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Hot Particles & the Cold Doc-11.qxd 1/21/99 10:25 AM Page 43 INVESTIGATING FALLOUT FROM NUCLEAR TESTING HOT PARTICLES & THE COLD WAR BY PIER ROBERTO DANESI ntering the next century, stratospheric fallout. The first more than 2000 nuclear consists of aerosols that are not Etest explosions of various carried across the tropopause sizes and varieties will have been and that deposit with a mean recorded. Nearly all of them residence time of up to 30 days. were conducted during the Cold During this time, the residues War period ending in the 1990s. become dispersed in the latitude Atmospheric nuclear tests band of injection, following dispersed radioactive residues trajectories governed by wind into the environment. They are patterns. Stratospheric fallout partitioned between the local arises from particles that later ground (or water surface) and give rise to widespread global the tropospheric and fallout, most of which is in the stratospheric regions, depending hemisphere where the nuclear on the type of test, location, and test was conducted. It accounts yield. The subsequent for most of the residues of long- radionuclide composition precipitation carrying the lived fission products. between the time of a nuclear residues leads to both local and Nuclear fallout results in the detonation and the time global fallout. Concentrations exposure of people to samples are collected for 43 of certain radionuclides can radioactivity through internal radiochemical analysis. A result in formation of “hot irradiation (due to inhalation process called fractionation particles” — tiny bits of of radioactive materials in air causes samples of radioactive materials containing radioactive or ingestion of contaminated residues to be unrepresentative chemical elements. food) and external irradiation of the detonation products. Local fallout includes large (by radioactive materials Fractionation begins with radioactive aerosols, particles present in surface air or the condensation of radioactive which are generally deposited deposited on the ground). and inert material from the within about 100 kilometers of Extensive studies in these areas fireball. The mixture may the test site. Local radioactive have been done. begin to separate while contamination at nuclear- In the case of nuclear testing, condensation is still in progress weapon test sites additionally is evaluations of the nature of the because of the influence of attributed to safety trials of primary event typically include wind, gravity and the nuclear devices that often analyses of radioactive material turbulence of the atomic dispersed fissile material. This deposited on the ground. Such cloud. Further separation of material is released in various studies are problematical, the condensate occurs through forms, including plutonium however, because there can be various processes, including vapour, plutonium aerosols of significant alteration of contact of the residues with various sizes, plutonium oxide inert material. particulates, plutonium-coated Photos: A marker at the former When the atomic cloud is particles, and sizeable lumps of nuclear test site in Maralinga, formed, the processes of plutonium-contaminated southern Australia. At the structural material destroyed Mururoa test site in French Mr. Danesi is Director of the by the test explosion. Polynesia, an IAEA team IAEA Seibersdorf Laboratories Global fallout encompasses collected soil samples for analysis near the Agency’s headquarters in both tropospheric and of hot particles. (Credit: Danesi/IAEA) Vienna, Austria. IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 Doc-11.qxd 1/21/99 10:25 AM Page 44 cooling, condensation, Information on the physico- STUDIES IN SOUTH coagulation, mixing, and chemical form is limited. AUSTRALIA separation take place After deposition, particles are From 1953-63, the United simultaneously but to different subject to weathering and the Kingdom conducted a pro- extents in different regions of associated radionuclides are gramme of nuclear-weapon the cloud. Furthermore, the mobilised over time. The particle testing at Maralinga and Emu initial radioactive products composition, possible structural in South Australia. At these change in elemental form changes, and the chemical sites, now completely rehabili- through processes of conditions at the deposition site tated, nine nuclear explosions radioactive decay. will influence the weathering and several hundred smaller- Hot particles. Scientific rate. Moreover, the mobilised scale trials were performed. understanding of the radionuclides can also interact While the major explosions fractionation phenomena is with soil and sediments. had a yield between one and important for interpreting Most models assessing the 27 kilotons, the minor trials global fallout and the nuclear transfer and consequences of only involved the burning and chemistry of the detonation radionuclide contamination explosive dispersal of uranium, process. It is also useful for assume that the radionuclides plutonium, and short-lived evaluating contamination and are present as ionic or low radionuclides. The ingestion hazards. molecular weight species. This environmental consequences of Variations in size and type of may easily lead to an these trials were extensively particles are accompanied by overestimation of the short- studied by the Australian variations in radiochemical term consequences of the Radiation Laboratory (ARL) composition, according to radiological contamination. and have been the subject of a fractionation patterns. The On the other hand, if the number of publications. nature and concentrations of particles are rather inert, as The most significant radionuclides, together with the often the case, the transfer of plutonium contamination at 44 size and shape of particles, are in radionuclides will be delayed Maralinga resulted from a turn the factors determining the until weathering occurs. series of twelve safety trials in inhalation or ingestion hazard. Consequently, the assessment which 22 kg of plutonium Other important scientific of the long-term consequences (and a similar quantity of information concerns the of radiological contamination uranium-235) were released chemical form in which can be underestimated. into the environment. The radionuclides are present in the It is then apparent that material was dispersed by particles. The radionuclides unless the role of hot particles conventional explosives and present in hot particles are in is taken into account, model little or no nuclear reactions general relatively inert compared predictions can be affected by took place. Plutonium was to ions, atoms and low significant uncertainties. ejected vertically to altitudes molecular mass species that are The presence of hot particles up to 800 meters and was more mobile and easily available. may also render invalid some dispersed by the prevailing To assess short- and long- assumptions made when winds over considerable term consequences of dealing with soil and sediment distances. This caused the atmospheric fallout — and in contamination. This includes contamination of considerable particular the leakage of the frequent assumption that portions of land. Plutonium radionuclides from hot the scaling of surface or mass could be found many particles — detailed physico- activity concentrations to units kilometers away from the chemical information on this of various magnitudes (for detonation points. source term is essential. example, from Bq/cm2 to ARL identified plutonium in Usually, characteristics of Bq/m2 or Bq/km2 and vice basically three forms — as source terms have been versa) is a legitimate operation. superficially coated on materials restricted to inventory The following examples such as pieces of metals, plastic, estimates, activity levels, or illustrate specific approaches wire, and lead bricks that were activity concentrations of for studying hot particles at part of the experimental IAEA BULLETIN, 40/4/1998 deposited radionuclides. nuclear-weapon test sites. assemblies; as tiny fragments or Doc-11.qxd 1/21/99 10:25 AM Page 45 particles, not always visible to the 241) and for biological uptake. plutonium-239 in the form of eye but easily detectable by a Five sub-millimeter particles finely divided plutonium and gamma monitor; and as very with activities ranging from 30 plutonium oxide. Although finely dispersed material Bq to 5 kBq were also analysed extensive cleanup operations consisting of contaminated soil by proton-induced X-ray were done in 1982-87, particles and recondensed emission spectroscopy to gain plutonium hot particles were left plutonium particles in the same information on their elemental on the surface of the Colette size range as the soil itself. composition and homogeneity. region and in the adjacent sand Samples of this material were In these particles, which were bank in the lagoon. collected and separated by several hundreds of microns in As part of the international sieving down to a diameter of diameter, plutonium and Study, the residual 45 micrometers to determine uranium were found contamination in the terrestrial mass and activity homogeneously distributed on environment of Mururoa and concentrations. Results showed the surface. The major Fangataufa, including the that the greatest mass was elements identified were Colette region, was assessed by generally associated with the aluminum (1.8%), potassium a team of scientists. A sampling 250-500 micrometers fraction; (2.3%), calcium (1%), iron campaign was organized and however, most of the activity (23%), lead (1.9% to 35%), coordinated
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