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Ziraat 18.Pdf ZİRAAT, ORMAN VE SU ÜRÜNLERİNDE ARAŞTIRMA VE DEĞERLENDİRMELER İmtiyaz Sahibi / Publisher • Yaşar Hız Genel Yayın Yönetmeni / Editor in Chief • Eda Altunel Kapak & İç T asarım / Cover & Interior Design • Gece Kitaplığı Editörler / Editors • Prof. Dr. Taner AKAR Doç. Dr. Tugay AYAŞAN Doç. Dr. Ümit Ayata Birinci Basım / First Edition • © Mayıs 2021 ISBN • 978-625-7793-85-8 © copyright Bu kitabın yayın hakkı Gece Kitaplığı’na aittir. Kaynak gösterilmeden alıntı yapılamaz, izin almadan hiçbir yolla çoğaltılamaz. The right to publish this book belongs to Gece Kitaplığı. Citation can not be shown without the source, reproduced in any way without permission. Gece Kitaplığı / Gece Publishing Türkiye Adres / Turkey Address: Kızılay Mah. Fevzi Çakmak 1. Sokak Ümit Apt. No: 22/A Çankaya / Ankara / TR Telefon / Phone: +90 312 384 80 40 web: www.gecekitapligi.com e-mail: [email protected] Baskı & Cilt / Printing & Volume Sertifika / Certificate No: 47083 ZIRAAT, ORMAN VE SU ÜRÜNLERINDE ARAŞTIRMA VE DEĞERLENDIRMELER Cilt I EDITÖRLER PROF. DR. TANER AKAR DOÇ. DR. TUGAY AYAŞAN DOÇ. DR. ÜMIT AYATA İÇİNDEKİLER Bölüm 1 TOPRAKLARIN BITKILERE IYOT SAĞLAYABILME KAPASITELERI VE BAZI BITKILERI IYOTLA ZENGINLEŞTIRME ÇALIŞMALARI Güney AKINOĞLU & Ahmet KORKMAZ ..........................................1 Bölüm 2 SUSAM (SESAMUM INDICUM L.) BITKISININ TOHUM ÇIMLENMESI VE FIDE GELIŞIMINE ORGANIK KÖKENLI GÜBRE FORM VE DOZLARININ ETKISI Ali Rahmi KAYA & Tamer ERYIĞIT ..................................................31 Bölüm 3 BIYOGAZ OLUŞUM AŞAMALARI VE ETKI EDEN FAKTÖRLER Serdar ÜÇOK .........................................................................................55 Bölüm 4 TÜRKIYE’DE ORMANCILIK ÇALIŞMALARI IÇIN PLANLANAN ORMAN YOLLARININ TEKNIK ÖZELLIKLERI Tolga ÖZTÜRK & Necmettin ŞENTÜRK ............................................71 Bölüm 5 TOKSIK ETKIYE SAHIP IÇ MEKÂN SÜS BITKILERI VE KULLANIM ÖNERILERI Şüheda Basire AKÇA & Bahriye GÜLGÜN .........................................97 Bölüm 6 ARTVIN ORMANLARININ ZARARLI KABUK BÖCEKLERI Temel GÖKTÜRK .................................................................................119 Bölüm 7 PANDEMI DÖNEMINDE ORMAN IŞLETMELERININ YILLIK ÇALIŞMA PERFORMANSLARININ DEĞERLENDIRILMESI: KAYSERI ORMAN BÖLGE MÜDÜRLÜĞÜ ÖRNEĞI Ayşe Esra HAKVERDI & Ayhan AKYOL ............................................153 Bölüm 8 COĞRAFI IŞARET KONUSUNU TÜKETICILER AÇISINDAN ELE ALAN YAYINLARA ILIŞKIN BIR LITERATÜR INCELEMESI Alptekin Mert YILMAZ & Özge Can NIYAZ & Oktay TOMAR ........181 Bölüm 9 AKDENIZ ÜLKELERINDE GELENEKSEL KÜÇÜKBAŞ HAYVAN YETIŞTIRICILIĞI: TÜRKIYE IÇIN KISITLAR, OLANAKLAR VE FIRSATLAR Ahmet TOLUNAY & Türkay TÜRKOĞLU & Duygu KAŞIKÇI & Irfan DAŞKIRAN & Mehmet ÖZMIŞ ..................................................213 Bölüm 1 TOPRAKLARIN BITKILERE IYOT SAĞLAYABILME KAPASITELERI VE BAZI BITKILERI IYOTLA ZENGINLEŞTIRME ÇALIŞMALARI Güney AKINOĞLU1 Ahmet KORKMAZ2 1 Arş. Gör. Dr. Güney AKINOĞLU Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, Ziraat Fakültesi, Toprak Bilimi ve Bitki Besleme Bölümü, Samsun, TÜRKIYE, guney_akinoglu@ ymail.com, ORCID ID : 0000-0003-4624-2876 2 Prof. Dr. Ahmet