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Thèse Numérique Université de Montréal Des typologies mécaniques à l’expérience esthétique Fonctions et mutations du genre dans le jeu vidéo par Dominic Arsenault Département d‘histoire de l‘art et études cinématographiques Faculté des arts et des sciences Thèse présentée à la Faculté des arts et des sciences en vue de l‘obtention du grade de Philosophiæ Doctor (Ph. D.) en études cinématographiques Août 2011 © Dominic Arsenault, 2011 Université de Montréal Faculté des études supérieures et postdoctorales Cette thèse intitulée : Des typologies mécaniques à l‘expérience esthétique : fonctions et mutations du genre dans le jeu vidéo Présentée par : Dominic Arsenault a été évaluée par un jury composé des personnes suivantes : Olivier Asselin, président-rapporteur Bernard Perron, directeur de recherche Samuel Archibald, membre du jury Renée Bourassa, examinatrice externe Sébastien Roy, représentant du doyen de la FES i Résumé Cette thèse examine en profondeur la nature et l‘application du concept de genre en jeu vidéo. Elle se divise en trois parties. La première fait l‘inventaire des théories des genres en littérature et en études cinématographiques. Les propriétés essentielles du genre comme concept sont identifiées : il s‘agit d‘une catégorisation intuitive et irraisonnée, de nature discursive, qui découle d‘un consensus culturel commun plutôt que de systèmes théoriques, et qui repose sur les notions de tradition, d‘innovation et d‘hybridité. Dans la deuxième partie, ces constats sont appliqués au cas du genre vidéoludique. Quelques typologies sont décortiquées pour montrer l‘impossibilité d‘une classification autoritaire. Un modèle du développement des genres est avancé, lequel s‘appuie sur trois modalités : l‘imitation, la réitération et l‘innovation. Par l‘examen de l‘histoire du genre du first-person shooter, la conception traditionnelle du genre vidéoludique basée sur des mécanismes formels est remplacée par une nouvelle définition centrée sur l‘expérience du joueur. La troisième partie développe l‘expérience comme concept théorique et la place au centre d‘une nouvelle conception du genre, la pragmatique des effets génériques. Dans cette optique, tout objet est une suite d‘amorces génériques, d‘effets en puissance qui peuvent se réaliser pourvu que le joueur dispose des compétences génériques nécessaires pour les reconnaître. Cette nouvelle approche est démontrée à travers une étude approfondie d‘un ii genre vidéoludique : le survival horror. Cette étude de cas témoigne de l‘applicabilité plus large de la pragmatique des effets génériques, et de la récursivité des questions de genre entre le jeu vidéo, la littérature et le cinéma. Mots-clés : Jeux vidéo, genres littéraires, genres cinématographiques, théorie des genres, expérience, études vidéoludiques, sémio-pragmatique, réception, innovation, esthétique. iii Abstract This thesis provides an in-depth examination of the nature and application of the concept of genre for the video game. It is divided in three parts. Part one features an overview of genre theory in literature and film studies. The essential properties of genre as a concept are identified: it is an intuitive and ―thumbnail‖ classification method, discursive rather than systemic in nature, and that owes its existence to a common cultural consensus rather than theoretical divisions. More importantly, the notions of tradition, innovation and hybridity are found to be central to genre. In part two, these findings are applied to the case of video game genre. A few typologies are examined to show that authoritative classifications are impossible. A model of the development of genres is laid out, based on three modalities: imitation, reiteration and innovation. By studying the history of the first-person shooter, the traditional conception of genre being based on formal mechanics is replaced by a new definition centered on player experience. Part three details experience as a theoretical concept and places it at the center of a new conception of genre, the pragmatics of generic effects. In this view, any object is a matrix of generic anchors bound to become generic effects, provided the player possesses the generic competences required to recognize them. This new approach is demonstrated through an examination of the survival-horror videogame genre. This case study showcases iv the potential of the pragmatics of generic effects for other fields, and provides a testimony for the recursion of the questions of genre between the video game, literature, and film. Keywords: Video games, literary genres, film genres, genre theory, experience, game studies, semio-pragmatics, reception, innovation, aesthetics v Table des matières Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 13 1. Problématique .............................................................................................................. 13 2. La question de genre dans les études du jeu vidéo....................................................... 16 3. Étendue et méthode ...................................................................................................... 18 3.1. Ce que cette thèse n‘est pas ................................................................................... 20 4. La thèse ........................................................................................................................ 22 Partie I : Les théories des genres Chapitre 1. Définitions et frontières du genre comme concept. ........................................... 30 1.1. Différents sens pour différentes disciplines .............................................................. 31 1.2. Genres, modes, types, styles, etc. .............................................................................. 37 1.3. Le nivelage générique ............................................................................................... 41 1.4. La Grande Illusion..................................................................................................... 47 1.5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 51 Chapitre 2. Histoires du genre : les traditions génériques. ................................................... 53 2.1. Les genres littéraires : la Belle et la Fiction .............................................................. 55 2.1.1. D‘Aristote au XIXième siècle .............................................................................. 55 2.1.2. Le siècle des sous-genres ................................................................................... 62 2.1.3. Les leçons des genres littéraires ......................................................................... 66 2.2. Le genre cinématographique ..................................................................................... 68 2.2.1. Genres ou médias? ............................................................................................. 73 vi 2.3. Conclusion des traditions génériques ........................................................................ 82 Chapitre 3. La pratique du genre et l‘hybridité générique. .................................................. 85 3.1. Le consensus culturel comme processus ................................................................... 87 3.2. Analyse générique et seuils ....................................................................................... 93 3.3. Hybridité inter- et intra-dimensionnelle .................................................................... 96 3.4. Hybridité, cadres et assimilation ............................................................................. 104 Partie II: Le genre et le jeu vidéo Chapitre 4. Les genres vidéoludiques : théories et fonctions ............................................. 111 4.1. Les genres théoriques .............................................................................................. 111 4.1.1. Comment les genres sont entrés chez les théoriciens....................................... 111 4.1.2. Genres théoriques, typologies théoriques ........................................................ 116 4.1.3. Des typologies mécaniques à l‘expérience esthétique ..................................... 122 4.2. Modèle de la transmission générique ...................................................................... 129 4.3. La classification générique dans la critique ............................................................ 133 4.4. Standardisation et différenciation dans la distribution et la mise en marché .......... 142 Chapitre 5. Le rôle du genre dans la production ................................................................ 156 5.1. Séries culturelles et préhistoires des genres ............................................................ 156 5.2. Les développements des genres dans l‘histoire ...................................................... 162 5.2.1. La logique de l‘imitation .................................................................................. 164 5.2.2. Le modèle de Fowler : innovation, imitation et perfectionnement .................. 167 5.2.3. Les moteurs de jeux ......................................................................................... 171 vii 5.3. L‘histoire des genres comme heuristique de résolution de problèmes ................... 176 5.3.1. Le développement des conventions par l‘emprunt........................................... 179 5.3.2. Le développement des
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