The National Historic Landmarks Program Theme Study and Preservation Planning

U.S. Department of the Interior Technical Brief No. 10 National Park Service November 1990 (Revised April 1992) Cultural Resources ISSN 1057-1574 • Departmental Consulting Archeologist • Archeological Assistance The National Historic Landmarks Program Theme Study and Preservation Planning

I J By Robert S. Grumet, Mid-Atlantic Regional Office, National Park Service

This Technical Brief describes how National Historic Introduction Landmarks (NHL) Survey theme studies can be com­ bined with baste elements ofhistoric preservation plan­ The upcoming Columbian Quincentenary reminds us ning to create a comprehensive framework for that few events have influenced the course of human identification, evaluation, designation, and treatment history more than the encounter between the peoples of of nationally significant archeological properties. An the Old World and the New. Contact between Indians, example, the "Historic Contact Period in the Northeast Europeans, and Africans released a stream of ideas, prod­ United States" NHL theme study, currently being pre­ ucts, and people that continues to flow undiminished pared by National Park Service (NPS) Mid-Atlantic Re­ across the Atlantic Ocean. This "Columbian Exchange" gion staff, will be used to demonstrate this process. In brought people living on both sides of the Atlantic into a the short-term, this NHL theme study serves as a historic wider world than any known by their ancestors (Crosby context document to nominate and designate as Na­ 1972 and 1986). Scholars commonly refer to these first tional Historic Landmarks 26 properties associated centuries as the "Historic Contact Period" (Fitzhugh with the Historic Contact period between 1497 and 1985; Trigger 1978; Washburn 1988). Beginning during 1783. Its long-term benefit, however, is that it can be the early decades of the 16th century, the Historic Con­ used as a model for preservation planning and as tact period continued througho ul lhe coionial era. It was reference by Federal agencies, State and local historic a time of unprecedented cultural change for both Indians preservation offices, Indian communities, and others. and the Europeans and Africans who moved into their territories. Historic contact b~tween Indians, Europeans, and Afri­ cans has played a major role in shaping the national TI1e effects of this encounter forever changed the course experience of the American people. The circumstances of world history. Demographic shifts of unprecedented and consequences of historic contact, moreover, dijJer size and scope transformed the Atlantic community. Epi­ in various parts of the country. While this theme study demic diseases and wars killed tens of thousands oflndian examines historic contact in a specific region, its people (Dobyns 1983; Ramenofsky 1987; Snow and Lan­ unique value lies in its potential to be used nationwide phear 1988; Spiess and Spiess 1987). Far from this being as a preservation planning model. Agencies and indi­ a "Virgin Land," historian Francis Jennings has shown that viduals nationwide who are interested in the Historic these demographic catastrophes depopulated entire re­ Contact period can then use this theme study as a gions, transforming many heavily populated areas of the model, with modifications, to prepare appropriate his­ Northeast into a desolated "Widowed Land" (Jennings toric context documents that will help increase public 1975). awareness ofthis critical period in the country's history. Specifically,Jrameworks and information presented in Migrants from the Old World rushed to repopulate this the following pages can be employed in the future to widowed land. European population throughout the re­ nominate other properties of transcendent national gion rose from nearly nothing to more than 1,800,000 significance as NHLs and propose other properties on between 1610 and 1780. Nearly 500,000 African people dijJerent levels ofsignificance for listing in the National also were living in the region by 1780 (McCusker and Register ofHistoric Places and other registers. Menard 1985:218-221). The newcomers struggled with Indians and each other for control of the land. Some This is the second Technical Brief prepared as part of Indian territory, such as the Pequot country in Connecti­ the Federal Archeological Assistance Program NHL in­ cut, the Esopus lands in southeastern New York, and the itiative. Technical Brief No. 3, "Archeology in the NHL Powhatan lands in Virginia, was seized in wars. Many Program," explains tlie program and describes how colonial governments, however, used deeds to legitimate archeological properties are nominated and desig­ acquisition of, and extend sovereignty over, Indian lands nated. (Jennings 1975: 135-138; Springer 1986). Indians did their

