trope of comics and films.

5.5. Methodology discussion

Validity and reliability Those decisions vary from the aim of the research question to the object of analysis and the method and sampling. There is obviously a certain amount of subjectivity in the research design, which cannot be overlooked. Interested choices regarding the variables were made, even though impartiality is attempted in sampling by choosing randomly. Yet, by including variables related to masculinity and femininity, results will sure contribute to charged findings.

6. Findings

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Figure 1: Characters

In 214 major characters, 48% are female and 52% male, which is the exact same percentage in streaming series. In broadcast though, the gap is wider, with 45% female and 55% male, while in cable series the reverse happens – 55% female and 45% male. Interestingly enough, when observing lead characters the difference is non-existential, almost at 50%-50%. In fact, in streaming and cable series, female lead characters are slightly more than male. When discussing though about time on screen and time speaking, the results indicate an entirely different scene, with wider gaps.

Male major characters enjoy a clear lead both in time on screen -54% - and in time speaking – 52%. In time on screen, once again streaming services’ series seem to show the most equal distribution with female 50,5% and male 49,5%, and cable the biggest disparity, with 46% for female characters and 54% for male. For time speaking though the differences are bigger, with only streaming services to show a lead for female characters with 56%.

Figure 2: Leading & In Action

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More behavioral questions regarding characters’ actions and stance offer more diverse results. While measuring instances of characters leading their team or collaborators, female characters precede with a 60,9%, and cable broadening the lead with 66,7%. Female characters also appear in more instances in action, either using their powers or within a fight or action scene, with 54%, a percentage even bigger in streaming series, 58%.

Most of the characteristics that are usually gender-based representations, follow the prevalent manifestation with some intriguing exceptions, even though the genre could indicate their collapse. Male characters are more verbally – 67% and physically aggressive – 65%. Streaming services continue their trajectory to equality with 50%-50% in both cases, but broadcast networks demonstrate an entirely different case with male characters showing 100% of verbal aggression and 88,5% of physical.

Figure 3: Competence

In some cases though, superhero series seem to disturb the status quo regarding behavioral characteristics that relate to competence, a trait traditionally associated with male characters. More specifically female characters are more driven to action with 60% than male characters, with broadcast networks presenting a 67% and cable a 100%. When focusing on demonstrated intelligence though, a characteristic important and continuously apparent in this particular genre, male characters show a 55% with streaming (71% female – 29% male) and cable (12,5% female – 87,5% male) presenting the biggest discrepancies.

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Figure 4:Warmth

On the other hand, behaviors usually interwoven to female characters present some interesting reversals. Measuring characters showing compassion either to persuade or to calm and inspire another character, female and male characters present the same percentage (50%- 50%), with streaming services to present more instances of male characters using compassion – 67% - and cable networks more female – 75%. Yet in measuring characters being concerned with a relationship, whether with a member of their family, a love interest or a friend, male characters appear in more instances being concerned, with 53% and a huge gap in cable networks’ series (17% female – 83% male).

The behavior that female characters still seem to be more frequent to appear is that of affection, with a 58% in total and 73% in streaming and 71% in cable; interestingly enough broadcast networks let male characters appear as affectionate as female characters do, with a 50%-50%. Male characters though seem to “feel” more comfortable to be verbally than physically affectionate and that is why they present more instances of such affection than female characters – 29% female and 71% male.

Finally, female characters present more instances of emotional distress that includes fear, anger, anxiety and extreme grief and sadness. In fact female characters appear more distressed - 52% - than male – 48% -, with streaming services presenting more male – 57% - characters being distressed than other networks.

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7. Discussion

7.1 Terms of Presence

According to the presented research, female characters in superhero TV series appear to be more positively represented, in comparison to the whole population (all TV series) – at least, numerically. It is evident while comparing the results of this specific study to those of the Boxed – In study of the Center for the Study of Women in Television & Film from the San Diego State University.

According to Boxed – In females comprise 40% of all speaking characters, while in superhero series this percentage increases to 48%. Analyzing specific platforms, only adds to this conclusion: 41% for broadcast in all series versus 45% in superheroes; 39% for streaming in general versus 48% in superheroes series; 40% for cable in general versus 55% in superheroes series. Female leading characters in superheroes TV series appear a higher percentage (50,5%) than in all TV series (40%), as well.

