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Summer 2014 A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process Judy D. Whipps Grand Valley State University, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Whipps, Judy D., "A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process" (2014). Faculty Peer Reviewed Articles. 8. http://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/lib_articles/8

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Liberal Studies at ScholarWorks@GVSU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Peer Reviewed Articles by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@GVSU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Abstract For most of the 20th century Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) was one of the “invis- ible women” in the history of American philosophy, although her work was taken seriously by philosophers of her time. While some have described Follett as an ideal- A Pragmatist ist, this essay develops the pragmatist and feminist elements of Follett’s philosophy. Reading of In particular, Follett’s concept of “integra- tion” can be clarified by reading it through a pragmatist lens, connecting it with Dew- Mary Parker ey’s writing on experience, and with James- ian pluralism. Follett also shares with Jane Follett’s Addams an understanding of the creative integrative power of diversity; Addams di- Integrative rectly referenced Follett in 1930 when she describes how conflicts were resolved in the Process process of mutual action. The latter part of Judy Whipps this essay discusses the contemporary rel- evance of Follett’s integrative “power-­with” methodology in feminist thought. Taking integrative work seriously requires prepara- tion and training, and Follett’s writing on education for integration has implications for contemporary pedagogical practice.

Keywords: Mary Parker Follett, John Dewey, William James, Jane Addams, pragmatism, integration, experience, power-­with, pedagogy, feminism, pluralism.

“unceasing reciprocal adjustment . . . brings out and gives form to truth” Mary Parker Follett, The New State, 212

For most of the 20th century Mary Parker Follett (1868–1933) was one of the “invis- ible women” in the history of American philosophy, although her work was taken seriously by philosophers of her time.1 In

TRANSACTIONS OF THE CHARLES S. PEIRCE SOCIETY Vol. 50, No. 3 ©2014 405 406 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 Richard Cabotidentifiedherafterdeath), lett has been described by some as an idealist (which is how her friend vard graduateseminarin1927, “Iamgivingmyexperience. Iamnot her own engagementwithcommunityissues. AsshesaidataHar- nist pragmatistsofherera, herphilosophywasalsodeveloped outof by James atHarvard.Yet, likeJane Addams andmanyofthefemi- noted above, shealso studied withRoyce and wasclearlyinfluenced Bushnellshe studiedwithAlbert atHarvard/Radcliffe, Hart andas pedagogicalpractice. work which hasimplicationsforcontemporary Follett addresses thetypeofeducationneeded toprepare forintegrative culture andeducationdoesn’t prepare uswell forcreative integration, feminist thoughtandintegrative education.Mindful ofhow American ofthisessaydiscusses The latterpart Follett’s relevance in contemporary Addams allows usto see Follett’s work through a different perspective. Developing thecontinuitiesbetween herwork andDewey, James and ofintegration. identified withpragmatismwhiledeveloping hertheory influence on Follett, butratheritdemonstratesthewaysthat Follett beginning in1919.Thisessaydoesnottakeuptheissue oftheidealist Bissell Holt, whosewritingcanbeseenasastrong influence on Follett of ourdailylives” (1924,208). that “truth emergesfrom difference . Cabot’s did.Follett’s more pragmatistepistemologyisbasedontheidea by theCabots,shedoesn’t astranscendentthe have asenseoftruth Thompson. thatwhat Whileitistrue Follett studiedwasinfluenced with Richard andElla Lyman CabotandherteacherAnnaBoynton out, Follett wasinfluenced by Royce’s idealismand by herfriendships ences on Follett’s thought. As John Kaag (2008, 2011) has pointed dams onthecreative power ofdiversity. with Dewey’s writingonexperience,withJames onpluralismandAd- essay attemptstodothat,connectingFollett’s conceptof“integration” tion—can beclarified by reading itthrough apragmatist lens.This categories. However, herconceptofintegra- herwriting—particularly of thought,interested asshewasinthatcreative liminalspacebetween we willsee,sherejected school placementofherideasinaparticular have resisted categorizingherselfaseitherapragmatistorfeminist.As and feministelementsofFollett’s philosophy, even thoughFollett may tice, andprac- and practice,ashistoricallyfoundationalmediationtheory as aresource forfeministpragmatistphilosophy, inmanagementtheory the lastdecadeFollett’s writinghasbeenrecovered inseveral disciplines, out Follett’s pragmatism. phers suchasJohn Kaag,ScottPratt, andAmritaBanerjee have pointed Follett’s academictrainingwasprimarilyin politicalsciencewhich Follett alsowasindialoguewithpsychologists, Edwin particularly Clearly, thesepragmatistswere nottheonly, oreven primary, influ- 2 andasamodelforleadershipeducationpractice. 5 Thisessaymore fullydevelops thepragmatist

