Cultural Transmission and Lithic Technology in Middle Stone Age Eastern Africa
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Cultural Transmission and Lithic Technology in Middle Stone Age Eastern Africa by Kathryn L. Ranhorn B.A. in Anthropology, May 2010, University of Florida A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 31, 2017 Dissertation directed by Alison S. Brooks Professor of Anthropology and International Affairs David R. Braun Associate Professor of Anthropology The Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Kathryn L. Ranhorn has passed the Final Examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of May 9th, 2017. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. Cultural Transmission and Lithic Technology in Middle Stone Age Eastern Africa Kathryn L. Ranhorn Dissertation Research Committee: Alison S. Brooks, Professor of Anthropology and International Affairs, Dissertation Co-Director David R. Braun, Associate Professor of Anthropology, Dissertation Co-Director Francys Subiaul, Associate Professor of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Committee Member Christian A. Tryon, Associate Professor of Anthropology, Harvard University Committee Member ii © Copyright 2017 by Kathryn L. Ranhorn All rights reserved. iii Dedication To my mother, who taught me that evolution requires sometimes copying old ideas, and often creating new ones. Na pia kwa marafiki wangu wa Tanzania na Kenya, hii ndo story zenu. Bado tunapanda. -- “It sometimes appears that all of us treat stone artifacts as infinitely complex repositories of paleocultural information and assume that it is only the imperfections of our present analytical systems that prevent us from decoding them. But is this really so?” (Isaac 1977:207) iv Acknowledgements The completion of this work was itself a journey, and it is impossible to name all of the people who played a role in it. I first must thank Dr. Alison S. Brooks, whose unabashed faith in my abilities enabled me to reach ever higher, and whose very existence served as an ever-present reminder that women archaeologists are a force to be reckoned with. I remember the first time we met, at Olorgesailie in southern Kenya. I arrived via public matatu, traveling alone from Nairobi, having taken a 14-hour bus ride from Dar es Salaam the day prior. Despite my having a background in cultural anthropology, Alison accepted me into a graduate program in paleobiology with the adage, “You understand Africa and want to learn more. That’s the big thing. Everything else, you will learn in graduate school.” Alison’s encyclopedic, inquisitive, and analytical mind inspired the undertaking of this research, and immensely added to the completion of it. To this day I can go to Alison with a question as simple as, “What is the oldest known symbolic use of feathers?” Approximately 45 minutes later we will depart, having discussed the site, publication, and stratigraphy of the relevant evidence, and also how these disparate parts fit into the whole of human behavioral evolution. Alison, thank you for being my sensei. Secondly I thank Dr. David Braun, for his eager willingness to collaborate and incorporate me into the Koobi Fora Field School, his patience as I learned the ins and outs of Paleolithic research, and his advice, both in the field and in the lab. Shooting in ancient footprints at Ileret, setting up a grid on a rapidly eroding sand dune, and watching our field school students academically progress are just a few highlights of my collaborations with Dave. He taught me to “walk the walk” in the collection of v archaeological data. From the maintenance of Land Rovers to the leveling of a total station, from student recruitment to a 50-person bush camp, I witnessed every piece of data come together. I look forward to many more years of dust and diesel with Dave. I would not be remotely involved in paleoanthropology were it not for Dr. Fidelis Masao at the University of Dar es Salaam. I was 19 years old when I walked into his office and asked if it was ‘too late’ to register for his class, Archaeological Methods. A week into the course he informed our class about his field school at Olduvai Gorge, and he again accepted when I pleaded to join. My decision to come to graduate school and study human origins was made two years later, at chini ya mti in Leakey Camp, as Fidelis explained to me the potential for Middle Stone Age archaeology in Tanzania. I later returned to Olduvai to study Nasera, sleeping in Mary Leakey’s old room at night and measuring intractable quartz by day, all of which was organized by Fidelis. “Faza” has trained an army of Tanzanian archaeologists, and I hope to carry on his torch. My dissertation committee is a tour de force of human behavioral evolution and each member played an integral role. Francys Subiaul inspired me to pursue social learning as a science. His passion