DOCSLIB.ORG

Inns and Innkeeping in North Hertfordshire: 1660

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Inns and Innkeeping in North Hertfordshire: 1660 INNS AND INNKEEPING IN NORTH HERTFORDSHIRE: 1660 - 1815 Annika McQueen Wolfson College Faculty of Architecture and History of Art Department of Building History University of Cambridge The full version of this dissertation was submitted for the degree of Master of Studies in Building History in May 2019. A copy is held by the Architecture and History of Art Library, University of Cambridge. This is a redacted version in adherence to copyright regulations. © Annika McQueen, 2019 1 Editorial Conventions In direct quotations from contemporary sources, the original spelling and capitalisation has been retained. Modern punctuation has been inserted in the case of lists. Old Style dating in contemporary sources has been addressed by the use of a slash date separator where the New Style dating equivalent is uncertain e.g. 1684/5. Currency is in pounds (£), shillings (s) and pence (d): there were 12 old pence to the shilling, 20 shillings or 240 old pence to the pound. Unless otherwise attributed, all drawings and photographs are the work of the author. Measurements in drawings by the author are in metres. This dissertation contains plans and drawings which are best viewed digitally. ii Acknowledgements I would like to express my thanks to the following individuals: • Dr Adam Menuge at the Department of Building History, University of Cambridge for his support and encouragement during my studies in his role as Course Director, and for his helpful guidance and comments on early drafts of this dissertation as my Supervisor. • Dr Debbie Pullinger at Wolfson College, Cambridge for her support and encouragement as College Tutor to part-time students. • Liz Bland, Student Finance Officer at Wolfson College, Cambridge for her kindness and advice throughout my studies. • Helen Duncan and the staff of the Disability Resource Centre, University of Cambridge for their guidance and support. • Bridget Howlett of the Hitchin Historical Society for her advice on the study of inns in Hitchin, introducing me to existing work on the subject and generously sharing her previous research. • Brendan King of the Baldock Museum and Local History Society for his advice on the study of inns in Baldock and introducing me to his previous work on the subject. • The archivists and staff at Hertfordshire Archives and Local Studies for their patience and assistance with my research enquiries. 3 Table of Contents Editorial Conventions ....................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 3 Abbreviations .................................................................................................................. 5 Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................... 6 Chapter 2: The Victualling Hierarchy ................................................................................ 9 Chapter 3: Hertfordshire - Historical Development and the Urban Inn ..............................15 Hitchin ................................................................................................................................... 18 Baldock.................................................................................................................................. 22 Chapter 4: The Sun Inn, Hitchin .......................................................................................26 The Sun Inn, Hitchin - The operation of a principal urban inn in the mid-eighteenth century .... 28 Chapter 5: The White Horse Inn, Baldock .........................................................................40 Edward Marshall and the White Horse Inn, Baldock - The operation of a principal urban inn in the mid-eighteenth century.................................................................................................... 44 Marshall’s White Horse and Westwood’s Sun: A comparison of principal inns in the mid- eighteenth century ................................................................................................................ 54 Chapter 6: The Red House and the Red Cow, Hitchin ........................................................60 Evidence derived from extant buildings .................................................................................. 62 John Heady, the Red House and the Red Cow ......................................................................... 64 Chapter 7: Conclusion .....................................................................................................72 List of Sources .................................................................................................................75 Manuscript Sources .................................................................................................................................... 75 BARS ............................................................................................................................................................. 75 TNA .............................................................................................................................................................. 76 LMA .............................................................................................................................................................. 76 TPM .............................................................................................................................................................. 76 NHM ............................................................................................................................................................. 77 Internet Archives ......................................................................................................................................... 77 Artefacts ................................................................................................................................ 77 Printed Primary Sources ......................................................................................................... 77 Maps and Plans ...................................................................................................................... 78 Printed Secondary Literature .................................................................................................. 