Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion

PAVEL PTÁČEK, ALEŠ LÉTAL, FLAVIO V. R UFFINI and KATHRIN RENNER

Abstract This article presents selected topics of the Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion. By means of over 40 maps and fi gures of the most important socio-economic and natural indicators as well as concise interpretations, the Atlas shows the developments over the last 20 years as well as visualising disparities within this heterogeneous and changing region. The University of Olomouc and EURAC research elaborated this Atlas together within the scope of the Carpathian Project (EU INTERREG III B CADSES). The atlas represents an extensive harmonised database focused primarily on the socio-economic aspects of the Carpathian space. It presents the region’s advantages and potentials, and addresses the challenges of region in an innovative and coordinated manner. The Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion contributes to the overall analysis of the Carpathian region and facilitates the implementation of the Carpathian Convention by the policy makers. In addition, the Atlas of the Car- pathian Macroregion represents a tool helping to develop the follow-up activities in the Carpathian space providing comprehensive and concise information base for areas such as population development, tourism development, cultural heritage, transborder cooperation etc.

Carpathian Macroregion, atlas, maps and fi gures, socio-economic and natural indicators

Zusammenfassung Atlas der karpatischen Makroregion Dieser Artikel behandelt ausgewählte Themen des Atlasses der karpatischen Makroregion. Anhand von mehr als 40 Karten und Abbildungen der wichtigsten sozio-ökonomischen und natürlichen Indikatoren mit kurzen prägnanten Interpretationen zeigt der Atlas die Entwicklungen im Verlauf der letzten 20 Jahre und veranschaulicht dabei die Disparitäten innerhalb dieser heterogenen und sich verändernden Region. Die Uni- versität von Olomouc und die EURAC-Forschung erarbeiteten diesen Atlas gemeinsam im Rahmen des Karpaten-projektes (EU INTERREG II B CADSES). Der Atlas bildet eine umfassende harmonisierte Datengrundlage, die hauptsächlich die sozio-ökonomischen Aspekte des Kar- patenraumes erfasst. Er zeigt die Vorteile und Potentiale der Region und beschreibt in innovativer und koordinierter Form die Herausforderun- gen der Region. Der Atlas der karpatischen Makroregion trägt zur Gesamtanalyse der Karpatenregion bei und erleichtert den Politikern die Umsetzung der Karpatenkonvention. Ferner ist der Atlas der karpatischen Makroregion ein Instrument, das durch eine umfassende und solide Informationsgrundlage für Bereiche wie Bevölkerungsentwicklung, Tourismusentwicklung, Kulturerbe, grenzüberschreitende Kooperation usw. zur Entwicklung von Folgemaßnahmen in dem Karpatenraum beiträgt.

Karpatische Makroregion, Atlas, Karten und Abbildungen, sozio-ökonomische und natürliche Indikatoren

Introduction nomic prosperity without the loss of its Carpathian Macroregion delimita- This article presents selected topics of natural and cultural characteristics. The tion the Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion. Atlas was elaborated in the context of the The Carpathian Macroregion (CM) ex- This large mountain region represents International Framework Convention on tends for approximately 450,000 km2 one of the most important biodiversity the Protection and Sustainable Develop- and stretches beyond the area of the hotspots in Europe. At the same time ment of the Carpathians. The conven- . It includes eight the region experiences comprehensive tion, agreed under the lead of UNEP/ countries: Austria, the Czech Republic, changes in all sectors since the collapse REC-Vienna, aims towards a sustainable , , , Serbia, Slo- of the old political system. The Atlas development of the Carpathian mountain vakia and the . The Macroregion attempts to document those changes as region. The University of Olomouc and is defi ned according to the administra- well as showing the current situation. EURAC research elaborated this Atlas tive regions of the Carpathian area in By means of over 40 maps and fi gures together within the scope of the Car- order to have a larger analytical database of the most important socio-economic pathian Project (EU INTERREG III B and to enable the participation of region- and natural indicators as well as concise CADSES). The Carpathian project in- al governments and their entire adminis- interpretations, the Atlas shows the de- tegrated European spatial development trative areas within the project. Each of velopments over the last 20 years as well policies with the management of the Car- the Carpathian countries has a distinct as visualising disparities within this het- pathians’ fragile mountain ecosystems administrative division originating from erogeneous and changing region. in a transnational context. Some repre- its individual historical development and The main challenge for the Carpathi- sentative maps and topics were selected contemporary view of effective adminis- an Region is to manage those signifi cant to give a better picture of Carpathian tration. Despite considerable differences changes to achieve a sustainable eco- Macroregion. in number, size and autonomy level of in-