It would be interesting to try and explain those significant differences. A first step would be to better understand the genre of superheroes as historically progressive, as the- female - creator of Wynonna Earp, Emily Andras, states.

"Something that’s now becoming a well-known secret is that for years, genre has been at the forefront of progressive storytelling…Because it involves worlds that are extreme or not quite human, it’s actually the best forum to talk about what it is to be human, what it is to be a woman, what it is to be a man, what it is to be a family”.

Another aspect that may be of interest would be the production state of those series. Diana Crane’s concept of culture world (1992) suggests that the structure of the organizations that produce content affects the nature of culture itself and its produced content. Implying that with director Patty Jenkins being a female director, the portrayal of Wonder Woman has been received positively by female audiences as well, because she created a character that she as a woman would find relatable.

Half the programs have been developed by a male creator, and examining the specific titles we can conclude that they are those that give precedence to male characters: Luke Cage, The Punisher, Iron Fist, Daredevil, Krypton, Gotham, The Umbrella Academy, Legion, The Gifted. The other half, provides us with insights that obviously are linked to the theories about production.

Six shows are being developed by a diversity & LGBTQ+ advocate, Greg Berlanti: The Flash, Titans, Arrow, Supergirl, Black Lightning, DC’s Legends of Tomorrow. DC’s Legends of Tomorrow present the best example of equality in terms or quantitative representation both in major and leading characters.

Two shows are being developed by a female creator: Wynonna Earp by Emily Andras and Marvel’s Jessica Jones by Melissa Rosenberg. Wynonna Earp is the number one show that

21 over-represents female characters in all quantitative variables and in behavioral variables as well. Marvel’s Jessica Jones comes second in terms of leading characters, time on screen and time speaking, but presents weaker results in gender based aspects.

Two other shows are being developed by a team with at least one female creator: Marvel’s Runaways by Stephanie Savage and Josh Schwartz and Marvel’s Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. by Maurissa Tancharoen and Jed and Josh Whedon. The latter is widely known and respected for his positive portrayal of female characters, such as the iconic Buffy Summers in Buffy the Vampire Slayer and even the re-imagination of Black Widow as the only female superhero of The Avengers in 2012. Both Agents and Runaways have more female characters than male, and those characters have more screen time, more speaking time and more action and leading instances.

It makes sense to conclude that there is some correlation between the female creators behind the scenes and the representation of female characters in each series. Also, regarding Research Question 2 of the study, whether female characters are under or over represented in terms of presence in comparison to male characters, the answer is not simple. Just relaying on the results, female characters in superhero series are being under-represented in relation to terms of presence. Yet in cable networks this conclusion does not apply, and in comparison to all TV series the differences between female and male characters are narrowed.

7.2 Gender-based representation

Hypermasculinity shows extremely different results in this particular genre than what we are used with other studies. Most of them present a rather disturbing picture with male and female characters introducing non-diverse role models. Yet in superhero TV series female characters appear both driven to action and leading forces, as well as affective, warm personalities, while male characters may still be overly aggressive, but can also be considerate and emotional.

In superhero TV series we see more female characters in action and leading than in any other genre. Once again, the shows that are being developed by a female creator or one with diversity interests, are the ones that increase those numbers. But now we should ponder on the reasons why female creators can develop more powerful female and more realistic and caring male characters.

When Emily Andras writes storylines for Wynonna she is writing her as a wonderful, sarcastic, damaged character who also happens to be a hero (ScreenRant, 2017), she has no superpowers, but a legacy that sometimes perceives as a burden to break her town’s curse. As someone who has flaws that she recognizes and struggles with, most of the times by using sharp and inappropriate humor as a defense mechanism, but she is by no means “some dude’s idea of a broken woman” (Andras, 2016).

Greg Berlanti’s Legends of Tomorrow is the most openly progressive show on American television. “Like the rest of the DC/CW universe, the show features LGBT characters, but

22 in particular here bisexuality — male and female — is as ingrained in the fabric of the universe as the characters’ superpowers” (IndieWire, 2018). In such a progressive show a female captain leader is a natural element of the premise.

That is not to say that even with such progressiveness, even with female creators, traditionally female characteristics are more associated with female characters than male. Emotional distress is higher in female characters and in the few cases that the opposite was observed, like in streaming shows, that result links to the fact that anger was also coded, and not only sadness or fear.

On the other hand either creators feel the pressure to not associate female characters with thoughts and concerns about their loved ones, whether that means their family or their relationship, or they do not provide them with their own storylines enough to give them reason to.