1 Figure 1. Sunwarch Site, Oltio. Aerial fllew ofthe site and museum. Sunwatch Is one ofthe newly designated NHLsfrom the national lnltiatif!e ro lmprof!e 1·epresentarion ofarcheologlcal prope.'tles In the NHL Sun1ey. (All photographs from lhe NHL Sun>ey, NPS History Diflision.)

best to slow the rate of loss and strike the best possible Not all Indian labor was free. Indians falling into debt bargains. In the end, however, they lost nearly every­ often were forced into indentured servitude. Others ap­ thing. By 1783, virtually all lands within what became the prenticed themselves to colonial masters. Indian war first 13 states had passed from Indian hands. TI1e original prisoners or convicts also often were enslaved owners were forced to adapt or leave. (Kawashima 1986 and 1988; Lauber 1913).

Once the land was obtained, speculators, powerful pro­ Comparatively little is known about relations between prietary lords, and government administrators competed Indians and African Americans in the Northeast. Gary B. for settlers, servants, and slaves to make it productive. Nash's Red, White, and Black (197 4) continues to be one Black slaves, white indentured servants, and free farmers of the best general surveys of the subject. Several studies of both groups cleared Indian fields and forests from have examined relations between the two peoples in Maine to Virginia. colonial Virginia and the Chesapeake region (Craven 1971). Aspects of intermarriage, legal status, and labor in Many aspects of these relations have been extensively New England have been addressed (Kawashinla 1986; examined, Land, Carr, and Papenfuse 1977; Mccusker Woodson 1920). and Menard 1985; Smith 1959. Not surprisingly, much of this attention has focused upon colonists (cf. Cronon 1983:228-235 for a particularly useful bibliographic sur­ The Project vey of important North and Middle Atlantic sources). More studies, however, are tracing Indian participation Historic Contact is a diverse and complex era of American in the colonial economy. They show that many North­ history. Much more remains to be done to fully document eastern Indians worked as fur traders, guides, herbalists, and interpret this crucial time of intercultural relations. or food providers. Others joined the cash economy as The "Historic Contact Period of the Northeast" National laborers, millworkers, whalers, or artisans producing Historic Landmark (NHL) theme study synthesiZes docu­ wampum shell beads, splint baskets, or straw brooms. mentary, archeological, ethnographic, oral, environ-

2 Evaluation criteria developed in tllis theme study specifi­ cally have been used to identify, evaluate, and recom­ mend NHL designation for or thematic listing of the following 26 properties:

Byrd-Leibhart Site, Pennsylvania; Canlden NHL, Virginia; TI1e Chicone Site, Maryland; TI1e Clover Site, West Virginia; Colonial Pemaquid Archaeological Site, Maine; Fort Ninigret, Rhode Island; Fort Orange;Beverwyck Archaeological District, New Yorle; Fort Ouiatenon Archeological District, Indiana; Fort Shantok, Connecticut; Figure 2. Sunwatch Site, Ohio. View ofexca11atlons ofthe stockade and solsticefeatures. An objecti11e ofthe NHL archeologlcal lnltia­ Jireh Bull Blockhouse, Rhode Island; tirle is to recognl:re properties that represent Important 1hmelofr Lower Shawneetown Archeological District, Kentucky; ments In understanding the nation's cultural pa.st. Mashantucket Pequot Reservation Archaeological District, Connecticut; TI1e Minisink Site, New Jersey; mental, architectural, and other evidence of historic con­ The Mohawk Upper Castle Site, NewYorle; tact between natives and newcomers in the colonial Nauset Archeological District, Massachusetts; Northeast from the Atlantic Coast to Ohio Valley between The Neale's Landing Site, West Virginia; 1497 and 1783. Its objective is to establish a national-scale Norridgewock, Maine; historic context for resources associated with NHL Sub­ Old Fort Niagara NHL, New Yorle; theme D, "Ethnohistory of Indigenous American Popula­ Pamunkey Indian Reservation Archaeological District, tions" within Theme 1, "Cultural Virginia; Developments-Indigenous American Populations." Pentagoet, Maine; TI1e Posey Site, Maryland; TI1e study region comprises what is today the north­ Saint Castin's Habitation, Maine; eastern quarter of the United States. It stretches in an St. Mary's City Historical District NHL, Maryland; east-west direction from the Atlantic seaboard to the State TI1e Schuyler Flatts Site, New Yorle; of Indiana. The northernmost reaches of the region ex­ The Snidow Site, West Virginia; and tend from Maine to Michigan. Kentucky and Virginia TI1e Ward's Point Site, NewYorle. constitute the southernmost States considered in this theme study. Building a Historic Context and TI1e study focuses upon the first three centuries of His­ Project Development toric Contact in the Nortl1east. It is recognized that con­ tact has never ended between Indians and other Americans of European or African descent. Intercultural Historic preservation planning consists of many compo­ contacts postdating the American Revolution, however, nents. Its centerpiece, however, is the historic context. differ substantially from those of the Colonial era. More Historic contexts provide a frameworle for the identifica­ recent developments should be considered within NHL tion, evaluation, designation, and treatment of cultural themes associated with later periods. resources associated with particular themes, areas, and time periods. The Secretaty of the Interior's Standards This theme study is an interdisciplinary project and re­ and Guidelines for Preservation Planning detail proce­ quires the cooperation of a wide range of specialists. Tilis dures for developing llistoric contexts. These include includes the assistance of skilled governmental personnel collecting and syntl1esizing appropriate information, de­ familiar with regulatory and adnlinistrative procedures ftning property types, and identifying areas to be sur­ associated with cultural resources programs. Input from veyed for cultural resources (National Parle Service 1983). the people who are the object of study also is essential. RecogniZing the complexity of such an undertaking, Na­ Historic context-based planning permits recognition of tional Parle Service (NPS) Mid-Atlantic Regional Oftke individual properties as parts of larger systems. Historic (MARO) Preservation Planning Branch staff have worked contexts also help managers and others evaluate proper­ closely with other Federal agency and State Historic Pres­ ties witllin proper levels of significance. As such, they ervation Office (SHPO) personnel, Indian community provide both a systematiZed basis for comparison and a representatives, and members of the professional and comprehensive frame of reference. In so doing, historic avocational preservation community in tl1e Northeast contexts provide cultural resource managers and those throughout all phases of tllis project. whose activities affect historic properties with a guide for rational decision making.