108 Europa Regional 17(2009)2 Fig. 1: Administrative division (NUTS 3) of the Carpathian Macroregion Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion dividual administrative units, a compari- are the kraje, in Hungary, the megyék, in called the Tisia Massif (in the Danube son is possible through the EU NUTS Poland, the województwa, in Romania, basin). The folding of the mountains oc- (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for the judeţe, in , the kraje and in curred in several stages and was com- Statistics) and LAU (Local Administra- the Ukraine, the oblasti. pleted in the Tertiary. The Southern Car- tive Units) systems, which are defi ned in pathians folded during the fi nal phase. all Carpathian countries aside from Ser- Natural Conditions bia and the Ukraine. For Serbia and the The Carpathian Macroregion is most sig- Geology Ukraine, data from local administrative nifi cantly infl uenced by the Carpathian The Carpathians are made up of three units were used where available. Austria mountain chain. The name “Carpathi- geological belts. The outer fl ysch belt is is a federal country comprised of nine ans” was fi rst recorded as Karpates composed of sedimentary rocks such as self-governing regions (Bundesländer). oros in the second century by the Greek sandstone, claystone and pudding stone. The other Carpathian countries are uni- astronomer and geographer Ptolemy. The central belt consists of metamor- tary states with varying levels of decen- Similar to the Alps, the Carpathians phic and igneous rocks and it is here tralisation. The lowest units are always have risen from a Mesozoic geosynclinal that the highest peaks of the mountain self-governing municipalities. Between sea. The curved shape of the Carpathian range are found. The inner belt is com- the municipality and state level are one range is due to the presence of older, posed of mainly volcanic rocks, typical or two hierarchical levels of administra- more resistant parts of crust. These are of the Western Carpathians. In the East- tive territorial units, out of which one the Bohemian Massif in the northwest, ern Carpathians, the fl ysch belt is more level (NUTS2 or NUT3) is typically self- the Ukrainian shield in the northeast and developed. The central belt only occurs governing: in the Czech Republic they the Moesian platform in the southeast, within the massifs near the Romanian-

