DBC+Transactions+1970+Volume+

A COMPILATION OF PAPERS PRESENTED AT THE 14TH ANNUAL MEETING, APRIL 7-1 1, 1970, AT BISHOP, CALIFORNIA.

Edited by Jim Yoakum (Chairman, Charles Hansen, Norm Simmons, William Graf, Steve Logsdon and Ray Brechbi l l

Copies available by writing the Desert Bighorn Council, 1500 N. Decatur Blvd., Las Vegas, Nevada 89108

Special Contributor: U. S. Public Health Service; southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory, B ioenvi ronmental Research Program, Las Vegas, Nevada

TA;KE OF COIrTENI-S Page

STATUS OF DESERT BIGHORN IN INYO MOUNTAINS . . . . Vernon Burandt A PROGRESS REPORT ON BIGHORN HABITAT MANAGEMFNT IN THE SAN BERNARDINO NATIONAL FOREST . . . . . Jerome T. Light TONGUE COLOR IN DESERT BIGHORN ...... Charles (2. Hansen HELICOPTER OBSERVATIONS OF BIGHORN SHEEP ON THE SAN ANDRES NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE ...... John H. Kiger SUMMARY OF NECROPSY FINDINGS IN DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP . . . . Jack B. Helvie and Donald D. Smith THE 1969 SHEEP TRAPPING AND TRANSPLANT PROGRAM IN NEVADA ...... Nick J. Papez and George K. Tsukamoto ON THE HOME RANGE FIDELITY OF BIGHORN RAMS ...... V. Geist NEVADA'S 1969 BIGHORN SHEEP HUNT ...... George Tsukamoto PROBLEM ANALYSIS OF HABITAT MANAGEMENT FOR DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP . . . . . Benny R. Albrechtsen and Jerry B. Reese BIGHORN HABITAT EVALUATION IN THE HIGHLAND RANGE OF SOUTHERN NEVADA ...... Gary J. Ferrier and W. Glen Bradley THE ROLE OF PUBLIC LANDS AND THE BLM IN BIGHORN HABITAT MANAGEMENT IN NEVADA . . . Lewis H. Mryers SCABIES IN DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP OF THE DESERT NATIONAL WILDLIFE RANGE ...... Jerome V. Decker HEMATOLOGY OF DES ERT BIGHORN SHEEP: A PRELIMINARY REPORT . . . W. Glen Bradley and Mohamed K. Yousef WHITEY THE UNIQUE BIGHORN ...... Lanny 0. Wilson SURVEY OF BIGHORN SHEEP IN CALIFORNU ...... Jerry L. Mensch STATUS OF BIGHORN SHEEP POPULATIONS AND HABITAT STUDIES ON THE INYO NATIONAL FOREST ...... David J. Dunaway RECENT SPRING WORK IN DEATH VALLEY NATIONAL MONUMENT . . . . . , ...... Paul A. Fodor USE OF DRUGS AS A CAPTURE TECHNIQUE FOR DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP ...... H. Steven Logsdon STATUS OF DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP AND RECEN? HABITAT DEVELOPMENTS IN UTAH . . . . Mayo W. Call and Carl Mahon STATUS OF BIGHORN IN EiAJA CALIFORNIA ...... Jose R. Oliver and Jose S. Sanchez ARIZONA DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP STATUS REPORT . . . . George W. Welsh WATER CONSUMPTION OF DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP . . . . . Jack C. Turner OFFICERS, COMMITTEES, MEETINGS, AWARDS ...... INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL TRANSACTIONS ......

All drawings courtesy of PAT HANSEN

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS

Vernon Burandt California Department of Fish & Game Lone Pine, California

Abstract. Over a period of 15 years information on desert bighorn sheep in the Invo- Mountains was obtained while on routine patrol and reconnaissance. Evidence of bighorn remains were found in mining camp dumps. Bighorn tracks and beds were found distributed, generally, along the entire range with the greatest number in the southern part which appears to be the best habitat. Sightings were few with a preponderance of rams noted. Deer, elk, domestic cattle and burros inhabit parts of the Inyo Range. Some competition exists where ranges over lap.

INTRODUCTI ON

A population of desert bighorn sheep (0vis canadensis nelsoni) exists in the Inyo Mountains. Finding animals in this- inaccessible and rugged range is diificult. To date no study has been made of this population and little is known of their ecology and not enough information exists on which to base a realistic population estimate.

Numerous excursions and backpacking trips were made into the Inyo range from 1954 to 1970. More time was devoted to the area south of New York Butte. Several extended backpacking trips along the Inyo crest to learn something about bighorn were made in 1956, 1959, 1962 and 1968.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Much valuable information was obtained from Mrs. Lona Burkhardt, Independence ranchwoman who for 7 years has had a cattle grazing allotment in the northern Inyos. Mrs. Mary DeDecker assisted in positive plant identification; miners, William Bonham and William Tonkin contributed valuable observations gathered over a period of 30 years; and Leland Loder, County of Inyo for the benefit of his observations in San Lucas Canyon; thanks to Richard L. Graham of Westminster, California and Ben Bonham of Lone Pine for their New York Butte information. To mining engineer Paul Skinner of Lone Pine who accompanied me on various trips, and to my backpacking friends who accompanied me, my sincere thanks.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS METHODS

Information for this paper was gathered from field notes and diaries compiled during 15 years of patrolling Inyo County in the capacity of a Fish and Game Warden and routine patrols of deer and sheep habitat, both in and out of seasons, consisting of checking complaints of violations, license checks, etc. At various times personnel of the Department of Fish ,and Game were accompanied on range reconnaissance and game censusing projects.

Data presented here were obtained by personal observation and are not presented as a technical study. Other information is from dependable observers, who over the years have been found accurate and reliable,

The Inyo Mountains are a typical fault-formed range, being the western-most of the range and basin type that extend eastward through Nevada. Basically this range is composed of old sedimentary material with granitic intrusion. Erosion has carved deep canyons along the entire range. This is characteristic of the rougher eastside. Geologically, this range arose in recent times.

The Inyo Mountains are approximately 50 miles long and from 6 to 16 miles wide and range in elevation from 5,000 to 11,100 feet. Climate is variable over short distances, The lower elevations receive much less precipitation than the crest, where a snowpack may exist for a time and in wet years affect winter foraging of big game animals.

The southern part of the Inyo range has one road crossing at Cerro Gordo that connects with San Lucas Canyon on the eastside. Several poorly kept dirt roads end at the southern base of New York Butte. A recently built mine road ends at the spring south of the Big Horn Mine.

From New York Butte to a flat north of Seep Hole Springs exists a roadless area approximately 20 miles long. Here deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and sheep live in a wilderness condition,

The northern Inyo range has numerous roads, one from Mazourka Canyon crosses Badger Flat and ends short of Waucoba Peak. The flatter area of the northern Inyos have a number of wood roads. The Eureka Valley road crosses the Inyos out of Big Pine as does the Westgard Pass road which is commonly accepted as the division of the Inyo and White Mountains.

Historv

The ancient Indian Petroglyphs certainly are a sign that man has been interested in bighorns for a long time. If there were a link with the past some very interesting things might be learned. Petroglyphs are found at many springs in the Inyo Mountains eastside and on the low mesa west of Saline Lake.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Some thoughtless individuals have removed some of this ancient art, also road bui lding activities around Saline Lake have destroyed the sheep petroglypfis , If someday petroglyphs can be deciphered, it would be of value to have these ancient recordings that are now forever lost,

Early day mining activities had several detrimental effects on bighorn sheep. First the need for great amounts of water necessitated the placing of operations near water supplies or piping the water, sometimes, from great distances.

Just such an operation was Cemo Gordo, in the Southern Inyos in the late 1870's. Records say that there were 2,000 people at this encampment and that water was piped from Miller's, Cemo Gordo, and Mexican Springs,

Early day prospectors and mountain men also killed sheep for food at every opportunity.

The impact of this operation on bighorn and its habitat must have made an immediate and drastic reduction in the sheep populations, There is little documentary evidence of what happened nearly 100 years ago. However, by examining the middens of some of these old camps, bighorn remains can be found, Generally, the larger and heavier horn sheath of rams are found. This doesn't mean that ewes and lambs were not utilized but that they decomposed more rapidly.

At an unnamed spring on the westside of New York Butte the writer found an interesting mining camp in April 1964, There were two arastras, an animal powered ore crushing device, at this water supply. Willow growth had almost completely concealed the old operation. In scratching through the mine dump the horn sheaths of 6 good-sized rams were found, A pepper sauce bottle with an 1878 date was found at this site and other artifacts, hence a conclusion as to the time of this operation,

Bighorn remains have been found at Mexican and Cerro Gordo Springs, And bottle diggers find sheep remains in Cerro Gordo dumps, At Burgess, on New York Butte, old sheep remains together with some that appear of recent origin have been found.

On a backpacking trip in 1956 same sheep horns were found in the scrap piles of Cove Springs and the mining site of Beverage.

The charcoal operation that supported the Cerro Gordo smelter was widespread. Every timbered canyon had campsites where charcoal was made. The midden piles of these dry camps contain sawed up bones of all types of domestic animals including horses, It's quite certain if a bighorn were ever found around one of these encampments he would shortly be reduced to camp meat,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Distribution of bighorn appears to extend along the entire range with the greatest number being found fiom Cerro Gordo Spring to Barrel Spring. From Barrel Spring north to Westgard Pass there is little sign and only rare sightings recorded. Mrs. Lona Burkhardt, Independence ranchwoman has run cattle in the northern Inyos for 7 years and in that time has seen one ram at Barrel Springs and reports that bighorns are scarce in the northern Inyos. This writer has sighted one bighorn at Willow Springs on the Betty Jumbo Mine trail,

The northern Inyos lack the characteristics that comprise typical desert bighorn range found in the southern part. Namely, the forage covered benchy rims interspersed with bare rock faces that afford both feeding areas and protection from enemies. The northern area has sagebrush flats with pinyon (Pinus sp-) covered ridges that are not as attractive to bighorn. .___I___ Scattered bighorn sign has been recorded on most trips into the Inyos north of New York Butte. Most tracks positively identified were of large rams. Due to the difficulty in positively separating smaller deer tracks fiom immature sheep, hoof prints cannot always be identified.

Notes from a trip to Beverage Canyon on the Inyo eastside in 1959 showed hedging- - on mountain mah Cliff Rose, (Cowania mexicana), and buckwheat (

In 1962 some hedging was noted on Cliff Rose in the head of Daisy Canyon. Use on browse has been noted in the central Inyos at the 7,000 to 8,000 foot elevations anddeer and/or sheep pellet groups indicate one or both use it. At this elevation, indications are that big game animals do spend some part of the winter in the areas that look like winter range when snow depth could force them down.

Beds ___I

Bighorn beds have been found in many places in the Inyos but never so many as on a trip to Mt. Inyo in May 1968. Accompanied by Richard Fiant, of U. S. ~ish and Wildlife Service on a range survey, we found a promontory overlooking Pat Keyes Spring on the Inyo eastside on which we found over 100 sheep beds. This is ancestral territory as found by Welles, Welles (1961). Several lower open benches also had a number of bighorn beds which contained pellets of all ages from fresh to completely deteriorated ones. Some old sheep tracks were found but no animals sighted.

In a period of 15 years a total of 24 bighorn have personally been sighted in the Inyo and north rim of Saline Valley.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS William Bonham of Lone Pine, a miner of 30 years in the area below Mexican Springs has seen a total of 6 bighorn rams in that period of time in San Lucas Canyon, William Tonkin, miner, who is now operating the only mine in the Inyc eastside has seen 3 bighorn rams in San Lucas Canyon in 25 years and also reported seeing a bighorn ram cross Highway 190 at the cut south of Keeler during a December snowstorm in 1940,

Leland Loder of Lone Pine, County of Inyo, road foreman, reported seeing sheep several times in San Lucas Canyon. While ope~atinga bulldozer he had a bighorn ram stand above him and watch the road repair operation for several hours.

The Huarta family of Owenyo saw a bighorn ram at Duarte Spring in the 1950's when the narrow gauge railroad was still in operation. Mining engineer, Paul Skinner sighted a single ewe at Dolomite in November 1965 above their mine, In checking through the reported sightings it is noted that there is a preponderance of rams, On a backpack trip to the Trepier Mine in July 1965 with Paul Skinne~,3 large rams were seen. Richard L. Graham of Westminster, California, a sportsman and big game hunter, photographed 7 bighorn rams at the Sighorn Mine in the summer of 1968. The photograph of these 7 large rams is in my possession,

A cattle grazing allotment from the U.S. Forest Service is held by Mrs. Lona Burkhardt, ranchwoman of Independence, to run 150 head of cattle in the northern lnyo Mountains. The range includes, Harkless, Papoose, Squaw, and Badger Flats. This domestic stock waters at Side Hill and Seep Hole Springs. The heavy use around these springs makes the source unattractive to game species. However, the latter use it. Big game sign is hard to find where this large herd tramples. Competition for range is unknown,

A small cattle grazing allotment is issued by the Bureau of Land Management to Ben Bonham of Lone Pine. In past years up to 50 head have watered at: Cerro Gordo and Mexi2an Springs, Bighorn and deer both water at these sources in spite of the cattle trampling and befouling the water supply.

A herd of over one hundred burros ranges near the east base of the Lnyo Mountains and into most of the canyons where they are stopped by the near vertical ~alls of the steep eastside which is a formidable barrier, B-urros do not come over the Inyo range and the west slope. Heavy burro use is much in evidence at Waucoba Spring, in Lead Canyon, Paiute Canyon, and Willow Springs. There is an over- population of burros in this part of the desert. Heavy trailing around the waterholes makes it difficult to find bighorn or deer tracks and little has been found in the lower canyons. The gentler slope of the Southern Inyo range has a burro population ranging out of Grapevine Canyon and South Saline, Lack of water in

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS the San Lucas Canyon area is the deterrent that keeps wild burros out of the Mexican and Cerro Gordo spring vicinity. Indications are that heavy burro use along the Inyo eastside offers competition to deer and sheep and that the latter prefer the more desirable range and waterholes at higher elevations.

Elk ___I

The Tule Elk (Cervus nannodes) was introduced in .the Owens Valley in 1933, and is now well established. Elk range all alorig the westside of the Inyo Mountains from Long John Canyon to Westgard Pass. Elk give birth to their young in the Inyo eastside canyons and use the springs in the Santa Rita Flat country, also the unnamed spring on the southwest slope of Mt, Andrews.

Badger Flat is the easternmost confined occurrence of Tule Elk in the Inyo Yountains, Due to lack of water they do not reach the crest or cross it. Since the ranges of bighorn sheep and elk barely overlap there is no competition between the two species,

Deer a__

Deer are more widely distributed than any other animal in the Inyo range. Cast antlers, an indication of winter range, have been found in the~sagebrushflats of upper San Lucas Canyon and the Nelson range adjacent to and east of the Inyo range. Deer range the entire length of the Inyos to the northern flats of Waucoba Mountain. Deer tracks at Whip-poor-will Flat indicate that deer also winter on the Saline Valley eastside. At times burros and deer have been seen together, Cast antlers have been found on both sides of Waucoba Hountain.

Predators

Golden eagles, ( mountain lion, (Felis concolor), coyote P (canis latrans), are present on the Inyo range, P Nothing is known about the effect of predation on the big game population. In 1950 one male mountain lion was killed near Barrel Springs rail by State lion hunter, William Dye. Stomach contents of this "predator1' is not known.

In the 15 years this writer has patrolled the Inyos only one lion track has been observed on the Betty Jumbo Mine road.

Human Intrusion

During the regular fall deer season an average of 20 bucks are harvested in the Inyo Mountains. Nearly all of these are taken near the roads that exist on the north and south ends. A very few hunters pack into the central section with horses. Using the 10% hunter success ratio figure as a base factor, it can be shown that 200 hunters per year use the area.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TMNSACTIONS Other than hunters only a few artifact hunters use the Inyo Mountain roads. A few mountain climbers ascend the top of the Inyos, There is one active mine on the south end, The northern Inyo roads have mare activity due to a wood supply in the area,

CONCLUSION

With the limited data that exists it is difficult to place a population estimate on the Inyo Mountain bighorn population.

Status of desert bighorn is uncertain due mainly to the roughness and inaccessibility of the part of the Inyo range that possesses the better bighorn habitat.

To insure drinking water most trips into the central Inyos were made in the spring of the year when snow was still available on the higher peaks, Sheep would be scattered and using areas away from waterholes during this season and probably accounts for the low numbers sighted,

Beds and tracks of bighorn indicated the animals are distributed along the entire range and the better habitat is in the area from Barrel Spring to Cerro Gordo.

In the areas used only by bighorn and deer there are indications that heavy winter snows force both species of big game down to lower elevations, Hedging and use on mountain mahogany, cowania and buckwheat were noted at the 7,000- 8,000 ft, elevation on southerly benches that were backed by the rock faces that the bighorn seem to desire, Pellets indicate deer and/or sheep use,

Sheep and deer live in a wilderness condition north of New York Butte to a flat near Seep Hole Spring. There is little human intrusion and no competition from other animals in this roadless part of the range.

An ancestral beeding ground near Mt, Inyo was found in May of 1968 and other signs indicate the central part of the Inyos a favored habitat, Inadvertently, quite a Lot of information was obtained about other animals inhabiting the range,

It was found the burros do not cmss the Inyos out of Saline Valley. Also, the Tule elk do not range to the crest or use the waterholes, There is some competition between domestic cattle, deer and bighorn at waterholes during the summer months when cattle range on both the north and south ends of the Inyo Mountains. What effect this competition has on the big game population is not known.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACITIONS LITERATURE CITED

McCullough, D.R., and E.R. Schneegas. 1965. Winter observations on the Sierra Nevada bighorn. California Fish and Game 52(2):68-84.

Russo, J.P. 1956. The desert bighorn sheep in Arizona. Arizona Game and Fish Dept. , Fed. Aid Proj. W-55-R Rep t., 153 p. Welles, R.E., and Florence B. Welles. 1961. The bighorn of Death Valley. U.S, Natl. Park Service, Fauna Ser. (6):1-242.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS t A RMGRESS RErJRT ON BIGt1DRM tW1TAT !VVJAGMEST I P.1 Ttf SrllJ ER:lAKi3I ?I0 I~ATIOIJAL FOREST

Jerome T. Light, Jr. U. S. Forest Service San Diego, California

Abstract. The San Bernardino National Forest began an inventory of its bighorn habitat in 1964. The management directions guided by the bighorn unit management plans that followed provided for putting 2860 acres of habitat in public ownership; bringing about public awareness of the significance of bighorn habitat in land use management through recurrent surveys and information and education programs. Current problems that challenge bighorn habitat management on the Forest involve a ski area proposed for development in their habitat in the Stockton Flats - Mt. Baldy region of Lytle Creek. This proposal is receiving a full environmental impact study review. Maintaining the Forest's bighorn habitat will be a continuing challenge and will require innovation, skill and dedication of the Forest Biologists and Administrators.

INTRODUCTION

The Forest Service objective is to manage and protect all the forest resources for the public to use and enjoy as prescribed by the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act of 1960.

In keeping with this national objective, the bighorn range in the San Bernardino National Forest is being managed to perpetuate the bighorn habitat and protect the forest environment along with providing properly planned public recreational opportunities.

Since the Forest's bighorn habitat inventory which began in 1964, three bighorn habitat management units have been established. Each of these units are managed as directed by a unit habitat management plan. These are the Santa Rosa Bighorn Unit, the San Gorgonio Bighorn Unit, and the San Gabriel Bighorn Unit.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Management direction in these habitat management plans were to:

Maintain the bighorn range.

Recognize the aesthetic qualities of bighorn as a primary management consideration.

Annually, gather facts on the habitat of the bighorn to support bighorn as well as other resource use management decisions.

Within key bighorn habitat areas, give bighorn first priority in land use planning when a proven conflict has arisen.

Encourage research of bighorn and its habitat.

Consider bighorn habitat maintenance in all land use plans and impact surveys.

ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Under these management directions, the major accomplishment of the Forest is that of making the public aware of bighorn. Some didn't know bighorn existed, others knew but didn't know their status. Now the State is studying the species.

Habitat surveys have been made annually in each unit since 1964 to determine bighorn use of vegetation from permanent transects established in key areas in each unit. Bighorn feces were counted and cleared from the transects annually.

A backlog of these surveys has accumulated and is being analyzed.

The Forest has requested its personnel and interested local citizens to record all sightings of bighorn when they are in bighorn range. So far, the sight records are providing a clearer picture of bighorn location, season of use patterns, lambing and rutting areas and seasons, food preference and behavior. This data is also being analyzed.

The bighorn census carried on by the California Department of Fish and Game is continuing, on foot as well as by helicopter. Getting adequate counts from these methods has so far proven difficult due to the vastness of the bighorn area and precipitous terrain.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TWNSACTIONS Since the inventory and establishment of the bighorn units, it was found advantageous for the maintenance of their habitat to begin acquiring certain private land parcels in each of the following units.

Santa Rose Unit

1900 acres have been acquired. 10,000 acres are being negotiated for land exchange; hopefully, within 3 to 5 years from now. Much acreage lies within the Martinez Mountain and Palm Canyon areas.

San Gorgonio Unit

680 acres are being negotiated for land exchange.

San Gabriel Unit

960 acres have been acquired. 1300 acres have been approved for acquisition in the near future. 1200 acres are being negotiated for land exchange in the Deer and Day Canyon areas.

Ranger District Multiple Use Management Plans recently approved by the Forest provided management decisions for the established bighorn units on the Forest. The management decisions are as follows:

a. Bighorn have priority over other uses that would prove damaging to their habitat.

b. Consider bighorn habitat in the alignment of trails, recreation sites and other developments.

c. Adjust the bighorn unit boundary as more is learned about-the bighorn habitat requirements and behavior.

CURRENT IMPACTS ON BIGHORN HABITAT

Significant incidents have occurred in the San Gabriel Bighorn Unit that are noteworthy.

First, in the summer of 1968, a wildfire swept away the vegetation and cover of a portion of bighorn range in the South Fork of Lytle Creek. Since 1964, this area has been a habitat inspection area with permanent transects. Since the fire, use of this area by bighorn has dropped by of an estimate 50%. However, we expect the bighorn to again use the area. Grass seeding to prevent erosion of the watershed has become established and now provides abundant spring forage for bighorn.

Secondly, the Forest has been presented a proposal for additional ski lifts to extend the ski facilities from Baldy Notch to Stockton Flats.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The proposal to provide for expanded public winter sports opportunities in the Mt. Baldy area is in accord with long standing Forest Service plans developed following the controversial 1947 hearings on whether the San Gorgonio Wilder- ness Area should be modified to permit ski lifts. At that time, the Southern California skiers, who constitute close to 30 percent of all skiers in the 12 Western States, were searching for a suitable winter sports site within close one-day's driving distance of Los Angeles. The Chief of the Forest Service, following the 1947 hearings, ruled in favor of retaining and managing San Gorgonio Mountain as a wilderness; and at the same time declared that downhill skiing was an appropriate and proper form of National Forest recreation and should be considered for planning and development as the public need required, on suitable sites outside of classified primitive or wilderness areas. Other wilderness in Southern California include the San Gabriel, Cucamonga, San Jacinto and San Rafael.

As an outgrowth of the San Gorgonio decision, attention was directed to the upper slopes of Mt. Baldy, the only other major mountain high enough to be considered suitable for alpine country skiing in Southern California. Mt. Baldy is not included in the nearby Cucamonga Wilderness Area. First development on Mt. Baldy commenced in 1952 following issuance of a Special Use Permit by U.S. Forest Service. Development has progressed, in accordance with approved stage construction plans, to where there are now four major lifts serving the area from the San Antonio Canyon terminal above Mt. Baldy Village, Forest Service counts show that 27,500 skiers used the Mt. Baldy area in the 1968 ski season.

Present plans, developed following studies made last year, call for an eventual $5 million investment in expanding the present Mt. Baldy facilities. The initial current construction involved the building of a double chair lift from the present ski lodge at Baldy Notch, elevation 7,802 feet above sea level, to the 8,600 foot elevation on the crest of the Devil's Backbone. This was completed in December of 1969. Next in line is the proposed mile long double chairlift connecting the Devil's Backbone lift to the Upper Stockton Flats Forest Recreation Area at a point approximately one mile west of the Stockton Flats Forest Service campground.

The third step of the proposal suggests a gondola type lift to the summit area of Mt. Baldy and is still under study.

The proposed ski lift will cross through a key bighorn area. This area has been under impact study, since February, to determine measures to maintain bighorn habitat and forest environmental quality. If these measures can be established, the ski lift will be developed and used in compliance with these measures. The goal being to eliminate man's conflict with bighorn and the forest environment.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The impact study will cover all aspects of the total forest environment, including the forest geology, hydrology, water quality, soils, watershed, and wildlife. The bighorn habitat will he measured and delineated into key areas, Bighorn behavior will be observed especially with seasonal use of its habitat and its reaction to man.

Over 50 man days have been spent already in this impact study. This study is a combined effort by both Forest Service and California Department of Fish and Game Biologists.

SUMMARY

These manpower assignments plus contributed time by interested conservation groups will provide a much greater base of information within the next year than has ever been available on bighorn and its habitat in the San Gabriel Mountains. We invite the participation of members of the Desert Bighorn Council who can join us this year (1970) to study the area.

To summarize, bighorn habitat management in the San Bernardino National Forest has been rewarding so far. However, the challenge ahead in maintaining the bighorn habitat base will require innovation, skill and dedication. With concerted effort of many disciplines we hope to be equal to the task.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Charles G, Mansen National Park Service Death Valley, California

Abstract, Desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) at the Desert ildlife Range have diff ngues, There is a variety with a pupe pink tongue, another with a pure black tongue and then various combinations of pink and black. The pink tongued sheep are wary; have wide spre ing horns; and have a deep chest and thin flanks. The black tongued sheep e reLatively serene; have tight curling horns; and have a blocky appearance to their body, The pink tongued sheep tend to stay together while the black tongued animals move about more independently than the more wary variety, Out of 17 rams kill& by hunters only one had a pink tongue, the rest had black tongues, This variation in waryness causes some sheep to run from people when they are a mile away. Yet, other animals may approach people or allow people ta approach them quite closely,

Rarely does a scientist have the opportunity to observe desert bighorn sheep (Ovis- canadensis) in a situation where breeding can be closely controlled so that animals of a desired physical shape and behavior can be produced, Conditions on the Desert National Wildlife Range near Las Vegas, Nevada were suitable and the bighorn coo erative, Physical cha~acte~istics were recorded and associated with the behavior of a group of sheep on the Wildlife Range,

recommends that the two desert foms, 0, c, nelsoni and 0, c. mexicana be - - Ilpl. combined as one subsp cies, Ca~~yLngthis - g one step ltenorth (1963) and Uloth (1966) propose to lump all the sheep of.the world under one species, -Owis -ammon, thus illustrating the close relationship amongst the various groupings of wild sheep as well as with the domestic sheep. But physical characteristics such as tongue color, body conformation and horn shape are very distinct even though lesser morphoLogica.1 characteristics are s~metimesused to separate the desertdwelling sheep into the four or more subspecies now recognized,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Desert bighorn sheep have been held and raised in paddocks at the Corn Creek Field Station of the Desert National Wildlife Range since 1947. The nucleus of the herd was taken from the nearby Sheep Range. The Sheep hnge is a continuous ridge of mountains running nearly north and south for about 45 miles and ranging in elevation from about 2,500 feet to nearly 10,000 feet elevation. Some of these bighorn and their offspring from Corn Creek were placed in the San Diego Zoo and others were sent to central Nevada and Arizona to enhance their bighorn restoration program. However, while some of them were present at Corn Creek two distinct types of sheep were noted. One of these types had a black tongue and the other a pink tongue. Along with the tongue color went distinct body and horn shapes as well as behavioral patterns. This was first observed in 1961 after several generations of sheep had been raised using the only available ram to sire most of the lambs that were born, up until that time. The first ewe to survive and remain at the station was used to produce many lambs. Since the first ewe and her first female offspring were the only adult ewes present they were bred baclc to their father.

All of the sheep kept at Corn Creek were given a number and most of them were named. The first ram noted to have a pink tongue was number 3. He was called "Old Joe." He had been caught in the Sheep Range as a lamb in 1947. In addition to the pink tongue, he had a loose curl to his horns (Figure #1) and a body that was deep through the chest and lean through the flanks (Figure #2). This animal was of a wary or nervous disposition and would startle at the slightest inclina- tion. He had sired at least three ewes before December 1959, but only one of them remained at Corn Creek. This remaining ewe was number 10 and was called "Nanny" because uninformed visitors to the Field Station thought she was a "nanny goat." She had a flighty disposition similar to her sire but her tongue was not entirely pink like his. There were some blaclc streaks (Figure #3) that ran lengthwise along the right side of the otherwise light pink tongue. By the time I arrived for my tour of duty at the Field Station in December 1959, there were several other rams in the paddocks including one that had been born of wild parents in 1959. This ram was numbered 19, and called "Tom."

Tongue Color

Number 19 was found to be the only one in the paddocks with a completely blaclc tongue. As he grew and developed mature horns and body it was evident that he had tightly curling horns (Figure #4) and a blocky body (Figure #5). Also this ram was quite serene and docile, not at all nervous as was "Old Joe." The ram "Tom" was used to breed with the ewe "Nanny" and more serene sheep were produced. Two of these were rams, numbers 21 and 26. They were eventually bred with a black tongued female number 24. From these matings a blaclc tongued lamb number 30 and a blaclc and pink tongued lamb number 28 were produced. On the other hand when one of the second crosses. number 21, was bred baclc to "Nanny" a pure pink tongued lamb number 31 resulted. Consequently, different cross- breeding for tongue color produced either one or the other pure color or a combination of the two colors. Apparently the combinations can be a tongue

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS FIGURE 1. (above) A RAM (NUMBER 16)WlTH WIDE FLARING HORNS AND A PlNK TONGUE.

FIGURE 2. (below) RAM WlTH DEEP CHEST AND THIN FLANKS TYPICAL OF THE PlNK TONGUED GROUP. with longitudinal streaks as in "Nanny" or one in which the front half is black and the back half is pink as shown in 1, These cross-bred sheep also showed a certain degree of variation in their behavior, Some sheep were more s e rene,while others were still nervous. Also their horn shape and body confornation was distinctly a combination of the two types as in Figures 2 and 4,

Behavi m

As these sheep matured, behavior patterns became evident. The pink tongued animals would be the first to take flight. They would seek company when possible while the black tongued sheep would be more or less independent of other sheep, The pink tongued sheep seemed to prefer the company of other pink tongued sheep but would associate with black tongued sheep when there were no other pink tongued sheep available, However, they would quickly for- sake the black tongued sheep when a pink tongued animal came around. When kept alone the pink tongued sheep became very nervous and wary but when placed with other sheep they would calm down sanewhat. When kept just with black tongued sheep their behavior would approach that of those they were with but they would become nervous when again placed with other pink tongued sheep,

The black tongued sheep appeared to have a more stable disposition and were not as flighty or wary as their pink tongued brothers. They were generally more independent of other sheep although still gregarious in the manner of bighorn sheep.

The ancestory of the sheep held at Corn Creek from which the foregoing information was taken is presented in a graphic form in Figure 6,

Pattern in Wild Sheep

The difference in behavior of these two strains of desert bighorn found at Corn Creek may explain some of the unanswered actions observed in wild sheep. It is often reported that some sheep are seen running away from people as much as a mile ahead of them while others do not seem disturbed even when approached quite closely. I saw an example of this behavior one day when I was observing two bands of ewes and young animals from about three quarters of a mile away. Somehow the animals sensed me and began moving about, There were about 10 in each band originally but about half of each moved off and joined together as a third group. This third group ran off up the canyon while the remaining sheep slowly grouped together and continued to feed. After a short time I moved into sight and traveled past the remaining sheep with only a minor show of concern from them,

This behavior pattern was very similar to that observed in the animals at Corn Creek. In the paddocks the pink tongued sheep would group together and run back from the fences while the black tongued sheep stood their ground or came forward

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS PINK WITH HALF BLACK & PINK SPOTTED BLACK STREAKS HALF PlNK WITH BLACK

FIGURE 3 - DISTRIBUTION OF COLOR ON TONGUES THAT ARE PART PlNK AND PART BLACK.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIOWS to investigate some person or action. Such behavior would have a tendency to separate the two strains to the point where breeding of like tongue colors would become more common especially in situations where bighorn were living under conditions of frequent stress.

Frequency of Tongue Color in Wild Bighorn

In order to determine the incidence of tongue color in wild sheep, I checked hunter lcilled rams in 1962. Out of 17 sheep killed only one had a pink tongue, the rest of the sheep had black tongues. Does this mean that most of the sheep have black tongues? Or does it mean that the pink tongued variety in the wild is in reality more wary with less curl to their horns and therefore less sus- ceptible to be taken by hunters? If the latter is so, then it is possible that there may eventually be fewer black tongued and more pink tongued sheep as hunting continues in an area. In 1967, I looked for tongue color in some of the 15 hunter killed rams but was unable to conduct a proper investigation because of the press of other work. However, there were two rams with pink tongues and several others had pink tongues with black streaks or black blotches. These casual observations indicate that more pink tongued individuals. may be present in the population and that cross-breeding with black tongued sheep may be more prevalent. This condition could be the result of hunting, because more black tongued than pink tongued rams were being removed. Also the presence of more pink and black tongued sheep would suggest that the pink tongued rams would be breeding more and more with black tongued ewes.

A lower hunter success in the taking of older rams (which has been occurring) could be explained by the removal of more black tongued docile rams and the production of more of the wary pink tongue strain. This may eventually lead to the loss of black tongued sheep from an area. The ramifications of altering the behavior pattern of a population may be far reaching. It could explain the decline in sheep populations throughout their isolated and disjunct range because black tongued sheep could have been approached and killed more easily since they were less disturbed by man's activities. When the majority of sheep left are pink tongued animals perhaps they are too nervous or wary to stay in the vicinity of man so they leave for a less disturbing range while the black tongued sheep stay and die of disease or shooting.

It is also possible that some genetic components in the two strains are not readily compatible thus causing a reduction of numbers during fetal development or even after the lamb is born. If man can have an RH factor, is it not possible for bighorns also to have a similar incompatible factor?

When people or domestic livestock are using the same mountain range the bighorn often vacate or become fewer in number (Welles 1961, Graf 1967). Currently there is an increase in public pressure to open more and more areas fo~recreation. Certain types of recreation may be acceptable to bighorns where people are limited to definite areas such as along trails, roads or scenic overlooks. However, these

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS FIGURE 4. (above) TlGHT CURL HORNS ON A RAM (NUMBER 19) WlTH A BLOCKY BODY TYPICALOFTHEBLACKTONGUEDGROUP.