KORKMAZ, Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Toprak Bilimi ve Bitki Besleme Bölümü, Samsun/TÜRKIYE, E-mail: [email protected] Ziraat, Orman ve Su Ürünlerinde Araştırma ve Değerlendirmeler .3 Giriş Iyot, insan ve hayvanlar için vazgeçilmez bir iz element olmasına rağmen, bitkiler için mutlak gerekli bir element değildir (Brady ve Weil, 1996). Bu element, çeşitli enzimlerin ve metabolik işlevlerin düzenlenmesinde rol oynayan tiroid hormonlarından olan tiroksin (T4) ve triiyodotironinin (T3) vazgeçilmez bir bileşenidir (Zimmermann, 2009). Iyot biyofilik bir elementtir ve omurgalılar, algler, mercanlar, süngerler, lob kurtları ve kabuklu deniz hayvanları gibi çeşitli organizmalarda birikir. Ancak bugüne kadar canlı organizmalar tarafından iyot alım mekanizmaları sadece memelilerin tiroid bezinde ve kahverengi alglerde karakterize edilmiştir. Tiroid bezinde iyodür, bir sodyum / iyodür protein yapısında bir taşıyıcı tarafından alınır (26,27,80). Bu hücre zarını geçebilen protein, sodyum iyonunu iyodür iyonu ile birlikte bir konsantrasyon gradientine karşı tiroide taşır. Prosesin itici gücü, membran boyunca sodyum iyonunun elektrokimyasal gradientidir. Iyot; hidrosfer, litosfer, atmosfer ve biyosferde yaygın olarak bulunan eser bir elementtir. Bu element, yerkabuğunda ortalama 0,45 mg kg-1 düzeylerinde bulunur. Dünya yüzeyindeki iyotun çoğu (> %70) okyanuslarda 45-60 ng mL-1 konsantrasyon aralığında bulunur (Muramatsu ve Wedepohl, 1998). En düşük iyot konsantrasyonu ise atmosferde (1-100 ng/m3) gözlenmiştir (Wershofen ve Aumann, 1989). Iyot, farklı oksidasyon değerliklerine (-1, 0, +1, +3, +5 ve +7) sahip elektronegatif bir element olup, sulu çözeltilerinde çok sayıda farklı formlar gösterebilir. Aynı zamanda iyot, çok çeşitli organik ve inorganik bileşikler oluşturabilen redoksa duyarlı bir elementtir. Bu elementin en yaygın inorganik formları arasında iyodür (I-), hipoiyodöz asit (HOI), elementel iyot (I2) ve iyodat (IO3) yer alır (Liu ve Gunten, 1988). Iyotun doğal suda bulunma formu; suyun fizikokimyasal özelliklerine (pH, redoks potansiyeli, sıcaklık) bağlıdır. Deniz suyunda, iyot esas olarak iyodat, iyodür ve minör organik iyot formunda bulunur (Wong, 1991). Iyot formlarının deniz suyundaki dağılımı ise derinlik ve coğrafi konuma göre değişkenlik gösterir. Örneğin anoksik (indirgen) su tabakasında iyotun çoğu iyodit formunda bulunurken; aerobik su kütlesinde (oksidasyon tabakası) baskın iyot formu iyodattır (Hou ve ark., 2007). Sudan iyotu absorbe eden deniz yosunu, balık ve kabuklu deniz canlıları insan beslenmesindeki en iyi iyot kaynakları olup, 163 ila 3180 μg / kg taze ağırlık arasında değişen miktarlarda iyot ihtiva ederler. Tarım ürünlerinin iyot içeriği genellikle çok daha düşüktür ve iyot konsantrasyonları coğrafi bölgelere göre büyük ölçüde değişiklik (10-200 μg kg−1 arasında değişen taze ağırlık) gösterirler (FAO / WHO, 2004). 