109 Ukrainian border. The inner volcanic the largest inner basin of the Carpathi- one of the most pressing environmental belt is strongly represented, running ans. The lower Danube lowland Câmpia problems. The most extensive and se- continuously from the Slovak Vihorlat Română (or Vlaška nizija) is the collec- vere wind erosion occurring in Romania to Romania. The tive name given to the lowlands along the and Ukraine (steppe formation – collec- lack both the outer fl ysch and the inner lower Danube from the Iron Gate. tive open fi elds). Moderate wind erosion volcanic belt. This entire area has risen areas exist in southern Moravia (Czech since the Pliocene by approx. 1,000 m Climate and Hydrology Republic) and Hungary. Water erosion, and the tectonic lift continues in some The climate of the Carpathians and its such as sheet and rill erosion, occurr less areas. It is mainly in the Eastern Car- surrounding lowlands and basins is rath- in this region. pathians where the dynamic develop- er continental. The Carpathian mountain ment becomes apparent in earthquakes. range, however, is more humid than the Seismic Activity The area of Carpaţii de Curbură in the lowlands and basins. Precipitation lev- The seismic hazard map (SHAP) shown Arc Carpathians experiences frequent els rise with altitude and decrease from in Figure 3 was taken from the SHAP of seismic activity. A catastrophic earth- west to east. The western regions record the larger Europe-Africa-Middle East quake (magnitude 7.2) with its epicen- an average annual precipitation of 700- region,itself part of the global GSHAP tre at Munţii Vrancei hit the region on 800 mm, while the southeastern regions hazard map. The seismic hazard values March 3, 1977, claiming over 2,000 lives. average 350-400 mm and mountainous indicate peak ground acceleration with On the inner side of the curved Carpathi- areas average 1,000-1,200 mm (up to a 10 % probability of exceedance in 50 an mountain range lies the Panonian Ba- 2,100 mm in the Tatras). Virtually the en- years. It is obtained by combining the re- sin, created in the catchment of the Dan- tire area belongs to the Black Sea catch- sults of 16 independent regional and na- ube. It covers the Paleozoic Tisia Massif. ment (the Danube), with only the north- tional projects. The region is infl uenced This area was submerged by Mesozoic ern and northwestern parts (Odra/Oder) by a highly active tectonic zone in the and Tertiary seas, as evidenced by exist- belonging to the Baltic Sea catchment. East Mediterranean Region. The highest ing sand and clay sediments that reach The largest river is the Danube. The risk area is located in Romania, with a 3,000 m in thickness. The area subsides largest lakes are situated in the Pannon- particularly active seismic Vrancea re- and is fi lled with Quaternary sediments, ian Basin: Balaton measuring 592 km2, gion in the south-east of the Carpathians. reaching depths of 1,000 m in Alföld. Neusiedlersee/Fertő-tó at 221 km2 and This region is among the most active in The outer side of the Carpathian chain Velencei-tó at 27 km2. Europe. The strongest earthquake ever from Austria to Romanian Moldavia is recorded here was on January 23, 1838 known as the Outer Carpathian depres- Nature Conservation and occurred at a depth of 70-80 km. sion. It bears sea sediments and is also In the Carpathian Macroregion, natural Other zones are connected to active tec- covered by Quaternary fl uvial and eolic areas protected at the national level have tonic zones by deep faults. There are sediments. the status of national parks, protected other active zones in the Pannonian Ba- landscape areas or nature reserves. The sin, where the Komárno earthquake oc- Geomorphological Division majority are linked to areas of cultural curred on June 28, 1763. Generally, the To this day, no consistent geomorpho- or primeval forests. While national seismic actvity in the region is connect- logic division of the Carpathians exists. parks are designated in all Carpathian ed to the tectonic uplift of the Carpathian In the Czech Republic, Slovakia and countries, other types of protected ar- and Alpine mountain regions. Poland, categorization into the West- eas differ slightly. The Czech Republic, ern, Eastern and Southern Carpathians Slovakia, Poland, Romania, and Serbia Land Use is common. Romanian geography dis- designate nature reserves. A similar cat- The CORINE land cover data was used tinguishes Northern, Eastern, Southern egory, nature zapovednik, is designated in the analysis. This data, provided by and Western Carpathians, with the latter in the Ukraine, and in Hungary, nature the European Environment Agency, does describing the range between the rivers conservation areas are identifi ed. Forest not cover Ukraine. Totalling the land use Someş and Danube. The pass reserves are also designated in Hungary values for the Carpathian Macroregion is regarded as the divide between the and Romania. Romania, however, also excluding Ukraine revealed that over Eastern and Southern Carpathians. The protects certain areas as scientifi c re- 55 % of the area is used for agriculture Carpathians are characterised by a mid- serves. In the Ukraine, the term national (arable land, vineyards, trees plantations, mountainous relief shaped by rivers and biosphere zapovednik is used. Protected pastures, etc.). Approximately 38 % is slope erosion. The highest peaks of the landscape areas are designated in Aus- covered by forests, delineated as follows: Carpathians are currently being lifted up tria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Po- 57 % broad-leaved forest, 23 % conifer- by 4-10 mm/yr. Pleistocene glaciations land, and Hungary, nature parks in Aus- ous forest, 20 % mixed forest. Most of occurred in the Tatras, Munţii Rodnei, tria, Romania, and Serbia, and landscape the forests coincide with the Carpathian Munţii Călimani, Munţii Făgăraşului, parks in Poland, Ukraine, and Serbia. mountain range. Over 6 % of the area has Munţii Parângului and Munţii Retezatu- been developed or has a potential for set- lui. The Pannonian Basin within the Car- Natural and Anthropogenic Risks tlement, and over 1 % is covered by bod- pathian chain exhibits lowland character, and Hazards ies of water and wetlands. with Alföld (Great Hungarian Plain) Soil Erosion The CORINE programme also pro- forming the main part of the basin. The Soil erosion by water, wind and tillage vides data on land coverchanges, which Transylvanian Plateau in 500-600 m a. s. affects both agriculture and the natural took place between 1990 to 2002. This l. is an independent area and represents environment. The impact of soil loss is data identifi es areas where both signifi -

110 Europa Regional 17(2009)2 Fig. 2: Protected areas Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion cant and minimal changes in land use ised and small land holdings were kept. the former Austrian-Hungarian Empire took place. Although the changes affect Polish agriculture and landscape cultiva- where clear cutting was common. Af- only 2 % of the total area, they indicate tion was maintained during socialism, ter reaching harvest age (between 70 future development trends that may af- which is refl ected in the minimal land to 160 years), entire areas were cut and fect the landscapes in this region. use changes between 1990 to 2000. new trees planted. Newly planted forests, Austrian territory within the area of The greatest landscape structure however, are not identifi ed as forests on interest experienced only minor changes changes are seen in the Czech Republic, aerial and satellite images, which were due to minimal social and land owner- Slovakia and Hungary, due to several the basis for the CORINE data. These ship variations. A similar situation pre- key factors. The fi rst factor is transfer of areas were therefore classifi ed as “scrub vails in Poland, although land usage did land ownership (restitutions). The sec- or herbaceous vegetation”. change in the regions of Bielsko-bialsky, ond is the reduction of landscape cultiva- Assessing future landscape develop- Krakowskotarnowski, Nowosądecki, tion subsidies which during the socialist ment, several trends can be identifi ed. As Krośnieńsko-przemyski and Rybnicko- period were applied unilaterally without regional economies evolve throughout jastrzębski. Despite a radical change respect to climatic or soil conditions. The the area of interest, artifi cial surfaces are in Poland‘s political regime, land use third factor is a lucrative subsidy policy expected to increase, especially in low- changes were not as apparent here as provided during the 1990s that encour- land areas near cities. In post-communist they were in other former socialist coun- aged the grassing of agricultural land in countries those areas have been growing tries. The reason for this is a differing areas less suitable for plant production. exponentially at the expense of arable land ownership system. In Poland, col- The fourth factor involves the method land. In Poland, the Czech Republic, lectivisation of agriculture was not real- of forest management in countries of Slovakia and Romania, developments

