Images of the Netherworld in Early Taoist Religious Tradition: Some Issues and Estimations (Based on the Taoist Code Jiu Zhen Ming Ke)

Home , Chu (Taoism), Henri Maspero, Li Jing (deity), Shijie (Taoism), Yan (An–Shi)

Filonov S.V. Images of the Netherworld in Early Taoist Religious Tradition: Some Issues and Estimations (Based on the Taoist Code Jiu zhen ming ke)

IMAGES OF THE NETHERWORLD IN EARLY TAOIST RELIGIOUS TRADITION: SOME ISSUES AND ESTIMATIONS (BASED ON THE TAOIST CODE JIU ZHEN MING KE)*

S.V. Filonov

Sergey Vladimirovich Filonov – Doctor of Science (History), Candidate of Science (Philosophy); Professor, Department of Chinese Studies, Amur State University; Principal research fellow, Research Center for Sinological Studies (Blagoveshchensk).

E-mail: [email protected]

The present article discusses the aspects pertaining to the analysis of the concepts of the afterlife in early Taoist religion. The focus of attention of the paper is one of the earliest Taoist codes of laws and regulations among those that have survived up till now – Jiu zhen ming ke 九真明科, aka The Bright Code of the Perfected [Kings] from the Nine [Heavens]. The three chapters of the Code are connected with one another, both thematically and logically. Chapter 1 enumerates the existing Taoist scriptures and talismans; conveys their brief characteristic features and explains the rites of their transmission. Chapter 2 recounts the rules and laws that Taoist practitioners ought to adhere to unequivocally if they are to cognize the ultimate truth through these scriptures. Chapter 3 explicates the rituals which allow to atone for the crimes and misdeeds (enumerated in Chapter 2) so that to resume the path of self-perfecting and enhancement, the true path of Dao. The Code serves as a profound and abundant source of information which allows to distinguish the most essential peculiarities of the Taoist concepts pertaining to the afterlife; it enables for the delineation of the most promising vectors of search for their genesis and origins.

Key words: China, Taoism, religious worldview, concepts of the afterlife, Jiu Zhen Ming Ke九真明科, The Nine Rivers九河, The Nine Sources九泉, The Water Palace水宮.

DOI: 10.31079/1992-2868-2018-15-2-225-236

Introduction* ty (immortality), as well as a compilation of rituals and Taoism (dao jiao 道教) is a Chinese indigenous native practices which were believed to prompt the transfor- religion. In Russian sinology, this specific approach to mation of an ordinary person into a transcendent, a celes- Taoism was established and substantiated by Evgeny tial being (xian 仙); which helped to safeguard the world Torchinov (1956–2003) (Torchinov 1993, Torchinov of the living from the perilous influence emanating from 2005); in Western Chinese Studies, this vision finds the world of the dead; to eliminate misfortunes and ca- manifestation in the works of such renowned sinologists lamities in this world, and to guarantee the good fortune as Henri Maspero (1883–1945) (Maspero 1971), Michel of oneself and one‘s ancestors in the afterlife. Strickmann (1942–1994) (Strickmann 1979), and Anna Taoism has consistently played a definitive role in Katharina Seidel (1939–1991) (Seidel 1997). Neverthe- everyday life of the majority of the Chinese popula- less, in academic communities heated debates are still tion; this was remarked upon by a distinguished Chi- under way, regarding the nature, history and the constitut- nese writer Lu Xun (1881–1936). On September 24, ing structure underlying the Taoism, since the latter – as 1927 he made the following entry in his personal diary: Norman J. Girardot, the eminent researcher, pinpoints, ―… [The Chinese can‘t hide their antipathy towards quite accurately – still remains one of the least scrutinized Buddhist monks, the Muslims, Jesus followers, but and studied religions in the world. (Robinet 1993, XVII)1 they never demonstrate their negative attitude towards The present author subscribes to the point of view any Daoists. To understand this phenomenon means to that, fundamentally, at the heart of the Taoist religious almost understand China.‖ (Lu Xun quan ji 魯迅全集 tradition there lies a teaching of the attainment of longevi- 1981, 556) Contemporary research corroborates this edict * Translated by E.Y. Malneva, Candidate of Science (Philology), completely, attesting to the fact that it was specifically ed. by S.V. Filonov. Taoism as a religion that mirrored ethno-psychological 1 An analytical survey of modern and prospective approaches to postulating an adequate explanatory model of Taoism is to be features of the Chinese people to the utmost, for the found in a brilliant work by an outstanding American researcher daily life of the dominant part of the society was entire- of Asiatic religions Russell Kirkland (born 1955) (Kirkland 1997). ly within the sphere of influence of the former. (Robi- The author of the given paper wants to use this opportunity to ex- net 1993, XIX) press his sincere gratitude to Dr. Kirkland for the possibility to scrutinize the published originals of his work. 225 «The Humanities аnd Social Studies in the Far East». Vol. XV. Issue 2, 2018

