DOCSLIB.ORG

Plate Tectonics: a Unifying Theory 11487 02 Ch02 P032-069.Qxd 2/27/06 4:04 PM Page 33

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Plate Tectonics: a Unifying Theory 11487 02 Ch02 P032-069.Qxd 2/27/06 4:04 PM Page 33 11487_02_ch02_p032-069.qxd 2/16/06 9:31 AM Page 32 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory 11487_02_ch02_p032-069.qxd 2/27/06 4:04 PM Page 33 Essential Questions to Ask 2.1 Introduction Ⅲ Why should you know about plate tectonics? 2.2 Continental Drift Ⅲ What were some early ideas about Earth’s past geography? Ⅲ What is the continental drift hypothesis and who proposed it? 2.3 Evidence for Continental Drift Ⅲ What is the evidence for continental drift? 2.4 Paleomagnetism and Polar Wandering Ⅲ What is paleomagnetism? Ⅲ What is the Curie point and why is it important? Ⅲ How can the apparent wandering of the magnetic poles be best explained? 2.5 Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading Ⅲ What evidence is there that Earth’s magnetic field has reversed in the past? Ⅲ What is the theory of seafloor spreading, and how does it validate continental drift? Ⅲ How was the theory of seafloor spreading confirmed? 2.6 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory Ⅲ What are the main tenets of plate tectonic theory? Ⅲ Why is plate tectonics a unifying theory of geology? Ⅲ What is the supercontinent cycle? 2.7 The Three Types of Plate Boundaries Ⅲ What are the three types of plate boundaries? Ⅲ What are divergent boundaries? Ⅲ What features in the geologic record indicate ancient rifting? Ⅲ What are convergent boundaries? Ⅲ How can ancient subduction zones be recognized in the geologic record? Ⅲ What are transform boundaries? 2.8 Hot Spots: An Intraplate Feature Ⅲ What are hot spots and what do they tell us about plate movement? 2.9 Plate Movement and Motion Ⅲ How can the rate and direction of plate movement be determined? 2.10 The Driving Mechanism of Plate Tectonics Ⅲ What drives plates? Ⅲ How do thermal convection cells move plates? Ⅲ Can plate movement be gravity driven? 2.11 Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Natural Resources Ⅲ How does plate tectonic theory relate to the origin and distribution of natural resources? Ⅲ What is the relationship between plate boundaries and various metallic mineral deposits? USGS/NASA The Himalayas, Southwestern China Geology Matters Ruby and sapphire veins spread over white like GEOLOGY IN FOCUS: fossils of ferns on rock. Oil, Plate Tectonics, and Politics This satellite image of the Himalayas reveals an ever-changing GEOLOGY IN UNEXPECTED PLACES: tapestry of peaks, ridges, A Man’s Home Is His Castle and rivers woven by Earth GEOLOGY AND CULTURAL CONNECTIONS: millions of years ago when India collided with Asia. The Struggle toward Scientific Progress —A. W. GEOLOGY AT WORK: The Geologic Exploration of Mars This icon, which appears throughout the book, indicates an opportunity to explore interactive tutorials, animations, or practice problems available on the Physical GeologyNow website at http://now.brookscole.com/phygeo6. 33 11487_02_ch02_p032-069.qxd 2/16/06 9:31 AM Page 34 34 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics: A Unifying Theory have also profoundly influenced the geographic distribu- 2.1 Introduction tion, evolution, and extinction of plants and animals. Fur- thermore, the formation and distribution of many geologic Imagine it is the day after Christmas, December 26, 2004, resources, such as metal ores, are related to plate tectonic and you are vacationing on a beautiful beach in Thailand. processes, so geologists incorporate plate tectonic theory You look up from the book you’re reading to see the sea sud- into their prospecting efforts. denly retreat from the shoreline, exposing a vast expanse of seafloor that had moments before been underwater and Ⅲ Why should you know about plate tectonics? teeming with exotic and colorful fish. It is hard to believe If you’re like most people, you probably have no idea or that within minutes of this unusual event, a powerful only a vague notion of what plate tectonic theory is. Yet tsunami will sweep over your resort and everything in its plate tectonics affects all of us. Volcanic