111 Fig. 3: Seismic Hazard Map Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion manifested themselves in suburbanisa- access to the same and by the disappear- (100.3). It was higher in the Serbian and tion and the construction of new traffi c ance of shops and services in small de- in Austrian Carpathians and lower in the infrastructures. Pressure to increase the populating municipalities. Furthermore, Ukrainian and Slovak Carpathians . The availability of arable land for the produc- outward migration of younger family old age index value refl ects the differen- tion of plants that enhance alternative members can put them in a vulnerable tial impacts of longstanding patterns of sources of energy can be expected. position in terms of access to offi cial rural-urban and urban-rural migration. services and the availability of informal In 2005 the distribution of the old age Age Structure assistance from outside the home when index was rather uneven and achieved Declining fertility rates and increasing this is needed. its highest values in the easternmost and life expectancy have contributed to a sig- The phenomenon of ageing is thus southernmost areas of the Carpathian nifi cant ageing of Europe’s population. If a big challenge for modern societies. It Macroregion. on the one hand an ageing population can be measured through the old age in- Higher proportions of older people can be seen as one of humanity’s greatest dex, a dynamic indicator that describes in rural areas result from two general achievements, on the other hand elderly the demographic structure of a region processes. On the one hand, there are people are frequently considered a costly and consists of the ratio of the over-64 areas which are ageing as a result of burden, especially in terms of healthcare to the under-15 population, multiplied signifi cant outward migration of young- and social security expenditure. In ru- by 100. The average old age index in er people. Examples are the Serbian ral areas the autonomy of elderly people the area under study was 89.4 in 2005, districts of Zajecarski, Pomoravski and may be compromised by the remoteness a value which was signifi cantly lower Branicevski, where in 2005 the old-age of their place of residence, by diffi cult than that of the Alpine Convention Area index reached levels of 240, 177 and 172

112 Europa Regional 17(2009)2 Fig. 4: Land use Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion respectively. In these areas the political be attributed both to the decline of the share of the population with secondary and economic crisis of the 1990s and healthcare system following the 1998 educational level with the school-leaving the negative effects on the labour mar- Russian economic crisis and the abuse examination and TE represents the pro- ket of privatization and economic re- of tobacco and alcohol. portion of the population with a terti- structuring augmented the brain-drain ary education. Thus the index can have phenomenon. On the other hand, there Educational Structure a value from 1 to 4 where a value of 1 are areas where the high old age index The Education Index expresses the gen- refers to all population having a primary is the result of the inward movement of eral level of education of a population, educational level and a value of 4 means older people following retirement. Two including all levels of education from all population having attained a tertiary examples are Burgenland and Waldvier- primary to tertiary. The defi nition of education. An important consideration tel, which host many elderly retired the Educational Attainment Index (EAI) is the national defi nition of each level people who have converted their sum- stems from the relative signifi cance of education which, in general, favours merhouses into permanent residences of four individual educational catego- post-communist countries and penalizes in order to enjoy the better quality of ries and is calculated as follows: EAI = Austria. Post-communist countries, es- environment. The Ukrainian oblasts 1 × PE + 2 × SE + 3 × SES + 4 × TE, pecially Ukraine, consider graduates of constitute a special case in which the where PE is the proportion of the popu- post-secondary technical schools terti- old age index is affected by relatively lation with primary educational level, ary education graduates. This practice is low life expectancy at birth, amounting SE represents the population with sec- not used in Austria. It is therefore impor- to only 62 years for males and 74 for ondary educational level without the tant to stress that the results are not fully females in 2003. The causes of this can school-leaving examination, SES is the comparable.