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. from allthecountlessdifferings 4 more recent philoso- 3 While Fol While - A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process • Judy Whipps 407 esident of pr ­ ­style community center esidential settlement- ­ r - pro completed the exacting academic Follett 6 oxbury 1908 she became chair- In neighborhood of Boston. In the early 1900s Follett turned her primary energy to community early 1900s Follett the In in the R the National Community Center Association. By this time, however, this time, however, Community Center Association. By the National she had turned most of her attention to writing for a wider public person of the Women’s Municipal League’s Committee on Extended Committee on Extended League’s Municipal Women’s person of the and in 1911 helped open the East Boston of School Buildings Use 1917 she was elected vice- In Center. School Social High work, first starting a debate club for boys and men which grew into the men which grew and first startingwork, a debate club for boys a non- Union, Highland gram in three years. Her father’s death when she was 17 required her to her to was 17 required death when she father’s Her years. gram in three brother, for her mother and younger time at home caring spend more Studies to Encourage the Society continued her studies with so Follett Annex for for courses at the Harvard 1888 she enrolled In at Home. history she studied political Harvard At with Radcliffe). (later Women Speaker of Hart and began to write her first book on the history of the Thompson by was invited the summer of 1890, Follett In the House. College in Cambridge, England, studying at Newnham to spend a year economics and political philoso- she continued studying history, where and continued her research to Boston returned 38–52). She phy (Tonn, women for possibility a were that if Ph.D. a been have could what in to school she did not return in this era. After her time in England, dialogue with philosophers but continued to be engaged in academic part supported of the 1890s she teaching by herself and historians. For for a research doing legal later by political science in high school and public taking over corporate interest Boston attorney who represented in- these two positions she began to see the interconnected transit. In businesses, and social orga- aspects of the community, of various terests House of of the Speaker The political theory, first book on nizations. Her When Radcliffe got permission , was published in 1896. Representatives graduated summa cum laude. in 1898, Follett degrees to award Biography and Education Biography influential Bostonians, but her fa- a line of came from family Follett’s ability to support he by the trauma affected his family was deeply ther’s later his alcoholism. Although Follett and War, Civil experienced in the had a somewhatwas life, she was a serious student and chaotic family Academy Thayer to Boston’s entrance exams able to pass the rigorous she Thayer age. At required earlier than the usual at age 11, two years Royce, of Thompson, who was a student Boynton studied with Anna Hart and Santayana. giving philosophy out of a book.” Instead, she said, her ideas came from from ideas came said, her she Instead, of a book.” out philosophy giving “interacting, participating and watching were people that ways in the is also her activism 201–2). However, (Tonn, and emerging” unifying political theory, of philosophy and in her study grounded thoroughly in particular and idealists. the pragmatists 408 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 134). She understoodthatwhenever one engageswithothers,the process of “ceaseless specific of new responding” interweavings (1924, “progressive integrations” withothersandthe worldaround us,a to theself, Follett understands ourbeingintheworldasaprocess of taneously” (1918,127).Ratherthanseeingtheenvironment external claiming “(t)hegroup andthe individual come into existence simul- pragmatist background, Follett critiquesthedualismofindividualism experience isafundamentallypragmatistprinciple. acted onatthesametime” (2008,4).Thistransactive nature ofhuman lett, “things are inconstantrelation toeachother, actingonandbeing person as continuous with community. Or as Banerjee says, for Fol- ganizations andbusinesses. method fornegotiationandproblem- becomes centraltoherconflict resolution process anditprovides the in communitygroups. whichisbased tegration isalsothefoundationofherpoliticaltheory describes thenature ofbeinganditoffersamethodforgrowth. In- Parker Follett. For Follett, integrationis an ontologicalprinciple—it Integration isacentral philosophicalconceptinthework ofMary Integration action stepsforproblem solving. management assherefined herintegrative process as aclearseriesof published wor a ground breaking theoristinmanagement.Afterthemid- worked more withorganizationalculture, shebecamewell known as ees and they began to consult with her to resolve labor issues. As she with businessleadersastheysawawaytobetterwork withemploy- develop the individual capacityforintegration.Thisbook resonated broader applicationofcommunityintegration,aswell asmethodsto Creative Experience went intomore detailaboutthemethodologyofa interesther new inbusinessesandlabornegotiations.Her 1924book appointed totheMassachusetts Minimum Wage Board, whichsignaled by Overstreet inthePhilosophical Review in1919.In 1920Follett was of democracybasedonthework oflocalcommunitygroups. beginning withtheintegratedindividualbuildingalargerconception Popular Government approach (1918)describesanew todemocracy, lett’s secondbook,The New State: Group Organization, theSolutionof regarding whatsocialcentershadtaught heraboutdemocracy. Fol- Burr Alexander. ing philosophers,includingJames Tufts, Overstreet Harry andHartley political science.The New State waspositively reviewed by several lead- lishing inseveral fields,includingphilosophy, psychology, history, and Follett’s ofintegrationisbasedonherunderstandingthe theory Follett continued her academic work throughout this time,pub- k ismostlyinthefieldofbusinessandorganizational 8 Her “CommunityasProcess” article waspublished 9 In herlaterwritings,theintegrative process ­ solving wor king withvarious or- 10 Drawing onher ­ 1920s her 7

A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process • Judy Whipps 409 12 of experiencing. W 1:23). For Dewey, Dewey, W 1:23). For According to Dewey, experience to Dewey, According 13 , sufferer, and enjoyer” (MW 6:120). and enjoyer” , sufferer, ­ enclosed, separate and possibly unchanging in enclosed, separate and possibly unchanging “When what becomes it situation a to get you 11 . But we get a new leverage, intellectual and practical” get a new intellectual and practical” we leverage, . But ­ patient, doer

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remain as external to the organism and to a particular to and organism the external to ever as mind as remain There are clear parallels between Follett’s integrated individual and integrated individual Follett’s clear parallels between are There According to Dewey, dualism results when we abandon the primary when we dualism results to Dewey, According .

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by seeing our relationships with them, which include “knowledge of “knowledge include which them, with relationships our seeing by does not deny inner 1:183). Dewey (LW dispositions and attitudes” Rather, and incommunicable.” private of “the the realm subjectivity, “substance” defining or basic the subjective the making to objects he aspect of experience, and also objects to conceiving that this private the self” 1:187). “exhausts (LW they were . they were Dewey’s philosophy of experience. philosophy of Dewey’s interactive nature of experience (the undergoing/suffering). We then of experience (the undergoing/suffering). nature interactive see the to the object, we as unrelated of ourselves conceive erroneously self as complete and self- the encounter with the material subject matter (L the encounter with the material subject and society through both nature experience is the human permeating per- with this understanding of self as would agree Follett relationality. truth is that the self is al- as she said, “the and society, meating nature Dewey, For (1919, 577). relations” weaving itself out of its ways in flux, not make the experience does this continuity of self and world through factories stores, “Banks, or private. internally subjective, object or event . is the way we interact with and are radically related to our social and to our social radically related interact with and are is the way we understand the concept of experience we through natural environment; experience, In environment. continuous with one’s the individual as active play person and that which is encountered both the experiencing rejected Dewey Follett, Like adjusting. or changing disclosing and roles, but postu- dichotomy, and the knower/known subject/object dualism experience. As his concept of through way of knowing lated a relational act between in its integrity no division he said, experience “recognizes object and subject Both 1:18). (LW object” and subject material, and process and relational become integrated in the active of process and relational the ongoing as for Follett, as well Dewey For “an Dewey is Experience for integrating or experiencing is significant. social and physical its with being living a of intercourse the of affair is part of that engagement (MW 10:7) and the knower environment” as the “agent- person as well as the other have been mutually influenced, similar to similar influenced, mutually been have the other as as well person be- of process The envisions. Dewey that reconstructing of process the influencing response, of circular a process world is necessarily ing in the influenced. being and it was plus you; you are responding to the situation plus yourself, that yourself, the situation plus to responding are you you; it was plus it and yourself” between relation is, to the is 133). Integration (1924, - of liv sense our happiness, “(o)ur says she fact in need, human basic a lost, are We on our joining with others. dependent ing at all is directly 194). (1918, of union” feel the joy until we exiled, imprisoned 410 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 ego . ter, butgoessofarastosaythat“there isnosuchthingasaseparate thatwhichtheyencoun- lett conceives theindividualasnecessarilypart denies individualismthandoesDewey’s experience.LikeDewey, Fol- Follett’s conceptionoftheintegratedindividualperhapsmore radically scribes thehumanconditionandextendstosocialenvironment. world. Follett onlydescribesintegrationintermsofhumanity—it de- suffering” extendstoallobjects,including,forexample,thenatural as theengagedencounterwiththatoutsideofoneself, as“doing and ing waysbutare notparallel terms. Dewey’s conception of experience may bepainful” (LW 10:47–48). experience. in itslargesense,every taking inofwhatpreceded . is toosuperficial.“There is. change us,becausewe are notbringingourselves totheencounter;it quality ofengagementismissing,andtherefore theexperiencecannot lett. Dewey pointsoutthatinaimlessormechanicalactsthis mindful encounter whichpotentiallychangesus,athemeechoedoftenby Fol- self iscalledintoquestion;there isanelementof“taking in” from the personal andsocialreconstruction andevolution. In anexperiencethe or changeonbothsidesoftheexperience,thusopeningdoorfor like thewind- andparcel ofawiderself,moment ispart itquivers alongvarious radii ously integratingindividual. AsJames wrote, “Every bitofus atevery also seetheinfluenceof James on Follett’s conceptionofthe continu- ences James’ pragmatisminregard to pluralism aswe willsee,onecan referred toas“the wireless” refer (1918,12).Although sheparticularly - ofconversational milieuofthetimeinCambridge,what she was part clearly identifiedasaninfluencein Follett’s writing. James’ philosophy of psychic forces” (1918,75). to indicatesomethingmore transcendental,asinthe“interpenetrating when shesayspsychic, butatothertimespsychic seemstoencompass the integrative process. At times itappearsthatshemeanspsychological Follett uses the term “psychic” twenty times in transfuse oneanotherwhilebeingeachitsown identity” (1918,77). different universe from thatofthought. cal process” (1918,29).Follett saysthattheintegrative process isin“a confused with theHegelian “reconciliation of opposites whichisalogi- tionality. Thisisperhapswhyshedoesn’t wanther use ofintegration lett’s sense of integration encompasses but goes beyond intellectual ra- ‘society,’ there is only the group and the group- “there isnosuchthingasthe“individual,” there isnosuchthingas Dewey’s “experience” and Follett’s “integration” overlap in interest- Experience asinteractionincludesthepossibilityofadjustment Although Follett quotesDewey occasionally, William James ismore