eruptions, earth- path for several kilometers inland. Within hours, the coasts quakes, and tsunami are the result of interactions between of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Somalia, Myan- plates. Global weather patterns and oceanic currents are mar, Malaysia, and the Maldives will be inundated by the caused, in part, by the configuration of the continents and deadliest tsunami in history. More than 220,000 people will ocean basins. The formation and distribution of many nat- die, and billions of dollars in damage will be wreaked on the ural resources are related to plate movement and thus have region. an impact on the economic well-being and political deci- One year earlier, on December 26, 2003, violent shaking sions of nations. It is therefore important to understand this from an earthquake awakened hundreds of thousands of unifying theory, not only because it affects us as individuals people in the Bam area of southeastern Iran. When the and as citizens of nation-states but also because it ties to- magnitude-6.6 earthquake was over, an estimated 43,000 gether many aspects of the geology you will be studying. people were dead, at least 30,000 were injured, and approx- imately 75,000 survivors were left homeless. At least 85% of the structures in the Bam area were destroyed or damaged. Section 2.1 Summary Collapsed buildings were everywhere, streets were strewn ● with rubble, and all communications were knocked out. Plate tectonic theory is the unifying theory of geology. 1 It affects all of us because it explains where and why such Now go back another 12 ⁄2 years to June 15, 1991, when Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines erupted violently, dis- natural disasters as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and charging huge quantities of ash and gases into the atmos- tsunami occur as well as the formation and distribution of phere. Fortunately, in this case, warnings of an impending many economically valuable natural resources. eruption were broadcast and heeded, resulting in the evacu- ation of 200,000 people from areas around the volcano. Un- fortunately, the eruption still caused at least 364 deaths not only from the eruption but also from ensuing mudflows. 2.2 Continental Drift What do these three recent tragic events have in common? They are part of the dynamic interactions involving Earth’s Ⅲ What were some early ideas about Earth’s past plates. When two plates come together, one plate is pushed geography? or pulled under the other plate, triggering large earthquakes The idea that Earth’s past geography was different from to- such as the one that shook India in 2001, Iran in 2003, and day is not new. The earliest maps showing the east coast of Pakistan in 2005. If conditions are right, earthquakes can pro- South America and the west coast of Africa probably pro- duce a tsunami such as the one in 2004 or the 1998 Papua vided people with the first evidence that continents may New Guinea tsunami that killed more than 2200 people. have once been joined together, then broken apart and As the descending plate moves downward and is assimi- moved to their present locations. lated into Earth’s interior, magma is generated. Being less During the late 19th century, the Austrian geologist dense than the surrounding material, the magma rises to- Edward Suess noted the similarities between the Late ward the surface, where it may erupt as a volcano such as Paleozoic plant fossils of India, Australia, South Africa, Mount Pinatubo did in 1991 and others have since. It there- and South America as well as evidence of glaciation in the fore should not be surprising that the distribution of volca- rock sequences of these southern continents. The plant noes and earthquakes closely follows plate boundaries. fossils make up a unique flora in the coal layers just above As we stated in Chapter 1, plate tectonic theory has had the glacial deposits of these southern continents. This significant and far-reaching consequences in all fields of ge- flora is very different from the contemporaneous coal ology because it provides the basis for relating many seem- swamp flora of the northern continents and is collectively ingly unrelated phenomena. The interactions