113 Fig. 5: Old Age Index 2005 Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion

Throughout the 87 regions of the Car- 29th place and Wien (2.07) in 43th place. with lower levels of education is found pathian Macroregion, the index of edu- Signifi cant distribution of secondary in Serbia (1.42). cational attainment varies from 1.42 education without the school-leaving ex- (Braničevski okrug) to 2.60 (Bratis- amination may be one reason why these Cultural Heritage lavský kraj and Bucureşti). Fifty-four regions rank a lower education index. In In the last 10 years the number of (54) regions, representing 62 % of the the metropolitan region of Wien, a third UNESCO World Heritage cultural sites interest area, showed a value larger than of the inhabitants have only a primary in the Carpathian Macroregion has dou- than 2.00. It should be noted, however, educational level. Generally, regions bled. By 2007 there were 30 listed cul- that some values in Ukraine are misrep- ranking 6th through 20th show a high tural and natural sites the Carpathian resented: the Ukrainian census data does proportion of secondary education and a Macroregion. Only cultural sites which not differentiate between secondary edu- relatively low proportion of both primary can demonstrate outstanding univer- cation with or without the school-leaving and tertiary levels of education. As the sal value and uniqueness can be listed. examination; secondary education was proportion of secondary level of educa- A given heritage site must meet at least regarded as one category and was as- tion without the school-leaving exami- one of ten selection criteria. By ratifying signed the signifi cance of 2.50. The result nation rises, the value of the index de- the UNESCO World Heritage Conven- of this index is thus likely heightened. In scends and the population with primary tion each country pledges to conserve fact, a higher proportion of population educational level increases. World Heritage Sites situated within its with secondary education without grad- The lowest values of the index are territory and to preserve its national her- uation exam may be assumed. found in those regions where the popu- itage. The World Heritage Convention The highest index values are reached lation with primary educational level has been in existence since 1972. More in the metropolitan regions of Bucureşti, dominates (more than 45 %) and where a than two-thirds of all UNESCO sites are Bratislavský kraj, Budapest (all 2.60) and signifi cant proportion of population has clustered in the western Carpathians. Kraków (2.59). These are followed by attained secondary education without The fact that there are fewer listed World the regions of L‘vivs’ka oblast‘, Braşov the school leaving examination. The two Heritage sites in the eastern Carpathians and Košice. Other signifi cant metropoli- remaining categories of higher educa- does not necessarily mean that there are tan areas rank lower: Jihomoravský kraj tion have maximum proportion of 9 %. fewer sites of outstanding value. One (2.24) in 11th place, Beograd (2.13) in A signifi cant concentration of regions possibility is that certain countries have

114 Europa Regional 17(2009)2 Fig. 6: Index of Educational Attainment 2001 Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion to date been more active in applying for funds, and certain ideological views (e.g. an part of the Carpathian Macroregion. and successful in obtaining listing for Ceauşescu’s plans to transform Romania They include 2 cultural sites and 2 cul- their sites. Romania only ratifi ed the into an urban society, with the demoli- tural landscapes. The Fertő/Neusiedler- World Heritage Convention in 1990. As tion and replacement of vestiges of tra- see cultural landscape stretches across part of the former Yugoslavia, Serbia has ditional heritage) may also explain that the boundaries of 2 states (Hungary and been a member of the Convention since comparatively fewer listed UNESCO Austria). Although much smaller than 1975. One of the three UNESCO World sites are to be found in the eastern Car- the Romanian area, the Hungarian Car- Heritage cultural sites in Serbia is locat- pathians. There are 30 UNESCO listed pathians boast the same number of 6 list- ed within the Carpathian Project Area. sites including 6 cultural landscapes. By ed sites. It is striking that 4 out of the 6 Apart from fi ve sites in Hungary and far the oldest UNESCO site in the Car- of Romanian sites are related to church/ Poland, all listed cultural sites within the pathians is the Dacian Fortress complex monastery architecture. Carpathian Macroregion were listed af- in the Orastie Mountains in Romania. ter 1990. That fact and existing literature The fortresses date from the 1st centu- Tourism Development on the matter would seem to indicate ries B.C. and A.D. and show an unusual Tourism development can be an impor- that increasing efforts aimed at the res- fusion of military and religious architec- tant agent of economic development in toration and protection of heritage sites tural techniques and concepts from the rural areas, helping to revitalize local of regional and national value have been Classic and Late European Iron Age. economies and improve quality of life made since the 1990s. In the pre-1989 era A total of 4 UNESCO sites are located by providing supplementary income in economic and political conditions, lack of within the comparatively small Austri- the farming, crafts and service sectors.

115 Fig. 7: Total Number of Arrivals 2005 Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion

It also provides opportunities for re- village businessmen and local offi cials, vironmental tourism is more typical evaluation of local heritage, symbols and who may not have specifi c training in of mountain areas and includes spas, rural identity, and encourages new mi- tourism. mineral and thermal springs; cro-business growth. Tourism, however, The Carpathian countries have consid- • cultural and congressional tourism, does not have the same positive impact erable tourist potential, with their rich involving museums, historical sites, in all mountain regions. Apart from the natural and cultural heritage. Devel- theatres, festivals, workshops, etc; ecological risks involved in intense tour- opment is however hampered by sub- • business tourism, involving trade ist activity in vulnerable environments standard facilities, low technical and events, business fairs, business confer- such as mountain ecosystems, tourism tourist management skills and poor ences, which like cultural tourism is can be a relatively unreliable factor in general infrastructure and accessibil- more typical of the city areas; the development of mountain regions for ity. Due to the large variety within the • agrotourism, practiced in most rural a number of reasons. Inward investment Carpathian Macroregion the following areas. and the creation of new companies and kinds of tourism have potential, de- In 2005 the Carpathian Macroregion employment can be limited owing to the pending on the landscape and regional was visited by almost 40 million peo- small-scale and dispersed nature of the characteristics: ple, a relatively high fi gure greatly in- tourism industry, which generally yields • environmental tourism, including fl uenced by the presence of large cities low returns. Moreover, for tourism to sports activities such as skiing, walk- such as Vienna, Krakow and Bucha- be successful it requires multiple skills, ing, trekking, hiking, nature excur- rest, which are not strictly-speaking yet it is often managed by rural entre- sions, etc.; Carpathian, but which border on the preneurs such as farmers, small town/ • health and wellness, which like en- Carpathian area.