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. individualsare created by reciprocal interplay” (1918,19)and ­r ose onacompass, andtheactualinit is continuously

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. . (Taking in)involves reconstruction which 14

. anelementofundergoing,suffering

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. Otherwise there wouldbeno . Otherwise

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. Minds canblend.. The New State to refer to ­ unit ” (1918, 21). Fol -

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. They A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process • Judy Whipps 411

17 However, However, 15 he saw the local Instead, she says Instead, een space, she says, een space, she says, 16 betw ­ wever, exists only as part exists only as of the wever, solving actions. S ­ We create the beyond and beyond and so to be sure and so to be sure and beyond the beyond create We ­ alongness which, ho alongness which, alongness. ­ Follett extended this idea of progressive integrating idea of progressive extended this Follett State New The In organization as the arena that gives the individual a place to act. Her the individual a place to act. Her that gives organization as the arena The deliberative process is essential for her vision of democracy, but the is essential for her vision of democracy, process The deliberative to wants democratic action at deliberation. She cannot stop process or- these smaller making startand centers, groups with neighborhood (1918, 255) but she also notes basis of the new state,” ganizations “the composed of individuals who don’t be diverse, must that these groups should be integrated differences up their particularities.give Instead, problem- specific with others around to her vision of society and politics. Democracy for Follett should not for Follett Democracy to her vision of society and politics. be based in majority rule, nor the ruleof leaders, but instead it should of decisions made the process option”: what she calls a “third from grow deciding. community people coming together for creative a diverse by “We verify through the process of creating: no dualism, no Dinge an of creating: the process through verify “We 143). This concept of continual growth (1924, sich, no static moment” to is committed says, “pragmatism is a tenet of pragmatism. As Pratt trajectorythe informs that of growth of standard normative broad the commitment (2011, 80). Follett’s interaction” organism/environment the person and the continually creating integrations” to “progressive philosophical work. society is central to all of Follett’s “Our alternative is not between Royce’s finished Absolute and James’s James’s and Absolute finished Royce’s not between is alternative “Our strung- strung-produce her discussion following a conference (1919, 582). In unifying process” clarified this creative , Follett Review the Philosophical essay published in - see the responsi we become pragmatists as “we saying further, process is no is ours, that there (integrating/unifying) bility for this is process 321). Tonn, in (quoted Royce)” and (Hegel One priori a one with possibles not yet in our present sight” (1907/1977, 131). (1907/1977, sight” present in our yet not with possibles one self”“wider with a connectedness sense of This Follett’s in is echoed of stream to James’ Similar self and society. integration of continuing of my centre is where individuality said “My Follett consciousness, a wide perspective then for to advocate goes on She is.” consciousness it may be, wherever of consciousness, that centre says “From when she the its circumference issue, but the wider will always our judgments embrace entirely doesn’t 581). She (1919, truer will our judgments be” of role one’s emphasize to wants she because view self, the of James’s looking for the in- Always of this self. creator even the pragmatist view of testing of ideas through experience was too the pragmatist view experience of ideas through even of testing is no way to step outside she understood that there for static for Follett, a static assume you ‘test’ you of experience to test it, since “whenever integrations” “progressive (1919, 584). Life, she says, is a series of idea” ideas and experiences are (1924, 134); interweaving” or a “ceaseless and so cannot be tested empirically into the tissue of my life” “woven become part since they have of us.” or discarded 412 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 seems oddthat Follett doesn’t formallytakeuprace, genderorclass out . see thevalue ofdifferences, thattheyare tobemaintained notblotted ferences tointernationalrelations, saying “war cannever ceaseuntilwe in theHegelian sense),etc.” (1918,39).She extendsthisvaluing ofdif- melt, amalgamate,assimilate, weld, dissolve, absorb, reconcile (ifused lists the“bad” words thatshouldnotbeequatedwithintegration:“fuse, must beintegrated,notannihilated,norabsorbed.” In afootnote she integration thatdoesn’t assimilate difference. She says,“(d)ifferences not intendtomakedifferences disappear. She isdeeplycommittedto means differences. Importantly, inintegratingdifferences Follettdoes considered acore principleofdemocracy, butby “inequalities” here she 139). Thismayseemtobeanoddstatementgiven thatequalityisoften She even saysthat“(t)hehope ofdemocracyisinitsinequalities” (1918, pr of anintegrateddemocracyandherlaterintegrative problem- contemporaries shewrote oftenaboutdemocracy. Follett wasfirstandforemost apoliticaltheoristandlikeherpragmatist Diversity, Gender, andPluralism cannot even besure having” thatitisworth (97). 1902, said that “unless all men and classes contribute to that good, we echoes produced thoughmutualcommoneffort Jane Addams who,in duced incommon” (1918,33–34).Follett’s requirement thatideasare ideas aren’t merely “heldincommon” butinsteadmustbeactively “pro- pendent . Asshesaid“lifehasbecomeincrediblydent part. complexandinterde- about the “social organism” of which individuals were an interdepen- growing ofall.Earlyinherwriting, from thejointeffort Addams talked complete relationship” (1918,69). other human being; he gains his freedomevery through and a perfect as shesays,”(a) manisideallyfree onlysofarasheisinterpermeatedby ideal offreedom alsogrows from theconceptofintegratedperson, trial organizationasawhole([1902]2002,94). only himselfandhisimmediatefamilycommunity, buttheindus- mind” built on communicated ideas. when shesaysthatsomethinkerspositanexistingfunctioning“social what wasalready present ingroups.Follett maybecritiquingDewey tives. She whatwasemerging,ratherthan wasfocusedonthenewness, interested inintegrationwithingroups thatcontaineddiverse perspec- and immigration—areas thatFollett doesn’t address, asFollett wasmore lett describes. Addams took up issues of economic class, race, gender, the formative/mutually- stresses interdependence and relatedness of diverse groups rather that ocesses, Follett stresses ofdiversity and difference. theimportance Given her commitment to difference and heranalysisofpower, it Like Jane Addams, Follett understood the community or group as

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. toleranceisintolerable” (1918,344).

