Afolayan Gbenga Emmanuel
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NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AS A TOOL FOR EMPOWERING GIRLS AND WOMEN IN A RELIGIOUSLY CONSERVATIVE CONTEXT: THE CASE OF NORTHERN NIGERIA Afolayan Gbenga Emmanuel Diploma (Educational Management), University of Ibadan, Nigeria B.Ed (Counselling/Economics), University of Ibadan, Nigeria MA (Development Studies) International Institute of Social Studies, The Netherlands MA (Public Policy & Management) University of York, The United Kingdom The thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of Murdoch University. Western Australia 2021 1 DECLARATION STATEMENT I declare that: • This thesis is my own account of my research and contains as its main content work, which has not previously been submitted for a degree at any tertiary institution. • This research was undertaken with approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee, Murdoch University (Approval number: 2016/193) ............................................... Afolayan Gbenga Emmanuel 2 ABSTRACT Non-formal education has been attributed with many benefits for rural women who are unable to participate in formal schooling. However, little is known about the perspectives of non-formal education programs (NFEPs) from the lived experiences of females—especially in Nigerian Islamic conservative communities. To address this gap, this thesis explored multiple perspectives of NFEP from the lived experiences of females in a region with high rates of child marriage. Using a qualitative case study design, the data were collected through focus group discussions and interviews in two rural communities in northern Nigeria. Participants comprised two leaders from each community; three NFEP personnel; 28 females who had participated in a NFEP, and 24 females who had not participated in a NFEP (n=59). The findings provide unique insight that can guide the phenomenon of NFEPs for rural females in religiously conservative communities. The participants reported a need for literacy skills and economic independence and were generally quite positive about NFEPs in their communities. Most participants in NFEPs reported having increased knowledge, positive attitude and behaviours, improved ability to express themselves, partake in decision-making in the family, and to organise themselves for collective action—all of which resulted to empowering experiences. Also, most male partners (spouses), parents of the participants and male participants (community leaders) were supportive of the NFEP, supportive of women working outside the home and women earning money. The program participants reported that NFEP has been a positive influence on their self-worth, role in the society, future aspirations and dreams for their daughters because of their relative economic independence and the status they seem to enjoy within their communities. Female program non- participants support NFEP but many of them could not participate because their spouses and parents did not allow them. Thus, while many males supported the participation of women and girls in NFEP, gendered barriers still existed. In conclusion, females can be empowered in these conservative communities if it is done in a way that respects socio-cultural traditions. 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First of all, I would like to appreciate the Lord for making it possible to complete my study in peace and not in pieces. Likewise, I would want to thank my previous supervisors, Dr Amanda Woods-McConney and Dr Lindy Norris, for their contribution and guidance which were so invaluable for my PhD journey. My sincere thanks go to my principal supervisor, Associate Professor Laura Perry, for her knowledge, guidance and astonishing contribution towards the completion of this dissertation. I count myself lucky to have met Associate Prof Laura Perry as my supervisor from the beginning of my PhD journey at Murdoch University. I have been guided by a true mentor who has provided not just academic support necessary for this dissertation but indescribable inspiration, unflagging moral and emotional support throughout the years of my study. There were many turbulent moments that I faced during this journey which would have made me to quit than to continue. Her enthusiasm, encouragement and determination never allowed that to happen. I equally want to thank my co-supervisor Associate Professor Libby Lee-Hammond, whose knowledge, expertise, pertinent advice and inexpressible support gave me hope, life and great insight for my study. I consider it as a great opportunity to have worked with such a great and humane mentor. I wish to also thank my two research assistants and Hausa interpreters/translators who provided support for me during the period of data collection. In Dutse (Jigawa State), I enjoyed and appreciated the collegiality and hospitality of POTHE and the kind assistance of their staff during the recruitment of the study participants and data collection. I also wish to thank all the community and religious leaders, Hausa-Fulani girls and women who took their time and participated in this study despite their busy commitments. Without their cooperation, commitment and openness, this dissertation would not become a reality. The fact that this dissertation ever saw completion is largely due to the concerted effort of my beloved wife, Deborah Funmilayo Titilayo Afolayan. I am deeply indebted to her, especially for her unwavering support through thick and thin. Many thanks to my children (Patricia, Bridget, Anjola-Oluwa and van Roosevelt) for their support and understanding throughout my study and stormy moments. I specially want to acknowledge my late father, Pastor Folorunso 4 Afolayan, who tirelessly nurtured and trained me to become what I have become today. Special thanks also go to my loving mother, Mrs Rachael Titilayo Afolayan, including my siblings (Funmilayo, Bode and Iyanu-Oluwa) and my in-laws. Their unrelenting support and a strong belief in me throughout the study and writing process have greatly helped me to attain my predetermined goals. For record purpose, I need to acknowledge the contributions of my late sister (Name withheld) and late brother (Mayowa Afolayan) towards my academic journey. Unfortunately, they are no more to witness my academic achievements. My late grandmother-in- law, Madam Jenrola Adewole and my late mother-in-law, Madam Dorcas Aderonke Oke, deserve to be acknowledged too because they both played pivotal roles in my academic journey. They wholeheartedly supported me financially, morally and prayerfully, even until their last breath on earth. I express my profound appreciation to Professor Farooq Kperogi (Kennesaw State University, U.S.A), whose help in recommending professional and academic Hausa interpreters/translators greatly enhanced the transcription of the data and overall development of my analysis of the data. Lastly, I wish to acknowledge my colleagues and friends, Dr Janene Sproul and Dr Bisi Martins-Imonitie for proofreading some chapters of my dissertation. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE…………………………………………………………………………..1 DECLARATION STATEMENT……………………………………………………...2 ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS……………………………………………………………..4 TABLE OF CONTENT………………………………………………………………..6 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………………10 LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………11 LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………..12 LIST OFAPPENDICES………………………………………………………………..13 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 14 1.1 RESEARCH PROBLEM .......................................................................................... 14 1.2 NEED FOR THE STUDY ......................................................................................... 18 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ........................................................................................ 20 1.4 SETTING THE SCENE: A PERSONAL PERSPECTIVE .................................................. 20 1.5 ORGANISATION OF THE DISSERTATION ................................................................. 23 2 RESEARCH CONTEXT....................................................................................... 25 2.1 OVERVIEW OF NIGERIA....................................................................................... 25 2.2 EARLY HISTORY OF NIGERIA BEFORE THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE.......................... 27 2.3 SOKOTO CALIPHATE ERA..................................................................................... 28 2.4 BRITISH COLONIAL PERIOD IN NIGERIA.........................................................................30 2.5 INDEPENDENCE, CIVIL WAR AND POST-CIVIL WAR....................................................... 32 2.6 NORTHERN NIGERIA, GENDERED ROLES AND FAMILY............................................ 34 2.7 THE CULTURAL VALUES OF HAUSA-FULANI IN THE NORTHERN NIGERIA.......... 37 2.8 THE RESEARCH SETTING: JIGAWA STATE, NIGERIA........................................................ 39 2.9 CONCLUSION......................................................................................................................... 42 3 RESEARCH CONTEXT AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK........................44 6 3.1 LITERATURE SEARCHING AND DATABASES FOR THE STUDY .................................44 3.2 NON-FORMAL EDUCATION (NFE) ..... ..................................................................................... 48 3.2 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE ON NFE ............ ...................................................................................53 3.4 LITERACY-FOCUSED NFE ...........................................................................................................53