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The National Historic Landmarks Program Theme Study and Preservation Planning U.S. Department of the Interior Technical Brief No. 10 National Park Service November 1990 (Revised April 1992) Cultural Resources ISSN 1057-1574 • Departmental Consulting Archeologist • Archeological Assistance The National Historic Landmarks Program Theme Study and Preservation Planning I J By Robert S. Grumet, Mid-Atlantic Regional Office, National Park Service This Technical Brief describes how National Historic Introduction Landmarks (NHL) Survey theme studies can be com­ bined with baste elements ofhistoric preservation plan­ The upcoming Columbian Quincentenary reminds us ning to create a comprehensive framework for that few events have influenced the course of human identification, evaluation, designation, and treatment history more than the encounter between the peoples of of nationally significant archeological properties. An the Old World and the New. Contact between Indians, example, the "Historic Contact Period in the Northeast Europeans, and Africans released a stream of ideas, prod­ United States" NHL theme study, currently being pre­ ucts, and people that continues to flow undiminished pared by National Park Service (NPS) Mid-Atlantic Re­ across the Atlantic Ocean. This "Columbian Exchange" gion staff, will be used to demonstrate this process. In brought people living on both sides of the Atlantic into a the short-term, this NHL theme study serves as a historic wider world than any known by their ancestors (Crosby context document to nominate and designate as Na­ 1972 and 1986). Scholars commonly refer to these first tional Historic Landmarks 26 properties associated centuries as the "Historic Contact Period" (Fitzhugh with the Historic Contact period between 1497 and 1985; Trigger 1978; Washburn 1988). Beginning during 1783. Its long-term benefit, however, is that it can be the early decades of the 16th century, the Historic Con­ used as a model for preservation planning and as tact period continued througho ul lhe coionial era. It was reference by Federal agencies, State and local historic a time of unprecedented cultural change for both Indians preservation offices, Indian communities, and others. and the Europeans and Africans who moved into their territories. Historic contact b~tween Indians, Europeans, and Afri­ cans has played a major role in shaping the national TI1e effects of this encounter forever changed the course experience of the American people. The circumstances of world history. Demographic shifts of unprecedented and consequences of historic contact, moreover, dijJer size and scope transformed the Atlantic community. Epi­ in various parts of the country. While this theme study demic diseases and wars killed tens of thousands oflndian examines historic contact in a specific region, its people (Dobyns 1983; Ramenofsky 1987; Snow and Lan­ unique value lies in its potential to be used nationwide phear 1988; Spiess and Spiess 1987). Far from this being as a preservation planning model. Agencies and indi­ a "Virgin Land," historian Francis Jennings has shown that viduals nationwide who are interested in the Historic these demographic catastrophes depopulated entire re­ Contact period can then use this theme study as a gions, transforming many heavily populated areas of the model, with modifications, to prepare appropriate his­ Northeast into a desolated "Widowed Land" (Jennings toric context documents that will help increase public 1975). awareness ofthis critical period in the country's history. Specifically,Jrameworks and information presented in Migrants from the Old World rushed to repopulate this the following pages can be employed in the future to widowed land. European population throughout the re­ nominate other properties of transcendent national gion rose from nearly nothing to more than 1,800,000 significance as NHLs and propose other properties on between 1610 and 1780. Nearly 500,000 African people dijJerent levels ofsignificance for listing in the National also were living in the region by 1780 (McCusker and Register ofHistoric Places and other registers. Menard 1985:218-221). The newcomers struggled with Indians and each other for control of the land. Some This is the second Technical Brief prepared as part of Indian territory, such as the Pequot country in Connecti­ the Federal Archeological Assistance Program NHL in­ cut, the Esopus lands in southeastern New York, and the itiative. Technical Brief No. 3, "Archeology in the NHL Powhatan lands in Virginia, was seized in wars. Many Program," explains tlie program and describes how colonial governments, however, used deeds to legitimate archeological properties are nominated and desig­ acquisition of, and extend sovereignty over, Indian lands nated. (Jennings 1975: 135-138; Springer 