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. (the worker) must have a conception that will include not ­ cr eating nature oftheselfwithsocietythatFol- 19 Instead she says that common 18 In herwork, Addams 20 In her 1918 theory In her1918theory ­ solving A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process • Judy Whipps 413 esident of the National esident of the National pr ­ suffragists talk of women as ­suffragists talk of .” (1918 58–59). Follett was speaking from her position of deep was speaking from (1918 58–59). Follett .”

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It is surprising that Follett does not reference Jane Addams either Addams Jane does not reference that Follett is surprising It enslaved’ and advocate their emancipation by the method of giving the method of giving their emancipation by and advocate enslaved’ Community Centers Association would most likely have brought brought Community Centers Association would most likely have and community with settlement house workers her into conversation engagement with social issues in her Boston community and had expe- engagement with social issues in her Yet without voting. even of social responsibility rienced many avenues for arguments political or philosophical provide doesn’t she although for the women’s suffrage, she understood the deep motivation women’s with passion and eloquence near the end of The Writing movement. both has spurred that desire the underlying interprets , Follett State New “the desire as movement and the labor suffrage movement the woman’s his own for each to control his share, place, for each to give for one’s moving life—this is the underlying thought which is so profoundly (1918, 338). both men and women today” was not in a settle- Follett Although in her work. or indirectly directly as vice- her work ment house environment, them the vote. But the vote will not make women free. Freedom is Freedom free. will not make women the vote But them the vote. this chapter she (1918, 71). Throughout always a thing to be attained” as something that cannot be granted to one, instead portrays freedom of becoming fully the result fellowship,” “through freedom “win” we participating through in and integrating with community (72). alive create community may not be sufficient to While the ability to vote clearly acknowledge would more integration, it would seem that Follett participatingof method as one basic responsible and being in voting being As she says earlier in her discussion of loyalty, for community. belong to We “is slavery. help create haven’t that we a collective to loyal - helping to make that commu are our community just in so far as we nity. ‘ issues in her work. Some of her community work was sponsored by suf- by sponsored was work of her community Some in her work. issues her support assume can perhaps we so organizations frage women’s for wom- not focused on organizations was in those but her work suffrage, believes Tonn, Joan biographer, Her rights. or employment voting en’s of women’s an advocate was not that Follett to think reasons are there was insufficient voting Follett, for event, In any (2003, 129). suffrage for the participatorywhich was based she envisioned democracy that “The ballot box! decision making and action. on integrated public it will fail completely that has failed men and how completely How rights, given voting without advocating even Yet, (1918, 5). women” her training in history an argu- political science, one may expect and in her somewhere women or their roles the equality of ment regarding an outmoded concept; she saw individual rights as Follett writing. But as equal under the law—an individual the principle of women relegated 19th centurythe to belonging idea an rights—as with In 171). (1918, says that thinking State, Follett New The in freedom her discussion of is “childish” of a barrier the removal from would result that freedom women- “Some and then she continues: 414 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 through actionand. tergenerational work, where she says “a mutual purpose coalesced best in internationalwork. She carriesFollett’s samepointintoherown in- where the “integrating value was illustrated” of a common effort (207) experiences where resolutions occurred intheprocess ofmutual action, in thesphere ofactivities” notinideas,Addams goesontodescribefive in the end” (1930, 202). Citing Follett’s point that integration “occurs side submitstotheotheroracompromise ismade,we have noprocess whichneitherside possesses,whereaslead tothesomethingnew ifone book,” Addams saysthataccording toFollett, “All diversity . Years atHull House (1930).CallingCreative Experience a“remarkable Addams clearlydid read Follett’s work andreferences itinSecond Twenty perspectives atHull House andin her writing. for divergent opinions and attemptedtointegrate differing cultures and deep experiencewithherimmigrantneighbors,Addams cametolook dation andguaranteeofDemocracy” (1902/2002,7).Because ofher “diversified humanexperience and resultant sympathy” are “the foun- see thesize ofoneanother’s burdens.” She, likeFollett, understoodthat an ethicaldutytounderstandthelives ofdiverse othersand“at least In herfirstbookDemocracy andSocialEthics, Addams saysthatwe have for her valuingwould have foundsupport ofdiversity anddifference. as early1892. made a similar point aboutthe need for joint action in her own writing standing” (208).Addams ofcoursecouldhave citedherself here, asshe dams. Emily Greene Balch, co- activists. She wasalsoaclosefriendofElizabeth Balch, whosesister, dividuals are relations—they emergenotinself- grated withothers,orasPratt saysofFollett’s ontologicalposition,“in- pluralism. We have seenthat Follett understandstheindividualasinte- tive inunderstanding whatshemeansby diversity anddifferences and amining Follett’s positiononthewomen’s rightsmovement- isinstruc useful asaresource ortoillustratesomeofher points. the women’s rightsmovement asaco- in whatindividual womenbringtothetable asspeakingfrom different may behow sheconceives thewomen’s groups. Instead sheisinterested representation by guildsoroccupationalgroups (1918,267–68). This as attemptingtoreturn towhatsheequateswithamedieval doctrineof state power” (Tonn, 292).Follett sees the politicalpluralistsofthatera a senseofcommunitywhile shieldingtheirmembersagainstundue groups thatwouldprovidewhich advocated “intermediary individuals tive work. Follett shiedaway from thethenpopularpoliticalpluralism haps she saw the suffrage movement as too homogenous for integra- with others Although we don’t findanymentionof Addams in Follett’s writing, Surprisingly, Follett hadobjectionstothepluralismofherday. Ex - 21 We don’t know ifFollett read Addams, butifshehad, ” (2011,89).One wouldthinkthatFollett couldunderstand 22 It seemsthatFollett couldhave foundAddams’ work

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. there wasnootherbasisforgenuineunder- author ­ ed Women atThe Hague withJane Ad- acting integratedgr ­ ­action butinco- oup, butper-