81 Unpublished Secondary Literature .......................................................................................... 91 Internet-based Sources .......................................................................................................... 92 4 Abbreviations The following abbreviations are used throughout this dissertation: • BARS - Bedfordshire Archives and Records Service • BHO – British History Online • BL - British Library • BM – British Museum • BMLHS – Baldock Museum and Local History Society • HALS - Hertfordshire Archives and Local Studies • HHS - Hitchin Historical Society • HLHC – Hertfordshire Local History Council • HP – Hertfordshire Publications • HRS – Hertfordshire Records Society • LMA - London Metropolitan Archives • LWL – Lewis Walpole Library • NHM – North Hertfordshire Museum • OS – Ordnance Survey • RCHME – Royal Commission of the Historic Monuments of England • TNA - The National Archives • TPM - The Postal Museum • VAM – Victoria and Albert Museum • VCH – Victoria County History • WL – Wren Library; Trinity College, Cambridge 5 Chapter 1: Introduction Previously overlooked by historians across the disciplines of architectural and socio-economic history, the inn has, in recent years, begun to receive the research attention it deserves. One-time stalwarts of the community, surviving inn buildings from the medieval and early modern periods pepper the towns and cities of England. Many former principal inns retain a hospitality function, and some are still engaged in the business of providing accommodation and victuals, if not good cheer. Where the function has been lost, the building often remains, offering architectural clues as to its former purpose. The buildings in which lesser inns operated potentially survive in smaller numbers yet may be discovered with research and a trained eye. Once identified, extant former inn buildings can offer an insight into form and function. If the opportunity to examine surviving documentary sources in combination with extant buildings arises then a chance to test these ideas pertaining to form and function and gain an understanding of understanding of material culture and urban life as it was conducted centuries ago is presented. This dissertation capitalises on such an opportunity. By analysing surviving probate inventories of known innholders, combined with (where extant) architectural evidence from standing buildings that suggest they correspond to the inventories studied, it has been possible to create a window into the operation of urban inns in north Hertfordshire during the long eighteenth century, here defined as 1660-1815. This research will address the lack of a study that focuses on urban inns in north Hertfordshire and supplement the wider research that has been undertaken on the form and function of urban inns and on innkeeping lifestyles in England. Prior to this study much published work on inns and innkeeping in Hertfordshire has focused on individual towns or the better-researched south and east of the county, examining the religious centre of
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Rhetoric of the Saints in Middle English Bibiical Drama by Chester N. Scoville a Thesis Submitted in Conformity with The
    The Rhetoric of the Saints in Middle English BibIical Drama by Chester N. Scoville A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of English University of Toronto O Copyright by Chester N. Scoville (2000) National Library Bibiiotheque nationale l*l ,,na& du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395, rwW~gtm OttawaON KlAûîU4 OtÈewaûN K1AW canada canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sel1 reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/nlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or otheMrise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. Abstract of Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2000 Department of English, University of Toronto The Rhetoric of the Saints in Middle English Biblical Dnma by Chester N. Scovilie Much past criticism of character in Middle English drarna has fallen into one of two rougtily defined positions: either that early drama was to be valued as an example of burgeoning realism as dernonstrated by its villains and rascals, or that it was didactic and stylized, meant primarily to teach doctrine to the faithfùl.
    [Show full text]
  • Tartan As a Popular Commodity, C.1770-1830. Scottish Historical Review, 95(2), Pp
    Tuckett, S. (2016) Reassessing the romance: tartan as a popular commodity, c.1770-1830. Scottish Historical Review, 95(2), pp. 182-202. (doi:10.3366/shr.2016.0295) This is the author’s final accepted version. There may be differences between this version and the published version. You are advised to consult the publisher’s version if you wish to cite from it. http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/112412/ Deposited on: 22 September 2016 Enlighten – Research publications by members of the University of Glasgow http://eprints.gla.ac.uk SALLY TUCKETT Reassessing the Romance: Tartan as a Popular Commodity, c.1770-1830 ABSTRACT Through examining the surviving records of tartan manufacturers, William Wilson & Son of Bannockburn, this article looks at the production and use of tartan in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. While it does not deny the importance of the various meanings and interpretations attached to tartan since the mid-eighteenth century, this article contends that more practical reasons for tartan’s popularity—primarily its functional and aesthetic qualities—merit greater attention. Along with evidence from contemporary newspapers and fashion manuals, this article focuses on evidence from the production and popular consumption of tartan at the turn of the nineteenth century, including its incorporation into fashionable dress and its use beyond the social elite. This article seeks to demonstrate the contemporary understanding of tartan as an attractive and useful commodity. Since the mid-eighteenth century tartan has been subjected to many varied and often confusing interpretations: it has been used as a symbol of loyalty and rebellion, as representing a fading Highland culture and heritage, as a visual reminder of the might of the British Empire, as a marker of social status, and even as a means of highlighting racial difference.