between mov- known as the Glossopteris flora, after its most conspicuous ing plates determine the locations of continents, ocean genus (ᮣ Figure 2.1). basins, and mountain systems, which in turn affect atmos- In his book, The Face of the Earth, published in 1885, pheric and oceanic circulation patterns that ultimately de- Suess proposed the name Gondwanaland (or Gondwana as termine global climate (see Table 1.3). Plate movements we will use here) for a supercontinent composed of the 11487_02_ch02_p032-069.qxd 2/16/06 9:31 AM Page 35 2.2 Continental Drift 35 ᮣ Figure 2.1 Fossil Glossopteris Leaves Plant fossils, such as continents that eventually broke apart and migrated toward these Glossopteris leaves from the Upper Permian Dunedoo Formation the equator after Earth’s rotation was supposedly slowed in Australia, are found on all five Gondwana continents. The presence by gigantic tidal forces. According to Taylor, these tidal of these fossil plants on continents with widely varying climates today is evidence that the continents were at one time connected. forces were generated when Earth captured the Moon The distribution of the plants at that time was in the same climatic about 100 million years ago. latitudinal belt. Although we now know that Taylor’s mechanism is in- correct, one of his most significant contributions was his suggestion that the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, discovered by the 1872–1876 British HMS Challenger expeditions, might mark the site along which an ancient continent broke apart to form the present-day Atlantic Ocean. Ⅲ What is the continental drift hypothesis and who proposed it? Alfred Wegener, a German meteorologist (ᮣ Figure 2.2), is generally credited with developing the hypothesis of conti- Courtesy of Patricia G.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Rock and Fossil Record the Rock and Fossil Record the Rock And
    TheThe RockRock andand FossilFossil RecordRecord Earth’s Story and Those Who First Listened . 426 Apply . 427 Internet Connect . 428 When on Earth? . 429 Activity . 430 MathBreak . 434 Internet Connect 432, 435 Looking at Fossils . 436 QuickLab . 438 Internet Connect . 440 Time Marches On . 441 QuickLab . 443 Internet Connect . 445 Chapter Lab . 446 Chapter Review . 449 TEKS/TAKS Practice Tests . 451, 452 Feature Article . 453 Time Stands Still Pre-Reading Questions Sealed in darkness for 49 million years, this beetle still shimmers with the same metallic hues that once helped it hide among ancient plants. This rare fossil 1. How do scientists study was found in Messel, Germany. In the same rock formation, the Earth’s history? scientists have found fossilized crocodiles, bats, birds, and 2. How can you tell the age frogs. A living stag beetle (above) has a similar form and of rocks and fossils? color. Do you think that these two beetles would live in 3. What natural or human similar environments? What do you think Messel, Germany, events have caused mass was like 49 million years ago? In this chapter, you will extinctions in Earth’s learn how scientists answer these kinds of questions. history? 424 Chapter 16 Copyright © by Holt, Rinehart and Winston. All rights reserved. MAKING FOSSILS Procedure 1. You and three or four of your classmates will be given several pieces of modeling clay and a paper sack containing a few small objects. 2. Press each object firmly into a piece of clay. Try to leave an imprint showing as much detail as possible.
    [Show full text]
  • Continental Complexities: a Multidisciplinary Introduction to Africa
    Continental Complexities A Multidisciplinary Introduction to Africa By Dr. Ibigbolade Simon Aderibigbe and Dr. Akinloye Ojo Included in this preview: • Table of Contents • Chapter 1 & 2 For additional information on adopting this book for your class, please contact us at 800.200.3908 x501 or via e-mail at [email protected] Dpoujofoubm!Dpnqmfyjujft A MULTIDISCIPLINARY INTRODUCTION TO AFRICA Revised Edition Edited by Ibigbolade Aderibigbe and Akinloye Ojo University of Georgia Bassim Hamadeh, CEO and Publisher Christopher Foster, General Vice President Michael Simpson, Vice President of Acquisitions Jessica Knott, Managing Editor Kevin Fahey, Cognella Marketing Manager Jess Busch, Senior Graphic Designer Zina Craft , Acquisitions Editor Jamie Giganti, Project Editor Brian Fahey, Licensing Associate Copyright © 2013 by Cognella, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereaft er invented, including photocopying, microfi lming, and recording, or in any information retrieval system without the written permission of Cognella, Inc. First published in the United States of America in 2013 by Cognella, Inc. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation without intent to infringe. Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 978-1-62131-133-1 (pbk) Contents The Study of Africa: An Introduction 1 Ibigbolade Aderibigbe
    [Show full text]
  • Geologic Time and Geologic Maps
    NAME GEOLOGIC TIME AND GEOLOGIC MAPS I. Introduction There are two types of geologic time, relative and absolute. In the case of relative time geologic events are arranged in their order of occurrence. No attempt is made to determine the actual time at which they occurred. For example, in a sequence of flat lying rocks, shale is on top of sandstone. The shale, therefore, must by younger (deposited after the sandstone), but how much younger is not known. In the case of absolute time the actual age of the geologic event is determined. This is usually done using a radiometric-dating technique. II. Relative geologic age In this section several techniques are considered for determining the relative age of geologic events. For example, four sedimentary rocks are piled-up as shown on Figure 1. A must have been deposited first and is the oldest. D must have been deposited last and is the youngest. This is an example of a general geologic law known as the Law of Superposition. This law states that in any pile of sedimentary strata that has not been disturbed by folding or overturning since accumulation, the youngest stratum is at the top and the oldest is at the base. While this may seem to be a simple observation, this principle of superposition (or stratigraphic succession) is the basis of the geologic column which lists rock units in their relative order of formation. As a second example, Figure 2 shows a sandstone that has been cut by two dikes (igneous intrusions that are tabular in shape).The sandstone, A, is the oldest rock since it is intruded by both dikes.
    [Show full text]
  • Soils in the Geologic Record
    in the Geologic Record 2021 Soils Planner Natural Resources Conservation Service Words From the Deputy Chief Soils are essential for life on Earth. They are the source of nutrients for plants, the medium that stores and releases water to plants, and the material in which plants anchor to the Earth’s surface. Soils filter pollutants and thereby purify water, store atmospheric carbon and thereby reduce greenhouse gasses, and support structures and thereby provide the foundation on which civilization erects buildings and constructs roads. Given the vast On February 2, 2020, the USDA, Natural importance of soil, it’s no wonder that the U.S. Government has Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) an agency, NRCS, devoted to preserving this essential resource. welcomed Dr. Luis “Louie” Tupas as the NRCS Deputy Chief for Soil Science and Resource Less widely recognized than the value of soil in maintaining Assessment. Dr. Tupas brings knowledge and experience of global change and climate impacts life is the importance of the knowledge gained from soils in the on agriculture, forestry, and other landscapes to the geologic record. Fossil soils, or “paleosols,” help us understand NRCS. He has been with USDA since 2004. the history of the Earth. This planner focuses on these soils in the geologic record. It provides examples of how paleosols can retain Dr. Tupas, a career member of the Senior Executive Service since 2014, served as the Deputy Director information about climates and ecosystems of the prehistoric for Bioenergy, Climate, and Environment, the Acting past. By understanding this deep history, we can obtain a better Deputy Director for Food Science and Nutrition, and understanding of modern climate, current biodiversity, and the Director for International Programs at USDA, ongoing soil formation and destruction.