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­ action . may A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process • Judy Whipps 415 ” ­ with 23 What Hoopes calls “fence strad- calls “fence What Hoopes 24 - not re was pluralism of her time, Follett critiquing the political In This third position, the creative step, whether it be in democratic step, position, the creative This third jecting pragmatist pluralism and in fact, she critiques the pluralists who pluralism and in fact, she critiques jecting pragmatist for pragmatism does not accept the latest teachings of pragmatism, “do later says that She (1918, 263). pluralism” not end with a distributive neighbor- “our urged and federalism” of secret the “found had James then goes on to (265). She philosophy” James’ to live hood groups of carry “discipleship” their pluralists” “political the that recommend a with James they not them “have asks of She further.” step “a James and for pieces” does not fall into ‘discontinuous wish for a world that ( 266). in” swim [now] beings finite we which reality sort of “flowing a “misunderstood to critique the Then she goes on in the next paragraph biographers Follett’s as well. of the idealists and monists Hegelianism” both prag- was reading that Follett and intellectual historians point out - Histo for her. of these worked matism and idealism and that neither Peirce’s know not did the fact that Follett laments Hoopes James rian newa her with think to way given a have would thinks he which work, was “left” he said Follett as a reference, Peirce Without the pragmatists. pragmatism and of weak but an untenable mixture recourse with “no in both also found much to admire Follett (1998, 153). But idealism” pluralism and in idealist monism. perspectives, rather than as a group. Strangely, Follett does not address not address does Follett Strangely, as a group. than rather perspectives, can distort- commu prejudices or gender racial cultural, of how issues her “power- that though later resolve but she may dialogue, nity calls Follett of identity groups, Instead discussed below. methodology any particu- represent that do not groups neighborhood for integrated very opinions and contain in themselves but would diverse lar interest rather problems, integrate and solve to within the group would work common perspective. of a than be representative Effect of Power on the Integrative Process Integrative on the Power Effect of the distortion of dialogue address does not directly Although Follett she understood that the or gender prejudices, cultural, racial caused by whether is fraught with issues of contested power, process integrative politics or in organizational or labor disputes always needs to be based politics or in organizational or labor conflicting, viewpointsgrowth, way of of differing, even as a in valuing “it is equally to be hoped that As she says the new. as a way to create the to invention, to leads which kind the conflict, have always shall we is not either/or (1925/1973, 72). Integration emergence of new values” new a creative it is discovering nor coercion, and neither compromise based all parties—constantly for resolutions way to that works evolving on the continual integrating of differences. dling” is exactly the goal for Follett—the creative resolution is never is never resolution creative Follett—the is exactly the goal for dling” State New saw her philosophic task in The She one side or the other. partly always, to as an attempt to integrate pluralism and monism—as position.” “third is a find a new or what she says approach 416 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 a “power- problem- in termsofpoliticaltheory, communityactivismorinorganizational power isn’t adualism,oraneither- human soul” (1924, xiii). Yet, thiscategorizationofthetwotypes process of integration. between Follett’s and Foucault’s conception of power, for Follett in “the over ourselves together” (1924, 156).Or asPratt saysinhiscomparison thing, you have nopower over menorIover you, butwe have power says, “when you andIdecideonacourse ofactiontogetheranddothat its conceptionofindividualgrowth inandwithcommunity. AsFollett conception ofpower isfeminist initsrelationality andpragmatist in offeministtheory”has becomeaworking part (1998,xvii). Follett’s insights ondemocracyandconflict,anideashecalled ‘power- matist thinkers.AsJane Mansbridge says,“one of(Follett’s) central to may bechangedtopower- marks an agent and has its meaning in action” (2011, 84). Power- o sides were satisfied, by integratingthedesires ofthetwosides,power- been power- integration. . move toward power- oftheother(1925,105). the views circular nature oftheirrelationship—that eachisalwaysinfluencing integration, power- power” is“co- lett “the curse of the universe.” Power- workplace andsociety. Thecoercive power of “power- take actiontogether. Thispower- sponsibility, voice andauthority. Thepower develops togetherasthey situations, in hisessayon Follett’s power, turnstoFoucault forcomparison rather withpoliticalpower struggled certainly issues.Asnotedabove, Pratt, dams orDewey directly addressing power perse,even thoughAddams the optionsthat already exist. It is interesting that we don’t find Ad- that wasn’t there before. It isaprogressive movement beyond forward tegration forFollett isalwaysabout creating somethingnew, something but whichare alsomore thana‘mere sum’ ofitsparts” (2011,85).In- evolve desires agentsthatincludetheoriginalindividuals new andnew talks aboutdesire, sheistalkingabout“a goal- an emotion,orwishfulthinking.AsPratt pointsout,whenFollett ver wasprevented” (1925/1940,104).For Follett, desire isn’t merely ward goals. Follett’s advocacy of“power- The integrative process ofsearchingsolutionisawayto foranew ­ o ver can at least partially turnintoapower-ver canatleastpartially ­solving. P ­ with all parties come to the discussion as equals all in parties terms of re- ­o when all participants understand and workwhen all participants to enhancethe

ver, butby finding asolution by whichthedesires ofboth . ” ratherthan“power- activ ­

. If eithersidehadwoninthefight,there wouldhave e power, theenrichmentandadvancement ofevery er Follett, real integrative group processes require ­ with. “O

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. thedesires ofindividualsinteractinawaythat ­ with whenpeopleengageinactiontogether ne wayofreducing power- ­ with with actionbr ­ o ­ ” resonates withfeministandprag- ­ or situation;accor ver” environment. In power- ­ with, what she thinks is “genuine dir ­ eaks down hierarchies in ected dispositionthat with situationvia ­ ­ o ding toFollett, ver” isperFol- ­ o ver isthrough ­ with, with ­ ­ o ver ’ ­ A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process • Judy Whipps 417 ” ver ver ­ o ­ with ” requires that all ” requires with ­ But there are limita- are there But 25 groups (like women’s suf- women’s (like groups solving ­ minded ­ , requiring some to abandon their some to abandon , requiring with methodology ­ ver in a personal relationship, where the power of violence is power the where in a personal relationship, ver eators. Yet Banerjee goes on to talk about this formerly abused this about talk to on goes Banerjee Yet eators. o ­ cr ­ Banerjee uses the illustration of domestic abuse as an example of example an as abuse domestic of illustration the uses Banerjee do in her analysis of power is describe a is describe analysis of power do in her does not what Follett Yet, t is perhaps surprising that Follett, who never worked in a business worked who never t is perhaps surprising that Follett, Integration as Organizational as Problem- Integration situations. Follett’s integrative process requires people committed to requires process integrative situations. Follett’s together with and educated in integration coming solving a problem may fail when people choose and it problem, solving a intention of the not to participate in the process. I setting, would gain a reputation as a management consultant, yet this yet a management consultant, as a reputation would gain setting, the most success—both on integration had her work where is the arena partner then getting involved in groups, such as feminist movements as feminist movements such in groups, partner then getting involved integration. This as an example of Follettian the Night Back Take like since, in her objection to what she calls fails us, Follett may be where like- of communities or pluralism, been opposed to victim support she may have groups. frage groups), of varying individuals not differences, required integration her, For not simi- problems, faith to solve similarities, coming together in good to challenge power- people joining together larly disempowered power- model to resolve the damage of domestic abuse can be instructive be and can abuse of domestic damage the resolve to model when putting as problematic be useful as well us what may can show into practice. analysis Follett’s traditional hierarchical power. Some employers or community/political or community/political employers Some power. traditional hierarchical good rationale to do so—but do that—she provides leaders may in fact - historyorganizations or in personal rela either in tells us this is rare “power- example of using a Banerjee’s is where tionships. Here says that rather Follett, referencing Banerjee, used as a means of control. - than the isolated partner domestic rela duo, integration situates the friends, people family, the extended larger context where tionship in “a what was formerly the the neighborhood, and other aspects from from power (8). This changes the into the situation” outside can be brought result in the abused partner leave being able to dynamic. This shift may others on the community due to integration, relying the relationship co- as tions to this method. Her prescription of “power- prescription Her tions to this method. parties show up at the table in a good faith effort to solve a problem effort up at the table in a good faith a problem parties to solve show though a power- way of that those disadvantaged by traditional structures of power can of power traditional structures by those disadvantaged way of that of a change in power The concept structures. existing power challenge her work. up in does not show or resistance challenge through structure for- moving by change happens pragmatist model, in Follett’s Rather, and personal growth. community toward ward than one of Follett’s contemporaries. In her analysis of power, Follett Follett of power, analysis her In contemporaries. one of Follett’s than her time. ahead of been have once again may 418 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 sonnel Administration conference in1925. steps inapresentation Conflict” on“Constructive toa Bureau of Per- thatcanbeappliedtomostdisputes.Sheof stepsorrules outlinedthese conflict resolution practice. mediationand rather thancompromise isstillthegoalofcontemporary dational tothefieldofconflictmanagement;finding anewresolution Inobjectives ofallparties. thisway, Follett’s work continuestofoun- and works to find an alternative inventive solution that integrates the experience” (200).Assuch,theprocess ofintegrationisgoal- integration toresult inreal change,“behaviormustbechangedthrough and notofideasorwills,” (150)Follett said,stressing thefactthatfor later writings.“Genuine integrationoccursinthesphere ofactivities, grative community, asdescribed in Creative Experience (1924)andin solve problems isthe basisfortheintegratedindividualandinte- According toFollett, people’s jointthinkingandactingtogetherto being integratedintoalargerwhole” (Hoopes 121). “No onehasbetterdescribedacorporatejobthanasanexperienceof writing on business, writers such as Jamesrary Hoopes said of Follett: workplace conflictandfinding creative solutions. Even incontempo- to herwork inorganizations,where sheassistedmanagersinresolving sues. She brought herphilosophyofindividual/communityintegration successful speakeronmanagementis- workplace andshebecameavery publication she wascalledupontoassistinemployee relations inthe is theresult ofherinvestigation intostudyinggroup processes. Afterits decision makinginpracticaldetail.Her 1924bookCreative Experience lowed in employer- her to participate pointment totheMassachusetts Minimum Wage Board in1920al- studies, whichledhermore deeplyintoorganizationalstudies.Her ap- and again learn from life experience, she turned her attention to group litical practice.Desiring tobringherideastherealm ofpractice, have beendisappointedthatherideaswere nottakenupinactualpo- received well andreviewed inseveral academicfields,but Follett may in herlifetimeandthroughout the20thcentury. The New State was consuming that both result in continued animosity. Her third, and most time- domination orcompromise asmethodsofsolvingdisputes;shethinks parent before Follett theprocess started. isemphaticinherrejection of action basedandideallyshouldr oneself, uncovering our “sub- into theopen” (1925/1995,75).Follett saysthatthisrequires knowing table, facethereal issue,uncover theconflict,bringwhole thing the process with self- Instead, onemustcometothetable ingoodfaithandhonesty. the opposite of adebatementality, todefeatone’s of trying opponent. Follett codifiedtheintegrative problem- How thendoesthisprocess ofintegrationoccurinactualpractice? approach, takes the various proposed solutions or demands ­ kno wledge and honesty, to “put your cards on the ­ ar ticulate egoisms.” This open approach is esult in a new resolutionesult inanew thatwasn’t ap- ­ emplo ­ solving pr 26 yee discussions and group Thefirststepistoenter ocess intoaseries oriented, ­ ­ A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process • Judy Whipps 419 in other 27 , but instead utilizes , but instead utilizes ograms. . to not let one’s thinking stay thinking . to not let one’s