FIGURE 5. (below) THIS RAM (NUMBER 21) IS A FIRST GENERATION CROSS WlTH A BLACK TONGUE AND HORNS THAT SHOW A COMBINATION OF WIDE FLARE AND RELATIVELY TIGHT CURL. #3 PlNK RAM+ WILD EWE II PlNK W/ BLACK EWE 4+ 10 I zi + + 4 + + n PINK PINK PINK PINK BLACK BLicK RAM *3 RAM #3 RAM # 3 RAM #? FlAM # I9 RAM 4k 19

L PINK BLACK BLACK a UNKNOWN UNKNOWN PINK ;I COLOR EWE COLOR EWE RAM 444 RAM # 20 RAM # 21 RAM # 26 i- I3 + + +- P PINK PINK W/BLACK BLACK cnz WILD EWE #24 RAM RAM# 3 EWE # 10 n* H H 11 I I 0 3 BLA C.K PINK HALF BLACK EWE #23 RAM # 16 RAM =#. 22 HALF PINK RAM #28

+ 4- BLACK PlNK W/BLACK EWE # 24 EWE:# 10 I I II BLACK F'I N K EWE 4k30 RAM # '31 areas often cannot incorporate important feed grounds, lambing areas or bedding grounds, Nor can they restrict bighorn movement between the above areas or keep them from cover or water. Since people or livestock are constantly active during the day the pink tongued or wary animals appear to be always on the alert. Consequently, they will probably move away to avoid the traumatic experience of associating with this foreign disturbance. On the otherhand the black tongued or more serene bighorn may eventually accept people and become roadside pests, eating out of the hand of anyone who will feed them.

Since these animals are relatively easy to raise and keep under controlled conditions it is possible to develop these strains and produce sufficient numbers to populate isolated areas with pure strains of one or the other type. It is possible that the wary pink tongued sheep could be placed in areas where hunting is to be allowed and the normal complement of pink tongued and black tongued could be used to restore bighorns in parks or refuges. With the larger number of black tongued sheep they would be more readily seen and enjoyed by visitors because they are more serene,

LITERATURE CITED

Bradley, W.G. 1968. Evaluation of recent taxonomic studies of wild sheep of the world, Desert Bigno~nCouncil Trans, 12:18-27.

Graf, We 1964. Desert bighorn management needs from the academic point of view. Desert Bighorn Council Trans, 8: 19-27,

1 t Haltenorth, T. 1963. Klassifikation der Saugetiere: Artiodactyla. Handbuch der Zoologie, Berlin, 32:126-128,

ULoth,,,We 1966, Die taxo~omieder rezenten vildshafe im Blickpunkt der Verkreuzung. Saugetierk. Mitt,, Munchen. 13: 273-278,

Welles, R,E, and Florence Be Welles, 1961, The bighorn of Death Valley. U.S. Govt Printing Office, Wash., D.C. Fauna series NO. 6. 242 p.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS IT -\TPI 3np.1 ni rm KLICOmER (IKERVATIOiJS w MU-KJK~I ~LW@lME SAY NDRES WTIOI:N \'/I IDLIFE REFUGE

John H. Kiger Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Las Cruces, New Mexico

Abstract. The helicopter has proven to be a successful tool for determining numbers, distribution, and, to some degree, classification of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana) on the San Andres National Wildlife Refuge.

GENERAL

During 1968 and 1969, ten helicopter flights were made over the San Andres National Wildlife Refuge to observe bighorn sheep. Three flights were made in 1968 and seven in 1969. Several flights are planned during 1970. The first flight, when 45 sheep were observed, indicated that the helicopter could be a useful tool for checking bighorn sheep on the Refuge. Counts have ranged from as few as 17 sheep on one flight to a high of 75 on another.

Helicopters and pilots based at Holloman Air Force Base have been utilized for the survey flights. They are contracted from a private agency by the military to provide services in support of programs conducted by White Sands Missile Range. In most instances the flights were made within the week requested. All flights were scheduled for about two hours flying time. This allows the pilot to make the entire flight on one tank of fuel. Pickup time for all flights was 8:00 a.m., at JTK Pad, headquarters, White Sands Missile Range, located about 30 miles from Las Cruces. There were two wildlife observers, plus the pilot, on each flight.

FLIGHT PATTERN

The White Sands Missile Range headquarters area, where JTK Pad is located, is about nine miles south of the Refuge. All flights originated from this area.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Figure 1. Helicopter flight pattern (ap~rox.1, San Andres National Wildlife Refuge.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The San Andres Mountain Range extends in a north-south direction. Generally, going north, flights were conducted about mid-slope along the east face of the primary range and high on the west face on the return flight. Deviations from this general pattern were made to scan several large canyons that cannot be adequately covered in one pass. An area south of the Refuge known to be used by sheep was also conveniently included in the flight pattern (Figure 1).

OBSERVATION FACTORS

Optimum visibility occurred when the skies were clear, temperatures cool, and air calm.

Three types of helicopters were used. The Bell, Model B-1, proved best. This machine offers adequate power as well as excellent visibility. A small Bell was under-powered, and a Huey provided inadequate visibility.

It is of considerable value to obtain the services of the same pilot for several flights as he can become a good observer and well-acquainted with the terrain. He also learns where and how the flight pattern should be flown for optimum observation of the area.

Results 'were less than desirable on several flights due to one or more complications. Adverse weather and/or conflicting military activities were usually involved. In one case the flight was called off when an observer became air sick. The under-powered aircraft mentioned above was another limiting factor.

DISTURBANCE FACTORS

The sheep were definitely disturbed when a helicopter approached to within a few hundred yards. They were usually on the run when first sited. On several occasions sheep were noted to stop running and stand "frozen" at the base of a, high bluff as if to hide. On one occasion a group of sheep ran into the bottom of a canyon where some appeared to hide in heavy shrubs. Another time two mature rams did a little head-butting after running a short distance from the helicopter. The sheep generally seemed less frightened when approached in the midst of bluffs and steep slopes. None were observed to fall even though running rapidly over extremely rough terrain. Most of the bighorns were observed in open shrub-grass vegetation in close proximity to bluffy areas.

Although the sheep are disturbed by the helicopter, there has been no evidence of detrimental effects to them.

Survey flights are not made during January, February, March, and April because of possible harmful effects the disturbance could cause during lambing.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Table 1. Bighorn sheep and deer helicopter flight observations, San Andres NWR ,

Hcather Observations - Date of flight conditions Sheep Deer Remarks -ilo . -No. ~ugust9, 1968 50% cloud cover, 6 groups of sheep, Huey helicopter light winds

September 26, 1968 Clear sky, 1 group of sheep, Bell B-1 helicopter, no wind incomplete flight due to military firing activity

November 20, 1968 Clear sky, 6 groups of sheep, Bell B-1 helicopter light winds

May 5, 1969 60% cloud cover, 8 groups of sheep, Bell B-1 helicopter, s trong winds flight incomplete due to stormy weather

June 17, 1969 Clear sky, 10 groups of sheep, Bell B-1 helicopter, light winds incomplete flight due to air-sickness of observer

~uly18, 1969 10% cloud cover, 17 groups of sheep, Bell B-1 helicopter light winds

~ugust 21, 1969 Clear sky, 9 groups of sheep, aell B-1 helicopter light winds

oc tober 8, 1969 Clear sky, 3 groups of sheep, incomplete flight light winds because Bell helicopter had insufficient power for flying at low elevations in Mts.

November 18, 1969 , Clear sky, 13 groups of sheep, Bell B-1 helicopter, strong winds incomplete flight due to military firing activity

December 18, 1969 100% cloud cover, 36 C 9 groups of sheep, Bell B-1 helicopter light winds OTHER WILDLIFE

More sheep than deer were seen on every flight except one, even though deer are more numerous (Table 1). Deer observed ranged in number from 0 to 57. Most of the deer were in open country and moving. Occasionally, one was spotted standing still in fairly dense stands of pinyon (Pinus edulis) and juniper (Juniperous monosperma). When found in the open shrub areas they were more likely to remain still or run for only a short distance, whereas the sheep tended to keep moving for some time after the helicopter passed. In comparison, the sheep were easier to see than deer due. to their lighter color, especially the white rump. Incidental observations included several golden eagles (Aquila -chrysaetos),- one porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum), a few coveys of quail (Callipepla squamata), and several cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus audubonii).

VALUE OF FLIGHTS

The population data gained from these flights should result in more reliable estimates of total populations and relative distribution of the sheep.

The flights have also provided considerable data on herd sex and age composition and on movements. Sex and age can obviously be determined more accurately from most ground observations; however, only with a prohibitive amount of time and manpower can this procedure produce information comparable to that obtained from an hour or two in the air.

Based on experience on the San Andres Refuge, the helicopter appears to be an effective method for conducting sheep surveys and provides valuable additions to data obtained from ground observations.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Jack B. Helvie Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Las Vegas, Nevada

Donald D. Smith, D.V.M. U. S. Public Health Service Las Vegas, Nevada

Abstract. A review of 49 necropsies performed on desert bighorn sheep in the southern Nevada area is presented. The Appendix shows a condensed version of all necropsies listing information on sex, age, diagnoses, and specific pathogens. Incidence of pulmonary pathology was high for all age classes of sheep: young (0-3 years) 78%; prime (4-9 years) 74%; old (1M- years) 92%. The data suggests that lung lesions may be more prevalent in old anim There was little difference in the occurrence of pulmonary pathology between sexes (females 79%, males 83%). The major cause of death when determined was pneumonia. The data presented will provide reference material for wildlife biologists working with desert bighorn sheep in the wild and in captivity.

INTRODUCTION

Mortality in bighorn sheep has been a topic of discussion for many years. Some questions concerning the maladies that occur in sheep have been answered, but there are many more yet unanswered. Allen (1960, 1962, 1964) has documented his findings of parasites in bighorn sheep. Johnson (1957) and Engel (1967) have described in detail some of the necropsies performed by them. The first case of scabies (Psoroptes cervinus and --P. ovus) in. bighorn sheep from Nevada was described by Cater (1968) and Allred and Bradley (1965, 1966) have commented on necrosis of teeth and skulls.

The purpose of this paper is to summarize the findings of 49 necropsies performed on desert bighorn sheep during the period 1953-1969. Date concerning parasites and tooth and skull necrosis is not discussed because the information available was not complete. The Appendix is included for the purpose of documenting each case in some detail.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TMNSACTIONS Thanks are extended to all of the personnel at U. S. Public Health Service, Las Vegas, who performed the necropsies since 1964 and made this report possible. Necropsies prior to 1964 were performed by an Army veterinarian on temporary assignment to the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission.

This report is the result of a cooperative effort between the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife of the U. S. Department of the Interior and the

Southwestern Radiological Health Laboratory (SWRHL) of the U. S. Public , Health Service. The SWRHL participation is a part of the Animal Investigation Program being performed for the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission under Memorandum of Understanding No. SF-54-373.

PROCEDURES

At the Desert National Wildlife Range our policy is to have necropsies performed on as many sheep as possible. It is a rare occurrence when we find a wild sheep carcass that is still fresh enough to be of value. But occasionally we do stumble upon one and rush it in for necropsy. Likewise when a "penned sheep" dies at Corn Creek, every effort is made to learn all we can from it. Most of the sheep from these two sources fall into the "natural death" category. Other sources of information are grouped into categories as follows: hunter kills, trap and capture mortalities, collections, and road kills. Information gleaned from hunter kills is often incomplete because we don't have the entire animal to work with. Most of the animals included in the trap and capture category die as a direct result of injuries or drugs, but the ensuing necropsy often reveals interesting and valuable information relative to "healthy sheep" in the wild. Similarly, road kills provide additional valuable data on the health of the wild population. Very few sheep have been "collected," but data from these are included to complete the picture.

Sources for the sheep included in this report are as follows: Desert National Wildlife Range-39, Nevada Fish and Game Department-six, National Park Service- two, Cabeza Prieta Game Range-one, and Arizona Game and Fish Department-one.

RESULTS

Natural Mortality

Death from natural causes accounted for 17 (35%) of the sheep examined.

-, Serious lung conditions consisting of (1) pneumonia, (2) adhesions, (3) abscesses, (4) atelectasis, (5) emphysema, (6) edema, (7) bronchitis, (8) hyperemia, and (9) tumors were found in 14 (82%) of these sheep. The actual causes of death as determined by necropsies are as follows: pneumonia (7), enterotoxemia (2), multiple abrasions and fractures (2), endothelioma which resulted in amyloidosis (I), multiple abscesses and adhesions (I), malignant tumor of lung and ovary (I), and three cases were inconclusive.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The two cases involving enterotoxemia were surprising and interesting. The pathogen that causes enterotoxemia is the bacterium, Clostridium perfringens, Type D, and is a natural soil inhabitant. When a dietary change or digestive upset causes intestinal stasis, this bacteria proliferates in the gut and produces a powerful toxin which is absorbed and causes death in a few hours. On June 2, 1968, a two-month-old lamb was found at the southwest end of the Panamint Range in California. When found, the animal was weak and unable to stand. Treatment was provided in California, and on June 8 it was delivered to the Desert National Wildlife Range. The lamb had a good appetite and appeared to be healthy until it died suddenly on June 17. On July 30, 1969, antapparently healthy and vigorous two-year-old penned ram at Corn Creek became sick, and penicillin and streptomycin were administered. The next morning blood was noted in the feces and treatment was provided by a veterinarian. The young ram died a few hours later. We cannot say that there is any connection between these two deaths, but so far as we know these are the only cases of enterotoxemia noted in bighorn sheep in southern Nevada.

Of three other lambs examined, one succumbed to injuries sustained in a fall, and two died of bacterial pneumonia. One of these, a one-month-old wild lamb, was found to have Pasteurella pneumonia. The other a 13-day-old penned lamb born at Corn Creek, had Corynebacterium pneumonia.

In this group of natural mortalities, the average age at death for females was 5.2 years (excluding two of unknown age), and ages ranged from two months to 11 years. Remarkably, the average age at death for males was also 5.2 years with a range in age of 13 days to 11 years. When lambs are discounted, average age at death was 7.2 years for females and 7.2 years for males. The sample includes seven animals of each sex where age could be accurately estimated by horn rings or tooth development.

Hunter Kills

Sixteen (35%) of the sheep examined were hunter kills. Lung conditions were noted in 12 (75%) of these rams, while no remarkable pathology of any kind was noted in three animals. Microscopic examination of the thyroid of one ram revealed a follicular hypertrophy (goiter). Ages of the rams in this sample ranged from 5 to 13 years with an average of 8.5 years.

Trap and Capture Mortalities

Eleven (22%) of the sheep examined had succumbed as a direct result of trapping or capturing activities. Quite often the diagnosis on the necropsy protocol reads as follows: "Cause of death: shock, fatigue, gross hemorrhage and asphyxiation." Some sheep met their demise suddenly--by falling over a high cliff after an injection of drugs via the "Cap-Chur Gun." Data gathered from this sort of investigation may not appear to be of value upon initial inspection, but we have formed some general conclusions regarding the trapping

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS and capturing of sheep. With drugs that are currently available, successful use of the "Cap-Chur Gun" is quite limited in rough, precipitous terrain. It also occurred to us that some workers tend to handle sheep in much too rough a manner. The examination of several sheep disclosed dislocated joints on the legs and neck and fractured ribs. This supports the idea that captive sheep must be handled very carefully. Carrying or "packing" live sheep more than one-fourth mile from trap site to vehicle should be discouraged. One other observation is that sheep may suffer fatal injuries when they run head- long into the side of a wire mesh trap. The use of nylon netting should be considered in all sheep trapping operations, however, this is recommended only on a trap that is closely attended. On an unattended trap, nylon net may result in as many injuries as with wire mesh.

Nine (82%) of the sheep in this category were found to have lung conditions of one kind or another.

Collections

Only three of the animals examined had been collected purely for biological investigations. A 10-year-old ewe was found near death and was sacrificed by bleeding. The diagnosis revealed that she was about to succumb to an advanced lung condition involving bilateral pneumonia and fibrinous pleuritis. Almost no functional lung tissue was observed. Two other ewes, ages five and eight, were collected in November and December 1957. No remarkable pathology was noted in one, while the lungs of the other contained pneumonic tissue. Both were in the first trimester of pregnancy.

Road Kills

One three-year-old ewe and a yearling ram were3killed by cars. The lungs and liver of the ewe contained granulomas. The lungs of the ram showed areas of solidification.

DISCUSS ION

The data presented supports the general opinion that bighorn sheep in southern Nevada commonly suffer from chronic lung disorders. Eighty percent (39) of all sheep necropsied were found to have lung pathology of varying degrees. Lung lesions were found in 82% of natural mortalities, and in 78% of deaths due to sudden trauma. This is a lower rate of incidence than reported in Arizona sheep by Russo (1956), where he found lung adhesions in all sheep examined. A high percentage of sheep in all age classes exhibited lung lesions of various forms. As shown in Figure 1, the rate of incidence for lung conditions was 78% for young animals (age 0-3 years), 74% for prime animals (age 4-9 years), and 92% for old animals (age 10 years and older). There was little difference in the occurrence of lung disorders between sexes as they were found in 79% of the females and 83% of the males examined. As was expected, the major cause of death when determined was'pneumonia. Enterotoxemia

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS was found to be the cause of death in one wild sheep and one penned sheep. This disease may be more prevalent in wild desert bighorn sheep than we had expected. A review of the necropsies indicates that more remains to be learned relative to imrnobiiizing, trapping, and handiing sheep s~ccessfuiiy. Abnormalities were often observed in kidneys, liver, heart and other organs, but no conclusions were reached. Further study is needed in this area. A condensed version of necropsies is appended and will serve as a documented reference for biologists working with desert bighorn sheep.

LITERATURE CITED

Allen, R. W. 1960. Diseases and parasites of barbary and bighorn sheep in the southwest. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 4:17-22.

. 1962. A preliminary study of parasites of bighorn sheep on the Desert Game Range. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 6:69-72.

. 1964. Additional notes on parasites of bighorn sheep on the Desert Game Range, Nevada. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 8:5-9.

Allred, G. L. and W. G. Bradley. 1965. Necrosis and abnormalities of the skull in desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 9:75-81.

. 1966. Comparative study of necrosis associated with teeth in desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 10:86-97.

Cater, B. H. 1968. Scabies in desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 12 : 76- 77.

Engel, R. E. 1967. Necropsy findings in desert bighorn sheep. California-, Nevada Section TWS Trans. 2:45-58.

Johnson, E. L. 1957. Disease and mechanical injury in desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 1:38-42.

Russo, J. P. 1956. The desert bighorn sheep in Arizona. Arizona Fish & Game, Phoenix. Wildl. Bull. No. 1, 153 p.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS 4-9 years (Prime)

Figure 1. Incidence of lung lesions in three age classes of desert bighorn sheep.

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DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS 0 aJ L aJ *n >UWU 0 *r*r Or ucV)t' 0 rb r. L LC, O asUS 'I- aJUaJQ 0 @-G 5 aJumI-- taw- -0 I L % mm t s- O*-33 al-u * a- WV) om*nms rUV)>O V) V) *r*r Or r +'LC,

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DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS APPENDIX (CONTINUED)

Date of Ident. No. Death Age Sex Location Diagnoses or Comments Yi scell aneous Notes 7417-66 6/29/66 6 mos F 6 miles up- Injured (from fall?), Mu1 tiple abrasions ; fractured Natural stream a1 ive when found; died left femur; general shock and Nil low Beach, two days later of trau- dehydration; possi bl e CNS Ari zona mati c shock and comoound- damape: temnerature 104.5. ed insult b,y diuretics. bte: "...suggest that Di ureti cs are contra i ndi cated in the desert sheep. If used, reduce dosage markedly. " - 1 -')GI?-66 1/16/66 8 M DNWR Thyroi &-general i zed hyper- Hunter trophv of fol 1i cul ar ki 11 ewi the1 i urn. 2-DGR-G6 1/20/66 13 M 3miles Lung--focal hemorrhage and Hunter northwest atelectasis; lungs adhered kill of Sawmill to pleural sac. Canyon, DNWR 3-DGR-66 1/18/66 7 M Sawmill Lung--alveol ar edema; focal Hunter Juncti on, atelectasis. ki 11 DNWR 4-DGR-G6 1/18/66 10 M Sawmill Lung--focal atelectas is; Hunter Junction increased thickness of pleura. ki 11 DNNR Striated muscle--Sarcosporidi osis . 5-DGR-66 1/22/66 8 W Lamb Spring, Lung--atelectasis. Hunter DNWR kill 6-DGR-66 1/22/66 7 M Arrow Canyon Yo remarkable pathollogy. Hunter Mts. , DNWR kill 7-DGR-66 1/27/66 10 M DNWR Lung--focal hemorrhage and Hunter atelectasis; focal chrmi c kill pl euri tis . APPENDIX (CONTINUED)

Date of Ident. No. Death Age Sex Location Diagnoses or Comments Miscel 1aneous Notes 'I 'I -A5-67 4/9/67 Adult F Cabeza Animal observed in weak- Wt. 93 lbs. Multiple abrasions Natural Prieta Game ened condition. When and fractures; Cys ticerus - x. Range, capture was attempted, cyst floating free in abdom- Arizona animal fell 20 feet to inal cavity; caseated necrotic its death. lesions on liver; lungs adhered to parietal pleura and very congested. 10-DGR-67 7/27/67 11 F Wamp Spring, Apparently died from Puncture in body wall, one- Trap DNWR neck injuries. two weeks old; focal areas of Injuries atelectasis and emphysema in 1ungs --marked congestion; general pyemia prior to death resulted in numerous abscesses. 11-DGR-67 9/21/67 10 M Cabin Spring Injected with .36'mg/100 Wt. 167 lbs. Inguinal hernia Capture DNWR 1bs . Succi nyl chol ine with portions of small intestine chloride via "Cap-Chur protruding; a1 1 lobes of lung Gun." Found dead two exhibit complete congestion; hours after injection. Adhesi ens-both diaphragmati c ".. . inferred that neither lobes to body wall, bath apical the drug nor the injury lobes to diaphragm, bolth car- alone would cause the diac lobes to pericardium sac; edema. " cyst on liver; liver abscesses like Spherophorous -necrophorous. 12-DGR-67 10/24/67 5 M Sheep Spring, Injected with .349 mg/100 Wt. 167 lbs. Large tapeworm Capture DNWR 1bs. Succi nylchol i ne in bile duct; lung--right apical chloride via "Cap-Chur lobe adhered to rib cage, ad- Gun." Ran 80 yards, fell hesions extend to peri cardium; over cliff and died. extensive pulmonary edema; ".. .feel that the animal petechisl hemorrhages in epi- died of asphyxiation. 'I cardium and endocardium; left kidney congested. APPENDIX (CONTINUED)

Date of Ident. No. Death Age Sex Location Diagnoses or Comments Miscellaneous Notes 13-DGR-67 12/11/67 5 F Corn Creek, Wt. 70 1bs. est. Bi lat-era1 con- Natural DNWR junctivitis and kerati tis; corneal ulcer of left eye, corneal puncture of right eye; anterior 114 of small bowel dark green in color; liver with pale ye1 lowish tinge; 1ungs--ecchymoti c hemorrhages, atelectasis and emphysema, hemorrhage in 1eft ventxi cle. 15-DGR-68 6120168 1 M Sheep Spri ng, Undetermi ned. Injected Wt. 95 lbs. Tapeworm in bile duct; Capture DNWR with M-99 and Aceproma- petechi a1 hemorrhage on kidneys ; zine via Yap-Chur Gun. 'I 1ungs--adhes i ons to pericardi a1 Died eight hours after sac and parietal pleura, mild injection, peribronchial i nfi1 trate of lymphocytes ; petechi a1 and ecchymoti c hemorrhages on heart. 1c 56R-68 6/17/68 6-7 F Corn Creek, Lamb found Panamint Wt. 20 Ibs. Dark red hemorrhage Natural wks DNWR Range, Cal i fornia and throughout ventral abdomi nal transferred to DNWR. musculature; kidneys swol len, Tentative diagnosis: dark red; right apical lobe of ~lostridf um perfri ngens, 1ung contains small , raised, f vpe- D; Enterotoxemi a. ye1 1owi sh necroti c areas. 17-DGR-68 12/15/68 10 M CornCreek, Geriatrics. Wt. 140 Ibs. est. Kidneys--soft, Natural DNWR (penned.. Kidneys--nephri tis. cortex reduced in size, mild s hee~) am-yl oidosi s; severe broncho- pneumonia with extensive pulmonary edema ; animal emaci ated. 1-DGR-69 1/10/69 11 M Corn Creek, Pneumonia. Wt. 122 1bs. Apical lobes of lungs Natural DNWR (penned Ki dneys--nephri tis . had fibrous adhesions between surface sheep)'. . and thoraci c pleura, congested , green- I ish colored indicating necrosis ; renal pel ves edematous.

-P I--L APPENDIX (CONTINUED)

Date of Ident. No. Death Age Sex Location Diagnoses or Comments Miscellaneous Notes 2-DGR-69 3/26/69 1 mo M White Sage Bacterial pneumonia, Wt. 15 lbs. Lower 1/3 of ileum Natural Res., DNWR suspect Pasteurella. hyperemic; 85% of lung area involved with pneumonic condition; fibrous adhesi ons between a1 1 lobes of 1ung and chest. 3-DGR-69 511 5/69 13 M Corn Creek, Pneumonia, Wt. 11 lbs. Lungs--adhesions Natural days DNWR (penned (Laboratory confirmed) on apical lobes ; api cad , car- sheep) organism was diac and intermedi ate 1obes Corynebacteri um SJ. hepati zed wi th numerous abscesses. 5-DGR-69 7/31/69 2 M Corn Creek, Enterotoxemi a, Wt. 150 1bs. est. Hemorrhagic Natural DNWR (penned Clos tridium perfringens areas in abomasum, smaJ 1 upper sheep) (Laboratory confirmed) intestine and large bowel ; clotted blood around amal area; smears of intestinal content negati ve for cocci dia.

. THE 1969 SEEP TRAPPI iJI; IV.D lRAL4SPM.IT PRDflMr71IN E'v'ADA

Nick J. Papez Nevada Department of Fish and Game Reno, Nevada

George K. Tsukamoto Nevada Department of Fish and Game Las Vegas, Nevada

Abstract. Nevada's desert bighorn sheep trapping and transplant activities during 1969 were mainly directed towards restocking the Dutch Creek Enclosure with sheep from southern Nevada.

A trap site was selected near the Boulder Beach sewage pond, located within the boundary of the Lake Mead National Recreational Area.

A drop gate panel trap was designed especially for use on the trap site. The trap was constructed from one and one-half inch pipe fitted to form a framework measuring seven feet by ten feet, with five inch stretch netting placed over the framework. Eight panels, each with a drop gate, were constructed and placed out on the trap site.

A total of ten sheep were captured and transported to the Dutch Creek Enclosure. There were two rams, five ewes and three lambs for a sex composition of three males and seven females.

An eleven year old ram was lost shortly after the release; however, all other sheep arrived in excellent condition.

INTRODUCTION

During 1969, the Nevada Department of Fish and Game focused much attention to capturing bighorn sheep from southern Nevada for restocking into the Dutch Creek Enclosure. Trapping activities were also pursued by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service on the Desert National Wildlife Range in cooperation with the "Department's1' transplant program. Unfortunately, trapping conditions were poor and success was practically negligible; therefore, no animals were available from this source in 1969.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS An investigation into potential sheep trapping sites in Nevada had previously been made and several sites selected. The best potential site was identified as the B0~1derBeach sewage pmd, l~catednear the Lake Mead Marina zt the bzse of the River Mountains within the boundary of the ~akeMead National Recreational Area. Under an agreement with the National Park Service, the trapping program on the "pond" area was initiated. The objective was set to capture a total of twelve sheep, to include not more than four rams.

RIVER MOUNTAIN SHEEP POPULATION

The quota of animals to be trapped for transplant was based to some extent on the estimated sheep population in the River Mountains and the fact that this area had never been opened to hunting of bighorn sheep.

The population of sheep in the River Mountains had previously been studied by Deniston (1965 and 1966) and Kelly (1968). Deniston's sheep population estimates were based on observations made at the sewage pond area during the summer months. Kelly continued the observations in 1968 and made further estimates. Deniston estimated minimum population of 37 sheep in the River Mountains in 1964. He further stated that it was quite conceivable that the area supported as many as 60 sheep.

Additional work by Deniston, using the "Lincoln Index" formula, estimated a population of 40 sheep in 1964 and 34 sheep in 1965.

During the summer of 1969, prior to the sheep trapping operations, more intensive observations were made to estimate the sheep population in the trap site area. During this period, 38 observations were made by National Park . Service and Nevada Department of Fish and Game personnel. Usually, these counts lasted for less than an hour during mid-day; however, some observations by Nevada Fish and Game personnel lasted from two to four hours. This highest count made during the regular visits to the sewage pond in 1969 was 42 sheep observed on June 5, composed of 11 rams, 24 ewes, and 7 lambs. The largest two- day count was obtained on August 21 and 22, when 61 sheep were observed. The population estimate of 80 plus sheep in the River Mountains is based on data collected by previous workers and from recent counts.

During the two-day trapping period, sheep observations were made during most of the daylight hours. The largest single day count of 54 sheep was obtained. A two-day combined total of 71 sheep was tallied.

PRE-TRAPPING ACTIVITIES

The method of capturing sheep from the sewage pond trap site was never definitely decided upon. Various corral type traps were suggested for use in this area; however, the most desirable site for placement of such a trap was not available due to the necessity of construction of a second sewage evaporation pond.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The Nevada Department of Fish and Game had previous limited experience at trapping sheep with the use of the "clover" deer trap. With this in mind, the sewage pond area was baited with alfalfa hay, timothy hay, fresh lawn clippings, commerciai pelletized feed and various types of salt. Sheep were observed occasionally nibbling on the fresh lawn clippings and the timothy hay to the exclusion of all other baits tried. Following much difficulty in baiting sheep, the clover deer trapping method was abandoned and the idea for a new trap using water as bait was conceived.

THE DROP GATE PANEL TRAP

The drop gate panel trap is composed of a number of panels, a minimum of four, each measuring seven feet by ten feet. The framework of each panel was constructed from one and one-half inch pipe and was provided with a drop gate mechanism. The drop bar was constructed from one and one-quarter inch pipe with four-inch rings attached and encircling either side of the framework and allowed to slide freely. Five-inch stretch netting was bound to the top of the panel and to the drop bar. The netting was attached on either side to four, four-inch rings encircling the one and one-half inch pipe frame. A total of eight panels were constructed (Figure 1). The "clover" deer trap trip mechanism was adapted to this trap; however, an electrical system was used to drop the gates rather than a mechanical method. Overdrive solenoids from early 1960 vintage Ford automobiles were attached to the trigger mechanism to be used as the force needed to drop the gate (Figure 2). Each of the eight panels were attached to each other by custom made clasps bolted on near the corners (Figure 3). The trap encompassed an area of 300 square feet. Panels may be set in a rectangular or hexagonal shape.

The panels are semi-portable and may be moved relatively easily on a flat bed truck. Each panel weighs approximately 150 pounds.

The total cost for construction of the trap, excluding the netting, was approximately $450. The majority of the cost was for materials, with nearly one-third of the expenditures used to pay labor costs necessary for the construction of special parts.

SHEEP TRAPPING

The drop gate panel trap was placed onto the trap site in a rectangular position. Previous to the placement of the trap a "hog wire" fence had been loosely constructed around the sewage pond to restrict the sheep access to water to a relatively small area. This 30 foot length of shoreline was where the panel trap was placed.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS -Solenoid

5" stretch netting

- 90" Elbow 1 1/2" galvanized pipe frame

Figure 1. Schematic drawing of a single panel.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Figure 2 . Schematic drawing of solenoid. DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Panel clasp

Figure 3. Drawing of panel clasp.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Only three hours after placement of the trap, three sheep were observed entering the trap to get a drink. Sheep were observed entering the trap after considerable pacing of the fence. Mature rams were observed, on a number of occasions, to jump the fence rather than enter the trap to drink. At no time were sheep observed to enter the trap without hesitation. The length of time elapsed prior to making a decision to enter varied from individual to individual, probably dependent upon the thirst of the animal. Once a sheep entered the trap, others in the immediate area usually followed.

Sheep trapping finally commenced on the morning of August 26, after many delays and unfavorable climatic conditions. Three men manned the blind to trip the trap and provide quick action to subdue the animal(s) captured. Numerous other helpers, including a veterinarian, waited nearby to offer assistance immediately after the trap was activated. Approximately 231 man hours were expended during the two-day trap period.

The first day a total of four sheep were captured. The first animal to be taken in the trap was a three year old ram. Subsequently, three ewes were captured in the fenced area. The capture of animals in the enclosed fence area was a result of the poor placement of the trap, i.e. too far from the water's edge. Several misfires of the gate trip mechanism allowed sheep to escape unharmed.

On the second day a total of seven sheep were captured. Again, as experienced during the previous day, poor placement of the trap and malfunctions of the trigger mechanism resulted in many escapes into the fenced enclosure.

The two-day operation netted a total of 11 sheep. One 13 yeaf old ram was marked and released at the site. The ten sheep retained for transplant included two adult rams, five adult ewes, one male lamb, and two female lambs.

Each animal captured was tagged with an aluminum strap tag placed in each ear In addition, some animals were further marked on the horp with one and one-half inch widths of Scotch Brand plastic pressure sensitive tape. Two colors, white and yellow, were used on seven sheep.

TRANS PLANT

The group of four sheep captured on the first day was held for approximately 36 hours in a three ton flat rack vehicle at the Corn Creek Field Station. All ten animals were hauled during the night to the Dutch Creek Enclosure. The sheep appeared to have weathered the eight and one-half hour journey in good shape. The release was made at approximately 8:30 a.m., just 60 hours after the first animal was captured.

DESERT BIGHORN C OUNC IL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Sometime after the release, and probably within three days, the 11 year old ram was lost. When the carcass was discovered no determination could be made as to the cause of death,

All of the transplanted sheep, including the sole survivor of the mountain lion mishap, are reportedly doing well. Reproduction was confirmed on January 28, 1970, when a new born lamb was observed in the enclosure. By March 1970, there has been a total of three lambs produced, all of which are doing nicely.

LITERATURE CITED

Deniston, A. 1965. Status of bighorn in the River Mountains of Lake Mead National Recreation Area. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 9:27-34.

. 1966. Population, trend, productivity and survival of , the River Mountains bighorn sheep herd. Unpublished report, National Park Service, Boulder City, Nevada. n.p.

Kelly, K. 1968. River Mountain bighorn sheep survey. Unpublished report, National Park Service, Boulder City, Nevada. n.p.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS V. Geist University of Calgary Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Abstract. The home range fidelity of bighorn rams was determined in ten tests. It was found that living rams would return on the average of 87 out of 100 cases to the same seasonal home range in consecutive years. Knowing mortality and fidelity, the proportion of rams returning in years hence can be predicted.

INTRODUCTION

During a study of Stone's sheep (Ovis dalli stonei) between 1961 and 1963 in the Cassiar Mountains of British Columbia, it was noted that rams and ewes returned to the same localities at the same seasons in successive years. By noting where known rams moved in fall 1961 and winter 1961-62, I accumulated 52 expected movements for fall 1962 and winter 1962-63. Of these, 38 or 73% were realized. Since three of my known rams did not survive the previous winter, I deleted their expected movements. This left 43 expected movements. Since 38 were realized, my living Stone's rams realized (38143) x 100 = 88% of the expected movements.

When studying bighorn rams, the question again arose how predictable were the movements of rams to their seasonal home ranges. Here, however, an indirect method to calculate home range fidelity had to be used, since I did not follow the same individuals from seasonal home range to seasonal home range. It was found that from 49 rams identified in spring 1964 on the Palliser Range, 38 or 77.5% returned in spring 1965. Clearly, of those absent some were dead, while others were alive, but elsewhere. To determine how predictable the movements of living rams were, the expected number of rams dead had to be deducted.