    [Show full text]
  • BALDOCK, BYGRAVE and CLOTHALL NEIGHBOURHOOD PLAN Design Guidelines
    BALDOCK, BYGRAVE AND CLOTHALL NEIGHBOURHOOD PLAN Design Guidelines March 2019 Quality information Project role Name Position Action summary Signature Date Qualifying body Michael Bingham Baldock , Bygrave and Clothall Review 17.12.2018 Planning Group Director / QA Ben Castell Director Finalisation 9.01.2019 Researcher Niltay Satchell Principal Urban Designer Research, site 9.01.2019 visit, drawings Blerta Dino Urban Designer Project Coordinator Mary Kucharska Project Coordinator Review 12.01.2019 This document has been prepared by AECOM Limited for the sole use of our client (the “Client”) and in accordance with generally accepted consultancy principles, the budget for fees and the terms of reference agreed between AECOM Limited and the Client. Any information provided by third parties and referred to herein has not been checked or verified by AECOM Limited, unless otherwise expressly stated in the document. No third party may rely upon this document without the prior and express written agreement of AECOM Limited. Contents 1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................6 1.1. Background ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................6 1.2. Purpose of this document ............................................................................................................................................................................6
    [Show full text]
  • Three Week Period Expires 7Th March 2014 (Councillor Call-In Period)
    ST ALBANS DISTRICT COUNCIL PLANNING APPLICATION REGISTERED WEEK ENDING 14TH FEBRUARY 2014 THREE WEEK PERIOD EXPIRES 7TH MARCH 2014 (COUNCILLOR CALL-IN PERIOD) Information regarding Councillor call-in period and procedure for public consultation. Comments and call-ins may be made on any Advertisement Consent, Listed Building, Conservation Area, Householder, Certificate of Lawfulness (existing), Telecommunication and Planning Applications please e.mail: [email protected] (Please include the Application No (e.g. "5/2009/1234") in the title of the e.mail) Application No 5/2014/0262 Ward: Ashley Area: C Proposal: Certificate of Lawfulness (proposed) - L-shaped rear dormer window at 49 Burleigh Road St Albans Hertfordshire AL1 5DH Applicant: Agent: MrRMerriman C/oAgent DerekLofty&Associates TheLodgeStudio Copthorne Road Croxley Green Hertfordshire WD3 4AQ http://planning.stalbans.gov.uk/Planning/lg/dialog.page?org.apache.shale.dialog.DIALOG_NAME=gfplanningsearch&Param=lg.Planning&ref_no=5/2014/0262 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Application No 5/2014/0263 Ward: Ashley Area: C Proposal: Single storey front extension incorporating porch with one rooflight, single storey side extension and one front dormer window at 49 Burleigh Road St Albans Hertfordshire AL1 5DH Applicant: Agent: MrRMerriman C/oAgent DerekLofty&Associates TheLodgeStudio Copthorne Road Croxley Green Hertfordshire WD3 4QA http://planning.stalbans.gov.uk/Planning/lg/dialog.page?org.apache.shale.dialog.DIALOG_NAME=gfplanningsearch&Param=lg.Planning&ref_no=5/2014/0263
    [Show full text]
  • Dress and Cultural Difference in Early Modern Europe European History Yearbook Jahrbuch Für Europäische Geschichte
    Dress and Cultural Difference in Early Modern Europe European History Yearbook Jahrbuch für Europäische Geschichte Edited by Johannes Paulmann in cooperation with Markus Friedrich and Nick Stargardt Volume 20 Dress and Cultural Difference in Early Modern Europe Edited by Cornelia Aust, Denise Klein, and Thomas Weller Edited at Leibniz-Institut für Europäische Geschichte by Johannes Paulmann in cooperation with Markus Friedrich and Nick Stargardt Founding Editor: Heinz Duchhardt ISBN 978-3-11-063204-0 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-063594-2 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-063238-5 ISSN 1616-6485 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 04. International License. For details go to http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. Library of Congress Control Number:2019944682 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2019 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston The book is published in open access at www.degruyter.com. Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and Binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck Cover image: Eustaţie Altini: Portrait of a woman, 1813–1815 © National Museum of Art, Bucharest www.degruyter.com Contents Cornelia Aust, Denise Klein, and Thomas Weller Introduction 1 Gabriel Guarino “The Antipathy between French and Spaniards”: Dress, Gender, and Identity in the Court Society of Early Modern
    [Show full text]
  • Bush Farm Epping Green • Hertford • Sg13 8Nb
    BUSH FARM EPPING GREEN • HERTFORD • SG13 8NB BUSH FARM EPPING GREEN • HERTFORD • SG13 8NB An exceptions family home with views of rolling countryside, set in 13 acres Ground Floor: Reception hall, drawing room, sitting room, family room, study, kitchen/breakfast room, utility room, w/c. First Floor: Master suite, 2 further en-suite bedrooms. Second Floor: 2 double bedrooms, family bathroom, media room. Studio: Sitting room, open plan kitchen, bedroom area, bathroom. Secondary accommodation: Sitting room, kitchen, en-suite shower room, double bedroom and separate shower room. Leisure complex: Heated swimming pool, gym, changing room, shower room, w/c, boiler room. Outbuildings: Garage with 4 up and over doors and space for at least 6 cars. Barn, large basement for storage. About 13 Acres SAVILLS HARPENDEN SAVILLS BISHOP’S SAVILLS COUNTRY 2 Station Road STORTFORD DEPARTMENT Harpenden AL5 4SD Chequers, 19 North St, 33 Margaret Street, Bishop’s Stortford CM23 2LD London W1G 0JD [email protected] 01582 465 002 [email protected] [email protected] 01279 756 801 020 7075 2806 [email protected] 020 7016 3713 Your attention is drawn to the Important Notice on the last page of the text DESCRIPTION SITUATION Bush Farm is set in a wonderful semi rural location with stunning views across its Bush Farm is located on the edge of the pretty hilltop village of Little Berkhamsted own land and rolling countryside. The main house which is in excess of 5500 sq. about twenty five miles north of central London and five miles south west of the offers well balanced accommodation, recently renovated throughout.