    [Show full text]
  • 71St Annual Meeting Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Paris Las Vegas Las Vegas, Nevada, USA November 2 – 5, 2011 SESSION CONCURRENT SESSION CONCURRENT
    ISSN 1937-2809 online Journal of Supplement to the November 2011 Vertebrate Paleontology Vertebrate Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Society of Vertebrate 71st Annual Meeting Paleontology Society of Vertebrate Las Vegas Paris Nevada, USA Las Vegas, November 2 – 5, 2011 Program and Abstracts Society of Vertebrate Paleontology 71st Annual Meeting Program and Abstracts COMMITTEE MEETING ROOM POSTER SESSION/ CONCURRENT CONCURRENT SESSION EXHIBITS SESSION COMMITTEE MEETING ROOMS AUCTION EVENT REGISTRATION, CONCURRENT MERCHANDISE SESSION LOUNGE, EDUCATION & OUTREACH SPEAKER READY COMMITTEE MEETING POSTER SESSION ROOM ROOM SOCIETY OF VERTEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS SEVENTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING PARIS LAS VEGAS HOTEL LAS VEGAS, NV, USA NOVEMBER 2–5, 2011 HOST COMMITTEE Stephen Rowland, Co-Chair; Aubrey Bonde, Co-Chair; Joshua Bonde; David Elliott; Lee Hall; Jerry Harris; Andrew Milner; Eric Roberts EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Philip Currie, President; Blaire Van Valkenburgh, Past President; Catherine Forster, Vice President; Christopher Bell, Secretary; Ted Vlamis, Treasurer; Julia Clarke, Member at Large; Kristina Curry Rogers, Member at Large; Lars Werdelin, Member at Large SYMPOSIUM CONVENORS Roger B.J. Benson, Richard J. Butler, Nadia B. Fröbisch, Hans C.E. Larsson, Mark A. Loewen, Philip D. Mannion, Jim I. Mead, Eric M. Roberts, Scott D. Sampson, Eric D. Scott, Kathleen Springer PROGRAM COMMITTEE Jonathan Bloch, Co-Chair; Anjali Goswami, Co-Chair; Jason Anderson; Paul Barrett; Brian Beatty; Kerin Claeson; Kristina Curry Rogers; Ted Daeschler; David Evans; David Fox; Nadia B. Fröbisch; Christian Kammerer; Johannes Müller; Emily Rayfield; William Sanders; Bruce Shockey; Mary Silcox; Michelle Stocker; Rebecca Terry November 2011—PROGRAM AND ABSTRACTS 1 Members and Friends of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, The Host Committee cordially welcomes you to the 71st Annual Meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology in Las Vegas.
    [Show full text]
  • Deep Carbon Science
    From Crust to Core Carbon plays a fundamental role on Earth. It forms the chemical backbone for all essential organic molecules produced by living organ- isms. Carbon-based fuels supply most of society’s energy, and atmos- pheric carbon dioxide has a huge impact on Earth’s climate. This book provides a complete history of the emergence and development of the new interdisciplinary field of deep carbon science. It traces four cen- turies of history during which the inner workings of the dynamic Earth were discovered, and it documents the extraordinary scientific revolutions that changed our understanding of carbon on Earth for- ever: carbon’s origin in exploding stars; the discovery of the internal heat source driving the Earth’s carbon cycle; and the tectonic revolu- tion. Written with an engaging narrative style and covering the scien- tific endeavors of about 150 pioneers of deep geoscience, this is a fascinating book for students and researchers working in Earth system science and deep carbon research. is a life fellow at St. Edmund’s College, University of Cambridge. For more than 50 years he has passionately engaged in bringing discoveries in astronomy and cosmology to the general public. He is a fellow of the Royal Historical Society, a former vice- president of the Royal Astronomical Society and a fellow of the Geological Society. The International Astronomical Union designated asteroid 4027 as Minor Planet Mitton in recognition of his extensive outreach activity and that of Dr. Jacqueline Mitton. From Crust to Core A Chronicle of Deep Carbon Science University of Cambridge University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06–04/06, Singapore 079906 Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
    [Show full text]
  • A GEOLOGIC RECORD of the FIRST BILLION YEARS of MARS HISTORY. John F. Mustard1 and James W. Head1 1Department of Earth, Environm
    49th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference 2018 (LPI Contrib. No. 2083) 2604.pdf A GEOLOGIC RECORD OF THE FIRST BILLION YEARS OF MARS HISTORY. John F. Mustard1 and James W. Head1 1Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Box 1846, Brown University, Provi- dence, RI 02912 ([email protected]) Introduction: A compelling record of the first bil- standing solar system evolution question is the exist- lion years of Mars geologic evolution is spectacularly ence, or not, of a period of heavy bombardment ≈500 presented in a compact region at the intersection of Myr after accretion of the terrestrial planets. Except Isidis impact basin and Syrtis Major volcanic province for the Moon, we have no definitive dates for basins (Fig. 1). In this well-exposed region is a well-ordered formed in the Solar System. Radiometric systems in stratigraphy of geologic units spanning Noachian to crystalline igneous rocks exposed by Isidis would like- Early Hesperian times [1]. Geologic units can be de- ly have been reset and thus contain evidence of the finitively associated with the Isidis basin-forming im- impact providing a key data point for understanding pact (≈3.9 Ga, [2]) as well as pristine igneous and basin forming processes in the Solar System. Further- aqueously altered Noachian crust that pre-date the more the Isidis basin impacted onto the rim of the hy- Isidis event. The rich collection of well defined units pothesized Borealis Basin [7]. Given this proximity spanning ≈500 Myr of time in a compact region is at- there is a possibility that some fragments may have tractive for the collection of samples.