for his research transmits to his students, and every meeting we had led to ideas for more experiments. The social learning flint knapping component of this dissertation is central to the inferences made about the archaeological record, and none of it would have been possible without Francys Subiaul. Tyler Faith joined the committee later in the game and provided objective, crystal-clear and constructive criticisms on the research questions, methods, and statistical analyses. Tyler is an ‘ace in the hole’ for any Paleolithic project and I look forward to future collaborations with him. Matthew Douglass also joined the committee vi relatively late, and his perspective on living populations, actualism, reduction sequences, and non-lineal approaches to behavioral evolution all contributed to this thesis. Finally, Christian Tryon has been my bulldog since before my acceptance into graduate school. Whenever “imposter syndrome” crept in, Christian was there, asking for my opinion on artifacts and treating me as a scholar and collaborator. Working with Christian and Jason Lewis at Kisese II provided a much-needed breath of fresh air, a reminder that solid Middle Stone Age research can, and should, be systematically conducted in Tanzania. Our future research agenda at Kisese II is the number one reason that I was able to finish this dissertation, knowing that something even more fascinating awaits on the horizon in a painted rock shelter. The Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology (CASHP) has been my academic home for six years, and, given the choice, I would not have attended any other program. Bernard Wood served as an ever-present hypothesis-testing guardian angel on my shoulder, constantly checking that my research was ‘big’ enough to make a difference and ‘sound’ enough to be taken seriously. I, and countless others, also applaud Bernard for his public dismissal of sexual harassment in our field. Chet Sherwood, Shannon McFarlin, and Carson Murray all provided listening ears over countless coffees while I navigated the winding road of graduate school. Carson made a dream come true when she invited me to Gombe with Susana Carvalho. Observing chimpanzees as they fished for termites, followed by sunset cocktails with Jane Goodall, remain highlights of my career. From an analytical perspective, Mark Grabowski and Andrew Barr taught me everything I know about R and statistics—knowledge that I use every single day. vii One main reason that I love CASHP is that it is housed within the Department of Anthropology. At any point I could walk over to the Hortense Amsterdam House, play with the department’s pet dog, and talk about various topics tangential to my research, like the use of mobile phones as a source for sustainable development in Kenya. The whole of the Anthropology department has shaped my scholarship, and provided a template for my future career goals. Jonathan Higman, Cortnie Cogan, Charlotte Krohn, Keely Arbenz-Smith, and the rest of the administration team do the work of saints, from fixing course registration to processing receipts written in Swahili on a napkin. I appreciate them all. My fellow graduate students at CASHP also deserve special mention. Andrew Zipkin was easily the best ‘academic older brother’ that a student could ask for. He consistently checked in on me, celebrated with me as I passed qualifying exams, and advised me when I was lost. He helped me navigate the chaos of academic conferences, from Memphis to Hawaii, Orlando to Vancouver. Amy Bauernfeind, Elizabeth Renner, and Habiba Chirchir all provided years of mental and emotional support, often in the dark confines of local pubs. One of my proudest accomplishments in graduate school came from these discussions: our launching of CASHP Women in Science (also known as Diversity in Science or DIS). Kevin Hatala, Andrew Du, and Kes Schroer all provided helpful ‘older sibling’ support consistently throughout graduate school. Finally, David Patterson was an attentive soundboard for hundreds of hours, and offered friendship, advice, and a cold beer when needed, both in DC and in the field. I am privileged to know so many talented scientists, to have come of age with them academically, and to viii continue to learn from them every day, especially as I embark on my post-graduate career trajectory. My involvement with the Koobi Fora Field School was the most formative experience of my graduate career. Kathryn Braun goes unacknowledged too often, and yet the field school would not exist without her strength, organization, patience, and kindness. Emmanuel Ndiema not only oversees affiliation letters, export permit requests, and curation of archaeological materials, he also personally escorted me to archaeological sites at East Turkana. His willingness to collaborate and his knowledge of the Holocene, as well as local populations, have improved my research immensely.