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or mentality ­ school space for her pr ­school space for her ” and by this she means both the person is in process this she means both the person is in process ” and by ­ making Those entering into the integrative process should remember their should process the integrative Those entering into Important to the integrative process is the goal of a “new whole” whole” is the goal of a “new process to the integrative Important Careful dialogical and listening skills are also needed. While listen - While needed. also are skills and listening dialogical Careful . I respond not only to you, but to the relation between you and me” and me” you between but to the relation not only to you, . I respond

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Educating for Integration Educating a specific required work that successful integrative understood Follett skills and reflective collaborative type of education, one that stresses practices which connect with and expand meaning in the students’ leaders may talk about inte- as in her time, our educational Now, lives. intentionally but most schools don’t gration, synthesis and reflection, educating to approach pragmatist a for called Follett them. for educate Follett and Addams. for integration in a way that echoes both Dewey order a “high required verywas integration that understood it difficult; than all, a and discrimination, more of intelligence, keen perception a “both/and” approach. This is a process that requires openness. Fol- openness. requires that process a is This approach. “both/and” a as a lett talks about the new whole as that which is always in process, a- “whole mutually exclusive” which are within the boundaries of two alternatives of integration process this creative (1925b/1995, 70). As noted above, Follett is contradictions. and means finding and embracing differences individual in as the person as well explicit about transformation of the part is of the integrative of integration; individual growth the process process. - Fol consistent with her pragmatism, And again situation. as the well as of a creative either/or dualism in favor lett calls for participants to reject . invention new “involves solution that own role as creator in the relationship, what she calls “circular response.” response.” what she calls “circular the relationship, in creator as role own in pragmatists” what she said earlier about “becoming This is similar to 321). of community (Tonn, the creators for being taking responsibility you plus me. you, I am always fighting fight never As she says, “I can . (81). The actions that we do and the attitudes we exhibit (for good or we do and the attitudes (81). The actions that responding. find ourselves the situation to which we for bad) create an either- out of which does not grow ing, the participanting, party either that what to understand needs - is de should which scrutinythe language” of careful “a requires manding that position the in contained symbols” of examination include “the partiesmust break One 78). to the table (1925/1995, bring different parts to see the up the demands conflict, aspects of the and differing of importantessence also demand—the is whole it the but at look to to be herself was known minor points. Follett by it when not obscured who was “immensely interested” someone listener, a careful people, a skill that she shared with Addams and other community ac- with Addams she shared people, a skill that working work, this in her community most likely developed tivists. She as negotiating with politicians neighborhood as well with those in the after- for and school boards 420 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 ask studentstoexercise judgmentandtakeaction. sues are oftentheorized insteadoftakenupinpractice;we don’t often reflection toactualengagement. In educationtoday as well asthen,is- philosophic training.However, forFollett educationmustgobeyond Self- the abilitytoengageinactive problem- situation towhichoneisresponding (1925/1995,45)andsorequires derstanding thewaysthatone’s own behaviorishelpingtodevelop the ficult andrigorous. It requires aheightenedsenseofself- 45). Yet, shesawinherown communitywork thatintegrationisdif- quest theintegrative process canseemlike“a tameraffair” (1925/1995 she wrote thatforthosewhowantedthethrillofbattleandcon- have hadJames’ essayon“The Moral Equivalent of War” inmindwhen of society, includingeducation.One wouldthinkthatFollett might she critiquestheremnants ofcompetitive militarisminsomanyaspects inAddams’tion ineducation,particularly Newer Ideals ofPeace where inAddamscould have foundsupport forhercritiqueofthecompeti- tobeattheotherside”ways try (1925/1995,48).Once againFollett that educatorstaughtcompetitively as“(i)nourcollegedebates we al- domination. Instead ofteachingcooperative thinking,Follett lamented and freedom from manipulationsofthosewhomaybeinpositions brilliant inventiveness” (1925/1995, 45), along with a rich imagination others. Education which integratespersonalmeaning andcommunity understandings tofindways tolive effectively andharmoniouslywith sponsible totranslatelearning intoaction,tousetheirexperiencesand yond findingmeaning, Follett alsotoldteachers thatthestudentis re- “the forbearanceandhelp” lifeofmutual trust, (1907/2007,95).Be- for aneducationwhere children couldlearn “the joy ofassociation” and veal tohim thepurposeandutilityofhiswork” (1902/2002,91)and For example, sheurgededucationforindustrialworkers thatwould“re - meaning- the teacherandstudents(319).Addams toosaweducationasa the role of teacheristofacilitatea“jointsearch formeanings” between “spiritual energy andvision” (315). In education,according toFollett This process “liberatesusfrom thepurely personal” andincreases one’s aspectswhencomparedsatisfactions oftentakeonnew withothers.” ing tothinkjointly, she saysthat“our purposes,ourinterests, desires, training ground injointthinking” (1928,314).In theprocess oflearn - what can be taught directly through the subject, the class itself may be a she addressed learningintegrative skillsintheclassroom, as“beyond to address thefacultyonteacher- casions togive lectures andtalkwiththefaculty. In 1928shewasasked for Citizenship andPublic Affairsat Syracuse University onmultipleoc- engaged in faculty discussions at Harvard and was invited to the School Follett never taughtatthecollegeoruniversity level, butshewas ­r eflection is a skill that can be developed, particularly througheflection isaskillthatcanbedeveloped, particularly making activity ­ , asbuildingconnectionsacross differences. ­ student r ­ solving basedonself- elationship. In thepaper 28