It is commonly believed that Taoism qua an orga- shed not only on the sources but onto the constituting nized religion originated in the south-western region of foundation of Taoism in general. China in the middle of the second century AD. The The Taoist religious tradition was being established tradition proclaims that it was precisely there, in the on the basis of amalgamation of various ideas, concep- area which used to be known as Shu Kingdom, in the tions, and cults. A significant role in the mentioned year of 142 AD, that Zhang Ling 張陵 (also known as process was played by both Soteriology of the Celestial Zhang Dao-ling 張道陵) received a revelation from the Masters and magico-religious traditions, typical of the Supreme Celestial deity. This revelation anointed him south of China. Culture-specific southern traditions, with legitimacy on behalf of Heaven to spread the new generally related to shamanism, defined the specific teaching. Based on the revelation, Zhang Ling estab- nature of the religious movements flourishing in the lished the first large-scale Taoist community. This or- Chang Jiang Basin and affected significantly the insti- ganized religious movement was named ―The Way of tutional structure of Taoism: The Lineage of Three the Five Pecks of Rice‖ (Wudoumidao 五斗米道); lat- Sovereigns (Sanhuang 三皇), which already existed in er, it became commonly known as the ―Lineage of the the third and fourth centuries AD, and the Lineage of Celestial Masters‖ (Tianshidao 天師道). (Lai, Chi-Tim the Supreme Purity (Shangqing上清), which came into 2002; Xiaolin Zhengmei 小林正美 (Kobayashi being around the sixties of the fourth century AD. At Masayeshi) 2010, 17–30; Lai, Chi-Tim 2010) Until the turn of the fourth and fifth centuries, in the basin of recently, it was generally alleged that the appearance of the Chang Jiang river, there appeared another religious this social movement in 142 AD, under the leadership movement which proved to be an important landmark of Zhang Ling, was truly the commencement point for in the history of Taoism formation – The Numinous Taoism as a religion. Treasure Lineage (Lingbao 靈寶). Within Lingbao However, in the last two decades, the explanatory school, Soteriology of the Celestial Masters is fused model of the history of Taoism underwent significant not only with the southern religious traditions of the alterations. On the one hand, the scholars researching shamanistic type, but also with Mahāyāna ideas. Addi- the issue have data related to the activity of the Celes- tionally, in the scriptures of the Lingbao, a considera- tial Masters only as early as the end of the 2nd century ble part is occupied by cosmology and cosmogony AD, when it was run by Zhang Lu – who was named problems; for the first time in the history of Taoism by the Taoist tradition the grandson of Zhang Dao-ling – there appear systemic descriptions not only of the in the Hanzhong region (covering the areas of the Heavenly realm, but of the nether region – the Subter- north-eastern part of the modern province of Sichuan ranean Prisonworld where, as it is posited, the souls of and the south-western part of the Shaanxi province). the deceased dwell – those meant for punishment re- On the other hand, new archaeological findings testify sulting from the commitment of sins in earthly life. to the existence of an established and diversified tradi- As a result of complex processes of integration and tion in China long before the 2nd century AD, which synthesis, Taoism enters the sixth century as a relative- featured apparent similarities with the religious doc- ly homogeneous institutionalized religion (Kirkland trine of the Celestial Masters. Ursula Angelika Cedzich 1997), comprising an evolved religious philosophy and called it ―the religion of tombs‖ (Cedzich 1993); Anna doctrine, an elaborate structured apparatus of the cler- Seidel labeled it ―Pre-Taoism‖, respectively (Seidel gy, a normative system of cults and rituals, a compila- 1988; a comparison of the approaches of Angelika tion of revered scriptures, and a code of ethical regula- Cedzich and Anna Seidel see in: Lai, Chi-Tim 2002, tions for the clergy and laymen both. It is in this way 251–253), whilst historians-archaeologists University that it was spreading throughout the Chinese society – Zhang Xunliao 张勋燎 (born 1934) and Bai Bin 白彬 without any considerable alterations up till the tenth (born 1966) termed it ―early Celestial Masters Taoism‖ century. (Ibid) This particular stage in the development (Bai, Bin 2010, 1036–1038). This religion was oriented of Taoism is reflected in a certain Taoist text, which onto the cult practices meant to properly accommodate happens to be the object of our attention in the given the deceased in the Nether realm, thus securing the research, specifically, the Code Jiu zhen ming ke world of the living from the influence of the world of 九真明科. the dead. Along the same lines, paradigmatically, but Jiu zhen ming ke 九真明科, aka The Bright Code of on a higher level of concretization and ritualization, the Perfected [Kings] from the Nine [Heavens], is one there was developing, simultaneously, the Soteriology of the earliest known codices (among those which have of the Celestial Masters. Debates and discussions about survived until nowadays), comprising the regulations the early forms of Taoist (proto-Taoist) religion, which and laws underlying Taoism as a religious system. It were initiated owing to new archaeological discoveries used to define the norms, rules and the order of rituals and the subsequent analysis of artefacts pertaining to concerning the reception, and the transmission of the the ―religion of tombs‖, allow for a new light to be Taoist scriptures and talismans. (Robinet 1984, V. 2,

226 Filonov S.V. Images of the Netherworld in Early Taoist Religious Tradition: Some Issues and Estimations (Based on the Taoist Code Jiu zhen ming ke)

294–295) The English translation of the Code‘s title, ismans; provides their brief characteristic features and which is grounded in the perspective of Fong-Mao explains the rites of their transmission. Chapter 2 re- Lee 李豐楙 (李豐楙 2010, 219), Isabelle Robinet counts the rules and laws that Taoist practitioners (1932–2000) (Robinet 1984, V. 2, 294) and Kristofer ought to adhere to unequivocally if they are to cognize Marinus Schipper (b. 1934) (Schipper and Verellen the ultimate truth through these scriptures. Chapter 3 2004, V. 1, 225), is The Sworn Code of the Nine Zhen- explicates the rituals which allow to atone for the ren. (Schipper and Verellen 2004, V. 1, 207)2 Apart crimes and misdeeds (which, in their turn, were enu- from that, there exists another English rendering of the merated in Chapter 2) so that to resume the path of headline referring to the same source – The Illustrious self-perfecting and enhancement, the true path of Dao. Code of the Nine Real Men (Pregadio 2008, 922) The text of the Code exactly reiterates the termi- The author of the present paper estimates that the nology and reproduces the fragments from the scrip- Code was being formed in the period lasting from the tures which emerged already in the second half of the second half of the fourth century till the end of the fifth fourth century AD and which have prevailed till nowa- AD; in its completed version, it started circulating days. This factor enables to qualify the The Bright widely not later than 499 AD.3 In the second half of the Code of the Perfected [Kings] from the Nine [Heav- sixth century, the Code was already incorporated into a ens] (Jiu zhen ming ke) as an engrossing object for re- large Taoist composition Su ling jing4 素靈經 [SLJ], search since it is equipped with the most treasured and which has survived up till now in the Taoist Canon valuable tools for analysis – those being synchronous [DZ 1026, HY 1303, СТ 1314: 44а:2—68b:8]. Later, texts of the same religious culture that generated the the text in question commenced its existence qua an Code in question itself. independent work of the Taoist Canon [DZ 1052, The cornerstone underlying and constituting the HY 1398, СТ 1409]. Apart from that, a sizable part of contents of the Jiu zhen ming ke 九真明科 is a system the Code was absorbed into the Upper Scripture of the of rituals defining and delineating the rites of transmis- Primordial Cinnabar (Yuan dan shang jing元丹上經) sion of Taoist scriptures. When performing these ritu- [DZ 1032, HY 1334, СТ 1345]. In the given article, all als, it was essential to adhere to a specific code of laws, the references to the text of the Code Jiu zhen ming ke the violation of which resulted in the imminent and 九真明科 are presented in accordance with the version inescapable punishment. This is the reason why such a significant part of the Code is dedicated to the descrip- which has remained in the text of Su ling jing 素靈經 tion of statutory regulations and guidelines that any [henceforth – SLJ]. Taoist receiving and studying scripture should follow The major part of the Code consists of an introduc- and observe. Additionally, the Code contains a consid- tion having a separate title – ―The Regulations in Three erable amount of space allocated to the explication of a Chapters‖ (san pin lü 三品律) – and three main chap- sophisticated system of penalties stipulated for the vio- ters. Chapter 1 is headlined ―The Items regarding [the lation and abuse of those laws, as well as the rites and Rules] of the Transmission of Scriptures‖ (chuan jing ceremonies allowing for the redemption of guilt and pian 傳經篇). Chapter 2 is entitled ―The Items Fore- committed crimes. Since the most severe punishments warning against the Crimes‖ (jie zui pian 誡罪篇). await Man only after death the Code comprises im- Chapter 3, accordingly, bears the title ―The Items Pre- pressive data, which sheds light upon – and contributes scribing [the Order] of Atonement for Crimes‖ » (shu to the reconstruction and comprehension of – some zui pian 贖罪篇). Each Chapter is subdivided into nine basic ideas about the Netherworld in Taoism of Six ―items‖ (pian 篇), i.e. nine sections. Dynasties (220–589 AD) period. The three chapters of the analyzed Code are inter- As the Code explains, the penalty for the violation twined with one another both thematically and logical- of the laws and regulations involves a twofold respon- ly. Chapter 1 enumerates the Taoist scriptures and tal- sibility. Firstly, it manifests as a heavy burden for the deceased ancestors of a Taoist – as far back as seven or 2 The article by Prof. Fong-Mao Lee that contains the aforemen- nine generations; and secondly, naturally, it affects the tioned interpretation was first published in Taiwan as early as perpetrator him/herself. Paradoxically, the Code nar- 1986; however, the only source that has been available to us is rates, first and foremost, about the anticipated sentence its Beijing edition dated 2010 (Lee, Fong-mao 李豐楙 2010, for the departed relatives of the Taoist and, only after- 175–263). 3 wards, about the retribution in store for the person re- The newest approaches to the estimation of the content, sponsible proper. This mode of representation arguably sources and the time of the formation of the Jiu zhen ming ke demonstrates a specific axiological vector typical of are presented in the research work of Dr. Li Jing 李靜 from various strata of Chinese culture, i.e. the priority of the the Chinese University of Hong Kong (香港中文大學) (Li, Jing 李靜 2013, 334–339). tribal and clan values over the personal and the indi- 4 For more detailed account of the Su ling jing, see in (Filonov vidual. 2011, 312–340). 227 «The Humanities аnd Social Studies in the Far East». Vol. XV. Issue 2, 2018