From a collection of 70 skulls of bighorn that had died naturally, it was determined that the overall mortality was 11% per year. That is, on the average, ignoring age specific mortality, 11 from 100 living rams could be expected to be dead the following year. One can express mortality (m) as a decimal, then m = 0.11 and survivorship as 1 - m = 0.89. Therefore, from the 49 rams seen in spring 1964, only 49 (0.89) = 43.6 could be expected to be alive.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The question of interest was, how predictable are the movements of living rams. From the above calculations, it appears that 44 (43.6) rams were alive; since 38 showed up, their predictability or home range fidelity was (38143.6) x 100 = 87.1%.

A second check made on 42 rams identified in fall 1964 and searched for two ater in fall 1966 gave similar figures. Thus, in two years, only 42 {E,:;)' = 33.4 rams can be expected to be alive. Of these, 29 were found. Hence, their fidelity was (29133.4) x 100 = 86.8%. From these 42 rams, 40 were identified on the Palliser Range. In 1966, 27 of these were resighted. Hence, home range fidelity is: 40(0.8912 = 31.6 rams alive in 1966, (27131.6) x 100 = 85.4%. An alternative method of calculation is as follows: from the 40 Palliser Range rams seen in fall 1964, 34 were alive in spring and summer 1965. If we assume that 11% died the following winter, then 34 (0.89) = 30.3 rams would be alive in spring and summer of 1966, and probably also in fall. Hence, home range fidelity in fall 1966 would be (27130.3) x 100 = 89.1%.

Clearly, home range fidelity in stone's and bighorn rams ranges somewhere between 85 and 89%; that is, somewhere between 85 to 89% of all living rams can be expected to return to the same seasonal home range they had been seen on in the preceding year. On the average home range, fidelity is hence about 87% or.0.87 expressed as a decimal.

It is evident that, given mortality (m) and home range fidelity (u), one can predict the return of rams over a number of years. The number of rams one can expect to see t years after first seeing them on a given seasonal home range is predicted by the formula:

Where No is the number of rams seen in year o, Nt is the number of rams expected t years hence. It is necessary to test how well this formula predicts taking m = 0.11 and u = 0.87.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1 compares the predictions based on this formula with the actual counts. It can be seen that the formula predicts about 5.5% higher than was actually observed. However, this is within the error range of the original fidelity calculations. Moreover, the formula presupposes some unwarranted assumptions and is rather crude. The good agreement between expected and observed suggests that the mortality figure of 11% derived from rams found dead in the field is probably valid.

It is well known, however, that rams do not have a constant mortality, but that mortality changes with the age of the rams. My skull data from Banff National Park suggested a mortality of 3.9% for rams 3-8 years of age, and a mortality of 23.0% for rams 8-16 years of age. It is hence possible to predict the return of rams depending on their age. A first approximation of this is given in Table. 2.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS It can be seen that for old rams the predicted values were consistently below the observed values. This suggests that either the old rams had a lower mortality than 23%- or that they had a greater home range fidelity. For young r,ams the converse appears correct. At present the reasons for these differences are obscure.

In general, it is evident that unhunted rams return with a great predictability to their seasonal home ranges. The reasons for the deviation from a 100% predictability are discussed and illustrated by examples in a forthcoming monograph (Geist, in press, Mountain Sheep: A study in behaviour and evolution, University of Chicago Press).

Table 1. Home range fidelity of Palliser Range Rams, Banff National Park. (m = 0.11)

Season - -No Nt (Expected) Nt (Observed) Expected - Observed

Fall 4 40 Spring 4 38 Spring 3 44 Fall 2 32

Table 2. Home range fidelity of old rams. (m = 0.23)

Season - -No Nt (Expected) Nt (Observed) Expected - Observed

Spring 1 19 Spring 3 20 Fall 2 17

Home range fidelity of young rams. (m = 0.039)

Spring 1 19 Spring 3 24 Fall 2 23

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS George Tsukamoto Nevada Department of Fish and Game Las Vegas, Nevada

Abstract. Resident as well as nonresident hunters continued to show special interest in the Nevada bighorn sheep hunts. Recent tag fee increases did have an affect on the number of tag applicants for resident hunters, while nonresident applicants continued to increase.

Results of the 1969 hunt show success remained relatively unchanged from the previous year. Hunting effort has shown a significant increase.

Hunting results under the "Trophy Ram Regulation" are compared with results of the "three-quarter curl" hunts. Young rams less than seven years old represented 22% of the harvest during the 1965-69 period, and 40.9% during the 1960-64 five year period. This data would indicate that the "Trophy" regulation was effective in reducing the number of young animals killed. A total of seven illegal rams have been reported killed since the inception of the new regulation in 1965. It appears that the "Trophy" regulation has definite limitations, but certainly is a more workable and effective regulation than the old "three-quarter curl" law.

The 1969 sheep hunt was the seventeenth season held in Nevada since 1952. There were eight areas open to bighorn sheep hunting with a total tag quota of 110. The number of tags available decreased by ten from the previous year. There were 99 resident and 11 nonresident tags issued; however, two residents did not hunt. There were five alternate tags issued in four areas.

The demand for bighorn sheep tags has remained high; however, an increase in the fee had some interesting results. The increase in resident tag fee from $15 to $25 in 1969 resulted in a 38% decrease in the total number of resident applicants from the previous year. Nonresident applicants showed a slight increase from the previous year. From the very beginning, the interest shown by nonresident hunters for tags in Nevada has been high. During the last five years the demand has been so great that an average of only one in twenty- seven nonresident applicants receive a tag. The overall odds for residents in 1969 was one tag for every 3.6 applicants. There is a significant variation

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS from area to area--mostly dependent upon the previous year's success. In 1969, the Muddy Mountains, Area 27-D, recorded the highest demand, with only one tag available for every 6.4 applicants. The best odds were found in Area 24 where chances were 50150. During the 1969 season, there were 31 rams harvested fer a hunter success ratio of 26%. As in the past, nonresident hunters faired better with a success ratio of 64%, compared to the resident success of only 22%. Area 17, for the second consecutive year, resulted in no sheep harvested. A high hunter success of 50% was obtained in Area 27-D. Table 1 shows the hunter success by area.

This year, the youngest ram checked was four years old and the oldest was twelve plus. There were ten rams checked under seven years old, representing 32% of the total kill, which is the second highest percent of young rams harvested since the inception of the "Trophy" regulation.

The largest head scored an unofficial 173-418Boone and Crockett points. Seven animals made up 22% of the total reported harvest and of these, six animals were less than 144 points, using the largest horn doubled.

During the 1969 season, hunting effort averaged higher than ever recorded. Area 26 reported a high of 12.6 days per hunter. During the season, there were a total of 850 hunter days of effort expended. Successful hunters averaged 6.1 days, whereas an unsuccessful hunter averaged 9.1 days.

There were 1,388 sheep reported seen by hunters in seven of the eight areas open to hunting. There were 438 rams, 688 ewes, and 245 lambs observed for an overall ratio of 64/100/35. The largest sample of 386 sheep was observed in Area 27-D, followed by Areas 27-B, 21, and 27-A. Approximately 31% of the rams observed were classified as legal rams.

Since 1952, there have been 453 sheep harvested by 1,388 hunters for an overall hunter success of 32%. During the last five years under the "Trophy Ram Regulation," the success ratio has averaged 28%. After five years of "Trophy" sheep hunting, success was decreased significantly. The ten years previous to the new regulation and under the "three-quarter curl" law, the average success was 36%.

Hunting effort also increased sharply, initially, by almost doubling; however, average hunting effort since 1965 has remained nearly constant at a little over seven days, except for the 1969 season when a full day increase to eight days was recorded.

It is difficult to evaluate the merits of the "Trophy Ram Regulation." We have made some accomplishments, but these have been somewhat over-shadowed by the shortcomings in the regulation. Tables 2 and 3 compare five years of harvest data collected under the'khree-quarter curl" law with five years under the "Trophy Ram Regulation." Little difference can be seen between the average

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS ages or Boone and Crockett scores. The most interesting data available is the number and percent of the sheep harvested under seven years of age. During the period 1960-64, under the "three-quarter curl" law, the percent of the harvest under seven has varied between 30% and 48%--averaging 31%.

For the five year period, 1965-69, under the "Trophy Ram Regulation," the harvest under seven years old has varied between 5% and 39%--averaging 23%. Approximately 39"/,£ the 129 animals harvested consisted of rams nine years old and older. There was a significant decrease in the number of young rams harvested under the newer regulation. Whether this is a true reflection of the actual harvest is difficult to tell. There is little doubt that some young rams are killed and left. Activity of this sort was reported this year.

There have been a total of seven sheep brought to the checking station that were less than seven years old and below the minimum 144 points. The first . three illegal sheep were taken in 1967, followed by one in 1968, and again three in 1969. Table 4 shows scores and ages of the seven illegal sheep reported taken. It is interesting to note that the majority are four years of age and near 139 in Boone and Crockett points.

Since 1965, there have been 23 young rams under seven years of age killed by hunters which have been determined legal because they have met the minimum score requirements. Two of these rams were four years old, six were five years old, and 15 were six years of age.

Young animals will probably continue to appear in the harvest under the present definition of a legal ram. Boone and Crockett scores from rams harvested since 1965 show the majority of the harvest is made up of the seven year age class. The average score, based upon the largest horn doubled, indicates the seven year olds averaged 158 points. This is sub- stantially higher than the average under which the "Trophy Ram Regulation" was founded. In fact, the six and five year olds averaged more than 144 points. The combined average score for five, six -and seven year old rams harvested was 157 points, which is well above the minimum score of 144. This may partially explain the high percentage (22%) of young rams under seven years old in the harvest over the past five years as shown on Table 5.

When comparing the "Trophy Ram Regulation" with the "three-quarter curl" law, it is obvious that the average age of rams reported killed has changed very little, but there has been a noticeable absence of the very young (2-3 year old) rams. The increase in total hunting effort has not been adequately explored. Whether this is a true increase in effort by the hunters for the selection of a "Trophy" ram or whether it is a result of an increasing difficulty in locating a legal animal is not known.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TMNSACTIONS The 1967 "Hunt Progress Report" stated that definite limitations were associated with the "Trophy Ram Regulation." Two of the more obvious being the difficulty in aging rams and the wide range in correlation between horn size and age. It was further stated that future advances would have to be made through the Indoctrination Course.

After five years of hunting under the "Trophy Regulations'' and with several illegal rams harvested in addition to an unknown number never reported, it has become increasingly apparent that the regulation as a management technique is somewhat less than ideal. At the same time, however, no substitute regulation has been devised to accomplish the desired results as well as the existing one.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Results of Sheep llunts under tire Nevada " Trophy Ram 1:egulations " Season Quota # ft % Iiunter Days/

1966 Spring

TOTAL

TOTAL 1967

TOTAL -1968

TOTAL 1969

TOTAL

* Other hunts (area 17 6 21) were held, but not under the "Trophy .Kcm Regulation1'. ** Area was closed to access by the USAF after 2 days, therefore most hunters hunted 27B,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Age and BEC Score from Sheep Harvested under the "3/4 Curl" Law,

Youngest Oldest Avg. # E % Smallest Largest Avg

- 27A 6 11 8.5 1 50% 15s 7/8 166 7/8 162 7/5 2712 2 14 7,4 3 23% 112 5/8 178 4/8 152 5/5 27C 5 12 7e6 4 36% 142 3/8 164 1/8 151 5/5 All 2 14 7.3 8 31% 112 5/8 178 4/8 153

1961 - 27A 5 27B 4 27C 3 All 3

1962 v 27A 5 27B 2 27C 2 All 2

- - 27A 9 27B 4 27C 3 All 3

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Age and BEC Score from Sheep ilarvested under the "Trophy Ram Iiegulationstt

Youngest Oldest Avg, # 4 % Smallest Largest kvg,

** Broken horned rams excluded

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS TABLE 4

Illegal Sheep Killed under the "Trophy Ram Regulation"

Fiount ain Nevada

Black Mount ah 4

Black blountain 4

Black Mountain 6

>leadow Val ley 3

Sheep Nountain 4

Pintwater Range 4

Eldorado Range 4

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS % of Each Age Class from the Bighorn Sheep Harvest

AGE II)

12,s

11,6

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Benny R. Albrechtsen and Jerry B. Reese Forest Service Ely, Nevada

Abst~act, An analysis was begun in 1967 to define use areas and determine factors of the population of desert bighorn sheep (0vis canadensis in the White Pine Ranger District. Little informationl--'---- was previously e about either the animals or the habitat, but the record of sightings available indicates that animal numbers have declined.

Surveys completed at this time indicate that neither forage nor water supply limit the present population. The results tentatively suggest that bighorn sheep cannot tolerate the presence of domestic livestock on their range, thus the habitat available for the bighorn is only that which is inaccessible to livestock. 0 ther factors such as increased mining and recreation activity may also infringe on the habitat. P~edationby mountain lions may also be a factor. More evidence needs to be collected to determine the validity of these suggestions and to suggest management practices which will enhance the bighorn sheep habitat.

INTRODUCTION

A hard of desert bighorn sheep has existed at least since pioneer times in the Quinn Division of the White Pine Ranger District, Humboldt National Forest. These bighorn sheep received little management attention until 1967, the only information available being some counts and reports of sightings which were on file with the Forest Service and the Nevada Fish and Game Department. In 1967 personnel of the Forest Service in cooperation with the Nevada Fish and Game Department began an analysis to define use areas of the herd and to identify habitat factors which limit the population size. The objective of the analysis was to develop information which could be used to effectively manage the bighorn herd,

Descri~ti~nof Area

The habitat area is the Grant Range in Nye County, approximately 100 miles southwest of Ely, Nevada. The mountains rise from an elevation of 5,000 feet

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS at the valley floor to 11,380 feet at Troy Peak, The slopes are very steep and are broken by ledges and vertical rock cliffs. Soils are generally shallow and rocky, except in the canyons.

Annual precipitation ranges from 5 inches in the valley to 25 inches on the mountain tops, The vegetation reflects the changes in precipitation. Proceeding upward from the valley floor the vegetation changes from salt desert shrub cmunities to a black sage (Artemisia nova) community in the low foothills. Above the black sage communi dominated by pinyon (Pinus and juniper ( and mahogany . Above this ich is dominate one aristata) and white Ek (~biesconeolora 1,

Water is available at springs and along several small creeks, The water sources are well distributed over the area,

METHOD AND PRI)CEDURE

A semch of the files was made and all data pertaining to sightings, counts and habitat management in the area was compiled into a written record, In addition, interviews were conducted with miners and ranchers in the area to add their observations to the record, The location of each reported sighting was plotted on a map -of the Quinn Division to aid in identifying use areas of the bighorn sheep

Several inspections were then made to verify areas of bighorn sheepuseon the ground, These inspections consisted of walking or riding horseback over suspected sheep use areas and noting the presence or absence of tracks, droppings and beds, Inspections were made on both summer and winter ranges,

Presently inspections are being made to locate key areas on t bighorn range, These include lambing areas, watering places, summer concen-tration areas, and travel routes, Futwe work will include range envhomeatal analysis of the area and classification of the habitat for desert bighorns,

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Records of bighorn sightings and the number of animals sighted have declined since the late 1950%s. This evidence indicates that bighorn numbers are . declining or are stable at a lower level than in the past, Ground observations also indicate a small population, as use areas are mall and signs of sheep activity are scattered. The present population appears to be less than 1QO animals, which is barely lwge enough to maintain itself,

Ground surveys of both summer and winte~ranges showed a Lack of sheep activity in areas where an abundance of either cattle or horse signs were observed, However, neither forage nor water appeared to be in short supply in these areas,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS This may indicate that bighorn sheep cannot tolerate the presence of domestic livestock on their ranges, If this competition occurs, then cattle are the most serious competitors onithe summer range while feral and mustang horses are the mest seriecs compstitors on the winter azd spring razgs,

Mining activity has inc~easedon the area and will continue to increase because of the abundance of minerals present, This may adversely affect the bighorn habitat,

Recreation use also is increasing on the area and may further affect the habitat, A highway is presently under Construction which will allow access from Las Vegas, Nevada by a three-hour drive. In the last three years, even without the highway, recreation use has tripled.

Mountain lion predation also may limit the size of the herd. Prospectors and ranchers interviewed said they have found sheep carcasses killed by mountain lions, They attributed death to mountain lions because the carcasses were half-eaten and buried, The mountain lion population appears to be quite high in the (area.

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PLANS

Forage or water supply does not appear to be a problem in this habitat. Competi- tion from domestic livestock may be reducing the habitat available for bighorns, The present pattern of grazing may have to be changed if further study indicates severe competition from domestic livestock. Increased pressure from recreation and mining activities may further reduce the available habitat. Our present management effor~swill be aimed at protecting the habitat so as to maintain the present herd.

Studies will be conducted to confirm or deny our tentative conclusions, Studies also are needed to determine the effects of water cleanliness, predators, and habitat protection on the bighmn sheep population,

Futu~eplans include protection of certain water sources from use by domestic livestock. Fencing and other improvements are needed to control the movements of cattle and horses, Range surveys will continue with the objective of determining the areas used by the bighorn sheep and the reasons why they utilize some areas and not others, Once we have this information perhaps we can modify the unsuitable habitat so as to make it suitable for bighorn sheep, Then perhaps we can extend their present range and increase the size of the population, If funds become available we can accomplish these objectives, It has been done in other areas, Our challenge is to do it here,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The limited information on desert bighorn sheep in the Grant Range has been increased through the interest and able assistance of: Milo Barney, Jerry Reese, and Dean Doell of the U.S. Forest Service; Norm Raymond and Brent Mitchell, Nevada Department of Fish & Game; and others,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Gary J. Ferrier and W. Glen Bradley University of Nevada Las Vegas, Nevada

Abstract. A bighorn habitat evaluation was made in the Highland Range of extreme southern Nevada as a part of an over-all habitat evaluation and ecological survey of Nevada bighorn ranges. Bighorn distribution, abundance, and area use were determined by direct observation, pellet group, and sheep bed census. Forage, particularly grass abundance, distance to water, and topography (degree of slope) were evaluated as basic habitat components which were used in formulating a Bighorn Habitat Index. According to this index 35, 47, and 18% of the study area respectively consisted of non-bighorn, minimal, and preferred bighorn habitat. Of the 65% of the total area rated as sheep habitat, 28% was considered preferred habitat. The Bighorn Habitat Index represents an initial analysis in formulating a bighorn habitat model for use in evaluating existing and potential bighorn ranges in Nevada,

INTRODUCTION

As part of a research program in association with the Nevada Department of Fish and Game, we began an intensive investigation in 1968 to identify and more pre- cisely define the habitat requirements of bighorn sheep (his canadensis) in Nevada. We have placed special emphasis on the development and testing of procedures and techniques for evaluation of the recognized habitat components of food, water, and shelter. In this analysis we are attempting to develop a bighorn habitat model for use in evaluating present and potential bighorn ranges in Nevada.

The Highland Mountain Range of southwestern Clark County was chosen for study because of its comparatively small area, close proximity to project headquarters, and its known bighorn population, Results for the first two years of study form the basis for this report.

In addition to the many individuals who have shared their experiences and knowledge of bighorn sheep we acknowledge the assistance of the Nevada Fish and Game De- partment, especially J~hnDonaldson and George Tsukamoto, Lewis Myers of the Bureau of Land Management conducted a resource analysis study concurrently in the

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS area and assisted in various activities connected with our study. We especially acknowledge the long association with Charles G. Hansen, formerly with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, and use of his unpublished manuscript, "Class- ifying Bighorn Habitat on the Desert National Wildlife Range. " Our study was supported by a research contract (Bighorn Habitat Evaluation and Ecological Survey, Project No. W-39-R-8) with the Nevada Department of Fish and Game.

METHODS

A general reconnaissance and ecological survey of the Highland Range (Figure 1) was initiated during the summer of 1968. Various aspects of the study have continued to date and are still in progress. Special emphasis has been placed upon a determination of population status and analysis of recognized habitat components in relation to areas of bighorn use and comparative use intensity.

During the initial stages of the survey, particular attention was placed upon interviewing ranchers in the area concerning water sources, range condition, and past and present distribution of desert bighorn. Springs and other sources of water were located, described and mapped. Water samples were collected from Highland and Ora Hanna Springs and analyzed with a Hach Direct Reading Engineers Laboratory. In some instances, Hach methods were modified to more closely follow standardized procedures (Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water, 1960). Turbidity was determined using a Bausch and Lomb Spec-

Vegetative characteristics, distribution, and composition for the entire range were determined using the standard ocular reconnaissance method of vegetation analysis as used by Rouse (1964). This method gives an estimate of the % vegetative cover. Dominant species or growth forms such as shrubs, grasses and forbs were estimated as % composition of total vegetative cover. Particular attention was given to estimating the abundance and distribution of grasses since they are known to constitute the major portion of the bighorn diet on Nevada ranges (Barrett, 1964; Bradley, 1964, 1968; Yoakum, 1964, 1966). These ocular reconnaissance data are now being checked usingtransect methods (Brad- ley, 1968). Ocular reconnaissance was conducted on a section unit basis, and subsequent continuous patterns of vegetation data were joined along map con- tours and elevational gradients to provide a visual pattern of the vegetative community (Bradley, 1964).

Topography has been recognized as an important habitat factor for desert bighorn (Hanse3m.s.; Welch, 1969). In an attempt to quantify topographic features we have measured the degree of slope (an indication of steepness of grade). This was accomplished for each section by plotting the section line on a standard 15 minute series topographic quadrangle as it dissected the range from east to west. Elevational contour intervals were plotted as vertical cross - sections of the range. Average degrees of slope were estimated from an elevational base line for each section. Along a ridge or in areas of highly dissected topography the degree of slope for both east and west was combined to give a

DES EXT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS 68 Figure 1. Location of bighorn study area in the Highland Range is shown by the dark cross -hatch.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS higher estimate of slope gradient.

Sheep observations were routinely made whenever field work was being conducted in the area. These observations were made with a 20 power spottlng scope. Adults were classified to sex, and rams, whenever possible, were aged by horn ring counts and Boone and Crockett scores were estimated (Bradley, 1967; Hansen, 1967). A special attempt was made to identify individuals by physical characteristics, or for particular periods of time in specific groups or locations, and thereby reduce duplication of data.

Concurrent with the vegetational analysis, we evaluated evidence of latent use (bighorn sign). Beds, pellet groups, and tracks represent the physical evidence of bighorn presence at a former period of time on the area. Tracks were not evaluated because of their immediately temporary nature. Initially, we attempted to sample both pellet groups and beds within the variability of terrain found in each section, Areas of non-use were confirmed, and sample effort was concentrated where variable intensities of use were observed. Actual sampling of beds and pellet groups was accomplished by direct observation along a variable length belt transect 50 feet in width. Transect length varied from one section to another (k mile to 2 miles), and was influenced by sampling rewards and type of terrain. Transect routes were plotted on a standard topographic map, the distance traveled was calculated in feet and multiplied by 50 feet to determine the total area in square feet observed. Data were converted to average number of beds or pellet groups per acre or per section.

Cattle are found in this range and a check on livestock use was made. Cattle use was estimated as "heavy" where cattle or sign were commonly visible, and "light" where concentrated effort was needed to locate evidence of utilization of the area.

DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

Locat ion

The Highland Range, approximately 80 square miles in area, is located in the southernmost portion of Clark County, Nevada, just west and north of the town of Searchlight (Figure 1). It is bounded on the north by the Eldorado Desert, on the south by State Highway 68, on the east by U. S. 95, and on the west by a small valley with several powerlines and a well traveled, partially surfaced road.

Phvsical Descri~tion

The study area is within the southern part of the Basin and Range Physiographic Province, and the northern portion of the Mohave Desert (Bradley and Deacon, 1967). Bradley (1968) has classified Nevada bighorn ranges as Arid Desert, Mesic Desert, and Great Basin, The Highland Range is classified as Arid Desert Mountain Range on the basis of small size, low elevation and lack of coniferous

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS forest or woodland vegetation. Climatic data are lacking; however, the area in general is typical of the hot, arid Mohave Desert.

The approximate north half of the range consists of sharply dissected, broken rock ridges, rims and pinnacles ranging in elevation from 3,000 to 4,900 feet. A small area of intermediate relief is formed in the middle of the range, with major drainages breaking off in several directions. The remaining south portion consists of a more open, rolling type hill terrain, rising from 4,000 to 4,700 feet in elevation. The easternmost side of this area falls off sharply into deep canyons and small broken rocky foothills before reaching the desert floor,

The following brief discussion of the geology of the area is based on Longwell -et -al. (1965). The Highland Mountains form a continuation of the Highland Spring Anticline that originates on the east side of the adjacent McCullough Range, The Highland Range is of Tertiary volvanic origin, and consists almost entirely of a series of breccias, andesite flows, and tuffs. The west side of the Range contains a sheet of coarse alluvium with blocks of gneiss almost 4 feet long. The southwest portion of the area is frequently cut by intrusions of andesite porphyry and quartz.

Water

The known water resources of the Highland Range are indicated in Figure 2, The four known permanent water sources are described below.

Ora Hanna Spring is located as follows: SQ of NQ Sec 5, T27S, R62E on the McCullough Mountain Quadrangle at an elevation of approximately 3,780 feet. The spring is piped from its excavated source, about 100 yards to a corral and stock troughs, There is a small game guzzler and stock trough outside the corral. Spring flow is variable but usually sufficient to maintain several stock watering troughs,

Highland Spring is located as follows: SW% of NW% Sec 16, T27S, R62E on the McCullough Mountain Quadrangle at approximately 4,250 feet in elevation. This spring originates in a hillside tunnel, and the resulting pool is designated as Highland No. 1. It is approximately 3 feet wide, 5 feet long, and 7 inches deep. A pipe approximately 2 inches in diameter drains the water from the floor of the tunnel, and continues down the canyon for about 100 yards where it empties into another tunnel. The pool formed here, designated Highland No. 2, is about 3 feet wide, 10 feet long and 10 ihches deep. The water in both pools is clear, cold and devoid of aquatic vegetation. Spring flow is variable but sufficient to sustain considerable cattle use throughout the year, Water from the lower pool is drained by a pipe approximately 8 inches in diameter, which continues down the canyon for about mile to a stock trough in a corral.

Dead Horse Spring is located as follows: SQ of NEk Sec 21, T27S, R62E on the McCullough Mountain Quadrangle at an elevation of approximately 4,000 feet.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS . Table 1. Chemical analysis of water from Highland and Ora Hanna springs in the Highland Range of southern Nevada. (All measurements, except turbidity and total dissolved solids, are in ppm.)

Measurements Highland High land Ora Hanna # 1 #2

Turbidity (JTU) Direct Reading Method

Turbidity (JTU) B&L Colorimeter Method

Total Dissolved Solids g.1~ 0.8 0.4 Phenolphthalein Alkalinity 0 0 Methyl Red Alkalinity (as CaC03) 100 110 Total Hardness Nitrate Calcium Magnesium Chloride Sulfate Bicarbonate Figure 2. Known water sources in the Highland Range.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Several lengths of pipe and an old stock tank indicate this apparently was a good flowing spring at one time. When first examined, it had deteriorated to a slow seepage. A small rockslide had covered all but an 8 inch hole to the

--A&--- OiS-L- Ce, W~L~L and the water had a foui odor. Recentiy the rocksiide coverlng the pool was dug out, and the pool enlarged. A small roof was built over it to prevent further slides from covering the water. Recharge into the pool was very slow, and this water source is limited to sheep use unless further developed.

Cow Wells Spring is located as follows: NWk of SaSec. 26, T27S, R62E on the McCullough Mountain Quadrangle at approximately 3,900 feet in elevation. This spring originates in a hillside excavation, and is piped about 300 yards down the canyon to a corral with several stock troughs from an open tank at the source. Rate of flow is sufficient for present bighorn and cattle use.

Water chemistry for Highland and Ora Hanna Springs is given in Table 1. Water quality is acceptable for wildlife.

Several other known sources of water are periodically available to bighorn in the Highland Range (Figure 2). These include small seeps, natural water catchments, and artificial catchments. Some sustain comparatively heavy use at times, and their availability appears to seasonally affect bighorn distribution.

Vegetation

The Highland Range is covered by a sparse desert shrub vegetation type (Bradley and Deacon, 1967). A creosote bush plant community with creosote bush (Larrea divaricata) and burro bush (Franseria dumosa) as co-dominants is present at elevations up to 4,000feet5 A blackbrush plant community dominated by blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima) is present at 4,000 feet and higher elevations. In general both browse species and abundance increase slightly at the higher elevations.

Forb distribution and abundance varies widely from year to year. Grasses increase in both abundance and species with an increase in elevation. Grasses are about four times as abundant in the blackbrush than in the lower creosote bush community. Important perennial grasses, ranked in an approximate order of abundance, are Hilaria rigida, Aristida glauca, Bouteloua gracilis, Stipa speciosa, Muhlenbergia porteri, and Tridens pulchellus.

RESULTS

Bighorn Population and Distribution

Before an evaluation of habitat, and prerequisite to construction of a habitat model, some concept ,of the status of the bighorn population inhabiting an area must be formulated. Toward this goal, we have identified a total of 27 individuals without likely duplication (Table 2). Calculated from these observations,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS we have determined a 1:l sex ratio, a reproductive ratio of 25 lambs per 100 ewes, and 66% of rams legal by age or Boone and Crockett score under the Nevada trophy ram hunting regulation. On the basis of these data and correlated use and sign data, we estimate a total population of approximateiy 60 bighorn for the Highland Range.

Herd composition data from Nevada Fish and Game Department helicopter census indicate a substantial change in the adult sex ratio for seasons of the year other than fall when our herd composition observations were made. Observations of rams decline sharply, and observations of ewes increase sharply. While this raises many questions, it is apparently not unique to the Highland area (Denniston, 1965). The question of herd migration and ram migration has been proposed for the Highland Range, but there is no evidence to support this contention. Indeed, available evidence tends to indicate the opposite.

All available bighorn observations for the study area are shown in Figure 3. These observations are concentrated in the northern part of the range, and probably reflect both habitat preference and intensity of observation by workers in the study area.

Additional data on habitat utilization by bighorn were obtained from the bighorn sign belt transects. The distributional pattern of bighorn pellet groups is shown in Figure 4. A similar pattern is shown for bighorn beds in Figure 5. Both kinds of data, based on bighorn sign, show a similar pattern of higher bighorn use along the higher part of the range in approximately a north-south direction, Also these census data suggest more utilization of the northern half of the range. These data supplement and support the distributional pattern shown for bighorn observations in the Highland Range (Figure 3).

Habitat Components

Three physical factors making up a part of the habitat, here identified as habitat components, are food, water, and shelter. These are all basic, and should be evaluated in the habitat analysis of any species. Other habitat components could be identified and are certainly worthy of study. These three components, however, have been selected for initial analysis. Data are presented for each component and a consideration of their interrelationships is relegated to the discussion section.

Bighorn forage in southern Nevada has been discussed in some detail for other areas and mountain ranges (Bradley, 1964, 1965, 1968). Although some browse is consumed, grass appears to be the main diet at all seasons of the year. The percentage of grass in the vegetative cover, as estimated by ocular reconnaissance, is shown in Figure 6. The distributional pattern for grasses indicates increased grass cover in the higher elevations of the range, including portions used by bighorn. The relationship between grass cover and bighorn utilization is further shown in Figure 7. Both occurrence and density of bighorn beds increase as the grass cover (an estimate of preferred forage) increases.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Figure 3. Combined Fish and Game, Bureau of Land Management, and personal bighorn observations in the Highland Range. 0indicates approximate location of sighting, and the shaded portion represents the number of sheep observed in relation to the numbers on the face of a clock. indicates 16 sightings of 57 bighorn.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS , , Figure 4. Distribution of pellet groups in the Highland Range.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Figure 5. Distribution of sheep beds in the Highland Range.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS I/ GRA I S 'AGES

Figure 6. Estimated percentage of grass in vegetative cover in the Highland Range.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 197 0 TRANSACTIONS AVERAGE NUMBER BEDS PER SECTION % SECTIONS WITH BEDS ru 0 0 0 0 The distribution and quantity of water has commonly been identified as a key factor in bighorn distribution, although water physiology and requirements are largely unknown (Bradley, 1963; Bradley and Allred, 1967; Crow, 1964; Graves, 1961; Kqlin, 1960; Monson, 1958; Ref falt, 1963; Welles and Welles, :9G?). The following discussion is based upon both bighorn observations and sign data.

We estimate 5 to 10 bighorn watering at both Ora Hanna and Dead Horse springs combined, 10 to 15 using Cow Wells, and 30 utilizing Highland Spring and the immediate vicinity. This water use pattern was estimat d for the comparatively hot and dry late summer of 1968 and was not observed for an apparently cooler and wetter period in 1969. Highland Spring sustains regular and concentrated use, and is the most important bighorn watering source in the range. That this spring was historically significant to bighorn in this area is supported by the presence of a poacher's blind, littered with an accumulation of old, corroded rifle cartridge cases.

The distances that sheep range from permanent water sources havenot been adequately studied. Some indication of comparative sheep use in relation to distance from permanent water is given in Figure 8. All portions of the study area were within 6 miles of permanent water. No sheep beds were located more than 4 miles distant from water. Other habitat factors, however, are obviously important, as only approximately 40% of the sections located 4 miles or less from permanent water contained sheep beds.

Shelter or escape cover in the form of rocky, steep terrain is commonly considered to be an important component of bighorn habitate (Hansen, 1rn.s.). With few exceptions, however, quantitative analysis of the natural topography of sheep habitat has not been attempted. We have estimated the average degree slope for each section in ,the study area. Sheep use of the study area in relation to steepness of slope is illustrated in Figure 9. There is a clear indication that both occurrence and density of sheep beds increase greatly on terrain in excess of 4 degrees slope. In southern Nevada these steep slopes are invariably extremely rocky, and the terrain is highly dissected.

Bighorn-Livestock Relationships

Potential competition from other ungulates include horses, cattle and feral burros, Deer, the other native ungulate found in southern Nevada, are not known to occur in the Highland Range. Feral burros and horses may be found in surrounding areas but are not known to occur in the Highland Range. Cattle remain as the only competition with bighorn on the study area.

Areas of cattle use and relative intensities of use are shown in Figure 10. Cattle use is largely restricted to the southern two-thirds of the study area. Here cattle heavily utilize the more level areas, usually above 3,600 feet elevation. In general there is heavy use of less rugged terrain, especially in the vicinity of permanent water. Areas of spatial overlap of heavy utilization by both bighorn and cattle occur at both Highland and Cow Wells springs. Cattle

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS

d DISTANCE TO WATER IN MILES

Figure 8. The relationship between distance from permanent water and sheep use as estimated by occurrence and density of sheep beds.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS AVERAGE DEGREE SLOPE Figure 9. The relationship between average degree slope and sheep use as estimated by occurrence and density of sheep beds. Sample size is shown in parenthesis between degree intervals.

DES ERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS CATTLE USE

Heavy- water---

i 1 1 1 I 1 ( R.63E. I

Figure 10. Relative intensity of range use by cattle in the Highland Range.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS use on these permanent waters is heavy throughout the year, and follows the pattern of heaviest accelerated use during hot, dry periods when bighorn usage becomes critical. In these situations, bighorn and cattle are in direct competition for habitat, including both water and forage.