3 All SHPOs and many Federal agencies, county govern­ (8) Integration of historic context information in ments, local municipalities, and other organizations are broader management processes. currently developing or implementing historic context­ based preservation plans. Most focus The MARO Preservation Planning upon specific regions, resource types, 'liiiiiiiiiifi\~i:::iili:::l Branch staff identified the need to de­ or time periods. At the present time, I. ~ velop a planning document for the most preservation plans deal with cul- ;:;;;;;;;b-1 ::fc:m-1~-~~£!~~~~~~ management of Historic Contact pe­ tural resources located within State riod cultural resources in the North­ boundaries. Few extend their purview east in a series of meetings and beyond State lines. Although Federal discussions with Federal, State, and agencies such as the U.S. Army Corps academic archeologist and planners in of Engineers and the U.S. Forest Service 1987 and 1988. Many of these discus­ produce regional plans spanning State boundaries, the sions were motivated by newly instituted programs sup-­ National Historic Landmarks theme study program pres­ porting development and implementation of statewide ently is the only process for organizing information historic preservation plans mandated by NPS for recipi­ wholly devoted to systematic identification, evaluation, ents of Historic Preservation Fund grants-in-aid. All dis­ and designation of cultural resources on a national scale. cussants recognized the desirability of systematlZing information on a regional scale. Few SHPOs, however, TI1e NHL thematic framework classifies American his­ had developed a historic context for Historic Contact toric and archeological places that meet the NHL criteria period resources in the 17-State region served by MARO. for national significance. As such, it "is a comprehensive outline of United States prehistory, history, and cultural TI1ese developments coincided with discussions formu­ endeavors" (National Parle Service 1987:i) . 111e NHL TI1e­ lating the NPS Archeological Assistance Program's matic framework "is used to show the extend to which Archeological NHL initiative. The primary goal of iliis units and cultural resources of the National Park System, initiative is to improve representation of archeological affiliated areas, and National Historic Landmarks reflect resources in NHL listings. The MARO Preservation Plan­ the nation's past." Tirns, it may by used to capably and ning Branch staff linked regional interest in the Historic efficiently guide analysis, classification, and assessment Contact period with NPS preservation planning and of historic properties of potential national significance. archeological NHL initiatives during the Fall of 1988. TI1e NHL thematic framework can be used to identify Preliminary project goals and objectives were drafted. future directions for planning and sn1dy through assess­ Recognizing the need for extensive cooperation between ments of how representative a property is in relation to agencies and the preservation public for implementation the overall framework of American culn1ral history. of these goals and objectives, MARO staff quickly estab­ lished two advisory groups to guide project development TI1e NHL thematic framework meets the planning objec­ and provide technical assistance. tives for development of historic contexts, which are to: (1) develop thematic sn1dy units delineating appropriate TI1e first of these consisted of NPS personnel repre­ contextual relationships; (2) est.-iblish operating plans senting the NPS Archeological Assistance, History, managing resources identified and evaluated in study Anthropology, and lnteragency Resources Divisions. The units; and (3) link historic preservation with broad second advisory group comprised designated SHPO co­ agency missions and goals. Fully developed historic con­ ordinators from the 17 States within MARO and Ken­ texts include: tucky. TI1e SHPO coordinators fulfilled a vital role as liaison between MARO and preservation publics within (1) Determination of theme, time period, and geo­ individual States. Distributing theme study an­ graphic area; nouncements and other materials to Indian Tribal groups, specialists, archeological societies, historical societies, (2) Identification of known and expected groups of and others, SHPO coordinators collected theme srudy related resource groups known as "property types;" information, assessed data quality, and provided review comments on project scope, content, and direction. (3) Delineation of known and expected distributions of these resources; TI1e MARO staff developed initial project goals, methods, scope, and schedule requirements during the last months (4) Description of criteria used in their evaluation; of 1988. Two years were allotted for project completion. An announcement describing the project was mailed to (5) Specification of research needs and questions; program advisors. TI1e SHPO coordinators distributed this announcement to their States' preservation publics (6) Development of a research bibliography; for comment. Special emphasis was placed upon distrib­ uting project announcements to all Indian communities (7) Present.-ition of goals and priorities; and within each State. Several States facilitated this process by publishing the announcement in their SHPO or State Archaeological Society newsletters.

4 NPS personnel initially reviewed :10d revised project be identified? Would standing structures be included? goals and priorities. Informal discussions with SHPO co­ Would all properties associated with the Historic Contact ordinators conducted by telephone and at professional period be surveyed, or would inventory be restricted to meetings further defined and refined project goals, form, nationally significant cultural resources? Would the pro­ and purpose. The First Joint Archaeological Congress, ject report be an exhaustive scholarly treatise or a rela­ held in Baltimore, MD, January 5-9, 1989, presented a tively brief and simply worcled management document? particularly advantageous opportunity for MARO staff to How would evaluation criteria be determined? Would meet with many SHPO coordinators and other scholars evaluation guidelines be developed only for nationally and preservationists. significant properties, or would they be defined for all associated resources? Discussions held at the Archaeological Congress focused upon issues of resource identification and evaluation. 111e main thrust of these and other questions centered How, many archeologists asked, would potential NHLs around the project's purpose and scope. Strong support

Figure 3. Menard-Hodges Site, Arkansas. View of Main Mound and one oftl1e adjoining mounds. Menard-Hodges is another of the newly designated archeological NHLs. 11re NHL archeological initiatir•e also is intended lo impro11e documentation on sites and recogni:re significant characteristics such as monumental engineering In j»•ehistory.