­ r eflection, un- ­ r eflection. A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process • Judy Whipps 421 ­ ­ solving is a

with); it cannot be ­ 29 [email protected] ocess. As Follett says “it takes says ocess. As Follett Grand Valley State University State Valley Grand . Instead of imbuing individuals with of imbuing individuals . Instead ­ long pr

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ver environment. The educational process The educational process environment. ver o ­ wer- Mary Parker Follett: Spokesman for Democracy, Philosopher Philosopher Democracy, for Spokesman Follett: MaryParker y revolution, it involves a process and a slow process” (1924, 188). process” and a slow a process it involves y revolution, REFERENCES Practicing integration for social change and problem- integration Practicing Writing in the same time period as Follett, Dewey argues for a simi- a for argues Dewey Follett, as period time same the in Writing University of Illinois Press. of Illinois University Press. Illinois Press. of Illinois Company. , 22 Philosophy of Speculative Journal Violence” on Perspective for a Feminist (1): 3–11. Services. 1918–1933. Ann Arbor: UMI Dissertation Work, for Social Group Press. Illinois Southern 10: 1916–1917. Carbondale and Edwardsville: Volume w process, particularly in a power- w process, in its commitment to working the idea that the goal is to sharpen their powers so they can get on per- is to sharpen their powers the idea that the goal intelligent organization so they must be trained in capacity for sonally, with others in a common strugglethat they can unite against poverty, - and enjoy of appreciation standards low credulity, disease, ignorance, writing striking, are Follett with here 97). The parallels 6: (LW ment” of each other. years this within three - must culti “Education he said in 1931, to education. As lar approach assiduously more socially even to act spirit and the power the social vate past” success in the for material individual ambition than it cultivates to think together, learning also stressed Dewey 98). Like Follett, (LW6, must and methods motives essay: “Competitive as he said in this same . cooperative be abandoned for life results a process of growth, “the realization of our creative function” function” of our creative realization “the of growth, a process life results universe in a responsibility of our realization to “the come we in which (312). anew at everybeing created which is instant” Urbana and Chicago: Urbana and Social Ethics. 1902/2002. Democracy Jane. Addams, of and Chicago: University Urbana of Peace. Ideals ———. 1907/2007. Newer and Chicago: University Urbana House. at Hull Years ———. 1910/1990. Twenty Macmillan The York: . New House at Hull Years Twenty ———. 1930. Second Potentials of Relations: Ontology Pragmatist Amrita. 2008. “Follett’s Banerjee, 1971. L. Avrum Cohen, Works In Middle Philosophy” of Recovery Need for a 1916. “The John. Dewey, In our fast paced world where quick decisions are often privileged, the quick decisions are fast paced world where our In a counter- methods provides in Follett’s of interest resurgence current listening, learning based in careful balance, a call for leadership and and the art of integration. relationality, to learn these capacities is a life- slo (power- develop time and education and training to with rather than a po got b 422 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 Hejny, Jessica. 2012.“Pragmatism, Pluralism, andtheState” Presentation atthe ———. Graham, Pauline, Parker ed.1995.Mary Follett Prophet ofManagement: Conflict”———. 1925b/1995.“Constructive Parker inMary Follett Prophet of ———. 1925a/1949/1987,Freedom andCo- ———. 1924/1951.Creative Experience. New York: Peter Smith. ———. 1919.“CommunityisaProcess” Philosophical Review, Vol.XXVIII, Vol. Follett, Parker. Mary 1918. ———. 1934.Art asExperience. In Later Works Volume 10:1934.Carbondaleand ———. 1931.“American Education Past andFuture” inTheLater Works of John ———. 1924.Experience andNature. In LaterWorksVolume . Carbondale 1:1924 Preskill, Stephen andStphen D.Brookfield. asa 2009.Learning Way ofLeading: Pratt, Scott.2011. “American Power: Parker Mary Follett andMichel Foucault” Tonn, Joan P. C.2003.Mary Follett: Creating Democracy, Transforming Manage - Mansbridge, Jane. 1998. “Forward: Parker Mary Follett: Feminist and Negotia- ———. 2011. Idealism, Pragmatism and Feminism: The Philosophy of Ella Lyman Kaag, John. 2008.“Women andForgotten Movements inAmericanPhilosophy: ———. 1907/1977.APluralistic Universe inThe James. Ed. of William Works James, William. 1910. “A Moral Equivalent of War” in Huber, Mary Taylor, Pat Hutchins, and Richard Gale. 2005. “Integrative learning ———. 2003.False Prophets: The Gurus Who Created Management and Modern Hoopes, James. 1998.CommunityDenied: The Wrong of Turn Progressive Liberal- .american- Society fortheAdvancement ofAmericanPhilosophy conference. Press. A Celebration of Writings from the1920s.Boston:Harvard Business School and Rowe Publishers, 1940. ParkerMary Follett. Ed. Henry C. Metcalf and L.Urwick. New York: Harper Management nization. NewYork: Garland Publishing. 28, pp. 576–88 Popular Government . New York: Longmans,Green andCo. Edwardsville: Southern Illinois Press. Dewey, 1925–1953. Volume 6:1931–1932, and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois Press. Lessons from theStruggle forSocialJustice. San Francisco: Jossey- Foucault Studies , (Feb): 76–91. ment. New Haven: Yale University Press. (reprint).ernment University Park: Penn State Press. tor.” 1998.In The New State: Group Organization, theSolutionto Popular Gov- Cabot. Lanham:LexingtonBooks. Charles S.Peirce Society. Vol 33,No. 1 Winter, 2008(134–157). The Work of Ella Lyman Cabot and Mary Parker Follett” Transactions ofthe bridge, Mass., London,England: Harvard University Press, 1975–1988. Frederick H.Burkhardt, Fredson Bowers, andIgnas K.Skrupskelis; Cam- ofAmerica(p. 1281–1293). 1902–1910. TheLibrary for LiberalEducation” Peer Review 7(4)4–7. Why Their Ideas Are Bad for Business. New York: Basic Books. ism. Ithaca: CornellUniversity Press. _program&action=view.php&id=10. ­philosophy.org/openconf3_5/modules/request.php?module=oc Reprinted Administration: from Dynamic TheCollected Papers of The New State: Group Organization the Solution of ­ or dination: Lectures inBusiness Orga- William James: WritingsWilliam ­ B ass. http://www