DISCUSSION

Evaluation of animal distribution, abundance, and habitat by census and inter- pretation of animal sign instead of, or in addition to, direct observation is a common procedure in wildlife biology (Davis, 1963). Bighorn sign, including tracks, pellets, and beds, have been used in casual evaluation of bighorn populations and habitat. With the exception of the study of bighorn in New Mexico by Welch (1969), however, data have not been quantified. In contrast, for example, there are numerous studies on pellet group census for deer (Bennett, et a1 1940; Dasmann and Taber, 1955; Eberhardt and Van Etten, 1956; Rasmussen - -* 3 and Doman, 1943; Rogers, gt- &., 1958). While there is value in noting bighorn sign as "none", "light", "moderate", or "heavy", th.ese data do not allow statistical expression, and therefore lack scientific reliability. With little additional effort, these data can be converted to relative abundance or use measures such as number of sign per unit area or per unit time.

Signswhich indicate the presence and relative intensity of use by bighorn known to occur and none have been observed during our extensive work in the area. Hence we consider all pellets, tracks and beds in the area as indicators of bighorn use.

We have discarded the use of tracks for the present study due to their temporary nature, and difficulty of observation along the belt transect. Both pellet groups and beds were used and provided valuable data. In formulating our conclusions, in general we have used number of sheep beds as an index of sheep use. Beds are more easily observed, and therefore result in a more reliable transect census. In addition, beds represent a less temporary and more stable indication of occupancy than pellets. These beds can be considered as a center of activity which the sheep range out from, in the course of daily movements. Daily movements are probably not over one mile out from bedding grounds, although occasional longer movements to other bedding areas undoubtedly occur (Blong and Pollard, 1968; Denniston, 1965; Jewell, 1966; Simmons, 1969). Additional data are needed concerning bighorn behavior relating to bedding, daily activity and movements. It appears, however, that beds are good indicators of bighorn occupancy and intensity of use on an area, and may be preferable or at least supplementary to bighorn observations and other sign.

There has been much discussion concerning bighorn habitat. Such discussions usually involve qualitative statements concerning food and water, Habitat management usually centers around developing new sources of water. Food, water, and shelter, in this instance escape terrain, are basic factors of bighorn

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS habitat. All are essential, and quantitative knowledge concerning each of these habitat components is needed, With these data, the distribution of food, water, and terrain in space which provide acceptable and preferred bighorn habitat can be evaluated..

We have shown that bighorn use in the Highland Range increases as grass forage and deoypp0--- Q£ slope increases, vhile distance from water decreases. It is probable that these three habitat components are interrelated. An attempt to provide further analysis into component relationships is shown in Figure 11. The three habitat variables--grass, slope, distance to water--and bighorn sign, are grouped in relation to increasing elevation. It is apparent even from casual observation that steepness of slope increases with elevation in mountainous areas. An increase in both number of species and abundance of grasses has been documented for other nearby mountain ranges (Bradley, 1964, 1965, 1968). Perma- nent water as springs usually occurs at the bases of arid desert ranges or near the heads of canyons. Permanent water therefore is usually found at middle or higher elevations,

Interrelationships between these habitat components are further analyzed in Figure 12 where both grass abundance and distance to water appear related to topography. Of these three habitat components, topography and forage appear to be most highly correlated. The combination of topography and vegetative cover provide the physical landscape portion of habitat. In analyzing this spatial component of habitat the physical configuration of space appears to be quite significant. Rough, precipitous terrain is usually associated with open vegetation, providing a landscape over which bighorn move freely (Bradley, 1964, 1968). If this idealized landscape is combined with sufficient forage and water it meets the requirements of bighorn habitat.

Bighorn habitat requirements, including these three components, would vary from minimal to preferred. In Figure 13 we have combined these three variables into a Bighorn Habitat Index. Scores for each variable range from 0 to 100 based upon the extent of variation for each component on the study area. Each habitat variable was weighted equally and when added together they provide a Bighorn Habitat Index (BHI) ranging from 0 to 300. We estimate minimal bighorn habitat for the Highland Range as those sections with a BHI of approximately 100. Sections with a BHI of 180 or higher are considered preferred bighorn habitat. These values are plotted on a map of the Highland Range in Figure 14. Preferred, minimal, and non-sheep habitats make up 18, 47, and 35% respectively of the study area. Approximately 65% of the total area is utilized by bighorn. Of this area utilized by sheep, approximately 28% is considered as preferred habitat.

This analysis of bighorn habitat utilizing a habitat index is an initial step in perfecting a bighorn habitat model of predictive value. The Bighorn Habitat Index is based upon bighorn distribution and area use (Figures 3, 4, 5) and their relationships to basic habitat components (Figures 8, 9, 10) in the Highland Range. Therefore it would be expected to reliably indicate bighorn habitat in that range. Further testing of the Bighorn Habitat Index on other areas is in progress. These tests will indicate value of the index on other areas and possible modifications. Such indices we consider basic parts of a bighorn habitat model.

DES ERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS 2500 -2999 3000-3499 3500-3999 4000-4499 4500-4999

AVERAGE ELEVATION OF SECTION IN FEET Figure 11. The significance of increasing elevation in relation to grass, slope, distance to permanent water, and bighorn sign.

DESEET BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS % GRASS COMPOSITION Figure 12. The relationship between topography, grass forage and distance to water.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS AVERAGE NUMBER BEDS PER SECTION % SECTIONS WITH BEDS BIGHORN HABITAT 1 NDEX (BHI)

Preferred --

Minima! ---

Figure 14. Bighorn habitat in the Highland Range based on the Bighorn Habitat Index; preferred (BHI 180+), minimal (BHI 100-179), non-bighorn (BHI 0-99).

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS LITERATURE CITED

Anonymous. 1960. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. - - American Pubiic Heaith ASSOC~~~~O~,inc. N.Y. 626 p.

Barrett, R. H. 1964. Seasonal food habits of the bighorn at the Desert Game Range. Desert Bighorn Council Trans, 8:85-93.

Bennett, L. J., P. F. English, and R. McCain. 1940. A study of deer populations by use of pellet-group counts. J. Wildl. ~gm't. 4:398-403.

Blong, B. and W. Pollard. 1968. Summer water requirements of desert bighorn in the Santa Rosa Mountains, California, in 1965. Calif. Fish and Game 54:289 -296.

Bradley, W. G. 1963. Water metabolism in desert mammals with special reference to desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 7:26-39.

. 1964. The vegetation of the Desert Game Range with special reference to desert bighorn. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 8:43-67.

. 1965. A study of the blackbrush plant community on the Desert Game Range: I. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 9:56-61.

. 1967. Boone and Crockett scores from the Desert Game Range and their significance to management. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 11:99-112.

,, ,, 1968.. Bighorn habitat and ecological survey. Desert Research Institute, Univ. of Nevada and Nevada Fish and Game Department. (Mimeographed Report covering April-December 1968).

, and L. G. Allred. 1967. A study of the kidney of Nelson bighorn sheep: A preliminary report. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 11:94-98.

, and J. E. Deacon. 1967. The biotic communities of southern Nevada. Nevada State Museum Anthropological Papers No. 13, Part 4:201-295.

Crow, L. 2. 1964. A field survey of water requirements of desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 8:77-83.

Dasmann, R. F., and R. D. Taber. 1955. A comparison of four deer census methods. Calif. Fish and Game 41:225-228.

Davis, D. E. 1963. Estimating the numbers of game populations. &. H. E. Mosby (ed.) Wildlife investigational techniques. The Wildlife Society, Wash. D. C., p, 89-118.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Denniston, A. 1965. Status of bighorn in the River Mountains of Lake Mead National Recreation Area. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 9:27-34.

Eberhardt, L., and R. C. Van Etten. 1956. Evaluation of the pellet group count as a deer census method. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 20:70-74.

Graves, B. D. 1961. Waterhole observations of bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 5:27-29.

Hansen,C. G. 1967. The bighorn sheep hunter indoctrination program in Nevada. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 11:6-12.

Hansen, C. G. m,s. Classifying bighorn habitat on the Desert National Wildlife Range. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (Mimeographed report).

Jewell, P. A. 1966. The concept of home range in mammals. Symp, Zool. Soc. London 18 : 85 -109.

Koplin, J. R. 1960. New developments on water requirements on the Desert Game Range. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 4:54-57.

Longwell, C. R., E. H. Pampeyan, B. Bowyer, and R. J. Roberts. 1965. Geology

Monson, G. 1958. Water requirements. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 2:64-66.

Rasmussen, D. I., and E. R. Doman. 1943. Census methods and their application in the management ofamule deer. N. Amer. Wildl. Conf. Trans. 8:369-380.

Reffalt, W. G. 1963. Some watering characteristics of two penned bighorn sheep on the Desert Game Range. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 7:156-166.

Rogers, G., 0. Julander, and W. L. Robinette. 1958. Pellet-group counts for deer census and range-use index, J. Wildl. Mgmt. 22:193-199.

Rouse, C. H. 1964. Range surveys in bighorn habitat. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 8 : 133-135.

Simmons, N. M. 1969. Heat stress and bighorn behavior in the Cabeza Prieta Game Range, Arizona. Desert Bighorn Council Trans, 13:55-63.

Welch, R. D. 1969. Behavioral patterns of desert bighorn sheep in south-central New Mexico. Desert Bighorn Council Trans, 13:114-129.

Welles, R. E., and F. B. 1961. The bighorn of Death Valley. U. S. Govn't Printing Office, Wash. D. C. Fauna Serv. No. 6, 242 p,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Yoakum, J. 1964. Bighorn food habit-range relationships in the Silver Peak Range, Nevada. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 8:95-102.

. 1966. Comparison of mule deer and desert bighorn seasonal food habits. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 10:65-70.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Lewis H. Myers Bureau of Land Management Las Vegas, Nevada

Abstract. In 1967 the Las Vegas BLM District began a program of bighorn sheep habitat inventory, habitat management plan completion, and small scale management implementation. During 1967-1969, 253,000 acres of sheep habitat on public domain were intensively inventoried. Two habitat management plans have been completed and a third is in progress. About 1,500,000 acres of public domain remain to be inventoried. Total desert bighorn sheep habitat in Nevada is estimated at 3,131,000 acres, of which 57.2% is administered by BLM. BLM has the greatest responsibility of any agency in Nevada for managing and perpetuating bighorn habitat. Under present funding and manpower levels BLM cannot do an adequate job. Increased public support and demand is imperative.

INTRODUCTION

The Bureau of Land ~ana~eient'swildlife program includes the management of wildlife habitat on the public domain lands. The goals of BLM relative to . Nevada's desert bighorn sheep (&is canadensis nelsoni) habitat on public domain are as follows:

1. Inventory and analyze all habitat. 2. Maintain an updated habitat inventory. 3. Establish management priorities for all bighorn herd-unit areas. 4. Complete habitat management plans for herd-unit areas on a priority basis. 5. Implement and evaluate habitat management plans.

A review of BLM progress on these five goals will enable us to (1) place public domain in perspective as it relates to bighorn welfare, (2) evaluate the effectiveness of the on-going BLM program, and (3) identify habitat management needs.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Habitat Inventory

More than 90 percent of Nevada's existing desert bighorn sheep habitat faiis within the confines of the Las Vegas BLM District, encompassing roughly the southern one-third of the State.

The initial basis for recording habitat was a Nevada Department of Fish and Game "Big Game Range Inventory1' (Nevada Fish and Game Corn., 1966, Project W-43-R-1, Job No. 4, 18 p.). This was the first recorded description of Nevada's bighorn sheep habitat areas. It represented the best information available at the time. A great need exists to update and refine this inventory. Some sheep habitat areas are not included. Most areas are delimited in a very general manner and are inadequate for planning purposes. A need exists to identify seasonal range, crucial or critical habitat areas (that usually focus around water), and habitat needs.

A BLM field inventory of Nevada's bighorn habitat was begun during the summer of 1967 by the author. Full time could not be devoted to the inventory, though it has been a continuing effort. The technique consists of "old fashioned boot leather," applied during all seasons of the year. In addition, BLM employees have been asked to record sheep sightings on a standard form, and have since recorded 210 sheep observations of variable value. An additional 28 sightings

Department of Fish and Game, the University of Nevada, ranchers, miners, and many others working in the field.

Sheep habitat was categorized as (1) confirmed; (2) potential, unconfirmed; and (3) recently lost. Confirmed habitat has been established by a combination of field examination, sheep sightings by reliable sources, hunter harvests, and Nevada Department of Fish and Game findings. Unconfirmed habitat areas are those from which occasional unconfirmed sheep sightings are reported, areas which appear suitable to sheep, or areas contiguous to confirmed habitat. These areas are unverified as habitat by field examination in recent times by any agency or responsible individual. Recently lost habitat areas have bee'n found uninhabited by sheep through field examination despite occasional remains of old beds, droppings, trails, or skeletal material. No effort was made to identify historic habitat.

Sheep habitat was recorded on 30 minute U.S.G.S. quadrangle maps. Intensive inventories were recorded on 15 minute quadrangle maps. Acreage was computed by planimetry.

Refinement and updating of sheep habitat has been completed on about 253,000 acres of public domain through extensive ground coverage (Table 1). This includes the following areas:

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Fi~ure1. Highland Ranae binhorn shee~habitat 1. In the Spring Mountain complex; Lucky Strike Canyon, Wheeler Wash, Red RockshLa Madre, Potosi Mountain-Bird Springs Range, and the Shenandoah Peak-Table Mountain-Devil ' s Peak areas.

2. Other areas include the southern McCullough Range and the Highland Range.

Sheep habitat was greatly extended eastward in the La Madre Mountain area. Significant winter use was diScovered in areas near Highway 39 not previously recognized as habitat.

Sheep were found to be common throughout the La Madre-Red Rocks-Potosi Mountain comp1,~x. The Red Rocks is a very well watered area, with springs and natural tanks both numerous. &ny sheep were found to winter in the Mountain Springs Summit area on both sides of, and within sight of the busy Pahrump highway.

On two occasions fresh sheep sign was located in the Lucky Strike Canyon area during January 1970. Gary Ferrier reported seeing sign here during the winter of 1968. This area was not previously recognized as existing habitat. Sheep use is very light in this area.

Old sheep beds were seen in the rough limestone area east of Pahrump and south of Wheeler Wash. No recent sign could be found. This area was classed

Fresh sheep sign was located on Shenandoah Peak during April 1969. After interviewing long-term resident in Goodsprings, Nevada, Mr. Ira Proud, the author was directed to an old trail where, Mr. Proud reported, "About 40 years ago it was common to see 10-20 sheep in a day moving eastward along this trail during the fall." I found the trail exactly where Mr. Proud directed me, above the old Chiquita Mine. Fresh sign was found on the trail all the way to the top of Shenandoah Peak. This area was not formerly recognized as sheep habitat.

The Green Monster area west of Wilson Pass does not appear to be inhabited by sheep now. Old trails are visible in places. Mr. Proud reported that sheep were very common there about 40-50 years ago. About 10 feral burros range between this area and Potosi Mountain. This area was classed as recently lost habitat.

It was my impression that Shenandoah Peak and Table Mountain are used by only a few sheep during fall, winter, and spring months. The Devil's Peak area appears to be inhabited yearlong by a small sheep herd. No known waters - occur throughout the entire Shenandoah Peak-Table Mountain-Devil's Peak area.

DESERT'BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TMNSACTIONS h

The most productive sheep areas found were the southern McCullough Range (south of McCullough Pass), the Highland Range, and La Madre Mountain. The dense juniper-pinyon areas in the McCullough Range are used only sparingly by sheep. ~ostuse occurs from McCuiiough Pass southward in the more open, grassy-rocky area.s.

Several small burns in t e dense juniper-pinyon areas of the southern McCullough Range hosted intensive sheep use. The composition of the vegetation in the burned areas was: black grarna (Bouteloua eriopoda) 40%, desert needlegrass (Stipa speciosa) lo%, big galleta grass (Hilaria rigida) 20%, Astragalus 2%, broomweed (Gutierrezia- sarothrae) 5%, with traces of bush muhly (Muhlenbergia porteri), three-awn (Aristida longiseta), juniper (Juniperus osteosperma), and cliffrose (Cowania stansburiana). Mr. Ira Proud (pers. corn., 1969) stated, "The higher elevations of the McCulloughshave always (at least since 1906) supported a dense juniper-pinyon cover."

Additional refinement of fall habitat will soon be possible through analysis of Nevada Department of Fish and Game fall sheep surveys by helicopter. About 1,500,000 acres of confirmed and unconfirmed sheep habitat on public domain remain to be intensively inventoried.

Unconfirmed habitat totals about 572,000 acres (Table 2). Most is public domain. Many of these areas occur in Esmeralda and Mineral Counties and include: (1) the areas south and west of Cowcamp in the Silver Pe& (2) the north slope of the Palmetto Mountains and east through Clayton Ridge, (3) the Weepah Hills south and west of Lone Mountain, (4) the pilot's Peak area, and (5) the Volcanic Mills-Miller Mountain area east of Boundary Peak. Unconfirmed habitat areas in Clark and Lincoln Counties include (1) Bald Mountain, (2) the east Pahranagat Range, (3) a small area lying east of the Arrow Canyon Range, (4) the Sunrise-Frenchman Mountain areas (sheep may have been recently extirpated here due to intensive human use), (5) the Virgin Mountains, and (6) the Gold Butte area.

Public domain areas encountered in the survey believed to be recently lost habitat totaled about 36,000 acres. These included (1) Wheeler Wash (area between Wheeler and Love11 Wash) in the Spring Mountains, (2) Blue Diamond Hill, (3) the Green Monster area west of Wilson Pass in the Spring Mountain Range, and (4) the Calico Spring area near Red Rocks.

Total confirmed habitat was estimated to be 2,559,000 acres (Table 2). This is believed a conservative estimate, since field work has usually expanded known habitat. Summing con£irmed and unconfirmed habitat, we have a conservative estimate of 3,131,000 acres of total Nevada desert sheep habitat.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Agency habitat responsibility was found to be: BLM 57.2%, BSFW 32.4%, USFS 3.1%, NPS 5.3%, USAF 1.8%, and private 0.2%. BLM is obviously the agency charged-with the greatest responsibility in managing and perpetuating Nevada ' s bighGrn sheep h -L; t -t LLawL LQL.

At the present rate of progress, it will take about 10 years to complete an initial habitat inventory. Upon completion, the original efforts will need to be updated. It is apparent that one man working part time cannot do the job. Assuming static manpower and funding levels, we will be able to refine and update large habitat areas. Fiscal Year 1971 plans call for inventory, analysis, and habitat management plan completion for the Silver Peaks Range.

Establishing Management Priorities

Since we cannot accomplish an inventory within a reasonable time, it is obvious that we cannot complete management plans on a true "priority by needv basis. The priority for habitat management plan completion is based on the best available information.

A total of 21 possible bighorn sheep herd-unit habitat areas have been identified. Two habitat management plans (HMP's) have been completed to date, the Highland Range Range, is in progres

At this point, I would like to present a brief description of the Highland Range HMP. Mr. Gary Ferrier will discuss the physical aspects of Highland Range bighorn habitat in greater detail. Field work began in 1967 and the plan was completed in 1968. The Highland Range is located about five miles west of Searchlight. The range is north-south oriented, about 11 miles long and 5 miles wide (Figure 1). Of volcanic origin, it is extremely steep and precipitous, and extends from the valley floor at about 3,200 feet to a maximum elevation of 4,879 feet. The average annual temperature is 63' F. 0 Highest and lowest recorded temperatures are 104 and 15' respectively. Average annual precipitation is 7.88 inches, with April, May and June being the driest months. Heaviest precipitation occurs during July and August, with the average being 1.03 inches and 0.96 inches respectively.

The northern three-quarters of the Highland Range supports a bunch grass- mixed desert shrub plant type generally within the creosote community. Nearly pure grass stands are common on alluvial fans and moderate slopes.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Common grasses include big galleta, desert needle, needle grama (Bouteloua aristidoides), three-awn, black grama, slim triodia (Triodia mutica), bush muhly, red brome @romus rubens), side-oats grama (Bouteloua curtipendula), and fluff grass (Triodia pulcheila).

Common shrubs include: creosote (Larrea divaricata), brittlebush (Encelia frutescens), linear leaved goldenbush (Happlopappus linearifolius), winter fat (Eurotia lanata), buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), joint fir (Ephedra viridis, E, nevadensis), bladder sage (Salizaria mexicana), burro brush (Franseria dumosa), wooly fruited burbush (Franseria eriocentra), turpentine bush (Thamnosma montana), and dry land greasewood (Sarcobatus baileyi). Mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) and catclaw -a greggii) are common in washes.

Forb production fluctuates greatly with precipitation. Composition averages about 8%, varying from a trace to over 20%. Common species are: desert mallow (Spharealcea sp.), desert trumpet (Eriogonum sp.), filaree (Erodium cicutarium), penstemon (Penstemon palmeri), phacelia (Phacelia sp.), cholla (Opuntia acanthocarpa), and mohave yucca (Yucca schidigera).

The southwest one-quarter of the Highland Range consists mostly of a blackbrush Goleanvne ramosissima), cholla, yucca type, with grasses and forbs both relatively scarce.

The Highland Range provides about 28,000 acres of habitat for an estimated 50 sheep (Figure 1). About 7,500 acres in the northern tip is crucial fall-winter-spring habitat. That is, most of the sheep inhabit this area from about October to May. During the hottest and driest season, sheep are largely confined to about~3,QOOacres centered upon two springs.

These two springs, Highland and Cow, are the largest permanent waters and are both located in the southern half of the range. Highland Spring waters were unavailable to large rams, which could not pass their heads through a small concrete opening to the spring source. Rams apparently subsisted upon leaks in the pipeline transporting water to the livestock owner's trough in the valley below.

Cow Spring was in deplorable condition, consisting of a polluted, trampled mud hole with most of the water being wasted.

Ora Hanna Spring was unavailable to sheep, unless they entered a corral through a downhill gate, developed by stockmen as a cattle trap. This spring may cease to flow during drought years.

Deadhsrse Seep waters, though persisting in small quantity, were unavailable to sheep during summer months due to rock slides. Deadhorse Seep probably ceases flowing during drought years.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Table 1, Summary of intensive bighorn sheep habitat survey

-- Bighorn Adminis tration, acres Confirmed Recently Lost Total . Habitat Ar,es BLM Private acres- _acres - v

Lucky Strike Canyon 11,000 0 ' 11,000 0 Wheeler Wash 14,000 0 0 14,000 Red Rocks-LaMadre 55,000 240 51,000 4,000 Potosi Mtn-Bird Spas Rge 43,000 750 44,000 0 Shenandoah Pk-Table Mtn- Devil Pk 37,000 2,000 39,000 10,000 So, McCullough Rge 52,000 0 52,000 0

Table 2, Summary of Nevada desert bighorn sheep habitat

Estimated Adminis trz tion Responsibility BLM B-S-F&W U, S,F,S. N,P.S, Private U,S,A,F. Total

Confirmed, acres 1,274,000 1,010,000 5 4,000 118,000 5,000 58,000 2,559,000 Unconf inned, acres 517,000 5,000 Ur known 48,000 2,000 Unknown 572,000 Total, acres 1,791,000 1,015,000 5 4,000 166,000 7,000 58,000 3,131,000 Percent 57.2 32.4 3.1 5.3 0.2 1.8 100.0 Recently 10st , actes 36.000 7.000 Ur known Unknown 1,000 4,000 48,000 a

I-' 19 I-' The Highland Range provides an important portion of forage for 250 cattle grazing yearlong on a 245,000 acre allotment. Cattle have grazed the Highland Range with no management for more than 70 years. Sheep restricted to the two crucial summer areas centered upon Cow and Highland Springs must compete with cattle for forage (Figure 1). Nearly all forage species are heavily utilized. Small areas near the springs are inaccessible to cattle and are heavily relied upon by sheep for summer forage.

Use by cattle in the northeastern one-half of the Highland Range is essentially non-existing due to absence of permanent water. Forage conditions for sheep are excellent. They utilize this area from about mid-October until forced to the two spring areas during summer months. Sheep seem to return to this northern area whenever they are not dependent upon free water.

Management goals of the plan are:

1. Extend sheep summer habitat to an additional 6,000 to 7,000 acres in the northern portion of the Highlands.

2. Maintain good forage conditions by a District policy of "not permitting livestock water developments" in this northern area.

3. Reduce cattle-bighorn sheep forage competition by implementing ,a grazing system.

4. Improve and maintain all existing waters.

Sheep summer habitat can be extended to the northern area by developing new permanent water sources which are inaccessible to stock. This northern area has been described by legal sub-division in the HMP and proposed for official designation, under provisions of the Classification and Multiple Use Act of 1964, as the "Highland Range Crucial Bighorn Habitat Area. I'

Cattle-sheep forage competition can be reduced through range improvement and livestock management. The area appears suited to a deferred rotation type grazing system. The persistence of good sheep numbers, despite decades of livestock abuse, adds optimism to the goal of acquiring improved bighorn sheep welfare with livestock management. Development of livestock waters along the eastern slope of the adjacent McCullough Range would greatly relieve livestock pressure in the Highlands. We have requested the USGS to conduct a water-well feasibility study here this year.

The grazing allotment which includes the Highland Range is administered as ephemeral range. Essentially, this means forage is allocated, or licensed, on a year-to-year basis, varying with climatic conditions and ephemeral forage production within reach of "base or licensee controlled waters." The greatest difficulty occurs in adequately assessing year-to-year forage production due to lack of personnel.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS As a remedial effort, the HMP recommends immediate review of functional base (licensee controlled) waters. Basic livestock forage capacity should then be identified within the service area of each water. This would serve as a basis for judging yeai-iy annual forage production and licensing level.

A grazing management plan for the entire allotment is programmed for completion during Fiscal Year 1972.

Implement and Evaluate Habitat Management Plans

A past professor of mine once commented, "You can plan or study a species into extinction." It is not my purpose to belittle research and planning, since both are necessary precursors to sound management. However, I often have the feeling that if we could somehow implement to the extent of our present knowledge and planning, wildlife welfare would skyrocket.

BLM bighorn sheep management implementation for the past three years is somewhat as follows:

1. Fiscal Year 1968 -

Five springs were developed at a cost of about $6,000. These

Highland HMP. All developments consisted of improvement of existing waters.

Lone Grapevine Spring was developed by hauling materials via helicopter. It remains inaccessible and is used by sheep.

Mud and Upper Mud Springs are used sparingly by sheep.

Cow Spring is used at all seasons of the year by small numbers of sheep. It is accessible by four-wheel drive only, and difficult to find.

Ora Hanna Spring appears unused by sheep. Long-term residents report sheep commonly watered here in years past. During recent years the spring was unavailable to sheep. Water is now available, but apparently sheep have not re-discovered this.

2. Fiscal Year 1969 -

Three waters were developed at a cost of about $1,000. These included Highland Spring and Deadhorse Seep, both identified in the Highland HMP, plus Switchback Spring identified in the Red Rocks HMP. The Highland and Deadhorse Spring developments were completed by soliciting the aid of a Las Vegas sportsmen's club, the "Fraternity of the Desert Bighorn. I'

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The livestock licensee retains the water rights for Highland Spring. Through his courtesy we were allowed to place a small pan in a pipeline which carried supplementary flow to a larger spring about 100 feet below. The pipeline passing through the pan is perforated, providing enough leakage to fill the pan.

The rationale of a small water storage, estimated at three gallons, is that extensive cattle use will not be permitted. Use by sheep has been extremely heavy, particularly June through about mid-October, depending upon weather and forage succulence.

Deadhorse Seep is subject to periodic rock slides which cover available water. Loose rock was removed, and a pool enlarged and protected by timbers. Bighorn use prior to development was noted only during winter months, probably because the water level was higher and within reach of the animals. The spring is in a poor forage area, due to shallow, sterile soils. Summer sheep use has not been verified since development.

Switchback Spring was improved by installation of a spring 'box and trough. Moderate deer use occurs. Sheep have been seen in the area, but their use of the spring is unverified.

Cooperative agreements were obtained with the Fraternity of the Desert Bighorn for routine summer inspection and maintenance of six developed springs. Two members are assigned the responsibility for one .or more springs. This program has worked well to date.

Fiscal Year 1970 -

Two natural tanks are being developed at a total cost of about $500, The tanks were identified in the Highland HMP. Purpose, as mentioned earlier, is to extend summer sheep use to a good forage area. Bighorn utilize water collecting in small, temporary pools at the site in winter and spring months.

The tanks are situated in a rock crevice, on a northeastern exposure. Watershed area consists of stable rock, extending 600 to 800 feet above the site. The site is inaccessible to cattle.

Construction consists of building two concrete walls extending across the crevice. The smaller wall is 3% feet high and the larger 7 feet high. Both are reinforced with % inch steel in solid rock. Holes were drilled by hand, about 7 inches deep. Steel was set in Rockite, a quick drying cement.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL, 1970 TRANSACTIONS Materials were hand carried about 900 feet uphill to the site. Pre-mix concrete, totaling 16 bags, was used for the small dam. Cement was added to strengthen the mix. Concrete adhesive was used to form a water-tight seal with the bedrock.

Purposes of the upper, smaller tank are: (1) to collect loose materials, (2) to slow rapid runoff, (3) to provide additional storage, and (4) to provide water for mixing concrete at the much larger site.

The lower site will store more than 10,000 gallons of water. Plans are to build a metal roof about 18 inches above the dam, sloping back towards the drainage. This should greatly reduce evaporation losses. Water will be available directly below the dam in a small float-valve equipped trough.

Assistance on the larger tank is being provided by the members of the Fraternity of the Desert Bighorn. Materials will be hauled by pack animal.

4. Fiscal Year 1971 -

Preliminary information indicates no wildlife development funds. The outlook for Fiscal Year 197% is the same.

CONCLUSIONS

The BLM can make significant contributions to knowledge concerning the seasonal distribution and habitat needs of bighorn sheep inhabiting ~evada'spublic domain. Fall and spring distribution will become better documented in Clark County through the Nevada Department of Fish and Game annual helicopter surveys. A critical need will remain for information on summer distribution and water needs in Clark County, and yearlong habitat needs in Lincoln, Nye, and Esmeralda Counties.

The BLM with the assistance of the Nevada Department of Fish and Game can prepare workable habitat management plans which will maintain, and perhaps increase, sheep populations on public domain.

Increased habitat planning and particularly implementation is vital to maintenance of the public domain bighorn sheep herds. Present funding levels do not provide for adequate impleme,ntation. The southern Nevada area is growing at a phenomenal rate. The Greater Las Vegas populace, alone, is presently increasing at the rate of 1,250 persons per month (Las Vegas Chamber of Commerce, 1970, pers. comm.). The staggering impact of human population upon public domain cannot be properly planned unless accurate, up-to-date inventories are available and funding is adequate for an active program.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS I am not naive enough to believe that future losses to the bighorn sheep populations will not occur. I do believe, however, that with adequate planning, funding, and implementation, good populations of bighorns can be maintained in certain areas.

An active BLM program can be obtained only through public support and demand. Bighorn, like it or not, are in competition with space exploration, with public health, and with national defense. Priorities for government programs are based not necessarily on need, but upon political demand. Until John Q. Public is made aware of Wis canadensis, Ovis will continue to be on his own, and under man's terms he cannot make it on his own.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Jerome V, Decker Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife Las Vegas, Nevada

Abstract, The scabies mite ( cervinus) was found in the ears of four desert bighorn sheep (Ov sis nelsoni) during the 1969 hunting II____ season on the Desert National Wildlife Range. Previous reports of scabies in 1967 and 1968 are reviewed to give the reader a history of scabies in bighorn sheep of the Wildlife Range,

INTRODUCTION

a yearling bighorn ram was captured on the Desert National Wildlife Range with the use of drugs. The animal was captured during a drug study project by a graduate student working on the Wildlife Range. It was in poor health, and upon later examination was found to be heavily infested with scabies mites P. cervinus in the ears and Po ovus on the body, Since this .I- was the first indicytion that scabies was to be found in desert bighorn sheep on the Wildlife Range, all refuge personnel were alerted to carefully observe all live and hunter-killed sheep for the possibility of finding additional infected animals, During the hunting season of 1967 fifteen animals were examined, and four were found to have scabies mites in the ears, but none had mites on the body. (Cater, B.H. 1968, Scabies in desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans, 12: 76-77),

We wish to thank Dr. R.G. Lynch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Agriculture Department's research laboratory at Beltsville, Maryland for their cooperation in examining and identifying the scabies mites,

DISCUSSION

In 1968 two ewes were captured during trapping - transplant activities at Wamp Spring, Neither of these ewes had scabies mites, Both ewes were taken to the State Fish and Game's bighorn enclosure near Hawthorne, Nevada and released. During the 1968 sheep hunting season, 12 rams were examined at the Corn Creek Checking Station. None of these animals had scabies. Several had heavy deposits of white, scaly material in the ears, but the samples sent in to the laboratory checked out negative,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Three ewes were trapped at the Wamp Spring trap during the summer of 1969. All three of these sheep were examined, but no scabies mites were found. Two of the ewes later succumbed to other causes. One is alive and doing well at the Corn Creek enclosure. Ouring the 1969 huntirig seaon, 15 sheep were examined at the Corn Creek Station. Six samples were collected and sent to the laboratory. Three samples turned out positive for the scabies mite. One sample was collected and examined at the checking station; it was also positive for scabies. One 14 year old, hunter-killed ram was examined that appeared to be totally deaf. Both ear canals were impacted with a dense, wax-like, exudate that contained live scabies mites (No. 4 sample above). The animal was in very poor condition. In this case it is not entirely clear to what extent the scabiest presence contributed to the overall deterioration of the host. The ram was well past the age when many scabies-free captive sheep expire from infirmities associated with old age,

Another possible case of scabies in the bighorns of the Wildlife Range was noted in a mature ram at Wagon Canyon. During the annual lamb survey, the ram was seen laying on a hillside. The ram had black tape wrapped around its left horn. It was apparently deaf in both ears, as it allowed the observer to approach within a few feet and to closely scrutinize it. The ram was apparently very ill. The tip half of both ears was missing, and a thick, white scale was present on both the inner and outer surfaces. The eyes were filled with mucus and had a white crust all around the outside edges, The animal was finally brought to its feet by nudging with rocks and sticks etc., and it staggered off down the mountainside and into a canyon. A later examination of the records revealed that this animal was one that had been marked during the drug studies in 1967, as indicated by the tape marker on its horn.

CONCLUSION

The presence of scabies mites in the ears of hunter-killed sheep in 1969 has further confirmed the previous reports of scabies found in 1967. How scabies got into the bighorn population is unknown. Nevada has been certified as scabies free for years, and no domestic sheep have been grazed on the Wildlife Range for many years. One possible theory is that the mites have been present in the bighorn population since domestic sheep were last grazed on the range during early settlement of the state. Another possible theory is that the bighorn sheep migrate between the Sheep Mountain Range on the Desert National Wildlife Range and the Arrow Canyon Mountain Range to the east, where domestic sheep are now and have always been grazed. An interchange between wild and domestic sheep may have infected the bighorns at any time up until scabies was eliminated from the domestic sheep. It is also possible that this parasite has always been present in this wild population of bighorn sheep without obviously contributing to a decline in the herd.

The degree to which scabies infestation exists in the bighorn population is not now and may never be fully known. We are aware that a problem does exist, however. Future wildlife management plans and objectives on the Wildlife Range may of necessity include the control or eradication of this parasite.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS tlDlAT9LOTY OF DESERT BIG tDRN SHEEP: A PRELMI VW REPOFT

W. Glen Bradley Department of Biological Sciences University of Nevada Las Vegas, Nevada

Mohamed K. Yousef Desert Research Institute University of Nevada Boulder City, Nevada

Abstract. Blood samples from a 4 year old captive ram and hunter killled rams from the 1969 Nevada hunting season were examined for cell counts and some plasma constituents. Values given are the first published for North American wild sheep. In general, erythrocyte and leukocyte counts are lower, and plasma constituents other than electrolytes average higher than in domestic sheep. The wider range of variation in cell counts and most blood constituents for wild sheep is probably due to multiple factors, such as environment, age, nutritive plane, and water balance; all of which are more variable in wild than in domesticated populations.