Among versatile punishments professed by Jiu zhen nated qua ―the land of the Source (Cradle) of the Seven ming ke 九真明科, most frequent are extreme interro- Rivers‖. This is a dark, bleak, hideous, and ghastly gations, including the interrogation under torture, the place where the souls of the people who used to com- interrogation with the help of caning, etc.; all these mit crimes or serious transgressions in life inevitably varieties were rendered in Classical Chinese via hiero- ended up after death. However, one could terminate glyph kao拷 (alternating variants: 考, 栲). [SLJ, 61b: their days there owing to the criminal wrongdoings of 6; 62b: 7; WSBY, 43: 4b: 9; 68: 9а: 3] These interroga- their ancestors. The traditional Chinese law decreed tions under duress implied excruciating torture that the that the penalty for certain crimes was in store not only for the offenders themselves but was also transferred souls of the deceased were subjected to by the clerks by default onto their blood relations (something desig- and officials of the Netherworld. The world of the dead nated as ―the concept of the transferral of responsibil- in the Taoist script of the era of Six Dynasties is deity‖, ―accountability‖ – cheng fu 承負); hence, a signif- picted qua a bureaucratic institution; the officials- bureaucrats of the latter control courts and trials – as icant number of such dwellers of the subterranean well as prisons and jails – in the nether, subterranean Prisonworld – located by the Source of Rivers – who were faultless, innocent in the global scheme of events. regions; and they also keep records of all the deeds – It is not surprising whatsoever then that Jiu zhen ming and misdeeds – of living people in order to present ke Code, when enumerating the regulations, highlights them with the proper punishment in due time. very clearly that in case of abuse or sidestepping, eve- When one ponders the specificity of punishments ryone is held accountable and culpable – as far back as that the souls of the dead undergo, it appears that there the deceased relatives of the seven preceding genera- prevails a particular story, a narrative relating the Chi- tions (yan qi xuan zhi zu 罪延七玄之祖), thus fore- nese archaic autochtonous conceptualization of the after- warning the Tao practitioner and alluding to the hide- life. The ideas of the Netherworld, manifest in the Code ous punishments awaiting his kith and kin, should he Jiu zhen ming ke, partake heavily of the Buddhist con- fall prey to reckless misdemeanors. [SLJ, 51b: 9; 53а: cepts, however, their archaic origin is quite transparent. 1; 49а: 3; 50а: 8; 55а: 10] The specified national autochtonous tradition finds its Consequently, one may surmise that this aforemen- manifestation in certain collocations surrounding the tioned realm of the Source / Cradle of Subterranean respective terminology of Jiu zhen ming ke 九真明科, in Rivers is a dark and dreary Underworld Prison and the comprehensive thesaurus representing the concept of Penitentiary for the souls of the dead. It is there that the the Netherworld which is displayed in such ancient cul- deceased await redemption for the crimes committed in tural artifacts and memorabilia preserving the Chinese their earthly life or for the criminal actions of their liv- legacy as the following significant manuscripts, among ing relatives. And although in early Taoist records the them the narrative history Zuo zhuan左傳 (The Com- abovementioned subterranean region is generally mentary of Zuo); the literary anthology Chu ci 楚辭 called the Source of Rivers / the Cradle of Rivers (he (Songs of Chu), and ―grave quelling texts‖ (zhen mu wen yuan 河源), in the text of Jiu zhen ming ke one faces 鎮墓文), alongside the poetic pieces belonging to the other nominations – alongside the given above [SLJ, Western Han Dynasty (206 BC–9 AD). с. 58b: 8; с. 59b: 8] – of the concept in question: Furthermore, some notions typical of Jiu zhen ming — The Nine Palaces of Great Darkness or the Nine ke 九真明科 complement and correspond to the so- Dark [Palaces] (jiu yin 九陰) for short; that would be called ―Religion of tombs‖ – widely spread in China the most frequent manifestation of the concept of the long before Taoism became the established official Subterranean Prisonworld pervading the text of Jiu religion – and are also in accord with certain archaic zhen ming ke; concepts recreated owing to archaeological excavations — The Chthonic (Subterranean) Palace or The Dark and reconstruction of cultural artifacts. Palace (you gong 幽宮) [SLJ, 58b: 10; 61b: 6]; The scrutiny of the respective excerpts from Jiu — The Nine Rivers (jiu he 九河) [SLJ, 57а: 9; 59b: zhen ming ke 九真明科 demonstrates the pervasive 6; 61b: 10]; doctrine of jiu he zhi yuan (literally: ―the realm of — The Nine Sources (jiu yuan 九源) [SLJ, 58b: 8; sources‖, the so-called ―cradle of subterranean rivers‖) 59b: 8]; in Early Medieval Chinese culture; this was believed to — The Nine Springs (jiu quan 九泉) [SLJ, 58b: 8]; be the place where the souls of men could end up after — The Realm of the Sources [of the Rivers] that death. In the Taoist treatises of the second half of the Have No Bounds (wu ji zhi yuan 無極之源) [SLJ, 49а: 4]; period of Six Dynasties, this place is specified as jiu he — The Region of the Rivers of the Endless Night zhi yuan 九河之源, the cradle of the Nine Rivers of the (ji ye zhi he積夜之河) [SLJ, 50а: 9]; Underworld, although, at times, the number of the rivers mentioned is diminished to seven; in the latter case, — Subterranean Sources (you yuan 幽源) and Sub- this place – the seat of the final judgement – is nomi- terranean Springs (you quan 幽源) [SLJ, 53а: 2].