    [Show full text]
  • Utah's Geologic Timeline Utah Seed Standard 7.2.6: Make an Argument from Evidence for How the Geologic Time Scale Shows the Ag
    Utah’s Geologic Timeline Utah SEEd Standard 7.2.6: Make an argument from evidence for how the geologic time scale shows the age and history of Earth. Emphasize scientific evidence from rock strata, the fossil record, and the principles of relative dating, such as superposition, uniformitarianism, and recognizing unconformities. (ESS1.C) Activity Details: The students begin with a blank calendar and a list of events in the Earth’s, and additionally Utah’s, history. These events span billions of years, but such numbers are too large to visualize and compare. In order to help the mind understand such enormous lengths of time, the year of the event is scaled to what it would Be proportionate to a calendar year (numBers are from The Utah Geological Survey and Kentucky Geological Survey). The students go through the list and fill out their calendar to visualize the geologic timeline of the Earth and Utah, and then answer some analysis questions to help solidify their understanding. Students will need four differently-colored colored pencils or crayons to complete the activity. Background: The following information is taken from The Utah Geological Survey, written by Mark Milligan. It may Be helpful to define some of the terms with the students so they understand where and how ages come from. Geologists generally know the age of a rock By determining the age of the group of rocks, or formation, that it is found in. The age of formations is marked on a geologic calendar known as the geologic time scale. Development of the geologic time scale and dating of formations and rocks relies upon two fundamentally different ways of telling time: relative and absolute.
    [Show full text]
  • Letter to African Minerals Limited and Response
    HUMAN RIGHTS WHOSE DEVELOPMENT? Human Rights Abuses in Sierra Leone’s Mining Boom WATCH Whose Development? Human Rights Abuses in Sierra Leone’s Mining Boom Copyright © 2014 Human Rights Watch All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America ISBN: 978-1-62313-1067 Cover design by Rafael Jimenez Human Rights Watch is dedicated to protecting the human rights of people around the world. We stand with victims and activists to prevent discrimination, to uphold political freedom, to protect people from inhumane conduct in wartime, and to bring offenders to justice. We investigate and expose human rights violations and hold abusers accountable. We challenge governments and those who hold power to end abusive practices and respect international human rights law. We enlist the public and the international community to support the cause of human rights for all. Human Rights Watch is an international organization with staff in more than 40 countries, and offices in Amsterdam, Beirut, Berlin, Brussels, Chicago, Geneva, Goma, Johannesburg, London, Los Angeles, Moscow, Nairobi, New York, Paris, San Francisco, Tokyo, Toronto, Tunis, Washington DC, and Zurich. For more information, please visit our website: http://www.hrw.org FEBRUARY 2014 978-1-62313-1067 Whose Development? Human Rights Abuses in Sierra Leone’s Mining Boom Map of Sierra Leone ............................................................................................................ i Summary ..........................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Maceral Types and Quality of Coal in the Tuli Coalfield: a Case
    applied sciences Article Maceral Types and Quality of Coal in the Tuli Coalfield: A Case Study of Coal in the Madzaringwe Formation in the Vele Colliery, Limpopo Province, South Africa Elelwani Denge * and Christopher Baiyegunhi Department of Geology and Mining, University of Limpopo, Private Bag X1106, Sovenga 0727, South Africa; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Featured Application: Authors are encouraged to provide a concise description of the specific application or a potential application of the work. This section is not mandatory. Abstract: The Madzaringwe Formation in the Vele colliery is one of the coal-bearing Late Palaeozoic units of the Karoo Supergroup, consisting of shale with thin coal seams and sandstones. Maceral group analysis was conducted on seven representative coal samples collected from three existing boreholes—OV125149, OV125156, and OV125160—in the Vele colliery to determine the coal rank and other intrinsic characteristics of the coal. The petrographic characterization revealed that vitrinite is the dominant maceral group in the coals, representing up to 81–92 vol.