INTRODUCTION

By cooperative agreement with the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife we are now engaged in physiological studies of captive desert bighorn (his canadensis nelsoni) at the Corn Creek Field Station, Desert National Wildlife Range, in southern Nevada. These studies pertain to water and temperature relationships of penned animals. Basic knowledge of hematology is necessary as background for our main study. However, we are not aware of any reference in the literature on the hematology of North American wild sheep. In addition, knowledge of the various blood constituents will be of value in treatment and assessment of diseased individuals.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS We wish to thank Roger Johnson and Jack Helvie, Desert National Wildlife Range, for their many courtesies and assistance at the Corn Creek Field Station. Arrangements to collect blood samples from hunter kills was facilitated by John Donaldson and George Tsukamoto of the Nevada Fish and Game Department. We thank Robert Wheeler for technical assistance. This study was supported in part by N.S.F. Grant No. 5217 and Nevada Fish and Game Project No. W-39-R-8.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Blood samples were collected from bighorn rams, including penned and wild animals. Samples were taken at approximately monthly intervals (September, 1969 - March, 1970) from a 3%-4year old ram, "Friskie," housed in the pens at the Corn Creek Field Station. This ram appeared to be in excellent condition and weighed approximately 185 pounds (84 kg) in November, 1969. Blood was drawn from the jugular vein with an 18-guage hypodermic needle and 10 C.C. was collected in a heparinized syringe.

At the Nevada bighorn sheep hunter indoctrinations, each hunter was given a vial with heparin and instructions for blood collection. These vials were filled with blood from the heart cavity as soon as possible after death. Vials were turned in at checkout points and were kept under refrigeration until picked up for analysis. Samples were obtained from 25 hunters during November-December, 1969. Severely hemolized samples were discarded.

Hematocrit (packed cell volume) was determined using Wintrobe tubes. Hemogloblin concentration was measured using the Fisher £10-thru hemophotometer and plasma protein using the Bausch and Lomb serum protein meter. Red and white cell counts as well as the differential count of the white cells were made using standard methods. The remainder of each blood sample was centrifuged as soon as possible after collection to obtain plasma for further analysis. Plasma was frozen and kept until a number of samples were available for determination of albumin, globulin, urea nitrogen, glucose, calcium, phosphorus, chloride, potassium, and sodium using a standard auto-analyzer (Laboratory Procedures, Inglewood, California).

RESULTS

Comparison of Samples

Samples were obtained from the penned ram upon eight occasions. Sufficient blood was obtained for all tests upon six occasions. There was no difficulty in finding the jugular vein and obtaining an adequate sample when the experimental animal was held in a standing position by two individuals with a third obtaining the sample. Slight hematomas were common after sample collection.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Samples were obtained from 25 hunter killed sheep. Twenty-two of these yielded some information of value. Others were not included for various reasons. The determining factors in sample quality and usefulness are sufficient amount of blood collected and length of time before initial analysis. Five to 10 ml are needed for an adequate sample. A period in excess of 24 hours between collection and refrigeration at the checking station greatly increases the extent of hemolysis. Periods in excess of 48 hours results in extensive hemolysis.

Blood Cell Counts

Data on blood cell counts are given in Table 1. Samples from the penned ram and hunter killed rams are given separately. Both may be compared with values from the literature for domestic sheep. These three comparisons serve both as a check and an indication of range of variation to be expected in natural populations.

Both erythrocyte and leukocyte counts for the Corn Creek ram and hunter killed rams are considerably lower than values given for domestic sheep. However, averages and ranges for both wild sheep samples appear similar and relatively con- sistent. The ranges of these counts are considerably wider in both wild sheep samples. Details for the domestic sheep are not available, including number, season or variability of environmental conditions. The hunter killed sample was collected from elevations ranging from approximately 2,000 to over 8,000 feet, over a 6 week period, Cell counts for the penned ram are less variable and part of this variation may be due to faulty technique of smearing and staining the blood film for two sample periods. More variation is to be expected in wild populations which are found under more varied environmental conditions than domesticated populations.

Differential estimation of leukocytes are decidedly different in all three samples. These differences suggest the need for further study. Again, the greater apparent variation in the wild population should be noted.

Blood Com~osition

Data on various blood constituents of big horn rams are given in Table 2. Values for domestic sheep are shown for comparisons. Both hematocrit and hemoglobin values average higher and show more variation than in domestic sheep. Penned and hunter kill samples are comparable as far as these erythrocyte constituents. The hemoglobin/hematocrit ratio which represents the concentration of hemoglobin in the red cell volume is approximately 0.33 - 0.34 for wild and domestic sheep. This indicates that the wide variation in wild sheep is due to changes in plasma water.

Various plasma constituents differ appreciably when compared with domestic sheep. Serum protein values are similar in both wild sheep samples and are higher than in domestic sheep, The albumin/globulin ratio is significantly lower than in domestic sheep reflecting much higher globulin concentrations in the plasma of wild sheep. Glucose concentration is considerably higher in wild sheep and unusually high for a ruminant. However, both wild sheep samples show this unusual glucose concentration. Urea nitrogen is much higher in the

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TEUNSACTIONS Table 1. Average number and range of blood cells types for Nelson bighorn rams. Data for domestic sheep are shown for comparison (from Dukes, 1955; Dittmer, 1961).

Ram in pen at Rams killed Domestic Corn Creek 1969 season sheep Cell type

N. Av. (Range) N. Av. (Range) Av. (Range) . ,

Erythrocytes 3 6 6 7.9 (5.4-8.7) 18 6.5 (4.5-8.8) 10.3 (9.4-11.1) NO. per cm x 10

Leukocytes NO. per cm3 x lo3 6 5.2 (3.9-6.2) 17 5.2 (3.0-7.7) 7.8 (5 -10)

Leukocyte types (% of total) Lymphocytes 7 43.0 (18-64) 22 69.3 (42-88) 56.9 (50-70) Monocytes 7 2.0(0-5) 22 2.9 (0-15) 6.0 ( 1- 8) Neutrophills 7 53.0 (29-78) 22 27.3 (10-55) 35.7 (20-45) Eosinophils 7 2.1(0-6) 22 0.5 ( 0- 4) 2.5 ( 1- 7) Basophils 7 0 0 0.4 ( 0- 2)

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Table 2. Some blood composition values for Nelson bighorn rams. Data for domestic sheep are shown for comparison (from Dukes, 1955; Dittmer, l96l),

Kam in pen at Rams killed Domestic Corn Creek 1969 season Blood Value Sheep N. Av. (Range) N. Av. (Range) Av. (Range)

Plasma

Serum protein ggll0Oml) Albumin (g1100ml) Globulin (g1100ml) Glucose (mg/100ml) Urea nitrogen (mg/100ml) Calcium (mg/ 100ml) Phosophorus- inorganic (mg/lOOml) Chlorides (~eqllitcr) Potassium (Meqlliter) Sodium (Meqlliter)

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS penned ram sample than either the hunter kill or domestic sheep sample. Various ruminants, including sheep, have the ability to recycle urea nitrogen (Macfarlane, 1968). The higher values for penned sheep may be an indication of a high nutritive plane and more thanadequate diet for wild sheep.

The various organic constituents, calcium, phosphorus, chloride, potassium and sodium have similar values for both samples which are comparable with values for domestic sheep.

DIS CUSS ION

The greater range of variation in almost all blood values for desert bighorn sheep has already been noted. Much of this variation is most adequately explained as due to a more variable environment. However, other factors may be significant. The hunter killed ram sample varied in age from 3-4 to 14 years. This is more of an age variation than found in most domestic sheep flocks. Nutritive plane and water balance is unknown for the hunter sample but as sheep were taken from several southern Nevada ranges, considerable variation in animal condition would be expected.

A partial explanation of the wide range and higher averages for several blood constituents in the hunter sample may be due to different levels of hydration and dehydration in the wild population. Macfarlane, et a1.(1961) in experiments with well watered and dehydrated Merino sheep found rather striking differences in blood volume and concentrations of blood constituents. Sheep dehydrated for periods of six to 10 days showed weight losses up to 30%, blood volume reduction up to 30% and an increase in osmotic pressure of the blood up to 34%. It was apparent that much of the loss in body water was from blood plasma resulting in an increase in the concentration of blood constituents. Averages and ranges for selected blood values of watered sheep were 32.7 (25.1 - 37.0) for hematocrit, 5.5 (4.7 - 6.3) for plasma proteins, and 10.5 (7.1 - 12.8) for hemoglobin. Comparative values for dehydrated sheep were 41.7 (31.0 - 53.0), 8.3 (6.4 - 10.0), and 13.9 (9.0-- 17.0) respectively for hematocrit, plasma proteins and hemoglobin. When these two sets of values are grouped together, both ranges and higher values compare favorably with those for desert bighorn. It is probably that the hunter killed ram sample included individuals which were well watered, and others in various stages of dehydration.

Captive wild sheep which are tamed sufficiently to be handled are rare and not readily available. However, such individuals may serve as a general check on samples taken under more adverse and less desirable conditions. We have shown that with sufficient care and caution blood samples obtained from hunter killed sheep are of value. We plan to continue using hunter obtained blood samples for one or more years. In this way we hope to obtain a more adequate idea of the hematology of desert sheep populations. A larger sample will also enable us to determine differences due to age, size and general physical condition.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS LITERATURE CITED

Dittmer, D. S. (ed.). 1961. Blood and other body fluids. Fed. Amer. Soc. Exp. Bioi., Washington, D. C. 540 p.

Dukes, H. H. 1955. The physiology of domestic animals. Cornstock Publ. Associates, Ithaca, N. Y. 1020 p.

Macfarlane, W. V. 1968. Comparative functions of ruminants in hot environments. p. 264-276. In: E.S.E. Haefez (ed.), Adaption of domestic animals. Lea and Febiger, Phila., Pa. , R.J.H. Morris, B. Howard, J. McDonald, and 0. E. Budtz- Olsen. 1961. Water and electrolyte changes in tropical Merino sheep exposed to dehydration during summer. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 12: 889-912.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS -I/ Lanny 0. Wilson Utah State University Logan, Utah

Abstract. This paper deals with behavioral observations made on one desert bighorn ram, Whitey, which were singular instances of a typical bighorn behavior not seen demonstrated by any other bighorn in the course of a two year study in southeastern Utah. The observations are probably more interesting than scientific but they do demonstrate that each desert bighorn sheep is an individual with its own personality.

While studying the desert bighorn in southeastern Utah, I made as many observations of bighorns as possible and endeavored to document everything I could about them. One bighorn ram, which I named Whitey, I encountered on several occasions. He soon became a standout when compared to other bighorn sheep, as he never seemed to conform completely to normal bighorn behavior. His unusual behavior might have been because he was an inquisitive, over- sensitive bighorn who was having adjustment problems from ewe-lamb relationships to ram relationships. None of the observations I made about Whitey have been published until this time because the observations are probably more interesting than scientific; yet they could have some use when animal behaviorists begin to study desert bighorns. The following observations were taken from the notes I made about Whitey in the field.

August 3, 1965 - Hidden Valley

2:55 p.m. - Sighted one half-curl ram which is almost black in color with extremely wide flaring horns (later named Darky). One three-eights curl ram with a white patch between his horns (Whitey); one yearling ewe, one adult ewe, right horn flares (Mable); with a small lamb.

This was my first encounter with Whitey and although nothing out of the ordinary happened on August 3, the sighting itself was unique. In a total of 88 random bighorn sheep sightings outside of the rutting period, this was one of seven -1/ Now stationed with Bureau of Land Management, Burley, Idaho

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS sightings where rams were sighted with ewes, that is, rams over three years of age. Whitey was in all seven sightings.

After staying with the bighorns the remainder of August 3 through August 4, I made the following observation about Whitey.

August 4, 1965 - Upper Hidden Valley

2:30 p.m. - The small light colored ram walked up to within five feet of me and just stared at me. He has three distinct growth rings on his horns.

This is the closest any bighorn has ever approached me. He seemed curious after being followed for two days and showed no signs of fear.

5:37 p.m. - I walked down to the Jeep as the two rams are only 100 yards away from it now. I hit the hood of the Jeep and yelled at the rams to observe their reaction. Both rams were lying down and upon hearing the noise both rams jumped up and became extremely excited. They just charged each other with lowered heads and hit with a terrific impact. Upon contact I could hear the crack of their horns echoing up and down the canyon.

August 14, 1965 - Sandstone Knobs on top of Wingate Mesa

3:00 p.m. - After walking for three days on top of Wingate Mesa aned not sighting any rams I was going back to the Jeep when I heard a noise. I turned around and it was the little ram with the white spot between his horns running toward me. He is now standing 50 yards away and has been running for about 500 yards. He is extremely curious, turning his head from side to side while walking towards me.

3:10 p.m. - I reached out and almost touched his horn and he spooked, running right around me and is headed into Hidden Valley. I guess I will call this bighorn Whitey.

I followed Whitey off of Wingate Mesa and into Hidden Valley. Just before dark he found Mable and her lamb, a yearling ewe, and Darky. After watching the sheep until dark and rising with them before daylight the next morning, the following note was made concerning Whitey:

August 15, 1965 - Upper Hidden Valley

7:37 a.m. - Whitey walked toward me and laid down about 15 feet away.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS August 3, 1965 in Hidden Valley -- sighted one three-eighths curl ram with a white patch between his horns -- "Whitey". 7:51 a.m. - I opened a can of peaches and tossed one to Whitey whereupon he got up, sniffed the peach and ate it.

This was the only time in the course of my study that any bighorn ate anything I deliberately threw to them.

August 15, 1965 - Upper Hidden Valley

12:47 p.m. - All the sheep are drinking from the tanks in the bottom of the canyon, except Whitey who is leaning against a juniper tree and appears to be asleep on his feet.

This was the only observation that I made in the course of the study that all of the bighorns in a group did not drink when at a waterhole.

3:02 p.m. - Whitey just tried to mount Mable.

3:03 p.m. - Whitey tried to mount Mable again and after she dislodged him she charged. The two sheep collided with considerable impact. Since Mable is larger than Whitey, he was knocked to his knees.

This is the only time in the course of the study that I ever saw a ewe charge a ram with such ferocity.

3:15 p.m. - Whitey just tried to mount Mable again and this time Darky charged him and hit him in the side while Whitey was on Mable's back. Whitey was knocked into a small gully on his back and I wouldn't be surprised if he has a broken rib or two from such a blow. Since I have not seen this type of bighorn behavior, it appears the rut is beginning. Whitey is now running at a high lope up the road that leads to the top of Wingate Mesa.

I reached an erroneous conclusion at this point, for I was later to learn the rut does not begin until the latter part of October.

August 30, 1965 - Upper Hidden Valley

2:55 p.m. - I was sitting in the shade of two huge boulders when I caught a movement out of the corner of my eye. At that moment Whitey stuck his head inside to see what I was doing. He startled me so that I yelled and ran out the other side. My actions scared Whitey and he ran in the other direction. I don't know where he came from or where he was going.

I tracked Whitey until I caught up with him and found him with Mable, her lamb, two ewes, and Darlcy. I watched the sheep the remainder of the day and continued observations at daylight the following morning.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS August 31, 1965 - Upper Hidden Valley

5:03 p.m. - Whitey mounted the yearling ewe and almost succeeded in serving her. k threatening false charge from Darky stopped Whitey fr~iii any more attempts. He must have learned his lesson a few days ago.

My study was complebed for the summer on September 2, 1965, at which time I wrote: "I wonder if I will see that crazy Whitey next year."

I resumed the study in March 1966, but did not encounter Whitey until April.

April 21, 1966 - Sandstone Knobs on top of Wingate Mesa

I sighted ten rams early in the morning and recorded observations on the rams most of the day.

4:55 p.m. - I walked out in the open where the rams could see me for the first time. They are not running as I anticipated because a small ram is leaving the herd and is walking toward me. The other nine rams are extremely nervous but are watching the little ram. The small ram is Whitey and he is now standing about 50 yards away. One can't miss that white spot between his horns.

June 3, 1966 - Top of Wingate Mesa between Mahon and Rainbow Canyons

1:10 p.m. - I had just sat down to eat a can of tomatoes in the shade of a juniper tree when I heard a noise and along came Whitey following the route I had just taken. He walked to within about 15 feet of me. I don't know where he came from but from his actions he knew where I was.

Whitey continued to follow me until 5:33 p.m. most of the time staying within 20 yards of me.

July 14, 1966 - Sandstone Knobs on top of Wingate Mesa

4:30 p.m. - Sighted five rams lying down. Here comes one running toward me and, although he is a quarter of a mile away, I bet it is Whitey. He is the only bighorn that seems to have no fear of humans.

4:35 p.m. - It is Whitey and he is standing about 100 yards away and appears to have recognized me as he is feeding with his rump toward me and shows no sign of fear.

July 23, 1966 - Sandstone Knobs on top of Wingate Mesa

7:30 a.m. - Sighted a ram lying down on top of the most extreme northern sandstone knob. The knob is solid sandstone at least 200 feet high with no vegetation growing on it. I wouldn't have believed anything could climb it. Although it is too far away to tell from here, it must be that crazy Whitey. There are five more rams lying down under the knob.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS 8:11 a.m. - Here cdmes the ram off of the knob with his feet braced sliding down the sandstone. He is sliding so fast he will surely break every bone in his body. When he hit the bottom he rolled four or five times hut appears to be unhurt. He is walking t~wardthe other rams.

8:15 a.m. - It is Whitey as he just came over to say hello at a distance of about 20 feet of me.

lO:15 a.m. - For the past two hours the five rams have been feeding, but Whitey has been following the second largest ram everywhere and not feeding. When Whitey gets too close he charges Whitey, chasing him away.

10:26 a.m. - The old ram seemed to have forgotten about Whitey as he was feeding on a single leaf ash. Whiteycharged him running as fast as he could, hitting the big ram in the rump and knocking the big ram through the single leaf ash. I swear Whitey hit him so hard he almost turned the big ram inside out. The big ram got up and immediately took off after Whitey. Whitey has a good lead on the ram and I don't believe he will catch him.

10:42 a.m. - The big ram is returning but no Whitey. Can't say as I blame him for not com

November 10, 1966 - Blue Notch Canyon

12:30 p.m. - Found 12 bighorn sheep, six ewes, two lambs, one yearling ram, one two year old ram, one large black ram (Blacky) and Whitey.

For the next three days I stayed day and night observing this band of bighorns, but for the sake of brevity I will summarize two general observations concerning Whitey during this three day period. The rut at this time was well underway and the larger rams were roaming the country below the wingate sandstone formation (ewe-lamb habitat) searching for ewes. In the course of the three days, eight mature rams (all over four years of age) tried to join the band of ewes or single out a ewe from the band, but were driven or run off by Blacky. The two year old ram was also run off. Why he tolerated Whitey I could never say, but he appeared to pay little or no attention to him even when Whitey would show signs of interest in some of the ewes. On only a few occasions during the three days did Whitey try to mount any of the ewes, as the large ram appeared to hold some type of dominance over Whitey.

Throughout the course of the three days, 15 to 20 butting bouts a day occurred between Whitey and Blacky but were never long or rough; they were mostly pushing bouts. The two rams would put their heads together and push back and forth for two to five minutes. When other rams tried to enter the band during the same period, Blacky was very aggressive but on only one occasion was there any physical contact between Blacky and any of the other rams, as the other rams left the area when Blacky charged them.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS November 13, 1966 - Blue Notch Canyon

11:05 a.m. - Whitey has been following the dark ewe for the past hour and from the interest she is attracting from Blacky and the yearling ram I am sure she is in oestrous. Whitey has tried to mount her twice with no success.

11:12 p.m. - The dark ewe laid down and Whitey just laid down. He was paying no attention to where he was or what he was doing and just about went over a 100 foot cliff. His rump is actually hanging over the cliff and if he should take one step backward when he gets up, he is a "gonner." Even female bighorns make male bighorns do stupid things.

11:42 a.m. - I worked my way down and behind Whitey and from about 20 yards away I ran and yelled at him. He lunged forward not knowing what to expect, but at least he didn't go over the cliff.

All of these excerpts from my notes are singular instances of what I would term abnormal bighorn behavior. Perhaps when animal behaviorists have had the opportunity to study desert bighorns over a long period of time Whitey's behavior will not be atypical. One thing is certain, Whitey will always be a unique bighorn sheep in my eyes.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Jerry. L. Mensch California Department of Fish and Game Rialto, California

Abstract. In October 1968 a comprehensive study of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) was undertaken in California. At the present, five of a total of fourteen sheep range surveys have been completed. Field surveys are currently underway on two additional areas. Results of three investigations have been submitted and published as a Report --on the Status -of Bighorn Sheep -in California.

INTRODUCTION

In October of 1968 a comprehensive study of bighorn sheep (his canadensis) was undertaken in California, The objectives of this study were to determine: distribution, population estimates, limiting factors, natality, diseases, the feasibility of reintroductions into historic range, and to prepare a plan for the management of bighorn sheep

PROCEDURES AND METHODS

To facilitate gathering of data, sheep ranges were dividkd into 14 broad study areas. These broad areas *re then assigned priorities according to information available on sheep populations.

In undertaking the collection of data, aerial surveys by fixed wing aircraft and by helicopter are made for orientation and to determine water locations. Driving and hiking surveys of all identified sheep ranges are then made. Population estimates based on observations of fresh sign and sightings of animals are made for all areas where sheep sign is observed. A11 known water sources are investigated and recommendations for development are made. Information on predation and competition is noted during all surveys.

11 A contribution of Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W-51-R.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Habitat evaluations, using a technique originated by Dr. Charles Hansen, are made for each area covered on the ground. Using information gained during the survey bighorn ranges are assigned to one of the following three classifications: (1) Concentration areas: high density populations may be found during some or all of the year; (2) Permanent range: sheep will be found in this area nearly all portions of the year; (3) Seasonal or transient range: sheep use in this area is less than six months of any one year or use is at varying infrequent intervals. These classifications are used in determining land values for retention or acquisition.

Information on food habits and parasites is collected from animals which have died of natural causes or have been illegally killed by hunters.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

POPULATIONS

At this date five of the total fourteen survey -areas have been completed and field work is continuing on two additional areas. Reports completed are: I - San Diego, I1 - Imperial, 111 - Riverside, VIII - Northeastern San Bernardino, and IX - Northwestern San Bernardino--Southern Inyo.

Report Area Estimate Previous Estimate

I1 Imperial 162 100

111 Riverside 620 445

VIII Northeastern San Bernardino 310 200

IX Northwestern San Bernardino-- 53 Southern Inyo

The increase in population estimates is not due to an increase in the population but reflects more thorough investigations and refined survey techniques.

In areas I and I11 populations appear to be near or at range capacity. Over- use of the habitat by bighorn was observed in a San Diego bighorn range. Populations in the more northern and eastern ranges appear to have declined from 30 to 60 percent. This conclusion is based on comparison of present and past populations where good estimates had been previously made.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TUNSACTIONS COMPETITION

/ Competition of varying degrees was observed in three of the five areas where investigations are complete. In area I1(Imperial) - - water is available mainly as stored runoff in natural tanks or tinajas. The large amounts of water required by feral burros rapidly deplete these sources limiting the range which is available to bighorn. Competition with burros and with the desert mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus eremicus) appears to be the factor limiting sheep populations in this portion of the desert.

In portions of area VIII (Northeastern San Bernardino) competition between bighorn and feral burros is also severe. A decline of 60 percent has occurred after the recent entry of burros into the area. This competition appears to be mainly for food and living space.

The very low sheep populations in area IX may be due to the high burro populations which inhabit much of the area.

HUMAN DISTURBANCES

In many California bighorn ranges one of the most serious problems is human encroachment. Sheep habitat is being lost to many kinds of development such as houses, highways, fences, and usurpation of sheep wate

Construction and fencing of multilane freeways in or between sheep ranges cause loss of movement and loss of use of what may be necessary seasonal ranges. This is becoming a more serious problem and special undercrossings and fencing are being recommended as an integral part of the highway construction.

Another serious problem which was observed during the survey is the encroachment of human habitation onto sheep ranges. Refined construction methods allow the building of residences and roads into the heart of sheep habitat. It appears that land acquisition and zoning for wildlife may be the only solutions to this problem.

FOOD HABITS AND PARASITISM

Information on food habits and parasitism of California bighorn sheep is very limited. Some limited information was gained on these subjects from animals dying of natural mortality or which were killed by illegal hunting. Two stomachs were obtained for analysis from these sources. Analysis of these stomachs wasLmade by Bruce Browning of the California Department of Fish and Game and are included below to provide additional information on California sheep.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS 1. Adult Male -- New York Mountains September 1969

Gramineae (leaf, stems, green) 95% &us trilobata (leaf, stems) 4% Rhamnus crocea (leaf) 1% Quercus sp. (leaf) Trace Polypodiaceae (frond fragments) Trace Euphorbia fendleri (leaf, stems) Trace Eriogonum sp. (seeds) Trace Yucca mohavensis (seed, leaf, fruit fragments) Trace

2. Adult Female -- Lytle Creek, San Gabriel Mountains December 1969

Gramineae (dry leaf, stems ) 50% Cercocarpus betuloides (leaf, stem, seeds) 33% Libocedrus decurrens (leaf fragments) 10% Lycopodinae (stem, leaf) 5% Quercus chrysolepis (dry leaf) 1% Umbellularia calif ornica (leaf) 1% Abies concolor (needle fragments) Trace Penstemon sp. (leaf, stem) Trace Polypodiaceae Trace Bromus tectorum (seed fragments) Trace Forb (stems) Trace

Parasite examinations have been limited by availability to two specimens. These animals were an adult ewe which was illegally killed by a hunter in the San Gabriel Mountains and a second adult ewe which died of massive infection after being found in poor condition in San Diego County.

Examinations of these animals resulted in the finding of three types of ticks. The spiny tick (Otobius megnini), common tick (Dermacenter hunteri), and Ixodes sp. were found on the San Gabriel Mountain sheep and hunteri was found on the San Diego sheep. Fecal flotation of the San Gabriel sheep produced ova tentatively identified as pinworms (Skrjabinema sp.). Necropsies and identification of parasites were performed by Dr. Charles Jenner, D.V.M.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS STATUS IGHORN SEPPOPULATIONS AND WITAT STUD1ES OPi ME I NvO NATIONAL FOREST

David Jo Dunaway U.S. Forest Service Bishop, California

INTRODUCTION

Bighorn sheep are an important wildlife resource on the Inyo National Forest. Two races of the rocky mountain bighorn (0vis canadensis) are found on suitable __I

habitats within and adiacentd to the Forest& The desert bighorn shee~(Ovis U - canadensis nelsoni) is located in the White and Inyo Mountains which form the eastern boundary of the Owens Valley,, To the west the Sierra Nevada Mountains support several small disjunct populations of California bighorn sheep (Ovis D_I canadensis Californians), The California bighorn has been classed as a rare United States by the Committee on Rare and Endanger Species of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. When a species is considered rare or endangered it is Forest Service policy to maintain, enhance, and when necessary provide special protective measures for the habitat of the species to help ensure their continued survival. Resource management plans developed by the Inyo National Forest recognize and provide top priority for California bighorn sheep requirements when their habitat is involved inland management decisions. High priorities are also provided the desert bighorn habitat needs due to the small numbers present on the Forest and their great aesthetical appeal for the public,

PAST STUDIES

Published works dealing with the ecology and life history of bighorn sheep in this geographic area are limited in number. Early writers were mainly concerned with taxonomy, distribution, history, and the possibility of transplanting the sheep to ranges they formerly occupied (~llen1912, Grinnell 1912, Manly 1916, Wright 1932 and 1934, Oher 1931). Annual fish and game status reports prepared by the Inyo National Forest between 1921 and 1949 gave superficial estimates of ranges and numbers of bighorn sheep present on the Forest. The first comprehensive study on California bighorn in the Sierra Nevada was conducted by Fred Jones in 1948-1949. This study was concerned with summer range areas only. Riegelhuth (1965) surveyed several ~aliforniabighorn winter ranges on the east slopes of the Sierras in 1963-1965. California bighorn sheep-winter range relationships were studied by McCullough and Schneegas in 1966. These latter three studies contain the basic information regarding the California bighorn sheep and their

DESERT BIGI-IORIJ COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS ranges on the Inyo National Forest, No formal investigations have been conducted on the desert bighorn sheep populations on the White and Inyo Mountain ranges,

CURRENT BIGHORN SHEEP HABITAT STUDIES

For the past three years bighorn habitat studies on the Inyo National Forest have included field surveys on summer and winter ranges, range condition and trend ratings, winter food habits of California bighorn, and forage competition between bighorn sheep, mule deer, and tule elk, Additional information on distribution, herd composition, disease and parasites, predation and human disturbances have been obtained during the field surveys.

BIGHORN RANGE SURVEY S-SI ERRA NEVADA MOUNTAINS

Jones (1950) delineated five major bighorn ranges in the Sierra Nevada during is 1948-49 field surveys, He placed the estimated number of sheep on these nges at 390 animals, Table 1 presents a brief summary of Jonesf survey data,

Table 1 - Ranges and Estimated Numbers of California ighorn Sheep in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 1948,

Range Area No, Sheep Estimated Herd Name (Sq. Mile) Observed Numbers

Convict Creek 35 0. 25 Birch Mountain 20 Tracks of 6 15 Mount Baxter 75 22 13 5 Mount Williamson 65 25 125 Mount Lang ley -155 -7 -90 Totals 350 54 390

One phase of the current range survey program is to re-survey the above listed bighorn ranges to see what changes in range conditions and population numbers have occurred during the past twenty-year period, Table 2 summarizes the progress made on the re-survey proj ect,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Table 2 - Status of Bighorn Sheep Range Surveys in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, Inyo National Forest, 1967-197 0,

Range Area No. Sheep Estimated Observed Numbers

Convict Creek 35 Birch Mountain 20 Mount Baxter 75 Mount Williamson 65

Mount Langley _____.155 Totals 350

Summer range surveys have been conducted on the Convict Creek, Mount Baxter, and Mount Langley Herds. Winter range surveys have been conducted on all except the Birch Mountain Range. Observations made during these surveys indicate the number of bighorn sheep in the Sierras is less today than the number estimated twenty years ago, No signs of sheep use were found on the Convict Creek an Mount Langley summer ranges. Sheep have not been reported for the Convict Creek area since 1948. Only three authentic sightings have been recorded for the Mount Langley herd during the 1960's. These were in the Cartago Canyon- Olancha Peak area of the Langley herd range. The large number of observations recorded for the Mount Baxter herd reflects the intensive surveys conducted on this particular herd, not an increase in sheep numbers. Table 2 shows the changes in estimated numbers for each herd, The Birch Mountain herd estimate has not been changed as no field work has been completed on this range. It is doubtful if any sheep are present on the Birch Mountain range, however his needs to be substantiated by field surveys,

An estimated number of fifteen sheep will be carried for the Convict Creek herd until the southern portion of the range can be surveyed. It is suspected that sheep no longer inhabit this range unit.

There is good evidence for the existence of two additional herds of bighorn sheep in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. One small herd probably is in the vicinity of Mount Lyell. During the summer of 1966 a group of Explorer Scouts observed five bighorn near Rogers Peak just south of Mount Lyell, A mature ram was killed on San Joaquin Mountain in 1956 and a young ram was seen in Glass Creek Meadows during September 1968. These areas are 8 to 10 miles east of Mount Lyell. Prior to 1966 sporadic reports of old sheep horns and sheep skulls have been made for this general area. Tkeelbighorns were observed south of San Joaquin Mountain in the summer of 1957. A tentative estimate of 20 animals and a range

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS size of 45 square miles will be assigned this herd until more detailed information can be gathered regarding its status.

The second herd of bighorn is probably in the vicinity of Center Mountain near Bridgeport, California. While making a fire patrol flight during the summer of 1966 District Ranger Lynn Mitchell of the Bridgeport Ranger District on the Toiyabe National Forest observed a band of eleven ewes, lambs, and young rams on Center Mountain. This observation was made at close range from a helicopter. Prior to this sighting several reports of bighorn in the Center Mountain area had been received at the Ranger Station and at Yosemite National Park headquarters. The range of these animals is not known at the present however the Toiyabe National Forest is planning to investigate the current status of these sheep.

The total estimated number of California bighorn on the Inyo National Forest, including the Mount Lyell herd, is 265 animals.

BIGHORN RANGE SURVEYS - WHITE AND INYO MOUNTAINS The current status of desert bighorn sheep populations in the White and Inyo Mountains is based on limited field survey data. The White Mountain sheep range includes approximately 110 square miles located between White Mountain Peak on the south and Boundary Peak to the north. The current estimate of 35-50 animals for this herd is based on the sporadic sightings of sheep made during the past three years and the amount of sign present on several key winter ranges.

The Inyo Mountain sheep herd has been estimated at 40-60 animals for the past decade. This number will have to stand until reliable field survey data is available for this particular area.

RANGE CONDITION AND TREND

Buechner (1960) states that bighorn sheep are more dependent on vegetation than any other factor of their environment. Other investigators studying bighorn ranges in the United States and Canada have also pointed out the importance of the vegetative component of the habitat to the welfare of the sheep (Smith 1954, Demarchi 1962, Berwick 1968).

Condition and trend of big game ranges on National Forest Land in the California Region is classified according to the age and form class of the primary and secondary browse plants present on the range. Normally, key sections of the winter range are selected as sampling units as these areas usually reflect changes in plant form class and species composition more rapidly, due to more intensified animal use, than summer ranges. Permanent transects are installed and measured at periodic intervals to record any changes in the vegetation. This technique has proven satisfactory on deer and elk ranges where browse plants are the major food items. Studies on California bighorn sheep food habits on the Sawmill Canyon-Black Canyon winter ranges have shown that browse plants are

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS BLACK CANYON

THEMOUTHOFBLACKCANYON,WINTERRANGEFOR THEMOUNTBAXTERBIGHORN HERD. (Forest Service photo by Dave DunawayJ. important in the winter diet of the sheep (~c~ulloughand Schneegas 1966, Dunaway 1969), Therefore the same technique used to sample deer and elk ranges will give reliable data on conditions and trend of bighorn ranges in the Sierra Nevada Mountains, Vegetative surveys have been started on key winter ranges for the Mount Baxter and Mount Williamson herds, A summary of ground cover composition is presented in Table 3,

Table 3 - Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep Winter Range Ground Cover Composition (Percent)

Mount Baxter Mount Williamson Herd Herd

No, Fork

I' Black Canyon Biars Cr,

Non- Productive 73 Shrubs 21 Crass 4 Forbs and

Total -100

Shrubs compose the major portion of the vegetative cover on these winter rangese Bunch grasses are ranked second and annual grasses and forbs are ranked third, The abundance of the forb and annual grass cover varies from year to year depending on the amount of precipitation that falls on the area, The overall condition of the winter range is satisfactory, This is based on the condition of all the primary browse species that are important to the bighorn, Using only bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata) (the most important browse plant on mule deer ranges) to judge the range condition would tend to place the range closer to an un- satisfactory condition, especially in the Black Canyon area, Therefore, all species important to the sheep must be considered in rating the condition of the range,

The trend for both the Mount Baxter and Mount Williamson herd winter ranges appears to be downward, This is based on the lack of young plants and seedlings of the primary species of browse, The majority of these plants are mature, Many of the plant crowns are partially decadent,

Condition and trend ratings have not been established for the summer range areas however, occular estimates taken during summer field surveys indicate conditions are p~obablysatisfactory with static trends,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL TRANSACTIONS MT.