1986). Indians did their 1 Figure 1. Sunwarch Site, Oltio. Aerial fllew ofthe site and museum. Sunwatch Is one ofthe newly designated NHLsfrom the national lnltiatif!e ro lmprof!e 1·epresentarion ofarcheologlcal prope.'tles In the NHL Sun1ey. (All photographs from lhe NHL Sun>ey, NPS History Diflision.) best to slow the rate of loss and strike the best possible Not all Indian labor was free. Indians falling into debt bargains. In the end, however, they lost nearly every­ often were forced into indentured servitude. Others ap­ thing. By 1783, virtually all lands within what became the prenticed themselves to colonial masters. Indian war first 13 states had passed from Indian hands. TI1e original prisoners or convicts also often were enslaved owners were forced to adapt or leave. (Kawashima 1986 and 1988; Lauber 1913). Once the land was obtained, speculators, powerful pro­ Comparatively little is known about relations between prietary lords, and government administrators competed Indians and African Americans in the Northeast. Gary B. for settlers, servants, and slaves to make it productive. Nash's Red, White, and Black (197 4) continues to be one Black slaves, white indentured servants, and free farmers of the best general surveys of the subject. Several studies of both groups cleared Indian fields and forests from have examined relations between the two peoples in Maine to Virginia. colonial Virginia and the Chesapeake region (Craven 1971). Aspects of intermarriage, legal status, and labor in Many aspects of these relations have been extensively New England have been addressed (Kawashinla 1986; examined, Land, Carr, and Papenfuse 1977; Mccusker Woodson 1920). and Menard 1985; Smith 1959. Not surprisingly, much of this attention has focused upon colonists (cf. Cronon 1983:228-235 for a particularly useful bibliographic sur­ The Project vey of important North and Middle Atlantic sources). More studies, however, are tracing Indian participation Historic Contact is a diverse and complex era of American in the colonial economy. They show that many North­ history. Much more remains to be done to fully document eastern Indians worked as fur traders, guides, herbalists, and interpret this crucial time of intercultural relations. or food providers. Others joined the cash economy as The "Historic Contact Period of the Northeast" National laborers, millworkers, whalers, or artisans producing Historic Landmark (NHL) theme study synthesiZes docu­ wampum shell beads, splint baskets, or straw brooms. mentary, archeological, ethnographic, oral, environ- 2 Evaluation criteria developed in tllis theme study specifi­ cally have been used to identify, evaluate, and recom­ mend NHL designation for or thematic listing of the following 26 properties: Byrd-Leibhart Site, Pennsylvania; Canlden NHL, Virginia; TI1e Chicone Site, Maryland; TI1e Clover Site, West Virginia; Colonial Pemaquid Archaeological Site, Maine; Fort Ninigret, Rhode Island; Fort Orange;Beverwyck Archaeological District, New Yorle; Fort Ouiatenon Archeological District, Indiana; Fort Shantok, Connecticut; Figure 2. Sunwatch Site, Ohio. View ofexca11atlons ofthe stockade and solsticefeatures. An objecti11e ofthe NHL archeologlcal lnltia­ Jireh Bull Blockhouse, Rhode Island; tirle is to recognl:re properties that represent Important 1hmelofr Lower Shawneetown Archeological District, Kentucky; ments In understanding the nation's cultural pa.st. Mashantucket Pequot Reservation Archaeological District, Connecticut; TI1e Minisink Site, New Jersey; mental, architectural, and other evidence of historic con­ The Mohawk Upper Castle Site, NewYorle; tact between natives and newcomers in the colonial Nauset Archeological District, Massachusetts; Northeast from the Atlantic Coast to Ohio Valley between The Neale's Landing Site, West Virginia; 1497 and 1783. Its objective is to establish a national-scale Norridgewock, Maine; historic context for resources associated with NHL Sub­ Old Fort Niagara NHL, New Yorle; theme D, "Ethnohistory of Indigenous American Popula­ Pamunkey Indian Reservation Archaeological District, tions" within Theme 1, "Cultural Virginia; Developments-Indigenous American Populations." Pentagoet, Maine; TI1e Posey Site, Maryland; TI1e study region comprises what is today the north­ Saint Castin's Habitation, Maine; eastern quarter of the United States. It stretches in an St. Mary's City Historical District NHL, Maryland; east-west direction from the Atlantic seaboard to the State TI1e Schuyler Flatts Site, New Yorle; of Indiana. The northernmost reaches of the region ex­ The Snidow Site, West Virginia; and tend from Maine to Michigan. Kentucky and Virginia TI1e Ward's Point Site, NewYorle. constitute the southernmost States considered in this theme study. Building a Historic Context and TI1e study
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