    [Show full text]
  • My Rössl AUTUMN/WINTER 2020-2021 AUTUMN/WINTER LEGENDARY
    english My Rössl AUTUMN/WINTER 2020-2021 LEGENDARY. Legendary: Peter Alexander as head waiter Leopold in the cult comedy ‘The White Horse Inn.’ Congenial: Waltraut Haas as resolute and smart Rössl hostess Josepha Vogelhuber. Overwhelmingly beautiful: Lake Wolfgangsee with all its possibilities for recreation, relaxation and exercise. Majestic: The mountains with unforgettable views down to the lakes. A gift from heaven: The fresh and heal- thy air – breathe deeply again and again. Typically Austrian: The warm hospitality, the culinary delights, the relaxed cosiness, the gentle Alpine pastures, the great hi- king and winter experiences. In a word: Legendary. Experience the good life at the Weisses Rössl at Lake Wolfgangsee. 1 FOR MY RÖSSL GUESTS Dearest Rössl guests, there was already so much that I had wanted to tell you when we started “My Rössl” one year ago. I have so much to share about festivals at the Rössl and the year of legends at the Lake Wolfgangsee. Then a little virus came along that changed the whole world. What you now hold in your hands is our lifeblood. After all, on some days all we have left is our belief that the legendary Weisses Rössl, which has existed for over 500 years, will continue to do so for a long time to come. Our confidence is thanks to you and all of our guests. I would be remiss in not expressing my gratitude at this stage for your loyalty. Thank you to all of you who have been with us at Lake Wolf- gangsee these past weeks and finally gave us the opportunity to bring joy to people.
    [Show full text]
  • North Hertfordshire District Council Climate Change Strategy Completed Actions 2020
    North Hertfordshire District Council Climate Change Strategy Completed Actions 2020 REDUCING OUR CARBON FOOTPRINT ● We have engaged a consultant to help identify the Council’s current carbon footprint. ◦ We have received a report detailing the carbon emissions from our main sites and buildings, as well as energy efficiency measures and possibilities for investment in renewable energy which could help the Council reduce its carbon footprint. ◦ We have created an action tracker based on the energy efficiency measures recommended in the report. ◦ We are also having the emissions related to the Council’s vehicle fleet, grey fleet, commuting, water, and waste assessed, and expect to receive similar reports for these elements which lay out the opportunities for carbon reduction. ● The Council has made the switch to renewable electricity and green gas to power and heat our buildings. ● The Council has worked with Stevenage Leisure Limited (SLL) to eliminate single use plastics from Leisure Centres and Swimming Pools. ◦ Blue plastic overshoes were removed from Royston Leisure Centre and Hitchin Swim Centre on 13/12/2019 and 24/02/2020 respectively. REDUCING OUR CARBON FOOTPRINT ● Changes to the Taxi and Private Hire Licensing Policy were approved to limit emissions. These changes included: ◦ No idling points system introduced to enforce against drivers who do not comply. ◦ Restricted use taxi ranks - when the infrastructure is in ` place, it is intended to restrict use of prime location taxi ranks to environmentally friendly vehicles. This serves both as an incentive for licence holders to purchase environmentally friendly vehicles and addresses the issue of vehicle emissions in residential areas such as town centres.