228 Filonov S.V. Images of the Netherworld in Early Taoist Religious Tradition: Some Issues and Estimations (Based on the Taoist Code Jiu zhen ming ke)

The realm of the dead pitted against the world of validates the idea of the wide circulation of the pre- the living is repeatedly designated by means of other sented conceptions. idioms and collocations in the Taoist texts of the ana- The text in question exemplifies the doctrine of the lyzed epoch: Celestial Masters; nevertheless, the following excerpt — The Prefecture of the Souls of the Dead (gui fu reproduces – accurately from the terminological stand- 鬼府); point – the conceptual apparatus inherent in Jiu zhen — The Region of the Endless Night (chang ye ming ke: ―And then you will agonize and suffer from 長夜); the extreme interrogations under torture, which will be — Nine Hades (jiu you 九幽). executed via a wind-hatchet… and you will be carrying The presented nominations are often incorporated stones from Mengshan mountain and throw them in an attributive clause which amounts to the following into the rivers by The Nine [underground] Sources… elaborate construction – ―The Prefecture of the souls of <…> 被風刀之考。 <…> 運蒙山之石。 the dead which is located in the region of the endless 塞九源之河。[STZFJ, 11а: 2–3] night and comprises nine Hades‖ (jiu you chang ye zhi In the alluded case, the cited source represents the gui fu 九幽長夜之鬼府). [DRJ, 2: 31b: 1] At times, concept of the Netherworld by means of the nomina- this circumlocution is substituted by a less intricate and tion ―The River by the Nine Sources‖ (jiu yuan zhi involved expression – ―The Prefecture of the Long he九源之河). The similar idea is to be observed in the Night‖ (chang ye zhi fu長夜之府). [WSBY, 24: 6b: 5] Code Jiu zhen ming ke – where the means of manifes- In a highly reputed Taoist text Chi-song-zi zhang li tation of the concept under study may vary but some 赤松子章曆 – the earliest surviving edition of which element will remain unchanged and will without fail dates back to the end of the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 include either the numeral ―Nine‖ which used to denote AD) or, quite possibly, the Song Dynasty (960 – 1279 the number of halls or, possibly, bureaus in this region AD) but which, in fact, contains the earliest, the most of the world of the dead or the words signifying the ancient fragments which hearken back, in its turn, to ―water‖ element (rivers, sources, springs, etc.): the first centuries of the Common Era (AD) – we en- — ―… You will be subjected to the interrogations counter an elucidation, a clarification highlighting the under duress by means of the wind-hatchet, and you analogy of the Chinese prison for the souls of the de- will vanish in the Subterranean Realms / the Dark parted located in the unfathomable abysmal regions Sources (you yuan 幽源), and never will you attain beyond the surface of the earth. the rank of a transcendent (xian 仙). To that might attest an existing expression ―Subter- 己身被風刀之考。身沒幽源。萬不得仙。 [SLJ, ranean Prisonworld‖ (di yu 地獄) which used to be an 53а: 1–2]; established designation of the realm of the Netherworld — ―If the enumerated crimes were committed, both in Medieval China. the Master and his student would be subjected to en- This metaphorical expression finds its manifesta- hanced interrogations executed with the help of the tion in an unabridged nomination of the given judicial wind-hatchet whilst their deceased ancestors – up to and penitentiary administrative institution of the world the seventh generation – will be locked away for aeons of the dead – ―The Subterranean Prisonworld in the in the realm of the Subterranean Sources (you yuan Region of the Endless Night Incorporating Nine Hades 幽源), wherein they will be doomed to drag rocks and (jiu you chang ye di y 九幽長夜地獄). [CSZZL, move mountains; and fail will they to find release from 6: 16a: 8] It is noteworthy that the expression ―The that jail, even when ten thousand kalpas elapse.‖ Subterranean Prisonworld‖ manifests on one occasion 師及弟子。同被風刀之考。七玄之祖。長閉幽源。 in the transcript of the Jiu zhen ming ke Code. [SLJ, 負石擔山。萬劫不解。[SLJ, 54b: 3–4]; с. 49а: 5] This might signify that the formation of the — ―The culpability for the crimes encompasses conceptual framework of the Code was directly affect- seven generations – both those descended through the ed by key Mahāyāna ideas. maternal line and along the paternal line – and they all An identical conceptual apparatus may be encoun- will atone for their sins in the Bureau of the Deceased tered in other synchronous Taoist texts. The analysis of (gui guan 鬼官), and they will be dragging stones from the linguistic context alleviates all the doubts and veri- Mengshan mountain so that to obstruct and fill up the fies that these versatile linguistic nominations actually Rivers of the Endless Night.‖ denote one and the same mental construct – the realm 罪延七祖父母。充責鬼官。運蒙山之石。填積夜之 of the dead, wherein dwell the souls of the departed 河。 [SLJ, 50а: 8–9]. doomed to chastisement. A prominent Taoist text The Other Taoist manuscripts of the period of Six Dynas- Scripture of the Correct Law of the Three Heavens ties equally stress that the penance for the violation of (Tai-shang san tian zheng fa jing 太上三天正法經) certain regulations will affect, first and foremost, the