MTNS.

Figure 2, INYO NATIONAL FOREST BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The following is a listing of some of the more important plant species present on the summer and winter ranges,

SLEPRA NEVADA BIGHORN SHEEP RAMGES WINTER RANGE FORAGE PLANTS

Purs hia tridentata Salix sp. s california Sambucus caerulea

Poa scabrella llLP Elymus cinereus Bromus t ectorum _1___1 Bromus rubens P

SUMMER RANGE FORAGE PLANTS

Sitanion Poa secunda Castilleia nana Penstemon menziesii var. davidsonii Oreocarva confertifolia

Ribes cereum I__ Holodiscus micronhvllus Potentilla Potentilla Artemisia tridentata Jamesion americana var. calif ornica Draba lemmonii

Carex brewerii Senecio fremontii Carex- exserta

Conditions and trend of bighorn sheep range in the White Mountains is based on the results of range studies conducted on livestock grazing allotments. Data is available for the Chiatovitch Flat and Perry Aiken Flats section of the summer range. No field surveys have been completed for the important Pellisier Flat summer range area, Several vegetative samples have been taken in the Lone Tree Canyon and Montgomery Canyon winter range areas on the western slopes of the White Mountains. Table 4 presents a summary of ground cover composition for these range units.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Table 4 - White Mountain Bighorn Sheep Ranges Ground Cover Composition ( Percent)

Summ er Rann e Winter Range

Chiatovitch Perry Aiken Lone Tree Montgomery Flat Flats

Non- Productive Shrub Grass Forb and Annual Grass Total

Summer range condition is generally satisfactory with static or down trends. Grasses and forbs are the most important species on these ranges, Shrubs are present in scattered abundance however they are less palatable as a forage plant than are the succulent grasses and forbs.

Shrubs are the dominant feature of the vegetation on winter range areas. Range condition appears to be satisfactory however, a food habits study on the bighorn winter range is needed before any definite conclusion can be reached, Bunch grass, mainly desert needlepass (Stipa speciosa) may be the most important food plant for bighorn on these ranges as most of the bunches show signs of past heavy use. This is attributed to bighorn use as no domestic livestock graze these winter ranges. Detailed study of both summer and winter ranges is planned for the White Mountains during, the next three-year period.

The following lists some of the more important forage plants present on the White Mountain bighorn ranges,

SUMMER RANGE -Carex helleri Oxyria digyna Carex subnimicansU Draba sierrae Sitanion hystrix Ranunculus es chscholtzii - Trisetum spicatum Calmtridium umbellatum PPoa ru icola -Ribes cereum Ivesla schocklevi Artemisia arbuscula -1 Mimulus suksdorf ii nauseosus Polemonium chartaceum Hulsea algida -Erigeron vagus Antennaria alpha Penstemon heterodoxus

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS WINTER RANGE

Ephedra nevadensis Or? zopsis hymenoides Eurot ea lanata Erlogonum umbellatum Phacelia bicolor conf ertifolia serenoi

--Betula occldentalis

No information is available for range conditions in the Inyo Mountains. Field surveys will be completed for these ranges when time and financing is available.

It is concluded that bighorn sheep ranges on the Inyo National Forest generally are in satisfactory condition with static or downward trends, There are scattered areas where conditions are not satisfactory; however, these are minor in occurrence at this time.

FORAGE UTILIZATION ON SIERRA NEVADA WINTER RANGES

The amount of utilization on bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata and P, ghorn sheep was measured on the Black Canyon winter range by'-~c chneegas for the winter season of 1964-65. They reported that approximately 23 percent of the current year's leader growth had been utilized by the sheep. This was during a mild open winter season. Random utilization samples were taken on this range and the Sawmill Canyon winter range following the very severe winter of 1968-69. Bitterbrush was again chosen as the sample plant as it is readilv eaten by the sheep and the current year's leader growth is easily recognized. The results are as follows: Sawmill Canyon, south slopes, 34% use; Sawmill Canyon, north slopes, 26% use; Black Canyon above Grover Anton Spring, 37% use; Black Canyon, north side opposite the Big Ram Mine, 48% use. The average use on bitterbrush for the 1968-1969 winter season was 38.5 percent. This degree of use was influenced by the deep and prolonged snow pack on these ranges which concentrated the animals in a smaller area than normal, However, the average use is still well below the 60% level established by Hormay (1943) as the maximum use desired for bitterbrush stands in California. The generally light to moderate use of the forage plants on the key bighorn winter ranges tends to substantiate the satisfactory conditions for these areas.

WINTER FOOD HABITS OF CALIFORNIA BIGHORN SHEEP

Information regarding plant preferences and feeding habits of bighorn sheep is necessary in order to develop a sound habitat management plan for the sheep ranges present on the Forest. This type of data has been obtained in limited quantities for several winter ranges in the Sierra Nevada (~c~ulloughand Schneegas, 1966). Observations on bighorn feeding habits have been made on the Sawmill-Black Canyon winter range for the past two winter seasons, Field

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS

data was obtained by direct observation of the feeding animals or band trailing in fresh snow and recording what the sheep have eaten. These techniques have been used with success on other California bighorn herds in British Columbia (Blood 1961, Sugden 1961). Preliminary analysis of the data indicates that UVPO~ephedra ( 0----- viridis), bitterbrush, California bcckwheat !Eriogenum fasciculatum), and desert needlegrass are the most sought after forage plants on these winter ranges. Other important species are wedgeleaf haplopappus ( , cupleaf ceanothus (Ceanothus , big sagebrush ( Lupinus sp., and Pensternmon s ing the heavy snow conditions on the winter ranges in February and !.larch of 1969, the sustaining food plants for the bighorn sheep were bitterbrush, green ephedra and ~alifornia buckwheat,

BIGHORN SHEEP SIGHTINGS AND HERD COMPOSITION

Reliable sightings of bighorn sheep on the Forest over the past thirty years have+ been summarized in Table 5. The majority of the sightings have been made on bighorn ranges in the Sierra Nevada. This reflects the amount of time spent on these particular ranges during the course of field studies and observations, The importance of the Mount Baxter and Mount Williamson herds is readily apparent by the number of sightings tabulated for these areas. Many of the sightings for the winter range unit of the Mount Baxter herd are duplicates; however, the ease of observing bighorn on this range relative to the other Sierra herds can be readily seen, The sightings reported for the Birch Mountain and Convict Creek areas are from Jones (1950). Since that time, no sheep have been reporte from these two ranges,

Table 5 - Bighorn Sheep Observations Recorded on the Inyo National Forest Herd Area, Summer or Winter Range, 1940-1970

Tracks of six animals reported by Jones (1950) fd: These 15 sheep were reported by Jones (1950) however the sightings were made by another person,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS A somewhat sporadic record of herd composition ratios for bighorn sheep on the Sierra Nevada ranges is available from observations gathered during the course of past field studies. The data for 1948 comes from Jones (1950). The next recorded information is for 1963-1964 reported by Riegelhuth (1965). McCuilough and Schneegas reported herd composition data for 1964-1965, The data for 1968 through 1970 was gathered on the Sawmill-Black Canyon winter range of the Mount Baxter herd, This information has been summarized in Table 6,

The data suggests that ratios between rams, ewes, and lambs have remained fairlv static over the past twenty years. There is a noticeable increase in the number of lambs per 100 ewes for 1969 and 1970. The most likely cause of this increase in lamb production is the above normal precipitation that occurred in 1966496'7 and 1968-1969. Forage production was well above normal for these wet years on both summer and winter game ranges. Lamb production and survival may have responded.to this increase in the food supply and resulted in higher ratios. The significance of this increase cannot be compared to past above normal precipitation years due to lack of herd composition data.

Table 6 - Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep Ranges Herd Composition Counts Year Rams -Ewes -Lambs

The annual fluctuations in herd composition and how they are influenced by habitat changes will be better understood as more data is recorded for the Sierra Nevada bighorn herds,

No information on herd composition is available for bighorn sheep herds in the White and Inyo Mountains.

PREDATION

Predation is not considered to be a limiting factor on bighorn sheep populations on the Forest. Predators are present that have the capabilities to injure or kill bighorn such as the coyote (Canis latrans), bobcat (~ynxrufus), golden eagle (Aquila chrsaetos), and the- mountain lion (Felis concolo~ummerand Dixon 1953, Storer and Usinger 1963). -

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS It is generally concluded that the coyote is not an effective predator on bighorn sheep (Smith 1954, Sugden 1961, Berwick 1968). Jones (1950) thought they may take a few sick or aged animals; however, the overall effect was negative, Coyotes have been seen on bighorn ranges in the Sierras and the White Yountains. Scats have been found as high as 13,000 feet on the Alpine summer ranges but no evidence of sheep predation has been found to date.

Golden eagles are frequently seen soaring over bighorn ranges in the Sierras and the White and Inyo Mountains. The status of this bird as a bighorn predator has not been resolved. Ober (1930) witnessed the killing of a young ram by a pair of eagles in the Grapevine Mountains of Death Valley. While studying California Bighorn sheep on the Ashnola Range in British Columbia Blood (1961) observed a golden eagle making passes at a ewe with a small lamb. No contact was made however, the ewe and lamb appeared to be alarmed, Ob- servations on other bighorn ranges indicate that eagles have little or no effect on the sheep populations (Smith 1954, Buechner 1960, Sugden 1961, Welles and Welles 1961, Moser 1962).

On several occasions golden eagles have been observed flying quite low over small groups of bighorn on the Sawmill Canyon winter range. A pair of eagles landed on rocks within 200 feet of several lambs and ewes during the winter of 1969. The sheep did not appear to be alarmed or even notice the eagles at any time the two were in close proximity to each other. No signs of sheep predation by eagles has been found during the three years that field studies have been conducted on the Forest,

The most capable predator of bighorn sheep in this area is the mountain lion. These large cats have been reported in all the areas frequented by bighorn on the Forest, A tule elk cow was killed on the Sawmill Canyon winter range- in 1966 by a mountain lion (Vernon Burandt, , comm,), During a four year __I_ study on mountain lion populations in Idaho Hornocker found only two instances of lion predation on rocky mountain bighorn sheep (~ornocker1970 ) . Jones (1950) thought that mountain lions had little or no effect on bighorn populations in the Sierra Nevada. No signs of predation have been found on bighorn sheep ranges on the Forest and none have been reported during the course of the field studies,

ACCIDENTAL DEATH

Several cases of accidental deaths of bighorn sheep have been found on the White Mountain winter range. The carcass of a young ram was found at the base of the lower falls on the Falls Canyon range. This ram had apparently fallen from the edge of the cliff at the top of the falls. Before striking the ground the animal fell through the crown of a water birch tree growing at the side of a large pool formed by the water fall, The remains of a small lamb was found embedded in a mud flow in the lower section of Montgomery Canyon. This flow was triggered bv a high intensity rainstorm that occurred over the area during July of 1967. It is possible that the lamb was already dead and was carried down canyon with the water and mud during the high runoff period. The carcass of a lamb was found pinned in a rock slide in Lone Tree Canyon.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 197 0 TRANSACTIONS Onlv one carcass of a bighorn has been found on the Sierra Nevada winter ranges during the past three years. This was the remains of an old ewe found in a ravine above Grover Anton Spring on the Black Canyon winter range, The carcass had been washed down by snowwater and had lodged between two large boulders on the ravine bottom, Due to the age of this ewe this probably is a natural death or possiIjly the -A'-- 1 " -r LL r.esu~cul LU~-treiilelji karsh wifiter? of 1968-1369,

Due to the precipitous nature of the terrain occupied by bighorn sheep it is assumed that accidental mortality accounts for a small segment of the herds each year,

ILLEGAL HUNTING

Accidental shooting or deliberate poaching of bighorn sheep is not considered as a population depressant due to the low level of occurrence, A mature ram was shot by a deer hunter on San Joaquin Mountain near Mammoth .in 1956, The remains of a sheep were found in Georges Creek that had apparently been used as camp meat by a party of deer hunters. Other cases such as these no doubt occur, however the number reported is very low,

DISEASES AND PARASITES

A major population depressant commonly found in bighorn sheep herds is the lungworm-pneumonia complex, Studies have shown that many bighorn herds are infected with protostrongylin lungworms (Ogren 1954, Smith 1954, Forrester and Senger 1962, Moser 1962, Buechner 1960, Berwick 1968). McCullough and Schneegas (1966) reported that lungworms were present in the Sierra Nevada herds however, the infestation was at a low level. Of forty fecal samples examined for lungworm larvae twenty-three were negative and seventeen were positive, The largest number of larvae per pellet was ten, Possibly of more significance was the occurrence of Nematodirus eggs in seven out of ten fecal samples from lambs, These thread worms inhabit the small intestine and cause loss of appetite, diarrhea, poor gains and damage to the intestinal wall,

Field observations indicate that bighorn are in good physical condition, The animals appear to be thrifty and no coughing has been heard during the field studies, Mortalities due to disease are thought to be infrequent on the Sierra Nevada ranges however more studies are needed to learn how significant the Nematodirum worm infestation mav be on the survival of the lamb crops, Collec- tions of fecal samples have been continuous during the past winter for the Mount Baxter herd. These samples will be analyzed by the California Department of Fish and Game for the presence of and Nematodirus 3. eggs and larvae,

During their field studies McCullough and Schneegas also collected fecal samples from desert bighorn sheep ranges on the Vhite Mountains, The laboratory analysis of the pellets indicated that eighty percent of the samples contained lungworm larvae, the highest count per pellet was more than one hundred, This level of infection is much greater than that present in the Sierra Nevada bighorn herds, A bighorn ram, estimated to be about 12 years old, was found dying near the White Mountain Ranch just below the Lone Tree Canyon winter range in October

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS of 1960, Examination of the carcass by biologists from the California Department of Fish and Game showed the rams' lungs were infected with enormous numbers of lungworm larvae, The cause of death was attributed to a Lungworm-pneumonia complex infection, An intensive field collection of fecal pellets is needed on the White Mountain Sheep ranges to determine the present level of lungworm infestation.

Field observations indicate that Sierra Nevada bighorns are bothered by ectoparasites, Sheep have been seen scratching their bellies, necks and ears with their hind feet. At times this action is quite violent, especially when the ears are being scratched, One very close observation on a young ram disclosed several small blood engorged insects at the base of the left ear, These were no doubt ticks of the Dermacentor species which are present in the Sierra Nevada (Storer and Ilsinger, 1

No information on the level of infectious diseases and parasites is available for the Inyo Mountain bighorn sheep herds,

HUMAN DISTURBANCE ON BIGHORN SHEEP RANGES

The effect of human uses on ranges occupied by bighorn sheep is difficult to evaluate, The major human use of the Sierra Nevada sheep ranges is for recreational purposes, This kind of use has greatly increased during the past two decades. A high standard of living and increased leisure time has enabled more people to enjoy the scenic splendor offered by the Sierra Nevada mountains, The eastern slopes of the Sierras are favored points of departure into the high country as it is a relatively short distance to the crest of the mountain range, Many of the passes and recreational use areas are located in both summer and winter ranges of the bighorn sheep. A preliminary analysis of recreational use data for the past several decades indicates there may be a real relationship between increased human use and decreased bighorn use on several areas in the Sierra Nevada, Of the five bighorn herds defined by Jones in his 1948 field survey only two have not experienced a huge increase in recreational use, These two ranges are the Mount Williamson and the Mount Baxter units, which are the most important bighorn ranges remaining in the Sierras, Baxter and Sawmill Passes in the Mount Baxter herd summer range and Shepherd and Junction Passes in the Mount Williamson herd summer range are among the least used in the Sierras, On the other hand use in the Mount Langley, Birch Mountain, and Convict Creek areas has increased at a rapid rate. Recreational use is not confined to the main trail system normally used by the commercial packers and foot parties, The increased popularity of backpacking has stimulated an increase in the number of people making cross country trips through the rough alpine areas of the Sierras, This places people into areas that were seldom visited in the past, Many of these areas are located in key bighorn sheep summer range, The amount of this use and the impact on the bighorn sheep, especially on the Yount Baxter and Mount Williamson herd areas, must be closely monitored, It may become necessary to limit human occupation on key sheep ranges if it appears that recreational use has an adverse effect on the sheep,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS FORAGE COMPETITION WITH OTHER ANIT4ALS

Competition for the available forage supply between bighorn sheep and other grazing animals has been reported as a serious problem on other bighorn ranges in the United States and Canada (Buechner 1960, Sugden 1961, Blood 1961, Demarchi 1965, Bandy 1966, Spalding and Bone 1969). The major area of forage conflict on bighorn ranges in the Sierra Nevada is between bighorn sheep, mule deer, and tule elk, At the present time, forage conflicts between domestic livestock and bighorn are virtually non-existent. It no doubt was a problem during the late eighteen hundreds and early nineteen hundreds when thousands of domestic sheep grazed the Sierra Nevada ranges during the summer months, Sheep no longer graze on bighorn ranges on the Forest and the few cattle allotments on the eastern Sierra slopes cause no problems as the major bighorn ranges are too rugged for cattle use, Due to the roughness of the terrain used bv bighorn it is doubtful if domestic livestock has ever competed for forage on the Sierra Nevada bighorn winter ranges,

Yule deer winter ranges are located along the lower eastern slopes of the Sierras, Summer ranges are mainly found west of the Sierra Crest on the neigh- boring National Parks and National Forests. The time of forage conflict comes during the winter months when deer are on their winter ranees and during the period the deer migrate between summer and winter range units, The area of conflict for forage is located where the ranges of the mule deer and the bighorn come in contact, the perimeter or fringe areas of the bighorn winter ranges. Deer rarely penetrate into the heart of the bighorn range as the precipitous and rough terrain discourages their entry, Bighorn use on deer ranges is minor as the sheep do not venture far frm their escape terrain,

The Goodale tule elk herd is found on the same area used by the mule deer as winter range. Elk also use the fringe areas of the Sawmill-Black Canyon bighorn winter range, In some places the elk use exceeds that of the mule deer. The tule elk is potentially a far greater competitor than deer for the available forage due to the amount of plant material consumed per animal. However, here again the rugged terrain of the bighorn range discourages entry by the elk and limits the area of conflict to the fringe area.

The degree of forage conflict between bighorn sheep and mule deer and tule elk is light to moderate at the present time. This is substantiated by the generally light to moderate utilization of browse plants on the bighorn winter range. The most serious conflict occurs between tule elk and mule deer on areas just below the bighorn ranges, This level of conflict will probably continue as the number of mule deer has remained static since the mid-fifties and the tule elk herds are maintained at about 300 animals under the current management program administered by the California Department of Fish and Game, In the event of increased forage conflict in the perimeter areas of the bighorn range the numbers of deer should be reduced to relieve the forage conflict problem, This can be done by special postseason deer hunts or depredation hunts due to habitat damage on the sheep ranges,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACT1 ONS CONCLUSIONS

Studies of bighorn sheep populations, present on the Inyo National Forest are not completed however several conclusions may be presented regarding their current status,

SIERRA NEVADA BIGHORN RANGES

The total number of California bighorn sheep has declined over the past several decades, The estimated numbers are thought to reflect the current conditions now prevailing on the individual herd units, The Mount Langley and Convict Creek ranges have experienced the major decline, Numbers have remained fairly static on the Mount Baxter and Mount Williamson herd areas,

The Mount Baxter and Mount Williamson herds are the most important herds in the Sierras at this time,

Strong evidence suggests that two small bighorn herds exist north of the Mammoth Lakes area, These are the Mount Lye11 herd on the Inyo National Forest and the Center Mountain herd on the Toiyabe National Forest,

Bighorn sheep winter ranges are generally in satisfactory condition with static or downward trends.

Forage utilization is within acceptable limits on key bighorn winter ranges,

Forage competition between bighorn sheep and domestic livestock is minimal,

Forage competition between bighorn sheep, mule deer, and tule elk is light to moderate on the perimeter of the bighorn winter range,

Internal parasitic infections are present but at low levels,

The effect of threadworms on lamb survival bears further study to determine if they act as a limiting factor, Ectoparasites are present to a minor degree,

Illegal hunting, accidental death, and predation do not function as population depressants,

The great increase in human disturbance and occupation of bighorn ranges has been detrimental to the sheep populations, Recreational use on the Mount Baxter and Mount Williamson herds must be closely monitored for adverse effect on the sheep populations, Should such effects occur steps must be taken to limit human use of these ranges,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS WHITE MOUNTAINS AND INYO MOUNTAINS BIGHORN SHEEP RANGE

The most obvious conclusion for these ranges is the need for intensive studies of both the sheep and their habitat,

Desert needlegrass appears to be an important food plant on winter ranges in the White Mountains.

Important winter ranges on the west facing slopes of the White Mountains are Lone Tree Canyon, Cottonwood Canyon, Falls Canyon, Rock Creek Canyon, and Montgomery Canyon,

The headwater areas of the main canyons on the east facing slopes of the White Mountains need field surveys to check their suitability as winter ranges,

Forage conflicts between bighorn sheep and domestic livestock and deer are minor on the winter ranges, Studies are needed to see if conflicts are present on the summer ranges,

Lungworm infections appear to be more severe in the White Mountain ranges than in the Sierras, This may be a major factor in limiting the sheep population on this range,

Human disturbance is relatively light in both the White and Inyo Mountains, The main source of human use stems from several mining operations in the White Mountains. The level of recreational use may increase in the future, Human use in the Inyo Mountains will no doubt remain at a low level,

LITERATURE CITED

Allen, J, A, 1912, Historical and nomenclatural notes on North American Sheep, Bull, Amere Nat, Hist,, 31 p,

Bandy, P, J, 1966, Rocky Mountain sheep mortality in British Columbia. Paper presented to the N,W, Section, Wildlife Society, La Grande, Oregon, March 25-26, 1966,

Berwick, S, H, 1968, Observations on the decline of the Rock Creek, Montana, population of Bighorn Sheep, M .S. Thesis, ~niv,Montana, gissoula, Mont, 240 p.

Blood, D. A. 1961. An ecological study of California bighorn sheep, (~vis canadensis ca1iforniana)in southern British ~olumbia,M.S. Thesis Univ, British ~olumbis, Vancouver, 127 p,

1963, Parasites from California bighorn sheep in Southern a, Canadian J, Zoology, 41:913-918,

DESERT BIGHORN COlJNCI L 1970 TRANSACTIONS Buechner, H, K, 1960, The bighorn sheep in the United States, its past, present and future, The Wildlife Society, Wildlife Monograph No, 4, 174 PI

Demarchi, R, A. 1965, An ecological study of the Ashnola bighorn sheep winter ranges, M ,So Thesis, Univ, British Columbia, Vancouver, 96 p,

Dunaway, D, F. 1969, Notes on winter food habits of Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep, Unpuh, Manus, Inyo National Forest Files, Bishop, Calif,

Forrester, D, J, and C, Senger, 1962. Bighorn and lungworn, Dept, of ~ool, Montana State Univ., Missoula 6 p,

Geist, V, 1967, A consequence of togetherness, Nat, History, 76:24-31,

Grinnell, J , 1912, The Bighorn of the Sierra Nevada, Univ, Calif,, Berkeley, Pub, Zoology No, 10,

Homnay, A, 1943, Bitterbrush in Califo~nia, Forest Service, Calif, Forest and Range Exper, Station, Berkeley, Note NO, 34, 13 p,

Hornocker, M. 1970, An analysis of mountain lion predation upon mule deer and elk in the Idaho Primitive Area, Wildlife Monographs, No, 21, 39 p,

Jones, F, Lo 1950, A survey of the Sierra Nevada Bighorn, Sierra Club Bull,, 76 p*

McCullough, D, R, and E, R, Schneegas, 1966, Winter observations on the Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep, Calif, Fish and Game, 52( 2) : 68-84.

Moser, C, A, 1962, The bighorn sheep of Colorado, Dept. Fish and Game, Denver, Tech, Pub, No, 10, 49 p ,

Ober, E. H, 1931. The mountain sheep of California, Calif, Fish and Game, l7(l): 27-39

Ogren, H, A, 1954. A population study of the Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep on Wildhorse Island, M,So Thesis, Montana State Univ,, Missoula, 77 p,

U.S. Forest Service, 1969, Range environmental analysis handbook, San Francisco, Calif,

Riegelhute, R, 1965, A reconnaissance of Siema Bighorn and bighorn ranges in the Sierra Nevada, Desert Bighorn Council Trans,, 1965,

Smith, D, R, 1954, The bighorn sheep in Idaho, its status, life history, and management, Idaho Dept, Fish and Game, Boise, Wildlife Bull, NO, 1, 154 pb

DESERT BI GHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Storer, T, I, and R, L, Usinger, 1963, Sierra Nevada Natural History, Univ, Calif, Press, Berkeley, 374 p.

Spalding, D, J , and J , N, Bone, 1969. The ~aliforniabighorn sheep of the south Okanagan Valley British Columbia, Fish and Wildlife Branch, British Columbia, Canada. Wildl, Mangt,, Pub. No, 3, 45 p,

Sugden, L, G, 1961, The California bighorn in British Columbia. British Columbia Dept , Recr and Cons, , Victoria, 58 p,

Sumner, L, and J, S, Dixon, 1953, Birds and mammals of the sierra Nevada, Univ, Calif, Press, Berkeley, 484 p,

Welles, R, E, and F. B, Welles, 1961, The bighorn of Death Valley, ~ational Park Service, UbS, Printing Office, Wash. Fauna Series No. 6, 242 p,

Wright, G, M,, J, S, Dixon, and B, H, Thompson, 1932, Fauna of the ~ational Parks of the United States: A Preliminary Survey of Faunal elations in

National Parks, U,S, Gov't, Printing Office, Wash &, D,C, Fauna Series No, 1, 157 p,

Wright, G, M, and B, Thompson, 1934, Fauna of the National Parks of the United Statesi Wildlife Management in the National Parks, UsS, Govttb Printing Office, Wash, D,C,, Fauna Series No, 2, L42 pa

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Paul A. Fodor Death Valley National Monument Death Valley, California

At the 1968 meeting, Chief Ranger Homer P. Leach discussed the spring improvement program in Death Valley National Monument. This is a progress report on what has been done in this area since that time.

Many spring developments that were installed in the past have deteriorated causing a reduction in the amount of water available to wildlife. While funds and manpower are limited, some progress has been made for restoring spring flow at springs critical to wildlife.

Research Biologist Charles G. Hansen has drawn up a list of priorities for springs needing to be reworked. This lists the springs and type of installation needed. The Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife was kind enough to lend us the assistance of Mr. Sam Heath of the Desert National Wildlife Range. Mr. Heath, who has done much work on the Desert Wildlife Range in developing springs for bighorn use, spent two days in the Monument giving us instruction in spring development.

Using the priorities drawn up by Dr. Hansen and the knowledge gained from Mr. Heath's visit, we have initiated a program of spring redevelopment and restoration. Two springs were reworked in 1969 and plans were made for others. The two worked were Navel Spring in the southern end of the Funeral Mountains and Quartz Spring in the northern part of the Cottonwood Mountains.

In 1956, approximately 75 gallons of water were made available at Navel Spring as a result of the work of Ralph Welles and Lowell Sumner. There were 30 sheep watering at the spring at that time. Since that time the metal drinking basins and pipe deteriorated to such an extent that little or no water was available, especially during dry periods. Few sheep have been seen in the area during the past few years. New installations were put in in June 1969. Using plastic pipe, mortar, and natural rock for collection and drinking basins, we made approximately 30 gallons of water available to wildlife.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Quartz Spring has long been recognized as an ancestral watering place for bighorn sheep. The spring had been developed for domestic use some time prior to 1938. A small amount of overflow was available to sheep. During the 1950's and 1960's temporary measures were taken to provide the sheep with water, but the water became increasingly scarce. In September 1968, there was about one cup of water seeping to the surface while 11 bighorn waited to drink. In October 1969, the old development was dug out and a new galvanized spring box for water collection was installed. Plastic pipe was used to pipe the water 100 feet down the canyon and out of the wash. The restored flow is 8 gph and is held in a temporary drinking basin. We will eventually construct a natural rock and mortar drinking basin for the sheep.

We plan to install installations of this type at other springs in the Monument, thereby assuring that our wildlife will have the water they need.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS UF (F DRIJGS AS A CAPTIIRE TECHNIWE FOR DESERT BIGKRN SW

H. Stevan Logsdon Biology Department Meramec Community College St. Louis, Missouri

Abstract. Drugs were tested on desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) and domestic sheep to determine a safe, effective capture technique. In domestic sheep, immobilization was obtained with phencyclidine (0.50 to 0.75 mg/lb), succinylcholine (0.15 to 0.20 mg/lb), sodium pentobarbital (oral, 20 mg/lb), M-99 (2.3 to 4.7 ug/lb) and the combination phencyclidine (0.25 to 0.37 mg/lb) and succinylcholine (0.05 to 0.14 mg/lb). Tranquilization or immobilization was obtained in captive bighorns with diazepam (5.1 to 5.9 mg/lb), sodium pentobarbital (oral, 16 to 20 mg/lb), succinylcholin e (0.3 mg/lb) and M-99 (8.7 to 12.6 ug/lb). In free-ranging bighorns, phencyclidine (1.0 to 2.0 mg/lb), succinylcholine (0.34 to 0.36 mg/lb), and M-99 (4.4 to 15.8 ug/lb) produced immobilization in 15 different individuals. The average distance sheep traveled before capture was 196.3 yards. M-99 was most effective for capturing desert bighorns and M-285 was administered as an antidote in amounts of 2% times the M-99 dose. Three deaths occurred from injuries or complications due to falling in precipitous terrain, one death from shock and/or drug effects, and one from unknown origin in free-ranging bighorns. No mortalities occurred in captive bighorns.

INTRODUCTION

This report describes results obtained with immobilizing drugs and tranquilizers on domestic sheep and desert bighorn sheep for immobilizing purposes. Initial experiments were conducted on domestic sheep to determine effective dosages, reaction times, and side effects prior to testing desert bighorns. It was assumed that physiological responses to drugs in domestic sheep and desert bighorns would be similar.

Several factors limited the number of drugs to be tested. First, only a limited amount of time was available. Second, many drugs possessed side effects which would be unacceptable in capturing desert bighorns. Third, the margin of safety of some drugs was too narrow to insure minimum losses, an important consideration for desert bighorns.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project was financed by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, whose aid is sincerely appreciated. I would like to thank personnel of the Desert National Wildlife Range, Kofa Game Range, and Arizona Game and Fish Department who contributed aid and support to the project. I am indebted to field assis- tants Michael Meloy, Gerald Keller, Steve Davis, and Glenn Gold for their untiring efforts. Results of the study were enhanced by the services of the U.S. Public Health Service, Las Vegas, Nevada. Appreciation is expressed to Dr. R. A. Herin and Joseph I.Leveque, D.V.M. for handling drugs. I am grateful to American Cyanamid Company, Ayerst Laboratories, and Hoffman-La Roche, Inc. for generously donating drugs. Also, I am indebted to Gerald I. Day for too many things to mention, but his help was greatly appreciated. Professor Dwight R. Smith, my committee chairman, encouraged me and supported the project every step of the way.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Domestic sheep were injected via hand syringes and Cap-Chur Gun equipment (palmer Chemical and Equipment Company). Also, some oral tests in water were accomplished. These drug trials were conducted February to June, 1967 at Fort Collins, Colorado.

Cap-Chur Gun equipment was used to administer drugs to free ranging and captive desert bighorns. Oral drug trials, as well as IM (intramuscular) injections, ' were conducted on six captive bighorns at the Corn Creek Field Station on the Desert National Wildlife Range, Nevada, in 1966-68. Free-ranging bighorns were tested during the summers of 1967-68 on the Kofa Game Range, Arizona and on the Desert National Wildlife Range in 1966-68. Blinds were constructed approximately 25 yards from waterholes which sheep utilize during the dry summer. These blinds allowed the author and his assistant to remain hidden when shooting projectile- syringes at sheep.

A method of oral drug administration for field use has been reported earlier (Logsdon 1967).

Some animals were marked and released at the site of capture. Plastic tape was wrapped around each horn and an ear tag attached. The ear tag provided a permanent mark, while the tape was only temporary.

For field operations, an average weight for each age class of sheep was assigned. This weight was estimated from a combination of data obtained on wild trapped sheep, hunter kills, captive and free-ranging sheep. During this study extremely moist conditions prevailed in 1967-68, which raised the average weights above those reported in the literature (Aldous, Craighead, and Devan 1958). The following weights were considered the average for desert bighorn from June to September:

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Adult Ram (3 years or older) - 180 pounds Immature Ram (2 to 3 years old) - 160 pounds Yearling Ram (12 months to 2 years old) - 110 pounds

= 11 K -n.....Pln -----Ad111 t (2 years nr elder) LL-I puULlU3 Yearling Ewe (12 months to 2 years old) - 100 pounds Lambs (0 to 12 months) - not estimated

Adjustments in weight estimates were made for extremely thin, small, or large sheep in each age class.

DRUG TRIALS ON DOMESTIC SmEP

Of the 11 drug combinations tested on domestic sheep, six were considered desirable for testing on desert bighorns (Logsdon 1969). Excellent results were obtained with phencyclidine (0.50 to 0.75 mg/lb), succinylcholine chloride (0.15 to 0.20 mg/lb), sodium pentobarbital (20.0 mgllb) and M-99 (2.3 to 4.7 ug/lb). The combination of phencyclidine succinylcholine appeared promising for immobilizing sheep. The tranquilizer diazepam was compatible with succinylcholine when used in combination to produce immobilization with tranquilization.

The following drugs were not effective in tranquilizing or immobilizing domestic sheep: chloropromazine, propiopromazine, chloral hydrate, and fentanyl-droperi- do1 combination.

M-99 was so effective in immobilizing domestic sheep it warrants further discussion. When high dosages (greater than 9.0 ug/lb) were utilized, immobilization was produced in three minutes, which is practically the minimum circulation time for IM injected drugs. A series of IV (intravenous) injections up to twice the immobilizing dose did not cause any greater effect (Table 1). It was not known if these sheep would have recovered from the massive dosages administered. However, spontaneous recovery was observed in goats given 100 to 500 times the immobilizing dose (from Wallach, Frueh and Lentz 1967).

No serious side effects were noted. M-285 was tested IV as an antagonist or antidote in amounts of 2-112 times the M-99 dose. Sheep were able to stand in an average of 1.1 minutes after being antidoted. Recovery appeared complete, but when no antidote was given, narcosis was apparent up to 24 hours.

DRUG TRIALS ON CAPTIVE BIGHORNS

A time lapse was allowed between each drug trial in order to avoid additive effects from portions of previous dosages which were not metabolized or excreted. Approximately a 2 week time lapse was allowed for tranquilizers, 1 week for narcotics and barbituates, and 1 to 4 days for neuroleptics. The muscle relax- ant, succinylcholine, was so rapidly metabolized that additional dosages could be given within 1 hour without additive effects.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Of the eight drugs tested, four proved effective in tranquilizing or immobilizing captive desert bighorns. Excellent results were obtained with diazepam (5.1 to 5.9 mgllb), sodium pentobarbital (16 to 20 mg/lb), succinylcholine (0.34 to 0.37 mg/lb), and M-99 (8.7 to 12.6 ugllb). Phencyclidine and acetylpromazine were inadequately tested to draw any conclusions. Chloropromazine and propiopromazine were not effective orally for tranquilizing desert bighorns or unstable under field conditions.

