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Privileged Actors in Environmental Policymaking: the Historical Development of the Aviation Industry in the UK

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Privileged Actors in Environmental Policymaking: the Historical Development of the Aviation Industry in the UK Privileged actors in environmental policymaking: the historical development of the aviation industry in the UK Lauren Roffey A thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, England September 2012 © This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that no quotation from the thesis, nor any information derived therefrom, may be published without the author’s prior, written consent. Abstract Through a theoretically informed examination of two cases fundamental to the growth of the aviation industry in the UK, this thesis aims to illuminate the mechanisms behind the industry’s oft-claimed position of privilege in environmental policymaking. It is claimed that historically the aviation industry has occupied such a position, manifest in tax breaks for fuel, delayed entry into the emissions trading scheme and continuing ability to secure permission for new airport development, all in the face of fierce opposition. However, the existing literature fails to adequately empiricise or explain the precise mechanisms behind its alleged position of privilege. This thesis focuses on the role of the UK state in arbitrating between rival interests in the historical development of the aviation industry in the UK. Two case studies are explored: the development of the third London airport at Stansted, and a new runway at Manchester. The former was characterised by delays and reviews, becoming a cause célèbre; the latter occurred more rapidly. Archival analysis and elite interviewing uncover fresh details of the two cases. Two contrasting theories of policy are employed to understand and explain the industry’s role: the Advocacy Coalition Framework (ACF) (which maintains that policy change arises primarily from an open competition between policy coalitions in adjusting to external events) and the Strategic-Relational Approach (SRA) (that acknowledges the importance of structural imperatives on the state to consistently privilege some actors over others). This research finds that both the ACF and SRA offer convincing accounts of the policymaking process, however, singularly, neither is able fully to explore all the mechanisms that underpin the industry’s privileged position. By paying close attention to the beliefs of actors, the ACF uncovers the mechanisms behind how and why actors work together to achieve their policy goals and draws attention to the important role played by external events and policy learning play in creating policy change. Complementing these insights, the SRA draws attention to the strategies actors use to achieve their policy goals and explores the structural factors that continuously privilege the aviation industry. In initiating the first theoretical dialogue between these two contrasting perspectives, this research has found that there is no need for theoretical synthesis in a quest to find the ‘best’ single theory, rather, that combining their insights to in a complementary manner offers the most valuable exploration of policy and the policymaking process. Contents Abstract................................................................................................................................... 2 List of figures ........................................................................................................................... 8 Accompanying material .......................................................................................................... 9 Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... 10 Abbreviations ........................................................................................................................ 11 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 13 The aviation industry......................................................................................................... 14 The positive impacts of the aviation industry ............................................................... 14 The negative impacts of the aviation industry .............................................................. 15 Positive and negative impacts: a political balancing act? .............................................. 16 Aim and objectives ............................................................................................................ 17 Research approach ............................................................................................................ 19 Policy and policymaking: core definitions ..................................................................... 19 Research philosophy ..................................................................................................... 20 Applying policy theory ................................................................................................... 22 Case selection ............................................................................................................... 24 Methodological approach ............................................................................................. 25 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 29 The Historical Development of Aviation Policy in the UK ...................................................... 32 Key actors .......................................................................................................................... 32 International ................................................................................................................. 32 European ....................................................................................................................... 33 National ......................................................................................................................... 34 3 Phases of development ..................................................................................................... 36 1940s: setting an international regime and a commitment to post-war regeneration . 36 1950s: a decade of indecision ....................................................................................... 38 1960s: beginning to relax state control over civil aviation ............................................ 38 1970s: recognising the environmental impact .............................................................. 40 1980s: the transformation of the aviation regime ........................................................ 42 1990s: open skies for Europe ........................................................................................ 45 2000s: the low-cost revolution...................................................................................... 47 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 50 Theorising Policy Change ...................................................................................................... 53 The Advocacy Coalition Framework .................................................................................. 54 Origins ........................................................................................................................... 54 Main units of analysis .................................................................................................... 57 Explaining policy change ............................................................................................... 63 Applications of the ACF ................................................................................................. 65 Critical reactions and refinements ................................................................................ 66 The Strategic-Relational Approach .................................................................................... 70 Origins ........................................................................................................................... 70 Main units of analysis .................................................................................................... 76 Explaining Policy Change ............................................................................................... 79 Applications of the SRA ................................................................................................. 80 Critical reactions and refinements ................................................................................ 81 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 84 4 The Search for a third London Airport .................................................................................. 88 Key actors .......................................................................................................................... 90 Events that led to the development of Stansted ............................................................... 91 The Hole Committee (1960-1963) ................................................................................. 92 The Chelmsford Inquiry (1965-1966) ............................................................................ 93 The Roskill Commission
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