A Pragmatist Reading of Mary Parker Follett’s Integrative Process • Judy Whipps 423

­ y ass. B ­ Chicago: ones. Routledge. ones. Routledge. J ­ pragmatist democratic practice and contemporar democratic practice pragmatist ­ e for union shows up in many writers in the era be- e for union shows om Charlene Seigfried’s 1992 essay, “Classical American 1992 essay, om Charlene Seigfried’s the Social Fabric. Reweaving and Feminism: Pragmatism ote a short piece about Follett after her death, reprinted in Cohen after her death, reprinted ote a short piece about Follett anerjee notes that “circular response” is a psychological notion related to notion related is a psychological response” anerjee notes that “circular ollett’s writing on integration has been compared to Dewey (for example (for to Dewey writing on integration has been compared ollett’s ote the Mary Parker Follett Award given annually since 2001by the As- annually since 2001by given Award Follett ote the Mary Parker or more on Anna Boynton Thompson’s teaching at Thayer, see http:// teaching at Thayer, Thompson’s on Anna Boynton or more “Think- theory Mattson of democracy see Kevin about Follett’s or more - the Inter by Award Achievement the 2011 Lifetime ollett was given This intriguing desir F Seigfried 145. Seigfried B ee for example Amrita Banerjee 2008, John Kaag 2008 and 2011, Scott Kaag 2008 and 2011, 2008, John ee for example Amrita Banerjee

See Tonn 304–5. Tonn See 2012 and Hejny Whipps 2012 See F F Cabot wr S N F The phrase is fr

, 19.2 (Summer). , 19.2 (Summer). Hypatia eminist Communitarianism” NOTES 12. 13. 9. 10. 11. 8. University of Chicago Press. Chicago Press. of University Jossey- Francisco: San for Practice. the Mind of Life a Shaping Education: 5. 6. 7. 1. 3. 4. F 2. Special Issue. 83–116. 83–116. Issue. Special Studies. of American Review Canadian Greene Emily Addams, Jane Follett, Mary Parker movements: sustainability Maurice Ed. Pragmatism, Feminist in Contemporary Shiva” Vandana and Balch, and Celia Bardwell- Hamington tween the world wars. tween “Gestalt theories (p. 4). This may be the case, as Follett was also in communica- 4). This may be the case, as theories (p. “Gestalt Holt. Bissell such as Edwin tion with psychologists to reference direct not found any 1998) but I have 2003 and Hoopes Tonn see and occasion- James William often references more writing. She in Follett’s Dewey ally Royce. www.thayer.org/uploaded/About_Thayer_Menu/Thayer_History/Thayer%E2% a in Creating Follett” Parker Mary Political Thought of The ing Democratically: 2012. Whipps, also See Public; Democratic A New Agenda for Higher for Higher Agenda 2008. A New S. Rosin. Matthew M. and William Sullivan, Whipps 2012. 2011, and Judy Pratt 80%93100_Yrs. pdf/ pp 10–12. (1971) p. 34. Follett was clearly influenced by idealist and Hegelian thought. Her Hegelian thought. by idealist and was clearly influenced 34. Follett (1971) p. and her good friend Royce, Thompson, studied with Anna Boyton early mentor, and Kaag Tonn 119–120 See was also an idealist influence. Cabot Lyman Ella 54–57. 2011, p. sociation for Conflict Resolution. http://www.acrnet.org sociation for Conflict and Preskill in Follett on chapter the also See Association. Leadership national Social Justice. for the Struggle of Leading: Lessons from Way Learning as Brookfield, ———. 2004. “Jane Addams’s Social Thought as a Model for a Pragmatist- Model for a Thought as a Social Addams’s ———. 2004. “Jane in Follett did not reference although Seigfried Women,” Invisible Philosophy’s and Feminism, her 1996 book Pragmatism including work, this article. Seigfried’s feminist studies in pragmatist philosophy. opened the field of Seigfried, Charlene. 1992. “Classical American Philosophy’s Invisible Women.” Women.” Invisible Philosophy’s American 1992. “Classical Charlene. Seigfried, . ———. 1996 “Feminist- 2012. Whipps, Judy. 424 T R A N S A C T I O N S Volume 50 Number 3 the skillsofreasoned judgmentexercised through practicalaction. rely on Deweycommitmenttohelpstudentsdevelop in theircallforanew in part Agenda forHigher Education: Shaping aLife oftheMind forPractice. Theauthors 67–95 she hadcontributedtotheirside. suspicion ofpower” (121). 2004. Whipps 2012. B. Holt. See Creative Experience (1924)pp. 53–77. Follett wasalsodrawingonthework ofHarvard philosopher/psychologist Edwin 315–321. quote isfrom Follett’s unpublished response read attheconference. See Tonn, Cohen andRoscoe Pound torespond toeachothers’ papersoncommunity. This OverstreetHarry invitedFollett, Harold Laski,James Tufts, Wilber Urban, Morris the “fallacies ofindividualinvention” (Follett, 1918,94–95). ing in1918whenshecritiquestheentire notionofan“original” personasoneof that shesaysDewey is“not original” canbeinterestingly contrastedwithherwrit- she continuesthat“Inever gotasingleideafrom Dewey” (Tonn 377).Thefact a 1926lettertoR.B.Haldane Follett saysthatDewey’s work is“not original” and commitments, forsomereason Follett wasnotimpressed withDewey’s work. In given by systemsofpower” (2011,80). to oracceptanceofpossibilitiesalready provided forby theprinciplesofconduct Pratt says,“Growth markspossibilitiesandexperience andnotjustresistance new p. 73. and SocialProgress, andanexcerpt wasreprinted inTwenty Years atHull House, receiving andappropriating truth.” The1892essaywaspublishedinPhilanthropy Prize in1946. en’s International League for Peace and Freedom. She received the Nobel Peace democracy. 28. 27. 25. 24. 20. 19. 18. 17. 16. 15. 14. 26. 23. 22. 21.

See letterfrom Lt.Col.Lyndall Urwick, Cohen,179. See Hoopes 152–3. Although F This “Constr I After A I E S F A mor I F n herconceptionofselfascontinuouslyevolving andcircular response, n hisdiscussionofPeirce andJames inrelation topower andgrowth, n 1892 Addams wrote that“action is the onlymedium for man has for ee Whipps 2012fora more thorough discussionaboutFollettian or more onAddams’ conceptionofsocialinterdependence see Whipps ollowing thepublicationoftheirpapersinPhilosophical Review, mily Greene Balch alsosucceeded Addams asthepresident ofthe Wom- ccording toHoopes (2003),Follett wasa“littleguilty” of“inadequate point is taken up in the recent Carnegie Foundation book, the publication of e detaileddiscussionofFollettian democracycanbefoundin uctive Conflict” Parker inMary Follett, Prophet ofManagement. ollett andDewey clearlyshare manyofthesamephilosophical The New State, pluralist and monists both thought A New