DIAZEPAM

Oral dosages in grain of 5.1 to 5.9 mgllb produced excellent tranquilization and induced sleep in two rams. Also, these sheep could be touched without awakening, Sheep No. 2, an exceptionally hyperactive animal, was more difficult to tran- quilize. A dosage of 5.0 mgllb did not induce sleep or recumbency. This animal was tested again with approximately 6.7 mg/lb in a combination of oral and IM dosages over a 9 hour period. Recumbency, but not sleep, was induced and he could not be handled. Complete recovery required 60 hours. Frequently with tranquilizers, large differences in reactions among individuals, such as listed above, can occur (Talbot 1960).

The effects of diazepam in desert bighorns were described earlier (Logsdon 1967). The following illustrates what can be expected under ideal conditions:

A captive ram was administered 5.9 mgllb of diazepam to facilitate transplanting and ear tagging operations. In 4 minutes ataxia became apparent. The ram failed to react to the presence of refuge personnel 3-112 hours later and was easily caught, ear-tagged and loaded into a truck. The drug produced an excellent calming effect.

SODIUM PENTOBARB IUL

Sodium pentobarbital was administered in 40 ounces or less of distilled water. The injectible form (alcohol base) was used since the powdered form is unstable in solution. Dosages of 8.5, 10.3, and 12.0 mg/lb resulted in temporary recumbency and varying degrees of ataxia (Table 2). Severe ataxia, immobilization and sleep were produced at dosages of 16.0, 17.0, 18.0 and 20.0mg/lb (Figure 1). However, at 16.0 mgllb the sleeping stage was short and immobilization lasted only 1-112 hours, compared to 2-112 to 4 hours at higher dosages.

Most of the immobilization period was spent in deep sleep with short periods of wakefulness. Sleeping periods ranged in length from 14 to 70 minutes, with an average of 26.7 minutes.

0 Some side effects were apparent. Rectal temperature dropped about 1 F. Heart rate fluctuated from 84 to 112 per minute and increased during periods of wakefulness. The respiratory rate was usually below the normal 25 to 30 per minute for domestic sheep at rest, dropping as low as 8 per minute in one sheep.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Two sheep showed radical changes in respiration, with the highest rate when awake and the lowest when asleep. None of these side effects appeared to endanger health of the animal.

The reaction period averaged 9.8 minutes (mode 12 minutes), and the immobilization period averaged 2.9 hours. Complete recovery required 4.0 to 10.5 hours.

SUCC INYLCHOUNE CHLORIDE

Reactions to succinylcholine in desert bighorns were typical of those reported in other species (Talbot and Lamprey 1961, Chew and Goodman 1963, Logsdon 1965). Immobilization shortly followed a leg-trembling and back-arching stage. Usually sheep collapsed or lay down in the normal recumbent position with head erect (Figure 2). As muscle paralysis increased, the head and neck became prostrate and the animal fell on its side. During immobilization leg muscles were completely flaccid. Recovery proceeded in the following manner: first, head and neck were held erect; then control of leg muscles returned and the sheep stood up, with legs held close to the body for support. Drug symptoms rapidly vanished.

Sheep Nos. 1 and 3 were tested extensively with succinylcholine. Dosages were gradually increased from 0.13 to 0.35 mgllb . Ataxia, leg- trembling, arching the back, and alternate recumbency and standing, but not immobilization, were produced. Therefore, desert boghorns show reactions to succinylcholine at dosages far below that required for immobilization. Also, it appears that tolerance to the drug was acquired by sheep No. 1 during 1966 drug trials (Table 3), since in 1967 and again in 1968 he was immobilized with only 0.34 mgllb.

The average reaction period was 7.8 minutes. Animals remained immobile for an average of 27.5 minutes. Effective projectile-syringe dosages ranged from 0.34 to 0.37 mg(1b. Hand syringe injections required only 0.25 to 0.27 mgllb to produce the same effect, or approximately 19 to 23 percent less. This should be kept in mind when extrapolating from one method of injection to another.

M-99 was tested at dosage; of 2.8 to 12.6 ugllb in captive bighorns (Table 4). Only dosages of 8.7 ugllb or higher resulted in immobilization. The antago- nists, M-285 and nalorphine, were used as an antidote for M-99. M-285 was administered in the saphenous vein in amounts of 2 to 2-112 times the M-99 dosage.

The first sign of drug effects was central nervous system stimulation (CNS reaction), manifested by sheep pacing rapidly around their pens. Ataxia occurred within 4 to 10 minutes. Torticollis developed as ataxia increased. Sheep were also prone to leaning against objects for support. Onset of immobilization was not dramatic, with sheep gradually lowering their bodies into a recumbent position. They appeared content to remain this way unless disturbed. However,

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS when approached and handled, sheep thrashed out vigorously with their legs. The addition of acetylpromazine to M-99 greatly reduced this reaction and eliminated the torticollis.

Responses of IV injections of M-285 were rapid. A marked increase in respiration was evident in 15 to 30 seconds and sheep were able to stand in an average of 102 seconds. Slight ataxia and narcosis remained for 3 to 5 hours. When acetylpromazine was added, these symptoms persisted for 8 to 12 hours.

Side effects were minimal. In two cases mild nystagmus developed while sheep were immobilized. Dilation of the pupil was common. Excessive salivation was present in two cases but not in sheep given acetylpromazine. Respiration was depressed, ranging from 16 to 36 per minute. The average respiratory rate during seven drug trials was 26 per minute. Heart rate and blood pressure were not recorded. No drastic change in body temperature was noted.

The average reaction time was 13.2 minutes. However, increasing dosages shortened reaction periods. Sheep were not allowed to remain immobilized longer than 34 minutes before the antidote was given. The average immobilization period was 19.3 minutes.

DRUG TRIALS ON FREE - UNGING BIGHORNS

During the study, 15 free-ranging desert bighorns were captured with drugs. The results obtained with each drug will be discussed separately. Deaths caused by drugs or the capturing process are discussed at the end of this section.

DIAZEPAM

After preliminary tests in captive bighorns, diazepam was tested unsuccessfully on a yearling ram. Results of this drug trial were mentioned in an earlier paper (Logsdon 1967). Day (personal communications) found considerable time and effort was necessary to capture a yearling ram with diazepam. Also, two injections were required. He abandoned this drug for use on free-ranging bighorns in favor of more effective immobilizing agents.

PHENCYCLIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE

Phencyclidine was injected into four free...rangingbighorns at dosages of 0.84 to 2.00 mg/lb (Table 5). Dosages of 1.04 mg/lb or higher produced immobilization. The drug had a wide margin of safety in bighorn sheep but produced two undesirable side effects under field conditions: loss of equilibrium and prolonged recovery. The following summary of field notes explains the seriousness of the first side effect:

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The ewe traveled slowly parallel to the slope with the author in pursuit. Twice she stopped, tilted her head back, and fell over backward but was not quite immobile enough to permit capture. ~r~2 vnnl7Tv en<-+ --A -+----A An Ln- LnmA Then she walked out IvLny ~ULLLL auu CJLU~~CU.n3 LLCL LLCQU started to tilt back, she reared over backward, fell 20 feet and struck a ledge, careened into space, and fell another 120 feet before hitting the ground. Death was instantaneous.

A11 four sheep injected with phencyclidine had this reaction of falling over backward. In domestic sheep the head tilted back during recovery but not before immobilization.

The second side effect, prolonged recovery, could be particularly hazardous in precipitous terrain. One ram (Sheep No. 67-5) captured, marked and released, required 48-1/2 hours to stand af ter an injection of 1.24 mg/lb of phencyclidine. Several times it was necessary to prop this animal upright after it rolled on its back. Another ram (Sheep No. 67-4) required 8 hours to recover. However, this animal was severely infected with scabies (Cater 1968), which may have accounted for the prolonged recovery period.

Reaction period also was prolonged, ranging from 11 to 20 minutes. Two sheep traveled over one-quarter mile before being immobilized. This could allow time

SUCCINYLCHOLINE CHLORIDE

Succinylcholine was used to capture four adult rams at dosages of 0.34 to 0.36 mg/lb (Table 6). Two of these died from complications resulting from falls. The other two rams were marked and released after capture. Another ram was injected with approximately 0.33 mg/lb but only became ataxic and could not be captured. The following summary of field notes illustrates reactions produced under field conditions:

A large ram was injected with 61 mg of succinylcholine. He ran 125 yards and stopped. Four minutes later the front legs trembled briefly. Then the sheep arched his back and collapsed, rolling 10 to 20 yards down a talus slope. He was immediately blindfolded and ear-tagged. The only side effects were slight depression of respiration and minor regurgitation. In 34 minutes he stood up, walked 10 feet, stopped, looked directly at us for 15 seconds, then ran off.

Onset of immobilization was rapid, producing only a short period of ataxia. Minor regurgitation and a slight depression of respiration (24 to 28 per minute) were the only side effects.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The average reaction period was 3.4 minutes. The recovery period for one sheep was 36 minutes. It was not known how long it took the other sheep to collapse; therefore, recovery and reaction periods could not be determined.

PHENCYCLIDINE-SUCCINYLCHOLINE

The combination of phencyclidine and succinylcholine proved effective in immobilizing domestic sheep when one-half an effective dose of each drug was mixed. This combination was tested on one free-ranging bighorn with the following results:

In August 1967 a yearling ram was injected with 57 mg (0.75 mgllb) of phencyclidine and 14 mg (0.185 mg/lb) of succinylcholine. He immediately trotted over a low ridge 100 yards away. The ram could not- be found and conditions were unfavorable for "tracking" so the search was discontinued. The ram may or may not have been immobilized. However, the dosage was safe because this same ram was seen several weeks later and captured with phencyclidine.

M-99 was the most effective immobilizing drug tested on free-ranging bighorns. Dosages of 4.4 to 15.8 ug/lb resulted in the capture of eight sheep (Table 7). Two sheep required a second injection to produce immobilization. One mortality occurred. One adult ram escaped after being injected with 2.0 mg of M-99.

The first effect was ataxia which appeared in 4 to 8 minutes. Initial fright reaction from syringe impact caused sheep to run 20 to 100 yards before stopping. Then they stood looking at the spring for 5 to 10 minutes. During this period narcosis rapidly developed, after which sheep slowly wandered off until they became immobilized. One ewe walked back and forth along a ledge in a stupor until she was captured. Immobilized sheep assumed a normal recumbent position. When sheep were haridled the hind legs thrashed out vigorously, but the front legs remained flaccid.

Rapid induction of deep narcosis produced by M-99 allowed capture of sheep at both high and low dosages. Two extremes in reaction to M-99 will be discussed in detail:

A two year old ram was injected in the hip with 2.5 mg (15.6 ug/lb) of M-99. He ran 20 yards, stopped, then walked slowly back to the spring. In four minutes ataxia became apparent. Two minutes later the ram was in a deep state of narcosis (Figure 3). He began turning in tight circles. In the following eight minutes he fell to his knees five or six times. The ram collapsed and was completely immobilized 16 minutes after being injected.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS An adult ewe was injected in the right upper flank with 1.0 mg (10.0 ug/lb) of M-99. Examination of the syringe (barbless needle) revealed fecal matter on the needle, indicating the injection was probably made in the lower secti.cn ef the intestines. In eight minutes the ewe became ataxic, but was still able to travel 200 yards from the spring. Twenty minutes later she was found lying in the shade. As she started to walk off, a second injection of 0.5 mg (5.0 ug/lb) was made in the hip. Approximately one hour later she was captured 350 yards from the spring in a standing position.

The ewe captured above was in extremely poor condition and exhibited the following signs: opaqueness in right eye, greenish yellow exudate from nostrils, back and shoulders scarred, swollen leg joints, left ear missing, papilla like growths on inside of right ear, and emaciated body (Figure 4). Considering the condition of this sheep, very good results were obtained.

The best response from the antidote M-285 resulted when 2-112 times the M-99 dosage was administered one-half IV and one half IM.

Side effects from M-99 were not serious. Torticollis, which caused animals to turn in tight circles, occurred briefly in three sheep. Even though in a deep state of narcosis, sheep traveled safely in precipitous terrain. Respira- tion rapidly returned to normal after sheep were antidoted. Salivation was not excessive in any sheep captured.

Immobilization was produced in an average of 24.0 minutes. However, this long reaction period was not a disadvantage with M-99 because deep narcosis rapidly developed after injection. In this state sheep did not travel very far. The immobilization period depended upon when the antidote was administered. Sheep were able to stand 1 to 29 minutes after being antidoted. M-285 was a better antagonist than nalorphine, with the former resulting in quicker recovery.

MORTALITY

In this study the U. S. Public Health Service, Las Vegas, provided services for complete gross necropsy and histological analysis on mortalities that occurred.

Of the two sheep that succumbed after phencyclidine injections, one ewe died directly from the results of a fall. The other sheep, an adult ram, was \extensively handled after capture. His death was attributed to general toxemia produced by shock and/or phencyclidine.

Two fatalities occurred after injections of succinylcholine. In neither case was the dosage considered an overdose. One adult ram fell 10 feet onto a ledge upon immobilization, causing nassive hemorrhage of the lungs, and death.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Another ram aspirated ruminal fluid and material while rolling down a slope, and consequently died of asphyxiation. Even though complete paralysis of skeletal muscle caused by succinylcholine is desirable for handling sheep, it is a disadvantage in precipitous terrain. Once sheep are completely immobilized, they are unable to maintain a recumbent position. If this immobilization occurs on cliffs or steep slopes, sheep may injure themselves in falling.

A yearling ram died after being injected with 6.5 mg of M-99 and 15 mg of acetylpromazine. The body temperature was 105 F just prior to death. This animal was handled extensively in order to bring it back to the Corn Creek Field Station. Gross necropsy and tissue analysis did not reveal any patho- logical condition. The rise in temperature may have caused the death directly or indirectly. Hanks (1967) reported death in waterbuck (Kobus defassa), which was attributed to acetylpromazine affecting the heat regulatory mechanism.

With the information available now, mortality rates can be reduced if these guidelines are followed:

1. Select only healthy stock for drug capture.

2. Handle sheep minimally, regardless of whether they are tranquilized or immobilized.

3. Transplant sheep only from areas with adequate access.

4. If injected sheep are not captured within one hour, discontinue pursuit.

DISCUSSION

A certain number of mortalities from accidents or hypersensitivity of animals is unavoidable. Also, some factors, such as the effects of phencyclidine, cannot be predicted in advance. Succinylcholine produced excellent results in flat terrain, but indirectly caused death in precipitous terrain.

The average distance free-ranging bighorns traveled before capture was 196.3 yards. Consequently, if the use of the above drugs were restricted to springs without precipitous terrain closer than 200 yards, mortalities from falls could be greatly reduced.

Free-ranging sheep subjected to stress from prolonged pursuit, long and rough transporting, and/or physical restraint died 8 to 24 hours after capture. The ideal situation would be to have sheep picked up at the site of capture by a helicopter and immediately transported to the release site.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS In general, tranquilizers, such as diazepam, depress the CNS but do not render the animal incapable of movement (Talbot 1960). Tranquilizers have not proven to be an efficient method of capturing free-ranging animals. However, when they are combined with immobiiizing drugs, exceiient resuits can be obtained (Harthoorn 1965). Increasing the dosage of a tranquilizer does not necessarily increase desired effects, but may cause serious side effects (Murry 1965). Tranquilizers alone do not appear to be the proper choice for capturing free-ranging bighorns.

In most cases, drugs requiring an antidote are not desirable because animals lost from view after being injected may die before they are found and antidoted. Usually, the animal must be antidoted in order to survive. This is not the 'case with M-99. Desert bighorns can survive immobilizing doses without the antidote, while with the antidote recovery is almost immediate.

Further testing of drugs on free-ranging bighorns is recommended. More data should be available for comparing the various drugs under investigation. The following drugs, in their order of importance, warrant further testing: M-99, sodium pentobarbital (orally), and succinylcholine.

LITERATURE CITED

Aldous, M. C., F. C. Craighead, Jr., and G. A. Devan. 1958. Some weights and measurements of desert bighorn (Ovis canadensis nelsoni). J. Wildl. Mgmt. 22(4):444-445.

Carter, B. H. 1968. Scabies in desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 12:76-77.

Chew, D. W. and J. D. Goodman. 1963. Studies on the effects of the drug, succinylcholine chloride on domestic sheep, related to its use as an aid in the capture of desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 7:139-144.

Hanks, J. 1967. The use of M-99 for immobilization of the Defassa waterbuck (Kobus defassa penricei). E. Africa Wildl. J. 5:96-105.

Harthoorn, A. M. 1965. Application of pharmacological and physiological principles in restraint of wild animals. Wildl. Monogr. No. 14. 78 p.

Logsdon, H. S. 1965. The immobilization and movements of the Roosevelt elk. M.S. Thesis, Humboldt State ~olle:e, Arcata. 81 p.

. 1967. Preliminary results of administering drugs to desert bighorn sheep for capture purposes. Desert Bighorn Council Trans.

. 1969. Use of drugs as a capture technique for desert bighorn sheep. Ph.D. Dissertation. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins. 173 p.

\ DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Murry, R. E. 1965. Tranquilizing techniques for capturing deer. S. E. Assoc. Game and Fish Comms. Trans. 19:4-15.

Talbot, L. M. 1460. Field immobilization of some East African wild animals and cattle. E. Africa Agr. For. J. 26(2):92-102. , and H. F. Lamprey. 1961. Immobilization of free-ranging East African ungulates with succinylcholine chloride. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 25(3) : 300-310.

Wallach, J. E., Re Frueh, and M. Lentz. 1967. The use of M-99 as an immobilizing and analgesic agent in captive wild animals. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 151(7):870-875.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Table 1. The effects of administering massive doses of M-99 (~torphine)to domestic sheep at Fort Coll ins,Colorado, May, 1967.

Time Lapse After Initial Sheep Dosage Injection No. ug W/lb Route (minutes) Effects

col 1apsed,respi ration 161 minute

no change

Total 14,880 61.5

6601 2,000 13.7 col lapsed,respiration 201 minute

2,000 no change

1,000 no change

5,000

Total 10,000 73.5

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Table 2. The effects of sodium pentobarbital administered orally to captive desert bighorn rams on the Desert National Wi1 dl i fe Range, Nevada, 1967.

Compl ete Appl ication Reaction Immobil ization Recovery Sheep Dosage Periody Periodu Periodu Period 3 No. (mg/l b) (minutes) (minutes) (hours) (hours) 2 8.5g 3.0 - ataxic only 4.0 10.3u 60.0 - ataxic only - 1 12.01/ - - ataxic only -

- 1 - antidote recovery period - from injection of antidote until the animal is standing application period - time required to consume drugged grain or water complete recovery period - from collapsing or end of appl ication period until no sign of drug effects immobilization period - from collapsing or immobilization until the animal is standing or has control of its movements reaction period - from injection or end of application period until collapsing 2 - weight estimated

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Table 3. The effects of succinylcholine chloride(Anectine) administered via Cap-Chur Gun equipment to captive desert bighorn rams on the Desert National Wi1 dl ife Range ,Nevada, summers, 1966-68.

------Reaction Immobi 1i zation Sheep Dosage Site of Period Period No. Date (mg/l b) Injection (minutes) (minutes) 1 July 30,1966 .13 hip - - Aug. 2-30 -17-.32 hip - ataxia or no effect Sept. 4 .34 hip - - 6 . 35 hip - ataxic only Aug.14,1967 .32 thigh - ataxic only 15 .34 hip 5.0 47.0

June 18,1968 .34 tai1 8.5 21 .O 2 Aug. 1,1966 . 21 loin - ataxic only 13 .26 - - ataxic only June 18,1968 .34 hip 6.0 20.5 3 July 31,1966 .16 hip - ataxic only Aug. 8-17 .20-. 26 hip - ataxic only 20 .25y hip 8.5 25.0 Aug. 26 & 28 -28 hip - ataxic only Sept.1-6 .30-. 33 hip - ataxic only 4 Aug.22,1966 .26 shank - no effect June 18,1968 .34 hip - ataxic only .37 hip 10.5 25.0 6 June 18,1968 .27y hip 8.5 26.5 3 - hand syringe injection f

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS C, L aJ rn aJ w >aJ 'I+'- a m U 0 C, 0 am aJw L I aJR C,w rncn *I-7 s -I- - E m ww mm > -aJ aJz s *I- 1:aJ am L s 0 m SCY aJ L aJ nrc %*I- UP -w LO? EZ EF m ws ss SO OOOLOOOOO m-r C, -m aJz s -r C, 1: L PaJ L v, 0 aJ wn W -aJ cnr cn C, I z s 0 % 0 n aJ v, aJ -1: 0 v, aJ % s rc L aJ 0 I: a, m I: *I- I--n

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DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Tab1 e 5. The effects of phencycl idine hydrochloride(Serny1an) administered via Cap-Chur Gun equipment to free-ranging desert bighorn sheep on the Desert National Wildl ife Range, Nevada, summers, 1966 and 7867.

Reaction Immobilization Sheep Weight Dosage Site of Period Period No. Sex (pounds) mg mg/lb Injection (minutes) (minutes) 66-1 F 114 96 0.84 hip - died 66-2 M 179 186 1.04 neck 20.0 died

67-4 M 72g 144 2.00 loin 11.0 480 67-5 M 165u 205 1.24 loin - mu 8 - sheep was able to stand 4 112 hours after the injection,other information is not available

Table 6. The effects of succinylchol ine chloride(Anectine) administered via Cap-Chur Gun equipment to free-ranging desert bighorn rams on the Desert National Wildl ife Range, Nevada, September to October, 1967.

Estimated Reaction Immobilization Sheep Age Weight Dosage Site of Period Period No. (yrs) (pounds) mg mg/l b Injection (minutes) (minutes)

67-7 7.5 180 61 .34 hip 4.0 36.0

67-8 10 166y 61 .36 hip 2.7 died 67-9 6-8 180 59 .33 thigh - ataxiconly 67-10 12 170 58 .34 hip - - le/ 67-12 5 166v 58 .35 hip 3.0 died 9 - actual weight, 10 - sheep able to stand 69 minutes after injection, other information is not known

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS m " s a, Or m ms s Id Ida I I L; CiJ E a, Id LC3 rc Id - 0% E C, 0 LL I - 03 U 0 M

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DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Table 8. Drugs tested on desert bighorn sheep and domestic sheep,

Chemical Name Trade Name Manufacturer

Muscle Re1 axant:

Succi nyl choli ne Anecti ne Burroughs We1 1come & Chl oride Company, Inc.

Tranquilizer:

Chl oropromazi ne Thorazine French, Kline & Smith Hydrochloride Lab. Propiopromazine Tranvet Diamond Lab., Inc. Hydrochloride Acetyl promazi ne Acepromazi ne Ayerst lab., Inc. Hydrochloride Droperi do1 . Inapsine McNeil Lab., Inc. Di azepam Tranimal Hoffman-LaRoche, Inc.

Hypnotic:

Chloral Hydrate Sodi um Pentobarbi tal

Neurol eptic:

Phencycl idi ne Sernyl an Park, Davis & Company Hydrochloride

Narcotic:

Fentanyl Su bl imaze McNeil Lab., Inc. Oripavine(M-99) Etorphi ne Ameri can Cyanami d Co . Norori pavine(m-285) Cyprenorphine Ameri can Cyanami d Co .

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Figure 1. Captive ram anesthetized from the effects of sodium pentobarbital.

Figure 2. Captive ram immobilized with succinylcholine chloride (note erect head).

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Figure 3. Ram in deep state of narcosis 6 minutes after injected with 2.5 mg of M-99.

Figure 4. Ewe captured in standing position after two injections (total of 1.5 mg) of M-99 (note exudate in nostril, scars on shoulders, left ear missing, emaciated body, and swollen fetlock and pastern joints).

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS

STATUS OF DESERT BIGHORN SEEP AND RECENT' HABITAT DEJELOFMENTS IN UTAH

Mayo We Call and Carl Mahon Bureau of Land Management Utah State Office, Salt Lake City, Utah District Office, Plonticello, Utah

Abstract. Reports on the history, distribution, hunter data, and recent status of the desert bighorn sheep in Utah have been presented at the Bighorn Council in recent years by Lanny Wilson, Charles Irvine, Rodney John, and others. This paper presents information on recent bighorn sheep surveys by the Utah Fish and Game Division and discussion on the water development program presently being conducted jointly by the Bureau of Land Management and the Utah Division of Fish and Game. Hunter success for the past 3 seasons (for 10 permits) has been loo%, 30%, and 67%. The largest horns taken by hunters to date scored 168-418 points Boone and Crockett, and the oldest animal taken was 13% years old. A partial survey of the bighorn sheep in southeastern Utah was conducted between November 17 and 26, 1969. These dates include the rutting period, and it was felt that during this period sheep would be better grouped and provide better survey conditions. Sixty-four bighorn sheep were sighted during a period of 64 helicopter flying hours.

The Bureau of Land Management and the Utah Fish and Game Division started a cooperative water development program for bighorn sheep in 1968, when two trial seeps were developed. In 1969 ten additional seeps and/or springs were developed.

INTRODUCTION

For the past six years personnel of the Bureau of Land Management, Utah Fish and Game Division, and Utah State University have conducted an active program of habitat surveys, studies on sheep population and distribution, food habits, water surveys and water needs, and influence of various disturbing factors and other land uses on the sheep population. As the result of this research and subsequent findings, the Utah Fish and Game Division decided that limited hunts could be held with little effect on the total population.

A continuing survey of water available to bighorns is being made. Each year new sources are found, and this information helps us to better understand sheep distribution patterns.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS It has been known for several years that sheep are often found in different locations in summer than during the spring months. This may be largely related to water availability. Many slickrock potholes, as well as some seeps and springs, do not provide usable water for sheep during late summer. The purpose of the water developments described in this presentation is to provide year around water in areas where good forage is available but where water is normally unavailable during the hot summer period. By so doing, we hope to provide the habitat factor necessary to permit sheep numbers to increase, where now the areas may only support transient spring groups.

DISCUSSION

Hunts have been held for bighorns in Utah for the past three hunting seasons. The first hunt (1967) ten permits were issued, but one hunter failed to go hunting. This hunt was conducted during the known sheep rutting period, from November 11-19. It was felt that additional information would be obtained on sheep distribution, as well as permit some reasonable degree of hunter success for the first legal Utah hunt. The results were somewhat surprising. Each of the nine hunters was successful in killing a ram, although many of the hunters had never been in the area before. Those who were present on the field trip conducted in the vicinity of Lake Powell last year will remember the vastness of the sheep habitat, the difficulty in traversing the terrain, and the difficulty in locating sheep in the multi-colored environment.

During the second year's hunt, the season was set for an earlier date (September 28-October 13), prior to the rut, and only three rams were taken. During last fall's hunting season conducted about the same dates as in 1968, six rams were harvested. Since the bighorn had long been a relatively unknown resource in Utah, there was a tendency on the part of some of the BLM and Utah Fish and Game Division personnel to provide undue assistance to the initial hunters, Without this help, I'm sure the hunter success would have been much less. This assistance from agency personnel is decreasing each year, and the hunter is now being forced to exercise more of his own personal talent in locating the quarry.

The oldest ram taken during the three seasons was 13% years old, and the ram scoring the highest Boone and Crockett points scored 168-418. These were two separate rams, both of which were killed in 1967. The largest set of horns taken in 1968 scored 155-418 points, and the sheep was only 6% years old. The best score obtained in 1969 was 160-218 and the sheep ~~11%years of age.

It has been interesting to note that about 90 percent of the 18 rams taken in Utah have had dark pelages. Some have been almost black. Since this dark coloration does not prevail in the ewes, we have wondered if the trait might be a sex-linked characteristic peculiar to desert bighorns in Utah. The rams seem to become darker with age. Hence, rams of legal size or age tend to be darkly colored. This may prove to be another means for determining tentative legality of trophies; at least it would seem to be true in the majority of cases.

DESEET BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS The Fish and Game Division conducted a bighorn sheep survey by helicopter in selected areas of southeastern Utah between November 17 and 26, 1969. This was during the rut when sheep were expected to be more grouped than at other seasons. Sixty-four sheep were observed, 41 of which were in the Eiingate Mesa research area where Lanny Wilson and Charles Irvine conducted their studies. Only 23 sheep were found in outlying areas which included Cataract Canyon, San Juan River, and the Jacobs Chair-Found Mesa area.

Of the 23 rams observed, 10 were estimated to be of legal trophy size. An additional 30 ewes and 11 lambs were found during the survey. Because of limited numbers of sheep found outside the present hunting units, it is unlikely that any additional hunting units will be established in the near future. There have been reported sightings of bighorns in several areas not covered by the 1969 survey. These areas will be surveyed when funds for helicopter flying time can be obtained. For additional information on sheep behavior observed during the survey, contact Mr. Rodney John, Utah Fish and Game Division, Salt Lake City, Utah.

Last year Josh Warburton described the wildlife habitat planning system now being used by the Bureau of Land Management. In this system specific boundaries are established for a wildlife habitat area, and then objectives are set for managing the wildlife habitat for the benefit of the most important wildlife species within that area. Close coordination with the State wildlife agency is required to be sure the Bureau's objectives in wildlife habitat management closely support the Fish and ~ame'swildlife management objectives.

One of the ~ureau'sprime concerns in bighorn areas is the effect of mining activities on the bighorn sheeps' behavior patterns. It has been noted in some states that desert bighorns have become fairly well adjusted to the presence of man and many of his activities. However, the disturbance created by man in bighorn country has not been equally received by all sheep populations. Biologists of several states feel that the desert bighorn is still largely a wilderness type animal andshies away from domestic livestock, mining operations, and other intrusions by man. We all recognize that many questions still remain unanswered. The effect of psychological or physiological disturbances on sheep is one of these. In order to give the sheep the benefit of the doubt, the Bureau is working with the uranium mining companies of southeastern Utah in an effort to reduce man's disturbance of the sheep ranges, especially during the critical lambing season. A request is being made to the mining companies to reduce exploratory mining operations as much as possible on public lands in several canyons and mesas in bighorn sheep range during the lambing season. Because the Bureau has extremely little control over mining operations, we can only hope for the best through negotiated cooperation. This is an example of one objective we are striving for in the wildlife habitat plan which encompasses the heart of the desert bighorn sheep range in Utah. BLM has the authority to segregate an area against all mining activities if there is sufficient justifi- cation. But it is unlikely that this could be accomplished in an area containing nationally important uranium and where companies are actively engaged in its extraction.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS During 1968, two trial water seeps were developed jointly by BLM and the Utah Fish and Game Division. Financing was obtained for additional work in 1969, and in that year 10 more water developments were completed. Most of these have consisted of digging back into the soils surrounding the seep, laying out a polyethyline layer of plastic to serve as a collecting basin, covering this with small rocks, tying a black plastic pipe into the polyethyline collector to transfer the water, and then covering the entire system with additional soil. The results have been very encouraging. Plows of from three to ten gallons of water per hour have been obtained from different seeps. Quality of water at all developed seeps is good and apparently satisfactory for human consumption and wildlife since nearly all strata are composed of sedimentary sandstones and clay. There was use by desert bighorns at all seeps, both before and after development. A visit to five of the water developments during the week of March 23-27, 1970, however, showed no recent use by bighorns. This was likely due to ample water in most areas during this early spring period. Further investigations on use of the developed waters will be conducted in late summer to determine the effect of available water on sheep behavior in these areas.

Equipment and materials for most developments were carried by back pack, but horse transportation was used in a few cases. Figures 1 thru 8 are examples of typical water developments completed in 1969.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Figure 1-8. Mabel Seep Development Blue Notch Canyon, Utah

1. Seep source, upper center black area, 2. Impoundment of seep lined with inside natural cave. polyethylene and filled in with rocks.

3. Pipe outlet below cave showing fiberglass 4. Aspect of installed trough. trough and installation of automatic Volume approximately 4 gallons camera recorder sensor, left of trough. per hour at time of development April 22, 1969. Trough volume 10 gallons. DESEXT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Figure 1-8 (Continued). Indian Head Seep Development Blue Notch Canyon, Utah

5. Silhouette of Indian head in 6. Rodney John, Game Biologist, on Wingate Sandstone immediately ledge. Outlet pipe inserted in north of seep. hole formed by star drill and set in mortar of dry cement anti- hydro. Seep source white sandstone at base of Wingate sandstone.

7. Plastic pipe connects three seep 8. Rodney timing water flow approxi- outlets to water trough. mately 8 gallons per hour at time of development May 20, 1969.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS STATUS ff BIGHORN IN WACALIFORNIA

Jose Rivera Oliver Jose Samano SancheH Guarda Forestal y de Caza Mexicali, Baja California Mexico

Seiior Oliver and I bring you greetings from Dr. Corzo and the United States of Mexico, and wishes for a most successful meeting.

I was sent to Puertocito ten years ago to worlc primarily protecting bighorn sheep. This work was done through checking for guns and permits. Bighorn were greatly reduced in this area by shooting. Approximately 75 percent of the shooting was done by Americans. Bighorn have many enemies in this area. They include hunters, mountain lions, and drought. Some areas have no rain for two years.

Generally there are no water developments for bighorn. We have promises of Government assistance, but to date nothing has been done in the line of water development. In some areas waterholes may be located 100 miles apart and it is a miracle that we have any bighorn in Baja.

We do not have enough personnel to give all the protection that we would like to bighorn. Often we have a shortage of funds for gas and vehicles to give the protection which is needed. We know that we must conserve the bighorn. We would like to put in some water developments and provide additional protection.

Some of the problems that are faced by the bighorn are the demands for more agricultural development, increased use of motorcycles and off-road vehicles, and poaching.

For many years we had no open season on bighorn. Then the Department of Science and Biology, in 1966, recommended that a certain number of permits for old rams be issued. From 1966 through 1970 about 200 permits have been issued, averaging about 50 a year. The cost for a permit was $500 (do'lares). Permits are good for ten days to take a mature ram. The permit area extends from latitude 31' north to latitude 260 north.

* Presented by Jose Samano Sanchez.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS We need to do more work on bighorn in Mexico. We have learned some of the potentials and opportunities for protecting and enhancing bighorn sheep through attending Desert Bighorn Council meetings and learning of the work that has been done by other workers,

Hunting is economically important to Baja California. The area receives $2,500,000 (pesos) for hunting for ducks, doves, and game birds. In addition, we receive $10,000 (pesos) more for bighorn hunting. The penalty for illegally taking a bighorn sheep is $10,000 (pesos) fine, 5 years in jail, which can be reduced by a payment of $100 (pesos) per day, and loss of the car, guns, or equipment used in taking bighorn. However, illegal hunting continues to be a serious problem. Poachers and illegal hunters use helicopters and radios. In addition, they have built landing strips in the bighorn areas. We are faced with trying to catch hunters that have planes and helicopters while all we have is a burro. If we don't do something to improve the situation, I doubt if we will continue to have bighorn.

Since 1966, the situation has been somewhat better. We have seen bands of 25 rams or so. We think that we have approximately 2,000 sheep in the area between 31° north latitude and 26O north latitude. However, there are few large rams. Most of the animals are ewes, lambs, and young rams.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS ARIZONA DESERT BIGHORN SHEEP STATUS REPORT

George W. Welsh Arizona Game and Fish Department Kingman, Arizona

Abstract. Four hundred sixteen desert bighorns have been harvested in Arizona during 16 years of hunting. The average age is seven years.