% (mmf) of the total sample. Collotellinite is the dominant vitrinite maceral, with a total count varying between 52.4 vol.% (mmf) and 74.9 vol.% (mmf), followed by corpogelinite, collodetrinite, tellinite, and pseudovitrinite with a Citation: Denge, E.; Baiyegunhi, C. count ranging between 0.8 and 19.4 vol.% (mmf), 1.5 and 17.5 vol.% (mmf), 0.8 and 6.5 vol.% (mmf) Maceral Types and Quality of Coal in the Tuli Coalfield: A Case Study of and 0.3 and 5.9 vol.% (mmf), respectively. The dominance of collotellinite gives a clear indication Coal in the Madzaringwe Formation that the coals are derived from the parenchymatous and woody tissues of roots, stems, and leaves.
    [Show full text]
  • Famous Geologist Fact Sheet Your Job Is to Research Information About
    Famous Geologist Fact Sheet Your job is to research information about one of the geologists on the list and arrange the information you find into a fact sheet about that person. The fact sheet should only be one side of an 8 ½ x 11 inch paper. Include all of the following information about the scientist. You may turn your project into a wanted poster if you want starting your paper with “Be on the lookout for this man/woman. Wanted for ___________.” You may use bulleted lists where appropriate. A. Give the scientists full name – first, middle, last B. When they were born and when they died (if applicable) C. Where they were born – country, state, city D. Where they grew up if different from where they were born E. Family information – parents, siblings, wife, children F. Where they went to school – elementary, high school, college G. What they did for a job H. What they studied – field of expertise - give a complete description of what they studied I. What they are famous for specifically – include how their contributions affect us now and/or will in the future J. A quote from your scientist if you can find one K. Any other interesting facts about your scientist L. A picture of the scientist – not a cartoon M. A picture pertaining to what they are famous for N. List of important publications by the scientist O. List any awards given and the dates they were given to your scientist for their contributions to science P. Cite your source or sources according to the MLA Style Your grade will be determined by: * Overall presentation, neatness and creativity.
    [Show full text]
  • Museum of Natural History & Science Gallery Guide for Lost Voices
    Museum of Natural History & Science Gallery Guide for Lost Voices Lost Voices is a multi-part exhibit focusing on the varied life forms that have inhabited our planet in the past. This exhibit allows for a greater understanding of the history of our planet and also of our place on it. Concepts: background extinction, Cenozoic, Cretaceous, crust, environment, eons, epoch, era, evolution, extinction, fossil, fossil record, geologic record, geologist, Holocene, Jurassic, limestone, mantle, mass extinction, Mesozoic, period, plate tectonics, Quaternary, sandstone, Tertiary, tilt, Triassic, wobble Background Information: Scientists calculate the age of the Earth at approximately 4.6 billion years, and the planet has sustained life for over three million years. During this time, many changes have taken place in climate, placement of the continents and life forms. To assist in understanding this vast period of time, scientists have divided the time into sections. The longest period of time are called eons, which are divided into eras, which are then divided into periods, which are finally divided into epochs. Most people are familiar with the Mesozoic era, which consists of the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods. We currently live in the Cenozoic era, the Quaternary period and the Holocene epoch. The divisions between geologic time spans are often defined by a break in the fossil record or a geologic occurrence of some magnitude, such as a sudden widespread volcanic activity. For example, all available evidence points to the division of the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods caused by a giant asteroid strike off the coast of Mexico. The asteroid strike caused the extinction of over 80 percent of the planet’s life forms and created widespread geologic activity.
    [Show full text]