5 Figul"e 4. Sunken Village, Oregon. View along the length ofthe site. Sunken Village is a newly designated arcl1eological Nill that recogni!U!s the importance of wet site archeology for understanding the full richness ofprehistoric matel"ial c11lt11re. was indicated for development of a planning document Contact properties. The first tabulation assessed existing that could easily be adapted to statewide historic preser­ NHL theme representation in the project area. A second vation planning requirements. Members of the preserva­ listing cross-indexed these data by State. This was fol­ tion community further expressed strong interest in lowed by a listing of Historic-Aboriginal National Register development of far-reaching significance statements un­ properties recommended as nationally significant by der which large numbers of properties could be identi­ their nominating authorities compiled during a National fied, evaluated, and designated at all levels of Register Information System (NRIS) computer search. significance. TI1e outline ended with a preliminary listing of potential NHL designees identified by SHPO coordinators and indi­ The MARO staff responded to these comments in a de­ vidual preservationists. tailed project outline distributed one mo nth after the Archaeological Congress. The SHPO coordinators distrib­ uted copies of this fr.imework to all preservationists and Identification Issues Indian communities in their States. Numerous helpful suggestions for revisions and refine­ This outline contained the first presentation of a national­ ments were received in responses sent to SHPO coordi­ level historic context. It began with a brief discussion of nators throughout 1989 and 1990. Modifications in the purpose and scope of the project. This was followed project categories and boundaries, changes in regional by a listing, including telephone numbers, of all NPS and Historic Contact period context development, and a sur­ SHPO advisors. Next, project theme, sub-themes, geo­ vey of existing State and Local inventories were sug­ graphic area, sub-areas, and chronological organiz.1tion gested. Respondents also identified 26 potential NHL were presented. Listings and maps correlated late prehis­ properties located in 12 States. toric and protohistoric archeological complexes with historic Indian and European ethnic groups. A framework Many archeologists provided particularly valuable assis­ for property type delineation was presented. tance correlating late prehistoric or protohistoric archeo­ Jogic al complexes with ethnohistorically or lllis information was followed by lists tabulating findings ethnographically documented Tribal groups. Specialists from surveys of designated nationally significant Historic recommended several critically important area studies

6 and brought pertinent bibliographic citations to the at­ Review of National Register nomination forms showed tention of the MARO project staff. that properties associated with the Historic Contact pe­ riod in the Northeast rarely were identified or evaluated Matters of nomenclature and topology presented particu­ as a group. Instead, virtually all previously listed sites or larly challenging problems. Differences of opinion districts were individually nominated. Examination of among archeologists, now superseded research priori­ property representation within NHL theme categories ties, and gaps in the archeological record have long also revealed that Historic Contact period cultural re- affected attempts to reconcile State and regional sources are not proportionally represented. Re­ variations or inconsistencies. By influencing search emphases of earlier NHL theme studies ~ " analyses of terminal Late Woodland period diag­ / /! l/' / resulted in few designations of Historic Contact nostic artifacts, these factors often make it diffi­ period properties in the Northeast. Particularly cult to identify and understand cultural telling was the discovery that relatively few dynamics in the study area. northeastern historic contact properties were identified in theme studies dealing with the co­ "\ ' lonial era (Sarles and Shedd 1959a, 1959b, and Survey Review and Previous ) ,· 1960; Shedd 1959 and 1961). /. / / . /, Designations . / Properties designated in these studies tended to Information received from SHPO coordinators represent the European side of the encounter revealed that fewer than half of the States within between the peoples of the Old World and the MARO had developed historic contexts cover­ New. When considered at all, Indians generally ing the period of Historic Contact. 111is survey \~ were described as obstacles to frontier expan­ also indicated that less than half of the States had sion. 'Ibis identification is graphically illustrated prepared listings or established computerized in the high percentage of forts designated. access to information bearing upon Historic Contact period properties. Review of available 111e single theme study devoted to the Indian SHPO survey information, moreover, indicated side of Historic Contact, entitled "Contact With that only a limited percentage of the many hun­ the Indians," presented a large body of informa­ dreds of sites mentioned in historic documents tion of potential significance to the study of had thus far been inventoried. Indian-colonial relations in the Northe.:!st (Holder 1963). Only two of the 30 sites desig­ Discussions with SHPO coordinators revealed nated by this theme study, the Accokeek Creek that variations in survey scope and coverage site, in Maryland, and the Boughton Hill site, in were largely functions of funding limitations, New York, were located within the region. competing program priorities, shortages of computer equipment, unavailability of auto­ Two factors largely detemlined this particular pat­ mated data management personnel, or differ­ tern of representation. First, most of the best ences in State data categories, topologies, or known Indian historic contact sites identified prior research orientations. Despite these variations, to 1963 were located west of the Mississippi River. SHPOs provided enough information to make Second, the archeology of Indian historic sites in preliminary delineation of known property dis­ the Northeast was not yet extensively developed tributions, identity known and expected prop­ at the time this theme study was published. erty types, and formulate theme study goals and priorities. Unsurveyed areas and unanalyzed bodies of data were identified for further study. Potential NHL Identification