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departed relatives of the Taoist; the kinsfolk afflicted by The Land of the Dead by the Sources of Rivers cor- the plague of punishment will be extended to the seventh responds with the North and is contrasted with the Red or even the ninth generation. Take, for one, the Song Palace (Zhu-gong 朱宮), the Taoist equivalent of Para- Dynasty encyclopaedic work Yun ji qi qian which incor- dise, presumably situated in the South. [WSBY, 24: 4b: porates compendia of editions of many prior Taoist 4–5] The violation of the norms and regulations, as scriptures, and which also contains a small-volume pas- Dao disciples believed, always resulted in the trial, sage – similar in vein to the texts of Shangqing revela- penal servitude or imprisonment in the dreary dun- tion (the second half of the fourth century) and entitled geons of the realm of the dead situated somewhere in Secret Formulae from the Purple Book (Zi shu the north, in the depths of the earth, where subterrane- jue紫書訣). The said work explicates certain meditative an rivers flow. It seems remarkable, though, that Taoist practices, the description of which concludes with the manuscripts also provide a key to salvation, that literal- following promise: ―If you follow all the rules, outlined ly allows to unlock the gates of that underground pris- herein, the Mysterious Revered Mother (Xuan-mu on, liberate the souls in agony, and relocate them into 玄母)5 will be reinstated in a positive frame of mind – the Heavenly realm of the Immortals. When duly performed – if and when all the laws are obeyed accord- for this will put her into an amiable mood; and the maid- ingly – not only can every person become a transcend- ens from the circle of the Celestial Thearch will be mer- ent (xian 仙) but also, he or she will be able to free ry and jovial; and the Heavenly Perfected will descend to you…˂…˃ If you were to practice the fine astute their deceased relatives from the subterranean contemplation (jing si 精思)6 for nine years, the Celes- Prisonworld. This is unambiguously stated in the True Scripture from the Great Cavern (Da dong zhen jing) tial Thearch would send you Jade Maidens, whilst the 大洞真經. [DDZJ, 2: 15b: 3–5] nebulous chariot would descend upon you from Heavens The afterlife – the Netherworld – was believed to be to welcome and greet you. Having soared into the sky, an elaborate complex administrative and clerical structure the nebulous chariot will ensky you, upwards into the which encompassed an extensive staff of officials who 玉清 Celestial Palace of Jade Purity (yu qing ), and then used to control and manage the realm of the dead. This you will be entitled to service in the guard of the Lord of premise is verified in the early Code of the Celestial Mas- the Mysterious Palace.‖ ters Protocol of the Twelve Hundred Officials (Qian-er- Further, in the following passages, the text cautions bai guan yi) 千二百官義. This is believed to be the earli- against divulging this information, against the disclo- est, most ancient work of the lineage of the Celestial Mas- sure of the essence of the given practices via employ- ters, which was in wide circulation already at the turn of ing the standard – within the confines of the texts of the second and third centuries AD when this religious the Shangqing tradition – expressions such as shen 慎 community was positioned in Hanzhong under the rule of (bearing the meaning similar to the following: ―Be vig- Zhang Lu, the grandson of Zhang Dao-ling. ilant!‖; ―Beware!‖; ―Abstain from this or that!‖) and Only fragments of the said composition have sur- wu xie勿泄 (―Do not divulge!‖); both of them prophe- vived; it is also featured partially in the work of Tao sy severe punishments for the perpetrator: ―Under no Hong-jing entitled Deng zhen yin jue. [DZYJ, 3: 14b: 1– circumstances are you to disclose the content of this 22b: 4] The composition was structured qua an invento- manuscript without any proper reason for it, otherwise ry list of the officials – transcendents residing in the Af- you will end your days in Three Offices (san guan terworld – with a clear indication of their position and 三官), whilst your ancestors of seven generations will functions, their places of residence; and the staff of em- suffer from extreme questioning, being locked for all ployees, inferior to them: civilians and military petty eternity in the realm of the Sources of Rivers.‖ 如此。 officers of lower ranks. Amongst the names of the officials constituting the bureaucratic system of the After- 玄母含暢。帝妃喜懽。天眞下降… 九年精思。 world we may come across those designating the rulers 帝遣玉女。乘雲下迎。上昇玉清。侍衞玄宮… of the realm of the Nine Rivers. Tao Hong-jing 陶弘景愼勿輕泄。身沒三官。七祖被考。長閉河源。[YJQ (456–536 AD) – a renowned Scholar of Dao, a textual Q, 44: 24b: 6–25a: 1] critic and a man of letters, an alchemist, pharmacologist, and bibliophile of the second half of the period of Six Dynasties – when annotating and analyzing the text in 5 Xuan-mu 玄母, the Mysterious Mother, is one of the most question, mentions the Lord of the Northern Sea from frequent characters of the early scriptures of the Supreme the realm of the Nine Rivers, alongside his civilian and Purity tradition. In these texts she belongs to the category of military officers and clerks (totaling 120 people, all in ―inner‖ deities, for a Taoist had to imagine her in the ―cultural all), that is, his assistants (emphasis by the author – space‖ of his own body. It forms a binary opposition with the S.F.). Apart from that, Tao Hong-jing alludes to the res- concept of the Primordial Father (Yuan-fu元父). idence of the aforementioned official – the He-dui-gong 6 Astute contemplation (jing si 精思) refers to the technique of Palace (河兌宮). [DZYJ, 3: 17a: 3–4] Taoist visual meditation. 230 Filonov S.V. Images of the Netherworld in Early Taoist Religious Tradition: Some Issues and Estimations (Based on the Taoist Code Jiu zhen ming ke)

The lexeme denoting the Palace contains the seme Specification and concretization of the hierarchy of referring to the element of water – that is apparent in the Netherworld and its administrative structure was the usage of the hieroglyph he河, which signifies ―riv- typical of the scriptures of the Celestial Masters. Since er‖, as well as dui兌 which, as Kong Ying-da 孔穎達 the fifth century AD, this specialization was vigorously (576 – 648 AD) posits, symbolizes the ―lake‖. explored in the scriptures of the Lingbao lineage of the The commentary by Tao Hong-jing emphasizes that Taoist movement; this arguably demonstrates the con- the followers of the doctrine of the Celestial Masters sistency and continuity of the two canons – those of the also perceived the dark region of the Nine Rivers as a Lingbao lineage and the Celestial Masters. complicated hierarchy of an administrative establish- It was believed that there, in the region of the ment consisting of numerous divisions with their own Sources of Subterranean Rivers, the departed relatives of vast personnel including both military ranks and civilian the Taoist who has transgressed, are sentenced to hard executives. The priests of the Celestial Masters, when labour – carrying rocks and fortifying the banks of the acting in the interests and for the sake of the members underground streams. Some select Taoist texts reveal of their religious community, sent petitions to the ruler that those punished and castigated could be allegedly of the He-dui-gong Palace with regard to real misfor- utilized themselves in the capacity of the building tunes and vexations, i.e. in case of stomachaches or blocks, construction material; it would appear, they cramps in the abdomen. [DZYJ, 3: 17a: 3] Tao Hong- served as fillings of sorts, meant to seal holes in the jing specifically accentuates that official petitions were dams of the subterranean rivers in the realm of the dead. to be sent to this Celestial executive in case of intesti- Jiu zhen ming ke, however, abounds in the accounts of nal obstruction, intestinal gas pain, distension of the hard physical labour in the world of the dead, which belly, etc. And this is not surprising in the least since it awaits the ancestors of the guilty Taoist practitioner. The was precisely the Lord of the Northern Sea from the standard punishment allotted to the deceased relatives – realm of the Nine Rivers that was in charge of the deni- the way Jiu zhen ming ke stated – was described in the zens of the world of the dead whose actions prompted following fashion: ―They will be moving mountains and such misfortunes as stomachaches.7 Tao Hong-jing carrying rocks in order to build a dam by the Sources of makes it very clear that in case of the emergence of ail- the Rivers which have no known bounds.‖ ments related to the digestive system, one had to address 負山運石。以填無極之源. [SLJ, 49а: 4] this Lord of the realm – for the latter to issue a decree so In a way, the Taoist Afterworld is a prison and a that his subordinates could cure the Taoist court of justice simultaneously. There, within its con- 小腹結脹不通。諸痞滿者皆主之。止乞令此君敕官 fines, interrogations are performed, penalties are as- 將治之耳。[DZYJ, 3: 17a: 4–5] This Celestial officer is cribed and executed, and both the latter and the former mentioned in another manuscript of the Celestial Mas- are strictly monitored. As in any penitentiary reforma- ters – The Petition Almanac of Chi-song-zi (Chi-song-zi tory institution, the term of sentence served there may zhang li). [CSZZL, 2: 20a: 8]8 be exceedingly long, but by no means is it deemed to be sempiternal. After serving the required term, the ancestors of the Taoist offender, having redeemed themselves through hard work and servitude in the 7 The fusion of the concepts related to the Netherworld with the realm of the Sources of Subterranean Rivers, may be therapeutic methods and Chinese ceremonial rituals is a charac- brought back to life, arise again. The idea of a rebirth teristic feature of the religious doctrine of the Celestial Masters. A peculiar theoretical underpinning for the system in question in the earthly abode is consistently and repeatedly reit- was the belief that all the musfortunes, calamities and maladies erated in Jiu zhen ming ke. For instance, the exerpt de- were predetermined and conditioned by the fatal, pestilent, and lineating the rules of transmission and receival of the harmful influence oozing into this world from the realm of the scriptures ascribed to the Jewel Book from the [heaven- dead. Only the officials from the Afterworld were endowed with ly palace of] Great Firmament (Tai xiao lang shu) con- legitimacy to neutralize this pernicious effect; and only those tains the following warning: ―If these books are trans- who possessed the power and authority to control and command the dwellers of the realm of the dead. It is precisely for this rea- mitted not in accordance with the regulations of the son that the Celestial Masters priests addressed those other- Code, then the punishment will befall all the ancestors worldly officials with petitions for help. of the Taoist – up to seven generations along both 8 In Chi-song-zi zhang li the residence of the Lord of the North- bloodlines, – and they will be liable to punishment ex- ern Sea from the realm of the Nine Rivers is represented qua ecuted by the ghost-officials of the Netherworld on He-yuan-gong 河元宮 [CSZZL, 2: 20a: 8] and not as He-dui- account of the crime committed by their descendents. gong 河兌宮, the way it is presented in Deng zhen yin jue They will be forced to carry rocks from Mengshan [DZYJ, 3: 17a: 4]. Since in every other way these two scrip- mountain in order to build dams by the River of the tures are identical – and the hieroglyphs yuan元 and dui 兌, Endless Night (ji ye zhi he). Ten thousand kalpas later, when hand-written and transcribed, look very similar – we tend to believe that one fragment (most likely, in Chi-song-zi they will be able to return to life – on Earth – but not in zhang li) must contain a mistake accomplished by the scribe. human form.‖ [SLJ, 50а: 8–10] 231 «The Humanities аnd Social Studies in the Far East». Vol. XV. Issue 2, 2018