To answer Research Question 3, whether female characters in superhero TV series are being represented with gender-based characteristics the answer is once again not a simple yes or no. Female gender-based characteristics are still high in female representation in this genre, but by providing them also with characteristics usually associated to male characters, they produce a more diverse and lifelike image.

7.3 State of representation

Research Question 1, how are female characters in the superhero TV series represented in comparison to male characters, relates to the total representation and offers a conclusion combining all variables and the rest of the Research Questions.

In October 2014, Marvel issued Thor #1, a comic where a woman picks Mjolnir, Thor’s hammer. Thor’s writer, Jason Aaron defended the genuineness of this move by saying that “the hammer of Thor has always come with a certain inscription, one that makes a specific promise. The promise of transformation. That promise was first established by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby in the pages of Journey Into Mystery #83, Thor’s very first appearance. . . . That promise is, without a doubt, a fundamental part of the character’s legacy. This story, the one that begins in this very issue, is the next evolution of that promise”. Yet Cinema Journal (2015) argues that Mjölnir’s inscription is, notably, gendered: “Whosoever holds this hammer, if he be worthy, shall possess the power of Thor”.

They say: “until systemic changes are made to reflect a commitment to female creators and fans, their “worthiness” will remain a source of debate within comics culture and comics studies”. They are right. And that is why female representation in superhero TV series differs from that in movies or comics.

TV series are being developed based on comics materials, but because they are given second and third class titles, they have more flexibility in re-imagining the original material. Felicity Smoak, one of the main characters and the founding members of team Arrow does not even exist in the comics. In Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Quake, Yo-Yo (as Slingshot in the comics),

23 and Agent May who got her own comic after the series, are not particularly known characters. Yet they are always the three characters shown in action, with the first two to be the only team members with powers and Melinda May the expert agent in combat.

Legends of Tomorrow began as a show that could fit the heroes that other DC TV series didn’t know what to do with. That gave the showrunners the freedom to follow absolutely no rule and re-create them, as willing. Those examples could go on for almost all of the series in this study.

The combination of material freedom on behalf of the creators, with the increase of female creators seems to have led to the improvement of female representation in superhero TV series. Even though complete equality has not yet been achieved and female characters still lack on screen and speaking time, the improvement in qualitative variables is evident. Female characters are leading the superhero teams and get to go and complete missions on their own.

7.4 The difference between platforms

To what extent are female characters that we watch on scripted drama series a result of the media structure or of the agency of the viewers? There is no argument that television watching is now more like an act of participation than the former passive habitual act. But who dictates the terms? The television system or the agency of the viewers themselves? This is one of the most prominent debates in Media and Cultural Studies, the issue of the power of media audiences. (Buckngham & Sefton-Green, 2003)

Could the Netflix way of working, with insights driving new content, be an implication of the Anthony Giddens theory of structure of society, specifically the duality of structure? Giddens (1984) claims that social structures are both constituted by human agency and yet at the same time are the very medium of this constitution. According to him, rules and resources structure and reproduce the social system.

In a way Netflix follows this exact “rule”, by listening to its viewers desires and flairs and providing them with female characters much more like their taste and inspiration. Viewers of traditional national TV networks on the other side seem to follow Bourdieu’s three- dimensional distinction between structures, habitus and practices. As members of a social class that watches national television (structure), viewers confer certain objectively defined dispositions (habitus) such as ways of perceiving and conceiving, specifically the customary types of female characters in drama series. Over time, and over many similar scripted series, they tend to reinforce and reproduce the objective conditions of their practices. In a way, without even realizing this performance, they tend to reinforce the cycle of character development.

The system is determined by the production agents, but the manner of consumption lies upon the viewer agents. The main difference between traditional and digital media, is that the latter seem to possess more tools for listening to the viewers, and have built their service

24 entirely dependent on their satisfaction. Traditional TV viewing though, seems to be more con-formative.

But not necessarily in the superhero genre. Here a dichotomy of representation is being observed. Numerically female characters are underrepresented in broadcast networks, with more major and leading male characters, and more time on screen and speaking for them. But in other behavior-related variables female characters show better results than streaming services or cable networks. Female characters in broadcast television are leading more, are more driven to and seen in action, they are less aggressive, and mostly less connected to hyperfeminine characteristics.