Among project goals and priorities were recom­ 111e recent explosion of scholarly activity asso­ mendations that all SHPOs develop historic con­ ciated with Historic Contact period studies in text documents for the Historic Contact period, inven­ the Northeast contributed to the identification tory presently unsurveyed areas, and study unanalyzed of the hundreds of properties listed in the theme study collections. SHPO recommendations further supported document. Interestingly, only one of the properties nomi­ using computerized systems for inventories. nated as NHI..s in this study, the Minisink site in New Jersey, was identified as a potential NHL site recom­ Previous NHL theme studies identified undesignated mended for further study in earlier theme studies. All but properties, listed related sites classified as having excep­ four of the present 26 NHL nominees, however, are listed tional value in other themes, and recommended other in the National Register of Historic Places. Less than half sites for further study. 111e Northeast Historic Contact of these listings were recommended as nationally signifi­ NHL theme study expanded upon this tradition by listing cant by the nominating authority. Most instead were all pertinent properties thus far inventoried within the assigned the level of State significance. project area.

7 Four properties, Old Fort Niagara and Ward's Point (the Evaluation Issues Billopps or Conference House) in New York, St. Mary's City, Maryland, and Camden, Virginia, are located within Properties identified in this project have been evaluated or nearby areas already listed as NHLs. None of these at all levels of significance. Evaluation criteria determine designations currently recognize cultural resources asso­ designation priorities. NHL evaluation criteria largely cen­ ciated with Historic Contact. Project participants identi­ ter upon determinations of national significance of prop­ fying these properties propose to expand their level of erties that outstandingly represent or embody one or documentation to include consideration of this period. more of the six NHL significance criteria. In accordance with current policy, all properties considered for nomi­ Several potential NHLs not associated with the theme nation also are required to address Criterion 6: study also have been identified during the project. At least two of these, Flint Ridge in Ohio and the Coxsackie Flint [Properties) chat have yielded or may be likely co yield informa· Quarry, in New York, may be individually nominated as lion of major scientific importance by revealing new cultures, NHLs sometime in the future. or by shedding light upon periods of occupation over large areas of che United States. Such sites are those which have Individual archeologists presently are supporting the in­ yielded, or which may reasonably be expected to yield data itiative by voluntarily collating basic, available informa­ affecting theories, concepts and ideas to a major degree (em­ phasis added). tion associated with identified properties. In keeping with project goals restricting research to syntheses of existing data, archeologists have not been called upon to High priority has been accorded to nationally significant collect new information, analyze unsynthesiZed data, or properties associated with subthemes, facets, and sub­ prepare new text. Following acceptance of resource themes not represented or underrepresented in the NHL boundaries and affirmation of owner consent by the NPS Subtheme D, "Ethnothistory of Indigenous American History Division, archeologists will be asked to provide Populations." Designation of properties located in States pertinent data or references to key citations. Finally, they or regions not containing existing NHLs associated witl1 will review products prepared by project personnel and Historic Contact also was accorded high priority. High comment upon aU theme study drafts. designation priorities further were assigned to properties

Figure 5. Sunken Village, Oregon. View of a storage feature. many materials and objects used by Chinook people at this site prior to the arrival ofEuroamericans are well presen•ed because they are submerged or constantly wet.

