Poverty, Vulnerability and Livelihoods in Small Scale Fishing Communities in Nigeria

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Poverty, Vulnerability and Livelihoods in Small Scale Fishing Communities in Nigeria Poverty, Vulnerability and Livelihoods in Small Scale Fishing Communities in Nigeria Von der Wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover zur Erlangung des Grades einer Doktor der Wirtschaftswissenschaften – Doktor rerum politicarum – genehmigte Dissertation von MA (Economics) Levison S. Chiwaula geboren am 31.12.1976, in Blantyre (Malawi) 2009 Referent: Prof. Dr. Hermann Waibel Institut für Entwicklungs- und Agrarökonomik Wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover Korreferentin: Prof. Dr. Ulrike Grote Institut für Umweltökonomik und Welthandel Wirtschaftswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover Tag der Promotion: Mittwoch, 16 Dezember 2009 ii To Maggie and Caleb with love iii iv Acknowledgements I am indebted to numerous individuals and institutions that supported me throughout the writing of this dissertation. To begin with, I express my heartfelt gratitude to my first supervisor Prof. Dr. Hermann Waibel first and foremost for giving me the opportunity to conduct this PhD research under his supervision. In the course of the programme, his critical comments, guidance, support, and advice has been fatherly. Special thanks also to my second supervisor Prof. Dr. Ulrike Grote for her useful comments and advice. I am also thankful to the Germany Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the World Fish Centre for the financial support through the project on “Food security and poverty alleviation through improved valuation and governance of river fisheries in Africa”. Without their funding, this dissertation was a non-starter. I also thank the World Fish Centre and Dr Christophe Béné, the coordinator of the project for continuous support and interest in my work. Many thanks to the National Institute for Freshwater Fisheries Research (NIFFR) in Nigeria for the support I received during my 16 month stay in Nigeria. Specifically, I am grateful to Dr Aminu Raji, Dr Solomon Ovie and Mr Ahmadu Tafida. I also thank Ibrahim L. Mohammed, Abubakar Guri, Daudu Haruna, Ibrahim Maje, and Abubakar Maji for their excellent research assistance. The DFID-JWL project and the KYD-WDI are also thanked for hosting me in Hadejia. Dr Steve Fraser and Dr Hassan Bdliya deserve special thanks for making important decisions about my stay in Nigeria. All the households from the Hadejia-Nguru Wetlands made my work easy during the data collection period. I thank them all. Many friends and colleagues from the Institute of Development and Agricultural Economics at the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University of Hannover have also been helpful and critical to different aspects of my work. My colleague Rudolf Witt deserves a special mention. I do not forget the support rendered to me by Mrs Renate Nause and Mr Florian Heinrich for administrative and technical support. v I also appreciate the support and guidance of Dr Daniel Jamu of World Fish Centre and Dr Patrick Kambewa and Dr Donald Makoka of the University of Malawi. To Maggie, Caleb, my mum and all my relatives, I appreciate your patience and understanding. I know I have been away at the time when the family needed my presence most. Lastly but not least, I thank God for He has been God throughout my research. Levison S Chiwaula Hannover, November 2009 vi Zusammenfassug Armut ein wohlbekanntes und lang bestehendes Phänomen innerhalb der Bevölkerungsgruppen, die von der Inlandsfischerei abhängig sind. Trotzdem wird Fisch oft als hochwertigeres Gut im Vergleich zu landwirtschaftlichen Produkten betrachtet. Kleinfischerei hat den Charakter eines öffentlichen Gutes (freier oder quasi-freier Zugang zu der Ressource), beansprucht relativ viel Arbeitskraft (Beschäftigungseffekte) und ist zeitlich flexibel gestaltbar. Aufgrund dieser besonderen Eigenschaften wird die Kleinfischerei oft auch als Aktivität bezeichnet, die vor allem den Armen zugute kommt. Diese stilisierten Fakten bilden den Ausgangspunkt und die Motivation dieser Studie, die Armut und Vulnerabilität von Haushalten, die in Fischereigebieten leben, zu messen, und die Kausalitätsbeziehung zwischen Armut und den jeweiligen Einkommensaktivitäten zu untersuchen. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, Armut und Vulnerabilität von Haushalten im Hadejia- Nguru Überschwemmungsgebiet in Nordost-Nigeria zu messen. Die Arbeit basiert auf der Analyse von Primärdaten, die in vier Umfragerunden von April 2007 bis März 2008 erhoben wurden. Zur Ziehung einer repräsentativen Stichprobe von 282 Haushalten wurde ein zweistufiges Zufallsverfahren benutzt. Zum Zeitpunkt der letzten Umfrage reduzierte sich die Stichprobe auf 263 Haushalte. Für die statistische Auswertung der Daten kamen verschieden ökonometrische Techniken zum Einsatz. Die Analyse ergab einige wichtige Ergebnisse im Hinblick auf die Ziele dieser Untersuchung, die im Folgenden kurz zusammen gefasst werden sollen. In Kapitel drei dieser Arbeit wird ausgeführt, dass die Haushalte im Untersuchungsgebiet oft negativen Schocks ausgesetzt sind. Die am häufigsten genannten sind: Todesfall in der Familie, Trockenheit und Dürre, Schädlingsbefall von Kulturpflanzen, sowie soziale Konflikte. Diese Schocks haben vor allem signifikante Auswirkungen auf die Nahrungsmittelausgaben und damit auf die Ernährungssicherheit der Haushalte. Die Anfälligkeit der Haushalte für bestimmte Schocks wird ebenfalls von der Einkommenshöhe bestimmt. Arme Haushalte sind stärker von Dürren betroffen als reichere Haushalte. Unterschiede gibt es auch im Hinblick auf die Hauptbeschäftigung der Haushalte. Während landwirtschaftlich orientierte Familien verstärkt sozialen Konflikten ausgesetzt sind, leiden Fischer eher durch Trockenheit. Es kann geschlussfolgert werden, dass entwicklungspolitische Eingriffe in dieser Region vor vii allem auch darauf abzielen sollten, die Fähigkeit der Haushalte mit Schocks umzugehen zu stärken. Auch sollten Maßnahmen getroffen werden, um die negativen Effekte solcher Ereignisse auf die Ernährungsunsicherheit abzumildern, z.B. durch verbesserten Zugang zu Nahrungsmitteln. Die Untersuchungsergebnisse in Kapitel vier haben gezeigt, dass die Wahrscheinlichkeit unterhalb der Armutsgrenze zu leben saisonal variiert. So steigt die Wahrscheinlichkeit vor allem in Zeiten der Feldbestellung und während der Trockenperioden im Jahr. In der Zeit während und direkt nach der Ernte sinkt sie jedoch entschieden ab. Die Höhe der saisonalen Variation hängt jedoch signifikant davon ab, welchen Einkommens- generierenden Aktivitäten die Haushalte nachgehen, wie groß die Vermögensausstattung ist, sowie von den sozialen und demographischen Eigenschaften der jeweiligen Haushalte. In Verbindung mit der Tatsache, dass Schocks vor allem die Ernährungsausgaben betreffen, lassen diese Ergebnisse schließen, dass Hunger und Ernährungsunsicherheit eine ernste Bedrohung in bestimmten Zeitperioden im Jahr darstellen. Solche Mangelperioden resultieren vor allem in Unterernährung von Kindern und haben somit langfristige Auswirkungen auf die Armut der gesamten Bevölkerung. Es wird daher empfohlen, saisonalen Mangelerscheinungen durch effektive und gut geplante Politikmaßnahmen entgegenzuwirken. Das setzt ein adäquates Verständnis der Faktoren die die saisonale Variation des Konsums beeinflussen voraus. Wegen der Interrelation von zwischen Einkommen und Konsum wird empfohlen, dass zu verschiedenen Zeiten innerhalb eines Jahres verschiedene Aktivitäten verstärkt unterstützt werden sollten. Allgemein weisen landwirtschaftlich orientierte Familien eine höhere Variation auf, als z.B. Fischer oder Haushalte, die einen großen Teil ihres Einkommens aus außerlandwirtschaftlichen Aktivitäten beziehen. Es wird daher empfohlen, die Einkommensdiversifizierung, vor allem auch in Aktivitäten die weniger von wetterbedingten Änderungen abhängig sind, zu unterstützen und zu fördern. Es wurde ferner gezeigt, dass die zeitliche Positionierung und die Häufigkeit von Umfragerunden in einem Mehrperioden-Datensatz Auswirkungen auf die Messung von Armut und Vulnerabilität haben können. Die Ergebnisse belegen, dass Vulnerabilitäts- Schätzungen grundlegend überschätzt werden können, wenn bestimmte saisonale Größen nicht erfasst werden. Was zu einer Unterschätzung der durchschnittlichen Jahreswerte für Konsum sowie einer Überschätzung der Varianz des Konsums führen kann. Der viii Gebrauch von saisonalen Dummy-Variablen kann zwar die Verzerrung der durchschnittlichen Konsumwerte reduzieren, kann jedoch die Verzerrung der Varianzschätzung nicht korrigieren. Dieses Ergebnis zeigt, dass Umfragen zur Messung von Armut und Vulnerabilität solche Zusammenhänge berücksichtigen und dementsprechend vorsichtig konzipiert und geplant werden sollten. Analysten die bereits erhobene Daten nutzen wird empfohlen, durch den Gebrauch von Dummy-Variablen zumindest die Durchschnittswerte um die saisonalen Effekte zu bereinigen. Im fünften Kapitel wird ein Messinstrument zur Bestimmung von Armutsvulnerabilität auf Basis der Vermögensausstattung eines Haushalts vorgeschlagen. Das Instrument verbindet die vermögensbasierte Armutsmessung mit dem Konzept der erwarteten Armut. Dieses Messinstrument zerlegt erwartete Armut in verschiedene Komponenten, nämlich strukturell-chronische, strukturell-transitorische und stochastisch-transitorische Armut. Die Ergebnisse zeigen dass vor allem transitorische Armut vorherrschend ist, und nur wenige Haushalte ein kurzfristig erwartetes Einkommen aufweisen, das über der Armutsgrenze liegt. Dabei schneiden Fischer besser ab,
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