Streaming services on the other hand present good results in other categories. That is why, a definitive conclusion about the differences between the three platforms cannot be made.

7.5 The effect of Globalization: multidimensional representations or cultural imperialism?

Did globalization lead to more multidimensional representations because of the blending of different cultures? In the case of Netflix for example, different types of female characters may have emerged because of the targeted content to specific cultures. Netflix does target the Chinese market and that is why it produces lots of local content. On the other hand, the Internet spreading the existence of popular cultural texts worldwide, pirate downloading and syndication to other countries, have led to the increasing coverage of American network series throughout the world. In many ways, the two different ways of working, resemble the difference between cultural globalization and cultural imperialism, between diversity and standardization.

Discussing those dichotomies is not an easy task. Mostly because it is full of intense criticism against the development of a global culture. Cultural imperialism theories in specific, view globalization of culture “as a highly unequal process dominated by powerful capitalist interests based in wealthy countries” (Hodkinson, 2017). Many scholars focus on the negative effect of the everlasting quest for minimizing costs and maximizing profits by turning the world into a huge market and maximizing demand. Boyd-Barrett (1977) and Schiller (1976) both agree that involving the media and culture in a globalized market could mean more exploitation and cultural domination of small countries, by standardizing formats and distributing to as many countries as possible. Spreading capitalism and western imperialism often appear in such critics, and in many ways those aspects are right.

Yet, they tend to disregard the other side of the coin, which is the blending of local cultures and foreign influences that leads to a rise of diversity in representation, and in interpretation of media texts, as well as the advancement of a collaborative identity of global belonging. Sharing with the world the same experience of watching the new Avengers movie, or sharing the values of heroism, responsibility and acceptance of the imperfect human nature, does not necessarily have to acquire patriotic or American resonance; it could be something globally acceptable and admirable.

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Borrowing from Clay Shirky’s (2010) profound book for cognitive surplus, we could argue that globalization, partnered with New Media possibilities, made the infrastructure accessible to everyone in the world, shifting content creation into more generous, social and creative outcomes, regardless its origin. A culturally transformative process, previously unavailable.

8. Implications and Suggestions

Content analysis is not necessarily appropriate and insightful for studying representation in popular content. There are qualitative characteristics that should be studied with the implementation of other research methods. But it is the absolutely necessary and crucial first step in order to formulate an informed opinion regarding the specific genre. Further analysis on the subject should at least come on the heels of content analysis.

Apart from other methods, a way to increase vigor in content analysis itself would be to study more episodes from each series, in order to make a distinction between patterns and random events. In an effort to determine the most effective number of representative sample of episodes in television content analysis on sexual content, Manganello, Franzini and Jordan (2008) suggested that for program based studies a random sample of 3 or 5 episodes from a season are enough, while a random sample of 7 episodes is essential for character-based analysis.

In this case, the analysis of more episodes could be useful, since even in this sample some extra-ordinary episodes were observed. For example, Wynonna Earp’s studied episode included a funeral of one of its main characters, which means that most of the characters were in a state of deep sorrow and anger. Legion featured a dream-like scenario, where all characters were stated in surreal worlds. Supergirl featured the backstory of the main villain for the season, thus giving more time than usual to him, and setting all the main characters in a supporting role.

Another study could also combine the analysis within the same genre, but by using a different sample, like an analysis of the genre a decade ago, can add a historical aspect.

9. Conclusion

The literature review and empirical study have suggested that studying female representation in media is not a finite subject and while the evolvement of media is continuous, so should the research as well. In particular television in all its formats and its scripted series may become responsible for the audience’s character development. According to cultivation theory our perception of the world is influenced by the messages of popular television media. "Television is a medium of the socialization of most people into standardized roles and behaviors. Its function is in a word, enculturation" (Gerbner & Gross, 1986).

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By using the example of Wonder Woman and Captain Marvel in movies, we have mentioned how those characters differ from their male counterparts and break free from gendered perceptions. Female characters in superhero TV series appear to follow that exact example and present a more truthful image for women. Not all of them are in a place of such positivity like Wonder Woman or Captain Marvel, and of course the drama needed to maintain several months of television interest could not allow their psychological status not to be broken.

Yet many female characters in the superhero genre in TV series are first and foremost multidimensional people free of dichotomies, and subsequently women. While on the contrary, male characters feel still more captive of their masculinity. It only brings up the question: do screenwriters try to expel the gender from female characters, but not from male characters?

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