116 Europa Regional 17(2009)2 Small and Medium Enterprises The lowest value is recorded in Sud-Vest ever, crossings are now guarded more Information sources on small and me- Oltenia with 34 enterprises and the value stringently and a lower level of border dium enterprises are derived from the for Serbia is negligible (3 enterprises permeability is now experienced, partic- databases of national statistical offi ces per 1,000 employed persons). For clas- ularly in the cases of Serbia and Ukraine. onthe basis of an internationally compa- sifi cation purposes, the majority of these rable classifi cation. Defi nitions of a sta- companies are concerned with trade and Traffi c corridors tistical unit (enterprise) in the European real estate, with the exception of Roma- A number of important international registers of economic subjects (RES) are nia where transport companies are also corridors for transportation exist within harmonised by EP and EU Council regu- included. the Carpathian Macroregion. In 1994, lations (No. 696/1993 and 177/2008). The The largest intensity of medium en- ten importantEuropean traffi c corri- branch structure stems from a simplifi ed terprises (up to 250 employees) was dors, crossing the region of Central and form of branch classifi cation of eco- registered in the regions of the Czech Eastern European (post-communist) nomic activities valid in the EU called Republic, where the mean value exceeds countries were designed in Crete and NACE, which allows a comparison be- 10 medium enterprises per 1,000 em- is called the Trans-European Network tween member states and, to a certain ployed persons. In Jihomoravský kraj (TEN). In the Carpathian region most of extent, among other European states. and Zlínský kraj this value approached those corridors serve to bypass the main Analysis data are found in NACE Rev. 20. Half values are reached in the met- arc of the Carpathians. The Carpathian 1.1 version and remains consistent with ropolitan regions of Kraków, Budapest mountains are in fact a traffi c barrier. revisions to the 2006 statistical classifi and Bucureşti (including Ilfov). Apart The northern branch of the 5th corridor cation NACE Rev. 2 under EU regula- from these areas, higher intensity (5-6 follows the Western Carpathian moun- tion. For the sake of transparency, NACE enterprises per 1,000 employed persons) tain chain, connecting Bratislava, Žilina categories were united into three main was registered throughout Slovakia and and Košice with Ukraine. The northern economic sectors – primary, secondary in the Romanian regions of Centru and branch of the 4th corridor crosses the and tertiary. Detailed branch classifi ca- Vest. The lowest values were recorded South Carpathians, connecting Budapest tion is carried out within this framework. in Serbia with just 1 enterprise per and Constanţa via and Bu- Data acquired for fi ve countries are pre- 1,000 employed persons. In terms of charest. The most important hub of TEN sented at NUTS3 and, in case of Roma- branch structure, service sector enter- corridors in the Carpathian Macroregion nia, at NUTS2. Due to a lack of regional prises dominated (trade, education and is Budapest. data for Serbia there is only one national real estates), although in half of Polish, value. Data for Ukraine and Austria were two thirds of Hungarian and one third Airports not accessible. To compare data between of Romanian regions, secondary sector Twenty-nine (29) international airports the countries, two categories of enter- enterprises prevailed. Signifi cant con- are located in the Carpathian Macrore- prises were created to best refl ect inter- centrations of agricultural production gion, the largest of these being located nationally acknowledged size categories: are represented by higher proportions of in capital cities. Wien Schwechat is the small enterprises (1-19 employees, where agricultural enterprises among medium largest airport in the region, serving ap- enterprises without employees were ex- enterprises in the Czech Republic, with proximately 17 million passengers in cluded) and medium enterprises (20-249 all regions registering more than 350 2008. Budapest Ferihegy is the second employees). The absolute data on the medium enterprises. Respective values most important airport in the region, number of enterprises according to size reaching 100 enterprises were recorded followed by the Belgrade and Bucureşti were related to the number of employed in Romania and Slovakia. Otopeni airports. In the Polish region of persons older than 15 years. the Carpathians, Kraków airport is the Small enterprises represent the most Density of Network and Accessibil- most important. In Slovakia, Bratislava fl exible branch of the enterprise struc- ity has the largest airport. The importance ture. Of the fi ve countries, the highest Since the Carpathian Macroregion in- of Brno and Ostrava airports in the concentration was recorded in Poland. cludes the territory of eight countries, Czech Republic is far less than that of Vi- In all regions, the scale of employment borders play an important role for trans- enna and Prague. Although in Romania, in small enterprises exceeded 150 enter- port and accessibility. Figure 9 repre- interntional airports beyond Bucureşti prises per 1,000 employed persons. In the sents the most important rail, road and Otopeni and Bucureşti Băneasa are also case of regions Bielsko-bialski, Central- water border crossings in the region. The important for domestic fl ights. Timişoara ny śląski, Częstochowski, Nowosądecki highest density of border crossings oc- has the largest airport outside . and Kraków, it exceeded the level of 200 cur on the borders between the Czech In Ukraine, international airports are lo- enterprises. Levels exceeding 100 enter- Republic with Slovakia and Poland, and cated in L‘viv and Ivano-Frankivs’k. In prises per 1,000 employed persons were also between Austria and Hungary. Lo- recent years, a substantial rise of air traf- reached only by the metropolitan regions cal border crossings are important, con- fi c in the region has been observed. of Budapest and tributing to economic development and, Bratislavský kraj. In the remaining particularly, tourism. On December 21, Oil and gas pipelines area, the largest intensities were reached 2007, four new member states (the Czech The Carpathian region is an important in the Czech Republic. In Slovakia, Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slova- transit region for the transportation of gas Hungary and most of Romania, num- kia) entered the Schengen space and the and oil. The backbone for oil transporta- bers do not reach the level of 50 small number of crossing points rose substan- tion in the region is the southern branch enterprises per 1,000 employed persons. tially. Outside the Schengen border, how- of the Druzhba pipeline, originating in