8 associated with Historic Contact period Indian cultures consideration in properties in which archeological values identified in the theme study not presently represented are not of primary importance. in the NHL framework. Previous NHL tl1eme studies frequently assessed proper­ Site integrity plays a major role in determining designa­ ties not chosen for designation. Others listed properties tion priorities for nationally significant resources. A rela­ recommended for future study. Many such properties tively well-preserved property possessing high potential were classified as having exceptional value in other to yield nationally significant information was assigned a themes. Others were recommended for further study higher preservation priority than a poorly preserved, within the sanie theme. The present theme study has fragmentary, or substantially disturbed site. The integrity built upon this tradition of considering a range of poten­ of archeological deposits may not always be a major tial NHL nominees by using the National Register of

Figm-e 6. Sunken Village, Oregon. Cedar bark wear!lng. The extraor·dinary prese1"11ation at Sunken Village means that organic materials such as bark and wood deteriorate slowly, providing archeological analyses with a more complete sample ofpast lifeways.

9 Historic Places criteria to preliminarily determine the landowners and other interested parties, for example, are significance of all inventoried properties associated with taken into account in any NHL undertaking. Private the Historic Contact period. These evaluation criteria owner objection is a legal barrier to designation. Objec­ have been applied to all theme study tions from interested parties also raise categories and topologies. By combin­ significant concerns that must be ad­ ing NHL and National Register signifi­ dressed directly. Goals and priorities cance levels and evaluation criteria, developed by this theme study reflect this theme sn1dy provides government the importance of this issue by requir­ agencies, Indian communities, and oth­ ing that landowners consent to NHL ers involved in preservation activities nomination of their properties prior with the widest possible framework for to study. By explicitly considering the evaluation of nationally significant such vitally important issues, this Historic Contact resources. theme study has become a more effec­ tive preservation planning manage­ ment tool.

Conclusion As mentioned earlier, the most inlmediate product result­ ing from this project is the group nomination of 26 Historic context-driven goals and priorities should be properties as National Historic Landmarks. Over the long considered whenever actions potentially or actually af­ nm, this theme sn1dy is expected to serve as a vehicle fect associated cultural resources. Agency planning can providing information on the Historic Contact period to identify appropriate preservation procedures. Plans also government agencies, Indian communities, specialists, can minimize impacts of unanticipated situations. Plans and the general public. It is also expected that informa­ are created in a real world in which preservation is only tion contained within this document will assist in the one of many factors considered in any action. Historic preservation of all Historic Contact period properties. context goals and priorities sometimes can be distinct Above all, it is hoped that this theme sn1dy will serve as from certain management considerations. TI1ey cannot, model for application of the historic context concept however, be exclusive. Preservationists and project man­ nationwide. agers must work together to balance historic context­ drive n planning objectives with agency or Tribal Further information on this theme study initiative may be programs and project requirements. obtained by writing to: Preservation Planning Branch, Cultural Resources Management, The NHL program presently addresses several practical Mid-Atlantic Region, National Park Service, 143 considerations in resource designation. TI1e wishes of South Third Street, Philadelphia, PA 19to6.

References Cited

Craven, Wesley Frank, editor 1971 White, Red, and Black: The Seventeenth-Century Virginian. University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville, VA.

Cronon, William 1983 Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England. Hill and Wang, New York.

Crosby, Alfred W., Jr. 1972 The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of I492. Greenwood Press, Wcsport, CT.

1986 Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge University Press, New York.

Dobyns, Henry 1983 Th eir Number Become Thinned: Native Ame1·ican Population Dynamics in Eastern North America. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, TN.

Fitzhugh, William W., editor 1985 Cultures in Contact: The European Impact on Native Cultural Institutions in Eastern North America, A.D. 1000-1800. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Holder, Preston 1963 Contact With the Indians. Then National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, National Park Service, Washington, DC.