4 . Güney Akınoğlu, Ahmet Korkmaz Gıdalar; kökenlerine, bireysel özelliklerine, korunmalarına ve hazırlanmalarına bağlı olarak farklı miktarlarda iyot içerir. Gıdaların türüne göre iyot içerikleri Çizelge 1’de verilmiştir. Çizelge 1’de sunulan gıdalardaki iyot içeriğine ait veriler, gıdanın toplandığı veya üretildiği yere göre değişiklik gösterebilse de gıdalardaki iyot miktarının artırılması ihtiyacını açıkça göstermektedir. Çizelge 1’in incelenmesinden anlaşılacağı üzere deniz balıkları dışında neredeyse tüm yiyeceklerin iyot içeriği düşüktür. Çizelge 1.Farklı gıdaların ve başlıca içeceğin ortalama iyot konsantrasyonları (Fordyce, 2003) Gıda Iyot konsantrasyonu ( µg kg-1) Deniz balıkları 1455.9 Tatlı su balıkları 102.8 Yapraklı sebzeler 88.8 Diğer sebzeler 80.1 Süt ürünleri 83.9 Et ürünleri 68.4 Tahıllar 56.0 Taze meyveler 30.6 Su 6.4 Iyot, besinler yoluyla vücuda alınır. Besinler yoluyla önerilen günlük iyot alımı, bebeklerde 50 µg (0-12 ay arası), çocuklarda 90 µg (2-6 yaş arası), okul çağındaki çocuklarda 120 μg (7-12 yaş arası), ergenler (12 yaşından büyük) ve yetişkinlerde 150 µg’dır. Bununla birlikte, hamile ve emzikli kadınlarda ise tavsiye edilen günlük iyot alımı 200 µg’dır (WHO / UNICEF / ICCIDD, 1996). En yüksek (maksimum) seviyede önerilen günlük iyot dozu alımının ise 1000 µg olduğu rapor edilmiştir (Pennington, 1990). Beslenmede eksik iyot alımı yetersiz tiroksin üretimine neden olabilir. Bu durum iyot eksikliği bozukluğu (IDD) ile sonuçlanır. IDD’nin klinik belirtileri arasında hipotiroidizm, guatr, zihinsel gerilik, üreme bozukluğu, sağır mutizm vakaları ve çocukluk çağında düşük sağ kalım oranları bulunur (Hetzel, 1983; Delange ve ark., 2000). Dünya Sağlık Örgütü, günümüzde dünyanın dört bir yanındaki yaklaşık 1 milyar insanın iyot eksikliğine bağlı hastalıklarla karşı karşıya kaldığını tahmin etmektedir. Ziraat, Orman ve Su Ürünlerinde Araştırma ve Değerlendirmeler .5 Şekil 1. İyot noksanlığında yüksek risk taşıyan bölgelerin dağılımı (Burlingame, 2013) Iyot eksikliği, birçok ülkenin sosyal ve ekonomik gelişimini etkileyen bir sorun olup, özellikle hamile kadınlar ile çocuklarda ciddi bir halk sağlığı problemidir. 1993 yılında WHO ve UNICEF, IDD’nin önlenmesi ve kontrol edilmesi için oldukça etkili stratejiler olarak evrensel tuz iyodizasyonu (USI) ve iyot takviyesini önermiştir (UNICEF/ WHO, 1994). Böylece iyot eksikliğini kontrol etmek için pek çok ülkede tuz iyotlaması başlamıştır ve ulusal düzeyde büyük bir ilerleme kaydedilmiştir. 2003’ten 2011’e gelindiğinde iyot eksikliği olan ülkelerin sayısı 54’ten 32’ye düşmüş ve yeterli miktarda iyot alımı olan ülkelerin sayısı 67’den 105’e yükselmiştir. Buna rağmen, dünya nüfusunun yaklaşık % 31’inin iyot alımı yetersizdir. En çok etkilenen bölgeler Avrupa ve Güney Doğu Asya’dır (WHO / UNICEF / ICCIDD, 2007). 2005’te Italya, perakendecilerin sadece iyotlu tuz satmasını gerektiren yasaları çıkarmıştır. Buna rağmen, Italya’da hala hafif ve orta dereceli iyot eksikliğine sahip beslenme yetersizliği mevcuttur (Andersson ve ark. 2007). Çin’de iyotlu tuzun yaygın bir şekilde kullanılmasına rağmen, ülkenin batısında iyot eksikliği şiddetli olabilmektedir. Her ne kadar 1980’lerin başından bu yana Çin’de iyotlu tuz kullanımı ülke genelinde yaygınlaştırılmış olsa da, iyot eksikliği Xinjiang gibi uzak bölgelerde önemli bir sağlık sorunu olmaya devam etmektedir. 1999 yılında Xinjiang’da yapılan bir araştırmada, 8-10 yaş arası çocukların yaklaşık % 23’ünün guatr olduğunu rapor edilmiştir. Risk altındaki insanların ise, genellikle geçimini
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