117 Fig. 8: Small enterprises in 2007 Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion

Russia, crossing the main Carpathian the most important gas pipeline hub in century. In the Carpathian area we can chain in the Transcarpathian region of the region. The pipelines almost exclu- clearly see the consideration of a north- Ukraine and reaching Hungary, Slovakia sively connect Russia with the region of west-southeast gradient. Another factor and the Czech Republic. The Druzhba Central and Western Europe. is morphology and the presence of the pipeline remains the most important Carpathian Mountains. The Carpathian source for oil supply in the region. The Waterways mountain chain represents a traffi c bar- northern branch of the Druzhba pipeline The most important waterway in the rier particularly for the railway. The re- is situated on the territory of Poland. Al- region is the Danube, with important gions with the densest railway network ternative sources of oil supply are situ- branch waterways of Tisza and Körös in are situated in the metropolitan areas ated between ports of the Adriatic and Hungary and Serbia. The Danube cross- of southern Poland, Vienna in Austria, Black Seas (at Odesa, Constanţa, Rijeka es the Carpathian chain at the natural Budapest in Hungary and in the Czech and Trieste) and target countries – Adria, park Porţîle de Fier/national park Đerdap Republic. The areas with the lowest den- AWP, Janaf. The most important project at the border of Romania and Serbia. sity of railway network (and least acces- in the Carpathian region at present is the sibility) are found in Ukraine, northern connection between the Janaf pipeline Railways Slovakia and most of Romania, with ex- from Serbia to Constanta (Nabucco). The development of the railway network ception of the Banat lowland and metro- Gas pipelines also contribute to the in the region is tightly connected with the politan area of Bucharest (Bucureşti, Il- strategic importance of the Carpathian industrialisation processes in the latter fov, ). Most railways crossing the Macroregion, with Transcarpathia being half of 19th century and fi rst half of 20th Carpathian mountain chain connect the

118 Europa Regional 17(2009)2 Fig. 9: Intensity of Road Transport 2005 Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion

Czech Republic and Slovakia and some route for improving the accessibility of or road. The highest road transport in- are of European importance. There are the area for economic activities. tensity corresponds with the largest met- also important railway crossings in Ro- ropolitan areas of the region. The region mania at Predeal and Porţîle de Fier. Road transport intensity with the highest intensity per 24 hours Road transport plays the most impor- is Vienna and its metropolitan area with Highways, international and region- tant role for transportation systems of total intensities exceeding 65,000 vehi- al roads all countries in the Carpathian Macrore- cles per 24 hours in the Vienna sections The highway network of the Carpathian gion, in terms of volume and intensity of the A1, A2, A4, A22 and A23 motor- Macroregion is not well developed. The for both freight and passenger transit. ways. The most dense section in Austria highest density, as well as the most acces- Evaluation of road transport intensity is is the A23 in the area of Prater in Vienna sible areas, are in the metropolitan areas focused on roads of national and inter- (164,000 vehicles per 24 hours). In gen- of the largest cities (Vienna, Budapest, national importance. With the exception eral, road transport intensity is achieving Katowice, Bratislava and Beograd). Else- of Serbia and Ukraine, comparable data the highest numbers in Austria, followed where, a relatively high density exists in for the other six Carpathian countries by the main backbone road transport the Czech Republic at Jihomoravský kraj. through the road transport census of axis of the Czech Republic. No highways cross the main Carpathian 2005 are available. The volume of trans- ridge. The longest highway within the port is expressed in the total average Transborder Cooperation inner Carpathians is in Slovakia along number of cars passing per 24 hours at Transborder cooperation addresses com- the Váh river valley and is an important selected sections of a particular highway mon interests across frontiers between