10 Jennings, Francis 1975 The Invasion of America: Indians, Colonialism, and the Cant of Conquest. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

Kawashima, Yasuhide 1986 Puritan justice and the Indian: White Man's Ltlw in Massachusetts, 1630-1763. Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT.

1988 "Indian Servitude in the Northeast." In, Handbook of North American Indians: History of Indian-White Relations 4, edited by Wilcomb E. Washburn, pp. 404-406. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

Land, Aubrey C., Lois Green Carr, and Edward C. Papenfuse, editors 1977 Ltlw, Society, and Politics in Early Maryland. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

Lauber, Almon W. 1913 Indian Slavery in Colonial Times within the Present Limits of the United States. In, Columbia University Studies in History, Economic, and Public Ltlw 134. New York.

Mccusker, John}., and Russell R. Menard 1985 The Economy of British North America, 1607-1789. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

Nash, Gary B. 1974 Red, White, and Black. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

National Park Service 1983 "Archeology and Historic Preservation: Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines," Federal Register 48(190):44716-44740.

1987 Histo1y and Prehistory in the National Park System and the National Historic Ltlndmarks Program. History Division, National Park Service, Washington, DC.

Ramenofsky, Ann F. 1987 Vectors of Death: The Archeology of European Contact. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Sarles, Frank B., Jr., and Charles E. Shedd, Jr. 1959a English Explomtion and Settlement to 1700. The National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, National Park Service, Washington, DC.

1959b The Advance of the Frontier, 1763-1830. The National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, National Park Service, Washington, DC.

1960 Development of the English Colonies, 1700-1775. The National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, National Park Service, Washington, DC.

Shedd, Charles E., Jr. 1959 French Explomtion and Settlement. The National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, National Park Service, Washing­ ton, DC.

1%1 Dutch and Swedish Exploration and Settlement. The National Survey of Historic Sites and Buildings, National Park Service, Washington, DC.

Smith, James Morton, editor 1959 Seventeenth-Century America: Essays in Colonial History. W.W. Norton, New York.

Snow, Dan R., and Kin1 M, Lanphear 1988 "European Contact and Indian Population in the Northeast: The Tinting of the First Epidemics." Ethnohistory 35(1):15-33.

Spiess, Arthur E., and Bruce D. Spiess 1987 "New England Pandemic of 1616-1622: Cause and Archaeological Implications." Man in the Northeast 34:71-83.

Springer, James Warren 1986 "American Indians and the Law of Real Property in Colonial New England." The American journal of Legal History 30(1):25-58.

Trigger, Bruce G., editor 1978 Handbook ofNorth American Indians; Northeast 15. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.

11 ZI

UNITED STATES Brief No. 10, 1990 (Revised 1992) DEPARTMENT OF TIIE INTERIOR FIRST CLASS MAIL NATIONALPARKSERV~E POSTAGE AND FEES PAIO P.O. BOX37127 USOl-NPS WASHINGTON, D.C. 20013-7121 PERMIT NO. G-83

OFFICIAL BUSINESS Technical Briefs are designed and produced by the Dcpan­ PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE, $300 mental Consulting Archeologist and the Archeological Assistance Division of the National Park Service. The series' editors are Francis P. McManamon and Richard C. Wald­ bauer. The copy editor is Jean C. Alexender; the graphic designer is Juliette G. Tabar. Submit comments, topics for future briefs, and requests for copies to; U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. Archeological Assistance Division, P.O. Box 37127, Washington, DC 20013-7127. ~, Technical Briefs are printed on recycled and l. archival paper.

·z9-SJo>:S tCtaJSJH a.18aN fa fVtLJna[,:sn;isnq;)l:s~w u1 sm:1pu1 pm: S;)OJl'l;)N JO suoni:p~ ;)l!.L,, OZ61 ·~)"'.) 'uospoo&

·:::>a 'uo~UJq~& 'ss:>Jd uonm11su1 ui:1uosql!WS ·f7 suontJtaN a11tfA1-UVJPU/ fa tCtaJSJH :suv1pu1 uro1.1auw l{JJON fa 21ooqpuvy 8861 JOl!P;) '"3 qruo:>J!& 'wnqq~&.