Jiu zhen ming ke indicates that all misdemeanors and a person not entitled to it, your frail and mortal body will wrongdoings perpetrated by the Taoist himself/herself – be subjected to punishments imparted by Lords of Des- or their deceased ancestors – may be redeemed via per- tiny of Three Heavens, and you will turn into a dis- forming a special ritual. The system of purging ceremo- dained ghost (xia gui下鬼) after death, and you will be nies is presented in the third chapter of the Code. All the doomed to serve a long sentence in the Office of Water.‖ rituals aimed at atonement are carried out in accordance 若傳非其人。則三天司命罰子之身。死為下鬼。長 with a specific similar algorithm; the core element of the 役水官。[SSSFJ: 9b: 1–2] latter is dispatching a special message to the rulers of the world of the dead as well as an assortment of selected Tao Hong-jing unambiguously states that penal ser- items which serve the function of the ―ransom‖, ritual vitude in the Office of Water entails extremely hard pledge-offering, reimbursement for the committed crimes. labour. When relating the misfortunes of a man who In the description of the redeeming rituals one may be- was unwise enough to sidestep the regulations, he re- hold the symbol of Water, yet again. The opening passage veals: ―Once it so happened that Qiao divulged the of Chapter 3 of Jiu zhen ming ke discusses the constituent secrets of the Celestial scriptures. He followed no laws, features of the ritual pledge-offering: the figurine of a he was telling tall tales [about them], nonsense and ―golden man‖, green silk threads, and nine golden rings; gibberish. For this very reason, nowadays both the fa- all of them had to be thrown down the mouth of Three ther and the son of Hua descent are exposed to en- Rivers (tou yu san he zhi kou 投於三河之口). [SLJ, 58а: hanced interrogation in the Office of Water.‖ 9] This estuary was considered a borderline between the 華僑漏泄天文。妄說虛無。乃今華家父子被考 world of the living and the dark dominion of the dead. If （拷）於水官。[ZG: 7: 6а: 2–3] one takes into account the specified instructions, it be- Both nominations – the Palace of Water (shui gong comes evident why the Code commands for all the gifts 水宮) and the Office of Water (shui guan 水官) – are sent to the rulers of the Netherworld to be thrown into the linked with another semantic category (similar from water. [SLJ, 58b: 6] At that, it is irrelevant what particular the metaphorical and associative standpoint) – the river the Taoist might choose for the ceremony; it is mere- Three Offices, or the Three Bureaus (san guan 三官). ly essential for the objects to come in contact with the In early Taoist scripts, all these expressions are water element; the water, in its turn, as Jiu zhen ming ke used interchangeably and in identical contexts – when communicates, will unfailingly bring them to the gates of depicting the somber and dismal dominion of the dead. the administration office in the world of the dead which – The word combination san guan is quite often rendered as it has already been established – is located by the as ―Three Officials‖ which happens to be incorrect if Sources of Nine Subterranean Rivers. The water in early we consider Taoism prior to the Song Dynasty Taoist religious scripts is both an essential element of the 9 (960–1279 AD) . The expression san guan does have a Netherworld and its image. semantic component signifying ―Three Officials‖; In this respect, one should not be puzzled by the re- however, it is not the primary meaning, and it acquires current allusions to the Water element which are fre- wider circulation only during the Song Dynasty. In the quent in the texts of the petitions addressed to the sov- Taoist scriptures of the third through sixth centuries – ereigns of the Netherworld. In Chapter 3 of the Code as well as in the narratives created in the Tang Dynasty there is a reference to the Water Palace (shui era (618–907 AD) – the word combination san guan gong水宮) concealed somewhere in the cavernous un- normally refers to three major administrative institu- derground regions; a Dao follower bows before its tions of the Afterworld, which function qua surveil- Masters, pleading and begging for the salvation of lance structure, the court of law of the Netherworld, his/her relatives pining away in the subterranean dun- and the prison for the souls of the departed. The rules geon, and of oneself. [SLJ, 58b: 5] In early Taoist reli- of metonymy imply that any word denoting the loca- gious texts, the expression ―The Water Palace‖ can tion may also be employed for the designation of those easily be substituted for a nomination ―The Water Of- who reside there. Such a seme can also be actualized in fice‖ (shui guan) 水官 – which is semantically equiva- the analyzed contexts, although not frequently. Fur- lent – to denote the terrible and petrifying administra- thermore, this meaning of san guan generally indicates tive institution of the Netherworld, whose officials not three Celestial officials per se but the vast bureau- control and manage the world of the dead [see in: ZG, 7:

6a: 3; WSBY, 22: 23b: 5; DRJ, 2: 3b: 4; CSZZL, 6: 13b: 9 10]. It seems relevant that the manuscript of one of the In the Song Dynasty, the linguistic situation undergoes change, and the expression san guan comes to denote three ultimate scriptures of the period of Six Dynasties cautions that all Celestial Officials of the Three Realms: The Heaven, the Earth, Taoists ought to adhere to the ritual regulations concern- and the Water; gradually they converge into the nomenclature ing ―purity‖and never disclose the essence of religious ―Three [Celestial] Officials‖. There is a fascinating study of the texts in question. Elsewise, grave consequences may worship of Three Officials a.k.a. The Celestial Officials of the ensue: ―If you hand this book to an unsanctioned one, to Three Realms in the Song Period, see in: (Huang, Shih-Shan Susan 2001). 232 Filonov S.V. Images of the Netherworld in Early Taoist Religious Tradition: Some Issues and Estimations (Based on the Taoist Code Jiu zhen ming ke) cratic apparatus of the realm beyond which was in Explicit references to san guan, more specifically, charge of numerous legal, supervisory, and reformatory that said represents the name of the administrative bu- functions in that dark place. It would seem that the reaucratic establishment of the Netherworld, are to be phrase san guan 三官 is essentially a contracted form of found in the Commentary on the Scripture of Limitless the full four-component lexical structure san jie guan Salvation (Du ren jing 度人經). This scripture acquires shu 三界官屬 which stands for ―officials within juris- special significance and a significant influence among th diction of the [Rulers of] Three Realms‖ (san jie guan Tao followers in the first half of the 5 century already. shu) [see in, for instance: WSBY, 24: 2b: 9; 39: 7a: 4]. The first commentary that has been preserved up till In other words, disyllabic san guan – in its meto- now was compiled by the Taoist Yan Dong 嚴東 in nymic sense – possesses the meaning ―Officials of the 485–486 AD. This commentary has gained renown Three Realms‖, but not the ―Three Officials‖. The way and has endured up to nowadays. In one of the passag- I see it, such ―officials‖ were known since the very es of the commentary, Yan Dong amply interprets the beginning of Taoism; and their systemic description meaning of the expression san guan 三官. This inter- were already featured in one of the first texts of the pretation, presumably, reflects the general conceptions Celestial Masters – i.e. Protocol of the Twelve Hun- of the Netherworld typical of the period of Six Dynas- dred Officials (Qian-er-bai guan yi 千二百官儀); and ties (3-6 AD). Yan Dong demonstrates that san guan the number of those officials does not amount to mere- used to denote three administrative structures: The Of- ly three there, but to twelve hundred. In the Taoist fice of Heaven, the Office of Earth, and the Office scriptures of the second half of the period of Six Dyn- of Water. Each of the Offices comprises three Resi- asties, the quantity of the administrative personnel of dences each (gong 宮) and multiple Bureaus (cao 曹). the Netherworld only increases. ―Three Offices comprise 120 Bureaus. They govern the As it was previously stated, the particular estab- realm wherein the souls of the deceased dwell, the do- lishment named Three Offices / Bureaus (san guan minion of the deities, and the world of men. Moreover, 三官) was perceived not only as the place to perform Nine Prefectures (jiu shu 九署), which are in charge various punishments over the souls of the deceased, but of inventory and records of life and death of those who also the court of law in the Netherworld. That is the reside in the Nine Seas, in Three Great Rivers, and reason why these souls could contribute petitions to the the Sources of Twelve [Ordinary] Rivers, are account- Three Offices or to the Water Palace. The dead begged able to the Three Offices: The Office of Heaven, the the officials of that administrative institition to liberate Office of Earth, and the Office of Water.‖ them from the punishments in the Subterranean prison, 三官都合一百二十曹。主領鬼神人。天地水三官合 whilst the living contacted this legal institution at- 爲九署。及九海三河十二川源之中。生死圖籍。 tempting to implore the officers in charge to spare them pestilence, maladies, and misfortune brought [DRJ, 2: 32a: 1–7] about by the souls of the deceased.10 One of the cases Li Shao-wei 李少微, another commentator of the of such lawsuits is described by Tao Hong-jing when Scripture of Limitless Salvation (Du ren jing) 度人經, the latter is relating the deeds of the members the learned and erudite dao-shi who lived during the of Xu clan, whose adherents were the founding fathers Tang Period, expresses the idea in a more concise and of the the Supreme Purity Taoist lineage: ―As for Xu explicit fashion: ―As far as the Three Offices and Nine Jian, she was the daughter of Dai Shi-zi. She was mur- Bureaus are concerned, each of these institutions deals dered bt Xue Shi who had a feud with their clan. Xue with the souls of the dead, locked away in the Subter- Shi also killed the infant Xu Jian who was called ranean Prison.‖ 三官九府。各部領幽魂。[DRJ, A-ning, whom she had been nursing. These days, the 2: 38а: 10–38b: 1] soul of Xu Jian is trapped in the Office of Water togeth- To conclude, it seems obvious that the word combi- er with her son. And since her mortal remains are scat- nation san guan may manifest various contextual tered and dispersed to the wind, she filed a petition with meanings and be subject to numerous interpretations, Three Offices demanding justice and proper punish- but, as a rule, in early Taoist scripts all of them una- ment for the currently living relatives of Xu.‖ voidably correlate with references to the world of the 許賎者戴石子之女也。爲讎家薛世等所殺。又世殺 dead and perform a locative function (that is, allude to 賎抱小兒阿寧。賎今在水官。與兒相隨。骸骨流漂 the place and not the person, the agent). The analysis of 。亦訟在三官。求對考今生人也。[ZG, 7: 8b: 9–9a: 1] the semantic content and the grammatical structure of the corresponding fragments of the early Taoist com- positions unviolably verifies that. 10 For more detailed information regarding lawsuits against the deceased undertaken by the Taoist priests on behalf of the liv- The Taoist Code Jiu zhen ming ke 九真明科 high- ing members of Tao communities, see in: (Filonov, Sergey lights that the linguistic combination san guan (The 2013, 54 – 56, 75). For more specific details on this aspect of Three Ofiices) and shui gong (The Water Palace) are not Taoist ritual life see in: (Nickerson, Peter 1997). 233 «The Humanities аnd Social Studies in the Far East». Vol. XV. Issue 2, 2018