119 Fig. 10: Transborder Cooperation Areas 2007 Source: Atlas of the Carpathian Macroregion two or more countries. Unlike other location, and they are culturally richer Hungary are partners in seven Eurore- European cooperative measures imple- than other parts of the country because gions along their common border alone. mented on a national level, in Eurore- of a long tradition of crossborder trading. Most of the aim to im- gions regional and local governments Cross-border initiatives aim to protect prove regional development and in many collaborate directly. Cooperative actions those cultural landscapes and their bio- cases the focus is on economic and in are implemented in defi ned transborder diversity. In many areas in order to acti- particular touristic development. The cooperation areas or Euroregions. Eu- vate cross-border cooperation the quality Weinviertel-Südmähren- roregions, which are identifi ed by the of transborder infrastructure needs to be Westslowakei comprises a total of 270 Association of European Border Regions improved. Often the aim of Euroregions municipalities in three NUTS3 regions (AEBR) on the basis of certain criteria, is to initiate the creation of a common on the border of Austria, the Czech Re- aim to support regional development, in- economic space. public and Slovakia. Areas within this vestment in economy and tourism, and There has been an increasing level Euroregion share similar geographic the protection of cultural and natural of transnational cooperation in the last characteristics and can thus offer a com- heritage on both sides of the border. Both ten years in the Carpathians. Figure 10 mon type of tourism industry concentrat- economic growth and cultural activities shows Euroregions within the Carpathi- ing on wine tourism and national parks. are supported through the exchange of an Macroregion. Not shown are Eurore- Other for the Euroregion important eco- information and knowledge, and lobby- gions where Carpathian countries col- nomic factors are regional production ing for issues in the common interest. laborate with non-Carpathian countries. networks including joint initiatives in Border areas are often richer in their There are 18 Euroregions in total in the metal production, the automotive indus- natural environment due to their isolated Carpathian Macroregion. Slovakia and try and environmental technologies. The

120 Europa Regional 17(2009)2 Euroregion Danube-Kris-Mures-Tisza great support of the Italian Ministry for CARPATHIAN FOUNDATION (2002): An- (DKMT), as another example, sees it- the Environment, Land and Sea. It de- nual Report 2002’. Online: http:// self as a “Citizenship Euroregion”. It scribes the Carpathian space, the region www.carpathianfoundation.org/ aims at strengthening the public-private of economic, social and environmental cf/uploadedFiles/ webfi les/cffi partnership at the level of cross-border progress and sustainability in the heart le_12_8_04_9_13_55_PM.pdf (down- institutions. Here representatives from of Europe. The atlas represents an ex- loaded on February 2008). Romanian, Serbian and Hungarian tensive harmonised database focused CSAKI, C., Z. LERMAN (2001): Land and parts of the Euroregion consider non- primarily on the socio-economic aspects Farm Structure in Poland. Discussion governmental organisations as part of a of the Carpathian space. It presents the Paper No. 10.01. Hebrew University, common strategy for strengthening the region’s advantages and potentials, and Jerusalem. public-private partnership at the level addresses the challenges of region in an CZECH STATISTICAL OFFICE (2007): Small of cross-border institutions. The larg- innovative and coordinated manner. and medium sized enterprises. data est Euroregion,encompassing the most The Atlas of the Carpathian Macrore- based on 2001 Census. Internal data- countries is the Carpathian Euroregion. gion contributes to the overall analysis base of CZSO. First discussions of local and regional of the Carpathian region and facilitates DOMANSKI, B. (2000): The Impact of Spa- leaders of the fi ve neighbouring countries the implementation of the Carpathian tial and Social Qualities on the Repro- (Poland, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, Convention by the policy makers. In ad- duction of Local Economic Success: Ukraine) on how to enhance cross-bor- dition, the Atlas of the Carpathian Mac- the Case of the Path Dependent De- der cooperation in the Carpathian Moun- roregion represents a tool helping to de- velopment of Gliwice. In: Prace Ge- tains began in 1992. A proclamation velop the follow-up activities in the Car- ografi czne 106, pp. 35-53. Online: creating the Carpathian Euroregion was pathian space providing comprehensive www.geo.uj.edu.pl/zaklady/ zrr/pub- signed in 1993. Thus the fi rst such Eu- and concise information base for areas likacje/pdf/Domanski%20Gliwice.pdf roregion in Central and Eastern Europe such as population development, tourism (downloaded on February 2008). came into existence. The Carpathian development, cultural heritage, transbor- ELBAKIDZE M., P. 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122 Europa Regional 17(2009)2