Activities in each of the five regions in the Arizona Game and Fish Department, which have sheep populations, are discussed concerning bighorn surveys, hunts and problems.

Research on bighorn sheep in Arizona is directed toward drug use for capturing and sectioning incisor teeth as an aging technique.

"Progress" and human disturbance have been, and could be, causes of a major decline of Arizona's bighorn populations in many areas.

Ninety-six developments to benefit desert bighorns have been constructed throughout the state.

Ten sheep have been released into the 112 acre enclosure at Aravaipa. Six sheep remain.

A drop-net was tried from a helicopter for the purpose of capturing sheep.

The Arizona Desert Bighorn Sheep Society participated in seven bighorn watering projects.

INTRODUCTION

Arizona has been hunting desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) since 1953. During these 16 years 416 sheep have been harvested by 1,033 hunters for an overall hunter success of 40.3 percent.

Since 1957, 368 sheep were aged by horn growth rings and the average age is estimated at seven years (if our aging technique is correct).

On a statewide basis, 170 hours of helicopter flight time were expended in 1969 and 662 sheep were classified. One hundred eighty three hours will be flown

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS this year.

Sheephunting in Arizona, as elsewhere, is becoming increasingly popular. For the past four years the number of applicants for the roughly 81 to 86 permits, which are authorized yearly, has jumped from 581 to 888 to 1,170 to 1,376. The chance of getting drawn for one of these permits was 16:l in 1969.

Region 11.

The known sheep areas of this region lie north of the Colorado River and west of the Grand Canyon National Monument.

Aerial surveys in this unit have so far been very unproductive with only three sheep observed; however, 17 bighorns were seen by ground surveys between Whitmore, Snap, and Pierce Canyons in 1968. None were observed in 1969.

The 1970 surveys will be conducted late this spring by vehicle, foot, and horseback, with an additional 15 hours by helicopter.

Sightings are infrequent due to the vastness and inaccessibility of this remote area.

Two five-permit hunts have been held in the past two years and a total of three rams was harvested.

Region 111.

This region lies in northwest Arizona and contains four sheep hunting units. Generally it is the area around Lakes Mead, Mohave, and Havasu, and the Colorado River which connects them.

Between 15 and 20 permits are authorized each year in this region.

Surveys have resulted in somewhat increased observations during the last few years. This is attributed primarily to the increased experience of the observers in their use of the helicopter.

Hunt results have remained stable. There are still some unsolved problems with hunters that take smaller than "trophy" rams, but at this time, we have no solution to the problem.

Our overall bighorn populations appear relatively stable; in a few areas they may be increasing slightly. We have observed some increased mortality during the past two years due to highways and fencing.

We are continuing our water development program and are planning to construct a number for use by desert bighorn sheep. At least fifteen water developments are proposed and hopefully, will be completed within the next five years.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS NOTE - If the subdividers keep going at their present rate, we may have to sell the catchments as bar.-b-que areas and swimming pools.

The major prohlems of sheep mmgemmt 2re those asseciated with "pr~gress". These are current and increasing human disturbance factors which must have an adverse effect on sheep in some of our areas. The Aubrey Hills area, below Lake Havasu City, is experiencing high use by dune buggy enthusiasts, boaters, campers, and subdividers. A new highway will soon be completed, along with larger State Parks developments. New boating facilities are being planned by the National Park Service in some of our good sheep areas. New roadway systems are being planned along the Colorado River and in the Lake Mead National Recreation area.

It is believed that these proposed roadways will have an adverse effect on not only desert bighorn sheep, but on most other forms of wildlife found in these areas.

This may sound somewhat pessimistic, but it is rather discouraging to look at some of these situations knowing that in all probability great losses are going to occur and the only thing to prevent them may be an agency's land-use policy.

In regard to the mortalities mentioned earlier, I have been trying to gather as much information as possible over the past fifteen years on some of the mortalities caused by the influences of man, other than legal hunting. My information includes poaching, drownings in man-made impoundments, road kills, sheep caught in fences, and bighorns that died of known or apparent causes and ones that were found dead with no known cause.

I have been collecting data from both Arizona and southwest Nevada. These data cannot be subjected to statistical scrutiny, but so far the 107 observations are broken down as follows:

Shot (illegal) 42 39.2% Road Kills 22 20.6% Caught in Fences 17 15.9% Drownings 14 13.1% Natural Accidents 12 11.2% Total 107 100.0%

No conclusions are drawn from this breakdown, except that civilization is making significant inroads into bighorn habitat. Aside from the natural mortality, 88.8 percent is the direct result of human interference. The collection of these data will continue and it is hoped that in the future enough information will be collected to make a worthwhile publication contribution.

Reeion IV.

This region is located in the southwest corner of Arizona, and at present

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS contains ten sheep hunting units. It also contains the majority of the sheep in Arizona. Fifty sheep tags were issued in this region last year.

Helicopter sumjeys are in progress there EOW, b~tin 1968 582 bighorns were classified, and 481 in 1969. One hundred three hours of helicopter flight time were used in 1968.

Unit 39 - Marico~aMountains.

Over 50 sheep were seen in 1968 and 1969. The lamb crop was slightly above 50 percent and population seems to be increasing somewhat.

Ten permits were issued and six sheep were harvested, one of which was illegal. Most of the hunting, confined to the Maricopa Mountains, does not seem to be hurting the population.

One problem encountered is that hunters are reporting their kills in mountain ranges other than where the sheep were actually killed. This seems to be a common practice, especially among guides who do not care to reveal where the sheep are killed.

Unit 40A - Sauceda and Sand Tank Mountains.

This is an excellent sheep area. However, surveys dropped 'off in 1969 for no apparent reason.

The hunters are averaging about 55 percent success over the past three years. There were seven kills made in 1969 out of 12 permits.

Unit 40B - Sierra Pinta Mountains.

There is not a great number of sheep in this unit. Sheep habitat is widely dispersed and the sheep seem to move a lot. They are found in different ranges each year. Lamb crops usually run around 50 percent at survey time.

The hunt has averaged about 50 percent success over the past three years, with four permits per year.

Unit 40C - Aguila, Crater, Mohawk, Copper, and Tinajas Altas Mountains.

This is another unit with widely dispersed bighorn habitat. Sheep numbers in the west end of the unit appear to be declining due to human influences. Sheep populations along the eastern edge have not fluctuated.

Hunter success was 100 percent in 1968, and 60 percent in 1969. Five permits were issued each year.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TEUNSACTIONS Unit 41 - Eagle Tail, Little Horn, Tank, Palomas and Mohawk Mountains, and the Buckeye Hills.

Fair numbers of sheep have been seen over the past four years with fairly good lamb crops. The habitat is widely dispersed. The number of permits has been reduced from ten to seven to five in the past three years.

Two rams were harvested in 1969, and only one in 1968. Sheep populations appear to be declining in this unit.

Unit 42 - Harauahala Mountains.

There are just scattered observations in this mountain range, with no hunting and a few sheep managing to hang on. The Region IV Supervisor terms it as: "Ekcellent historic range".

Unit 43A - Castle Dome Mountains - Kofa Game Range.

Fair numbers of sheep are seen and there are good lamb crops. The rams seem to drift in and out of this unit. The Supervisor's overall rating is: "Holding its own".

Unit 43B - Trigo and Dome Rock Mountains.

This unit has been hunted since 1953 and is still holding up very well. Permits have been reduced in the past two years because hunters are taking legal, but not trophy rams.

This unit has excellent sheep numbers.

Unit 43C - Kofa Mountains - Kofa Game Range.

This is an excellent sheep unit. The habitat is good, sheep densities are high, the lamb crops are generally good, the hunt success has held up well, and many good trophy heads come from the Kofas.

Unit 44 - Harcuvars, Planet Peak, Gibraltar, and Buckskin Mountains.

Fair numbers of sheep are seen on surveys, but the overall population is declining. The lamb crops, as a rule, are poor.

There is a lot of human interference in this area. The Parker Strip Honda Rentals, mining interests, and Sunday Plinkers are thought to be the major influences.

There have been no rams taken in this unit in the past three years. The overall rating is poor, The population is declining, and the trend seems irreversible.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Plans are still in the process of being drawn up for a 256 mile Colorado River Parkway from Davis Dam to the International Boundary at San Luis, Arizona.

From Parker Dam to San Luis, the potential for game management within this parkway is disasterous .

This area, to be administered by the National Parks Service, would be eliminated from thehunting scene and contains good desert game concentrations.

The roadway would leave irreparable scars through excellent bighorn sheep habitat. It has been well shown in other areas that masses of people and bighorn sheep are not compatible, and the parkway would bring many thousands of people into this sheep habitat. The parkway, as proposed, is wholly undesirable.

Region V.

This region lies in south central Arizona and has only one sheep hunting unit with ten permits.

Unit 39 - Estrella Mountains and Buckeye Hills.

Bighorn sheep habitat, is limited in this region to two small mountain ranges.

In the Estrella Mountains, sheep observations have dropped ' from 31 to 22 to two in the past three years. The 1970 surveys are in progress now.

The unit has been open to bighorn hunting for many years, but 1967 and 1968 were the only two years that hunters harvested any sheep. Three were taken in 1967 and six in 1968. All kills were made in the southern portion of the Es trella Mountains.

Region VI.

There is, at present, only one sheep hunt unit in this region, with four permits. This area lies on the outskirts of Tucson.

Unit 33 - Catalina Mountains.

In recent years fXve permits per year have been authorized for this unit; however, in 1969, the number was reduced to four.

The population has been estimated at 40 animals. Helicopter surveys have never produced very many sightings, and the best information in the past has come from reliable hunters.

The Regional Supervisor is confident that the herd is holding its own despite the ever increasing human harrassment.

? DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS At present the Pusch Ridge area, where the sheep are found, is easily accessible and well used by weekend shooters and hikers. Several boys were seen rolling boulders into former sheep beds at the base of a cliff. These boys aiso tampered with a sheep water catchment tank recentiy constructed. Such intrusion upon the sheep habitat and harrassment could be a distinct welfare problem to the Pusch Ridge herd.

In addition, there has been an application submitted to the U. S. Forest Service for a tramway with a restaurant at the top in the Pusch Ridge area. The Regional Supervisor feels that it is economically not feasible at the present time, but, with the increasing population growth in the Tucons area, it may become plausible within the next few years. It is felt that such an undertaking would have a negative effect on the sheep.

Of special interest, is the fact that one of the leading Tucons conservation clubs wants to make the Catalina Mountains a wilderness area; however, other groups are joining them in their fight to preserve the sheep habitat.

Unit 36B - South Central Arizona, Northwest of Nogales.

At present no sheep occupy this unit, although portions of it were historical bighorn habitat.

Unit 36C.

Desert bighorns may or may not be present in this unit at any given time. The topographic backbone of the major mountain, the Baboquivaepis, serves as a boundary of Units 36C and 38, the Papago Indian Reservation. It is known that some sheep have survived in this area, but move on and off the Reservation where they are subjected to unlimited hunting by the Papago Indians.

Unit 37A.

The Ragged-Top-Wolcott Complex is the center of the sheep population in this unit; however, the habitat is limited to less than four sections. Bighorn numbers have been declining since 1964, and at present it is estimated that no more than six to twelve occupy the unit.

Because of human encroachment, there is little future kor the sheep in this unit and it will probably become another area of historical bighorn habitat.

Unit 37C.

This area encompasses the Table Top, Sawtooth and West Silverbell Mountains. Bighorn observations have dropped from eight in 1967 to one in 1969. Human encroachment will probably seriously interfere with sheep populations in this unit also.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Research

Arizona's research program on desert bighorns has been aimed mainly at capture work with drugs and developing an aging technique by sectioning teeth.

Jerry Day has been pioneering the drug work in Arizona for a number of years and is locally known as "the pusher." Jerry still recommends M-99 for bighorn capture work and hopes to combine it with Haloanisone (a tranquilizer) and try it this summer. He thinks it should eliminate the "shock" problems that were experienced in 1968.

Ron Smith, Game Research Supervisor for our Department, has been staining cross sections of bighorn incisors taken during the 1968 hunt. Ron found that the cemetum layer on the bighorn incisors is much thinner and the incremental lines are more irregular than in deer and elk.

At the present time, and with the small sample size involved, the annuli and horn ring counts show no significant correlation. However, he plans to use known-age animals and try some variations in the cut.

Special Services Division

Two major problem areas affecting the desert bighorn sheep are within the Land and Water projects scope of responsibility. These are large water development projects and the associated human disturbance, and highways.

Water development projects which are apt to create conditions detrimental to bighorns are the Osborn Wash Reservoir and Granite Reef Aqueduct features of the Central Arizona Project. A pumping station at Havasu Lake would transport water to the top of Buckskin Mesa and into Osborn Wash Reservoir. An open, but fenced, canal would transport the water to Phoenix. The losses to bighorn which are anticipated will result from human disturbance in the reservoir area and drowning losses in the canal.

The existing highways and right-of-way fences are a problem; however, a major objection should be registered with the proposed Colorado River Parkway and Scenic Road System. This National Park Service project would follow the general route of the Lower Colorado River. The anticipated effect would be an intrusion of human activity in the Trigo and Needles Mountains areas as well as a general increase in recreation use of the Colorado River area, already suffering from a staggering influx of people in the last three years.

Development Branch

It is felt that water is the limiting factor in our desert areas. It can be demonstrated that water developments have greatly benefitted deer and game bird populations in the desert ranges? and it must be assumed that the waters developed for sheep are enhancing their habitat also.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS During approximately the last twenty years, the Department's Development Branch has been constructing and maintaining water storage impoundments in our desert sheep area.

To date, 73 developments have been built. These include a spring, a cistern, three windmills, four death traps eliminated, 13 potholes, 15 escape ramps in the Mohawk Canal, and 35 rainwater catchments ranging in size from 2,000 to 17,000 gallons.

In addition, the Bureau of Land Management has cooperated with the Arizona Game and Fish Department in the construction of 16 water catchments of various designs through the purchase of materials.

Game Management

The Aravaipa bighorn sheep holding pasture in Unit 31 was constructed in 1957. A six foot fence encompasses the 112 acres.

As of March 18 of this year, the enclosure contained six bighorns: one mature ram, released into the pasture as a lamb in 1960; two adult ewes, both captured with Cap-Chur equipment--one in the summer of 1967, and one in the summer of 1968; a yearling ram, born there in 1969; a two year old ewe born in 1968; and a lamb born in March of this year.

Prior to the 1967 release of a ewe, eight sheep had been released into the enclosure and one lamb born; however, only the mature ram is now present from those first sheep.

A ewe-lamb, born in March 1969, disappeared and, as yet, the remains have not been found.

This spring another capture technique was tried on Arizona bighorns. This was the use of a drop-net suspended from a helicopter. The apparatus, designed for a Bell super-charged helicopter, was a 15 foot square, 2% inch mesh cotton net. The net was suspended by two points on a boom rig attached to the skids. While the chopper was in flight, the net planed under the skids; in a hover, the net hung vertically. Two partial days were used to test drop the net to learn the characteristics of the net fall.

About six hours were flown on March 5 and 6 in the Sauceda Mountains. Twenty-three sheep were classified and two drops were made, but with no success. The target animals were yearling and two-ye-ar-old ewes, but usually they were with other ewes and lambs, and were avoided.

The reaction of the sheep was as predicted. They usually ran to inaccessible terrain or huddled under palo verde trees. One drop was on a palo verde to spook the sheep out--it did!

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TWSACTIONS With the net suspension used, it was difficult to get low enough in rough terrain or over trees to be sure of a hit. It was agreed that if the net were held tighter against the skids (perhaps with a four point hook-up) it would be possible to get lower and have a better chance of netting the sheep.

A tranquilizer was carried on board the chopper so that if sheep were caught, they could be given an injection. The method does show promise and, with modifications, will be tried again next year.

Other Activities

The Arizona Desert Bighorn Sheep Society has undertaken seven water development projects in cooperation with the Arizona Game and Fish Department. These projects are coordinated through the Department's development project as to the location of sites and priorities. Where necessary, the Department supplies the materials and heavy equipment, and the Society provides the manpower, the enthusiasm, and the beer!

These projects are accomplished on weekends, and the men provide their own transportation, personal equipment and expenses.

Another undertaking of the Society is the annual "Sheep Hunter Clinic," held to inform and instruct prospective hunters and other interested people how to look for, spot, stalk, and judge trophy rams.

This small group of dedicated sportsmen cannot be praised too highly for their efforts and concern for the betterment of bighorn sheep and its habitat.

This group received the Arizona Wildlife Federation Conservation Award in cooperation with the National Wildlife Federation and Sears Roebuck Foundation for outstanding contributions to the wise use and management of the ati ion's natural resources in 1969.

The following contributed data presented in this report:

Anderson, R. (1970) - Wildlife Manager, Nogales. Barnes, T. (1970) - Region V Supervisor, Phoenix. Bristow, B. (1970) - Land and Water Projects Supervisor, Phoenix. Day, Go I. (1970) - Research Biologist, Tucson. Endress, R. (1970) - Region VI Supervisor, Tucson. Houzenga, J. (1970) - President, Arizona Desert Bighorn Sheep Society, Scottsdale. Landrith, T. 0. (1970) - Wildlife Manager, Flagstaff. Martin, W. M. (1970) - Region I11 Supervisor, Kingman. Neal, K. S. (1970) - Wildlife Manager, Tucson. Schadle, D. (1970) - Development Supervisor, Phoenix. Smith, R. (1970) - Game Research Supervisor, Phoenix. Stair, J. (1970) - Wildlife Manager, Tucson. Weaver, R. (1970) - Game Management Biologist, Phoenix. Welsh, G. W. (1970) - Wildlife Manager, Kingman. Yeager, M. (1970) - Region IV Supervisor, Yuma.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Jack C. Turner Philip L. Boyd Deep Canyon Desert Research Center Palm Desert, California

Abstract. Information relevant to water economy of desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) in the Santa Rosa Mountains was gathered in this study. Observations were made on the frequency sheep utilized a particular waterhole, amounts of water consumed, and preformed water found in the food. Comparisons were made with data from domestic sheep, the donkey, and the camel.

INTRODUCTION

The Santa Rosa Mountains form the southern boundary of the Colorado Desert and have perhaps the densest population of bighorns tn the State. Summer air temperatures often exceed 43O C. Only scant erratic precipitation, 3-8 inches per year, occurs during winter months and the remainder of the year is characterized by drought.

The importance of surface water to bighorns has been well documented (Jones, -et -al, 1957; Halloran and Deming, 1958; Welles and Welles, 1961; Bradley, 1963; Blong and Pollard, 1965). Summer water requirements are greatly increased due to increased day length, aridity, rate of evaporation, and increased rutting activity. Although there are numerous observations of food habits and short term water frequencies, relatively little qualitative information is available on water balance in bighorn.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bighorns were watched from July 28 to September 5, 1969 at a waterhole in Bradley Canyon. Residents of Bradley Canyon established this watering trough in 1965. The trough received immediate use the summer of the same year. The sheep which frequent this waterhole are probably a portion of the bighorn population from the Magnesia Spring area, 1-3/4 miles to the southeast. Due to constant harrassment by hikers and campers, bighorn no longer utilize the Magnesia Spring.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Two distinct groups of bighorn, totaling 25 sheep, were observed to use the waterhole. They were divided into eight classes on the basis of body size, horn conformation, sex and age (Table 1). Body weights were estimated visually and are accurate to at least 5 kg.

A camouflaged wash tub, calibrated at 500 ml increments, was placed next to the existing waterhole and received immediate acceptance by bighorn as a water source. A similar tub covered with chicken wire served as an evaporation control.

Bighorns were observed frequently enough and at sufficiently close range as to make identification of individuals possible.

Additional watering sites from a 1953 survey on bighorns were obtained and checked for utilization. Areas around the waterholes were brushed and checked periodically for signs of use.

On the basis of observation, the most frequently con umed plants were ranked as to their relative importance in the diet of the bighorns. Samples of these plants were dried at 70'~ to constant weight to determine water content.

Fresh fecal samples were collected and total water content was determined by drying the pellets to constant weight at 70'~.

AND DISCUSSION

In order for an animal to remain in water balance, water lost through the formation of urine, production of feces, and evaporation, must equal water gained through the food (preformed and metabolically produced) and consumed by drinking. Bighorns obtain very little preformed water from their food (Table 2). Dry browse is characteristically poor in easily digestable nutrients and is high in cellulose. Although domestic sheep are more efficient at digesting forage of low quality or low protein content than are most ruminants (Alexander, g &, 1962), a low nutrient diet incre rate (Brody, 1945; Dukes, 1955). The concomitant increase of of increased metaboLism increases the evaporative water loss through the respiratory tract.. The utilization of dry browse may therefore provoke an f additional encumbrance upon the water economy of bighorns.

There are no diurnal desert mammals currently known to satisfy their water demands soleson metabolic water; however, metabolic water is most important in the water balance of several nocturnal rodents (Schmidts -Nielsen, 1948 and 1951; Carpenter, 1966; MacMillen, 1967; Koford, 1968).

Most all desert ungulates are restricted to close proximity of surface sources of water. The dik-dik, oryx and eland of Africa are known to survive in the absence of free water (Taylor, 1969; Tinley, 1969). This relates to the succulent nature of their food, behavioral modifications and physiological tolerances.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNIIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS

GMS. Hz0 PER 100 GMS. IMPORTANCE GENERIC NkNEC COMMON NAME DRY WEIGHT IN DIET

Tamar ix pent andr a S.alt cedar XX Cercidium floridum Palo verde XX Acacia greggii Cat Is-claw X Ephedra aspera Ephedra XXX Bebbia juncea Sweetbush XX Encelia farinosa Brittle bush XXXX Larrea divaricata Creosote bush X Euphorb ia polycarpa Spurge XXX Festuca sp. Fescue XXX Schismus barbatus Rye grass XXX Stipa speciosa Spear grass XXX S immonds ia chinensis Goatnut Xxxxx Chilops is linearis Desert willow X Franseria dumosa Burro-weed XXX

Table 2: Grams of water per 100 grams dry weight contained in plants most frequently consumed by the observed desert sheep. Plants were air dried at 70°C to constant weight. Importance in diet was based on a scale of five, most import ant, to one, least import ant.

ANIMAL HYDRATED DEHYDRATED

Camel 109.2 Donkey 181.0 Kangaroo Rat ----- White Rat 225 .O Cow(Grazing) 566.0 Man 200.0 Desert Bighorn -----

Table 3: Water content of the feces of various animals. All amounts are expressed in grams of water per 100 grams of dry weight. (Schmidt-Nielsen, -et -al., 1956) +:Mean value of 25 samples (this study).

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Such mechanisms may be operative in bighorns, but have yet to be demonstrated.

The contribution of metabolic water to the water balance of bighorns is probably small. Domestic sheep have a digestive coefficient of 0.60 (Alexander, -et -,a1 1962) Assuming a similar value for bighorn, only 60 percent of the metabolic water available can be utilized for meeting physiological 'demands.

In herbivores that have a high percentage of roughage in their diets, water lost through the feces is one of the major avenues of water loss. Although the degree of hydration of bighorns was not known, they are capable of producing feces approaching the dryness of those produced by a dehydrated camel (Table 3). Camels during the winter are able to balance their fecal water loss with metabolic water and preformed water from their diet. In summer, fecal water loss exceeds this gain by nine percent (Schmidt-Nielsen, 1957). If bighorns can balance summer fecal water loss with gains associated with diet, body water would be conserved and dependence upon free water reduced.

Only ewes were observed to urinate. This relates in part to their role in rutting behavior. During the study, no ram was ever observed to urinate. It was assumed the rams urinated so infrequently and in such small volumes that it went easily undetected. Welles and Welles (1961) have also made similar observations. Presumably the urinary water loss is small.

Bighorns are capable of consuming large volumes of water, although the amount of water consumed by individual sheep is quite variable (Table 4). Analysis of the data showed that this variation was due to two factors: Small animals drank less per unit weight than large ones, and the longer the sheep remained away from water, the more they consumed at their next visit. Although a ram consumed the largest volume md weight relative percent of water, large amounts of water in relation to body weight were consumed by smaller animals.

The weight of water drunk, expressed as a percent of body weight and corrected for the time interval between visits, proved to be remarkably constant between animals of comparable size and was independent of sex (Figure 1). The conclusion is that sheep drink to replace lost body water. This is accomplished in a brief period of time.

Rate of water loss per day is dependent upon time spent away from water (Figure 1). The curve becomes asymptotic at four percent body weight per day. This would infer that a minimum of four percent of the bighorn's body weight in water is required per day in order to remain in water balance. This kind of measurement could be valuable in the evaluation of habitat or improving habitat.

The frequency with which individual sheep drank at the waterhole varied. Young sheep were conspicuous by their absence during extreme temperatures. The infrequent use of the waterhole suggests the utilization of another waterhole. Studies have indicated that bighorns are restricted to within one mile

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS

I PER CENT BODY WT. LITERS Hz0 BODY WT. SEX KG. CONSUMED CONSUMED

TWO DAYS ABSENT FROM WATER

THREE DAYS ABSENT FROM WATER

FOUR DAYS ABSENT FROM WATER

FIVE DAYS ABSENT FROM WATER

Table 4: Volumes of water consumed by individual sheep and per cent body weight of water consumed based estimated body weights of hydrated bighorn. I

(% Body weight of water consumed = Weight of water consumed x 100) Body weight

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Figure 1. Water consumption expressed as percent body weight consumed 195 per day away from the waterhole. Symbols indicate body weight range of individual bighorn.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS of a watering site during dry periods (Jones, -et -9a1 1957). Welles and Welles (1961) have pointed out that rams often travel up to 12 airline miles making the "rut run" between waterholes. Although the only other source of water was 7.8 airline miles to the south, evidence does not suggest that sheep utilized this additional source of water. The distance sheep can move away from water is undoubtedly influenced by terrain, temperature, aridity, size of sheep populations and other environmental factors. Although the availability of free water greatly limits the ranging of bighorns in the summer, other environmental factors can also modify ranging patterns.

The occurrence of an early September rain (1.67 inches) scattered the sheep into small groups of two or three and dispersed them over a much larger area. Use of the waterhole stopped. Rainfall reduced the dependency upon the few scattered waterholes and permitted the sheep to utilize greater areas.

Although there was little change in the ephemeral plants upon which the sheep relied heavily before the rain, many other plants increased their succulence and set new foilage. Since bighorns appear to be opportunistic herbivores, they could realize an increase in preformed water in the food which would have the effect of reducing their dependence upon free water. The dependence was further reduced with the approach of winter, by lower ambient temperatures, and by a reduction in evaporative water loss.

LITERATURE CITED

Alexander, R., J. Hentges, J. McCall, and W. Ash. 1962. Comparative digestivity of nutrients in roughages by cattle and sheep. J. Anim. Sci.

21(2): 373-376. I

Blong, B. and W. Pollard. 1968. Summer water requirements of Desert bighorn in the Santa Rosa Mountains, California, in 1965. Calif. Fish and Game. 54(4): 289-296.

Bradley, G. 1963. Water metabolism in desert mammals, with special reference to the desert bighorn sheep. Desert Bighorn Council Trans. 7:26-39.

Brody, S. 1945. Bioenergetics and growth. Reinhold: New York. 1023 p.

Carpenter, R. 1966. A comparison of the thermoregulation and water metabolism in the kangaroo rats, Dipodomys agilis and D_. merriami. Univ. of Calif. Pub. Zool. 78:l-36.

Dukes, H. 1955. The physiology of domestic animals. Comstock Publishing Assoc. : Tthaca, New York. 1020 p.

Geist, V. 1968. On the interrelation of external appearance, social behavior . and social structure of mountain sheep. Z. Tierpsychol. 25:199-215.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS Halloran, A. and 0. Deming. 1958. Water development for desert bighorn sheep. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 22(1):1-9.

Jones, F., G. Flitner, and R. Gard. 1957. Report on a survey of bighorn sheep in the Santa Rosa Mountains, Riverside County. Calif. Fish and Game. 43(3) : 179-191.

Koford, C. 1968. Peruvian desert mice: water independence, competition, and breeding cycle near the equator. Science, 160: 552-553.

MacMillen, R. and A. Lee. 1967. Australian desert mice: independence of exogenous water. Science, 158:383-385.

Schmidt-Nielsen, Bodil, K. Schnidt-Nielsen, A. Brokan, and H. Schneiderman. 1948. Water conservation in desert rodents. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol. 32: 331-360. . 1951. A complete account of the water metabolism in kangaroo rats and an experimental verification. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol. 38: 165-182. , T. Houpt, and S. Jarnum. 1956. Water balance of the camel. Am. J. Physiol. 185: 185-194. . 1957. Body temperature of the camel and its relation to water economy. Am. J. Physiol. 188:103-112.

Taylor, C. R. 1969. The eland and oryx. Sci. Am. 220(1):88-95.

Tinley, K. 1969. Dik-dik, Madoqua kirki, in southwest Africa: notes on distribution, ecology, and behavior. Madoqua. 1:7-33.

Welles, R. and Florence Welles. 1961. The bighorn of Death Valley. U. S. Nat. Park Serv., Fauna Ser. 6:242 p.

DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL 1970 TRANSACTIONS

Chairman : William Graf, San Jose State College, San Jose, Calif. Vice-Chairman: Hatch Graham, Forest Service, San Bernardino, Calif. Past-Chairman: Ralph and Buddy Welles, Beatty, Nevada Secretary-Treasurer: W. Glen Bradley, Nevada Southern University, Las Vegas, Nev.

H. Graham (Chairman), C. Hansen, N. Simmons, R. G. Perez, J. Blaisdell, J. Day, R. Weaver, W. G. Bradley

Arrangements : H. Graham (Chr.), D. Dunaway, T. Chamness Program: W. MacGregor (Chr.), J. Blaisdell, G. Welsh, N. Papez Transactions: J. Yoakum (Editor), R. Brechbill, W. Graf, C, Hansen, N. Simmons, S. Logsdon

Year Location Chairman Secretary-Treasurer 1957 Las Vegas, Nevada M. Clair Aldous 1958 Yuma, Arizona Gale Monson & W. Kelly 1959 Death Valley, California M. Clair Aldous Fred Jones 1960 Las Cruces, New Mexico Warren Kelly Fred Jones 1961 Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico John Van den Akker Ralph Welles 1962 Grand Canyon, Arizona James Blaisdell Charles Hansen 1963 Las Vegas, Nevada A1 Ray Jonez Charles Hansen 1964 w,Baja Calif. ,, Me* Rodolfo Hernandez Corzo Charles Hansen 1965 Redlands, California John D. Goodman John P. Russo 1966 Saver City, New Mexico Cecil Kennedy John P. Russo 1967 Kingman, Arizona Claud Lard John P. Russo 1968 Las Vegas, Nevada Ray Brechbill John P. Russo 1969 Monticello, Utah Ralph & Buddy Welles W. Glen Bradley 1970 Bishop, California William Graf W. Glen Bradley

Bighorn Trophy: 1960 Ralph and Florence Welles, U.S. National Park Service, Death Valley, Calif. 1962 Oscar V. Deming, U.S. Bureau Sport Fisheries &Wildlife, Lakeview, Oregon 1965 John P. Russo, Arizona Game and Fish Department, Phoenix, Arizona 1966 Charles Hanson, U.S. Bureau Sport Fisheries & Wildlife, Las Vegas, Nevada 1968 Steve James, Jr., Fraternity of the Desert Bighorn, Las Vegas, Nevada 1969 M. Clair Aldous, U.S. Bureau Sport Fisheries &Wildlife, Washington

Honor Plaque : 1968 Nevada Operations Office, Atomic Energy Comission, Las Vegas, Nevada 1969 Pat Hansen, Bighorn Illustrator Specialist, Death Valley, California INSTRUCTIONS FOR CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL TRANSACTIONS* 200

General Policy: Original papers in the field of the desert bighorn sheep and its habitat are published in the DESERT BIGHORN COUNCIL TRANSACTIONS. All papers presented at the Council's annual meetings are eligible for publication. Additional papers may be published when reviewed and approved by the Transactions Committee. Papers in excess of 10 pages a copy will be charged to the author at the current cost per page unless authorized by the Transactions Committee. Papers must be submitted to the Editor at the Council's annual meeting to be considered for the current edition.

Copy: Type manuscripts double space throughout with 1%-inch margins all around on good quaiity paper 8% x ii inches. Number pages in upper right-hand corner. Proceed from a clear statement of purpose through procedures, results, and discussion. Sequence of contents: abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, literature cited, tables and figures. Type author's complete address on upper left-hand corner of first page. The author's name and his affiliation at the time the paper was performed follows the title. Present address, if different, should be indicated in a footnote on the first page.

Style: Guides to the rules for preparation of copy (capitalization, abbreviation, punctuation, tables, formulas, and literature cited) are the Style Manual for Biological Journals (prepared by the Committee on Form and Style of the Conference of Biological Editors). Consult the 1967 TRANSACTIONS for examples of prevailing style. The authority for spelling is Webster's Third New International Dictionary, unabridged. -Title: The title should be concise, descriptive, and not more than 10 words in length. Avoid scientific names in titles if possible.

Footnotes: In general, avoid footnotes by incorporating such material in the text.

Acknowledgements: Include acknowledgements at the end of the introduction.

Scientific Names: Vernacular names of plants and animals are accompanied by appropriate scientific names the first time each is mentioned (see Style Manual for Biological Journals).

Abstract: Instead of a summary, an abstract should accompany all articles. The abstract should be an informative digest of significant content. It should be able to stand alone as a brief statement of the conclusions of the paper.

References: When there are less than three references, insert them in parentheses 'where needed in the text by author, year, publication, volume, and pagination. Three or more references are grouped alphabetically by authors ' last names under "Literature Cited". Use initials only for given names of authors, except for women's names, which wil& be spelled out. Cite books as follows: authors, date, title, publisher, place and paging. Paging must accompany direct quotes. To facilitate search of the literature it is highly desirable that paging be shown'for paraphrased citations within the text. Show number of pages in theses. When necessary it is permissible to cite unpublished reports. Include source, paging, kind of reproduction (type-written, mimeographed, or multilithed), and place where filed.

Tables: Prepare tables in keeping with the size of the TRANSACTIONS pages. A good table should be understandable without reference to the text. Long tables are rarely of general interest, short lists, with pertinent comments, are preferable.

Illustrations: Illustrations should be suitable for photographic reproduction without retouching or redrawing (see the TRANSACTIONS for examples). Illustrations exceeding 8% x 11 inches .are not acceptable. Line drawings or graphs should be in India ink, on white drawing paper. Only essential photographs for half-tone illustrations will be acceptable because of the cost of reproduction. Submit prints of good contrast on glossy paper and properly label.

Proof: All papers will be reviewed for acceptable format by the Transactions.Committee. Submit papers to the Editor, Bureau of Land Management, Post Office Box No. 1551, Reno, Nevada. Should papers be returned to authors for minor format corrections, please return corrected manuscript within 30 days.

Reprints: Minimum orders of reprints are available at printing costs providing the author submits his requests at the time of submission of manuscript.

Editorial Policy: All manuscripts submitted for publication will be reviewed by the Transactions Committee. The committee will primarily review all papers for format (in accordance with these instructions), and secondly will, when deemed necessary, provide advice only on contents.