merely inextricably linked, but also appear to be the but the author perceives it as a promising subject of re- cornerstone of the conceptual apparatus related to the search. Netherworld. This idea is sustained by the direct correla- The Jiu zhen ming ke represents the stage of produc- tion of the given nominations with the so-called ―Realm tive integration that Taoism underwent during its institu- of Great Darkness‖ (tai yin 太陰) which tends to be the tionalization. This is especially noticeable in the Taoist most typical and characteristic linguistic marker of the concept of the Netherworld. This concept includes a concept of the Netherworld in the Taoist texts of the bureaucratic paradigm, is based on the cult practices analyzed historical period: ―If you repent your sins for common for the Anyang stage of Shang dynasty (14th – three years in a row in this manner, and then you per- 11th century BC) as was demonstrated by the сelebrated form a thirty-day long fasting ritual, you will be granted Dr. David Noel Keightley (October 25, 1932 – February the deliverance in the Three Offices (san guan 三官); 23, 2017). This concept includes terminology, which and you will be freed from punishmen in the Nine reveals an obvious correlation with the some passages [Prefectures of Great] Darkness (jiu yin 九陰). After- from the texts of the Warring States period (5th – 3rd wards, you will be able to resume your practical ad- century BC). If we imagine a stunning ―virtual-reality‖ vancement and progress on the true path of Dao.‖ museum filled with the images of the afterlife from Jiu 如此三年首謝。更清齋三十日。得上解三官。解考 zhen ming ke, then there most likely will be the artifacts from the burial sites of the Warring States and the For- 九陰。便還修行。 11 [SLJ, 60b: 1–3] mer Han periods (3rd – 1st century BC). Conclusion The realm of the afterlife as presented in early Tao- The images of the Netherworld in early Taoism, as ism is a bureaucratic system mainly focused on gov- evidenced in Jiu zhen ming ke (The Bright Code of the erning and prosecuting the souls of those who passed. Perfected [Kings] From the Nine [Heavens] In order to designate this function (that of the police 九真明科), relate to the concept of a postmortem trial and penitentiary system), three interchangeable terms taking place somewhere at the source of underground were used: The Three Offices (san guan 三官)12, rivers, as well as to the cult of ancestor worship. Con- cepts such as these, grounded in the indigenous Chi- 11 nese beliefs regarding afterlife, were significantly de- The idea of such a museum containing the images of the after- veloped in the 5th century AD via incorporation of life seems quite apparent upon studying the contemporary research in the field of Chinese history and culture, namely the conceptual and categorical apparatus of Mahāyāna. influential works of Prof. Yu Ying-shih (余英時, b. 1930) and There are almost no traces of Buddhist influence in the Prof. Poo Mu-chou (蒲慕州, b. 1952): (Yu Ying-shih 2005; texts of the Shangqing lineage (The School of the Su- Poo, Mu-chou 1998; Poo, Mu-chou 2018) preme Purity 上清派) spread across the southern China 12 As we have specified prior, there is another approach to inter- since the middle of the 60s of the 4th century AD. preting the term "san guan" (三官). According to Prof. Lai However, the writings of the Lingbao lineage (The Chi-Tim (黎志添), the Western researchers translating the School of the Sacred Jewel 靈寶派) emerging at the term as "Three Offices", "Three Bureaus" or "Three Admin- istrations" are wrong, and the only acceptable translation is turn of the century already contain the concepts and «Three Officials» (Li Zhi-tian 黎志添 2002, 13; . Lai, Chi- categories of Buddhism. Tim 2010, 199). Despite recognizing the unquestionable au- It is still not fully clear, though, how to interpret the thority of Prof. Lai, we cannot agree with his interpretation. results of the first engagements between Buddhism and Our view is based not only on the works of "certain Western Taoism. Were the ideas of Mahāyāna a starting point in researchers", but also on the opinion of an outstanding Chi- radical transformation of certain aspects of the Chinese nese philologist Yang Shu-da (楊樹達先生, 1885–1956). Prof. (Taoist) worldview? Or do the Taoist texts of the period – Yang performed a critical review of "Shuo wen jie zi" lexicon including that of Jiu zhen ming ke – represent the ancient (說文解字) by Xu Shen (許慎, 1st – 2nd century AD) and indigenous beliefs typical of pre-Buddhist China textual- convincingly established that during the Warring States and the Han dynasty periods the "guan" (官) hieroglyph denoted a ized upon encountering a different cultural tradition, man- place, not a person. (Yang Shu-da 楊樹達 1955, 19–20) Be- ifested through Buddhism? Perhaps, Buddhism only pro- sides, the examples from the "History of the [Former] Han" vided China with the tools (categorical apparatus) that (Han shu, 漢書) by Ban Gu (班固, 32–92) and "History of the allowed Chinese written tradition to overcome the bound- Later Han" (Hou Han shu, 後漢書) by Fan Ye (范曄, 398 – aries of rational determination and stop aligning solely 445) demonstrate the same thing [Ibid]. It is notable that the with the axiology as seen by higher social classes. In other latter source coincides in time with the famous commentary to words, it is entirely possible that the concept of the after- the "Records of the Three Kingdoms" (San guo zhi, 三國志) life in Chinese culture was established not as a result of written by Song Pei-zhi (裴松之, 372–451), in which the Tao- influence of the religious and philosophical aspects of ist concept "san guan" had its first appearance. Moreover, the Buddhism, but by observing its cultural implications, first researchers have long realized that the early Taoist texts follow the lexicon and terminology of the Han epoch quite close- and foremost, its attitude to the taboo of the different fac- ly. All the aforementioned details, in our opinion, is a strong es of everyday life culture. This is merely a hypothesis, argument in favor of translating "san guan" as «The Three 234 Filonov S.V. Images of the Netherworld in Early Taoist Religious Tradition: Some Issues and Estimations (Based on the Taoist Code Jiu zhen ming ke)

The Office of Water (shui guan 水官) or The Palace of DZ, b) by the number assigned to them in Wen Du-jian, ed., Water (shui gong 水宮); all of the three emphasize the Daozang zimu yinde (Beiping, 1935) – HY, and c) by the number in Kristofer M. Schipper, Concordance du Tao-tsang (Paris, administrative functions of the system in question. It 1975) – CT, followed by fascicle (if there is), pages (a indicates seems relevant to add that the early Taoist scriptures recto, b verso) and line number. contain the categories that explicitly specify the water DZYJ – Deng zhen yin jue 登真隱訣 by Tao Hong-jing element, accentuating the location of the Netherworld. 陶弘景 (456–536). DZ 193, HY 421, CT 421. These views of the afterlife have contributed to the HY – Dao zang zimu yinde 道藏子目引得. Ed. by Weng concept of salvation, which we choose to describe as Du-jian 翁獨健編. Beiping, 1935. (Harvard-Yenching Institute "patronymic". This concept is a running theme in Jiu Sinological Index Series. No. 25). zhen ming ke, stating that, by adhering to certain rules, SLJ – Su ling jing 素靈經. DZ 1026, HY 1303, СТ 1314. a human can not only become a celestial being or a (Full title: Dong zhen Tai-shang su ling dong yuan da you miao jing 洞真太上素靈洞元大有妙經). transcendent (xian 仙), but also free his/her ancestors SSSFJ – Huang su si shi si fang jing 黃素四十四方經. from the manacles of the Netherworld as well. On the DZ 1043, HY 1369, CT 1380. other hand, the doctrine postulates that every crime or STZFJ – Tai-shang san tian zheng fa jing 太上三天正法經. misdeeds committed by a Taoist will lay a heavy bur- DZ 876, HY 1194, CT 1203. den on him and his ancestors both. WSBY – Wu shang bi yao 無上祕要. DZ 768–779, Upon analysing the Jiu zhen ming ke, we find it nec- HY 1130, СТ 1138. essary to resume the discussion of the nature of the Chi- YJQQ – Yun ji qi qian 雲笈七籤. Compiled by Zhang Jun- nese native religion. Are we mistaken in calling it syn- fang 張君房 (ca. 1012). DZ 677–702, HY 1026, СТ 1032. cretic? Could it be that we simply fail to recognize the ZG – Zhen gao 真誥. Compiled by Tao Hong-jing陶弘景 unity of Chinese religion spanning through millennia? (456–536). DZ 637–640, HY 1010, СТ 1016.

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