    [Show full text]
  • German Operetta on Broadway and in the West End, 1900–1940
    Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.58, on 26 Sep 2021 at 08:28:39, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/2CC6B5497775D1B3DC60C36C9801E6B4 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.202.58, on 26 Sep 2021 at 08:28:39, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/2CC6B5497775D1B3DC60C36C9801E6B4 German Operetta on Broadway and in the West End, 1900–1940 Academic attention has focused on America’sinfluence on European stage works, and yet dozens of operettas from Austria and Germany were produced on Broadway and in the West End, and their impact on the musical life of the early twentieth century is undeniable. In this ground-breaking book, Derek B. Scott examines the cultural transfer of operetta from the German stage to Britain and the USA and offers a historical and critical survey of these operettas and their music. In the period 1900–1940, over sixty operettas were produced in the West End, and over seventy on Broadway. A study of these stage works is important for the light they shine on a variety of social topics of the period – from modernity and gender relations to new technology and new media – and these are investigated in the individual chapters. This book is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core at doi.org/10.1017/9781108614306. derek b. scott is Professor of Critical Musicology at the University of Leeds.
    [Show full text]
  • Baldock Radio Station Royston Road Baldock Herts SG7 6SH Mobile
    ML2-005-04 Baldock Radio Station Royston Road Baldock Herts SG7 6SH Mobile Phone Base-Station Audit Audit Site: St Edmunds Catholic School Nelson Road Twickenham Middlesex TW2 7BB Work Perfomed by Distribution List James Loughlin 3G measurements Lloyd Tailby 1 Field Manager & Report Mrs R Murphy 1 Mike Reynolds 3G measurements Field Officer JP 1 JP 2G measurements Technical Manager 1 T.I. Officer & 2G Report Case/Year file 2 1 ML2-005-04 The Office of Communications (Ofcom) took over the functions of the Radiocommunications Agency, the Independent Television Commission, and the Radio Authority (as well as the Office of Telecommunications and the Broadcasting Standards Commission) on 29th December 2003. Ofcom is located at Riverside House, 2a Southwalk Bridge Road, London SE1 9HA. Tel: 020 7981 3000. Website: www.ofcom.org.uk Baldock Radio Station forms part of the Operations Group of Ofcom. The station address remains at Royston Road, Baldock, Hertfordshire SG7 6SH. Tel: 01462 428500, Fax: 01462 428510 2 ML2-005-04 Report Summary As the radio spectrum is continually changing, these measurements can only provide information on the radio frequency (RF) conditions for the specific locations at the time of the survey. The Office of Communications (Ofcom), originally the Radiocommunications Agency performed this survey of the RF emission environment in the vicinity of the site of St Edmunds Catholic School on 4th February 2004. Both second generation (2G) and third generation (3G) base station emissions were measured separately and the signal levels combined to calculate the Total Band Exposure as detailed below. The table, sorted in descending order of signal level, summarises the total results obtained at each measurement location.
    [Show full text]
  • Register of P & T Localism M 11.07.17
    ABCDEFGHIJ Any employment, office, Any payment or A description of any Any land in the Council’s Any land in the Council’s Any tenancy where to The name of any person Any other types of interest (other 1 Councillor Parish trade, profession or provision of any other contract for goods, area in which you have area for which you or the your knowledge the or body in which you than Disclosable Pecuniary Spire Furlong 3 Newnham Way Trustee - Ashwell Village Hall Ashwell Trustee - Ashwell Village Museum 2 Martin G Hoffman ASHWELL Retired NONE NONE Herts NONE NONE NONE Vide President - Ashwell Show 33 West End Mark Noble Ashwell 3 Westbrook - White ASHWELL Ambit Projects Limited NONE NONE Herts SG7 5PM NONE NONE NONE 41 Club 3 Orchard View Sunnymead 4 Bridget Macey ASHWELL NONE NONE NONE Ashwell NONE NONE NONE NONE 92 Station Road Ashwell 5 David R Sims ASHWELL NONE NONE NONE Herts SG7 5LT NONE NONE NONE NONE British Association of Counselling & Psychotherapy Foundation for Psychotherapy & Counselling British Psychoanalytical Council Rare Breeds Survival Hebridean Sheep Society Ashwell Housing Association National Sheep Association Guild of Weavers, Spinners and Dyers Member of Green Party Husband: British Association for Local History Hertfordshire Association for Local 59 High Street, Ashwell History (Home) Hertfordshire Record Scoiety Farm fields at: Westbury, Farm fields at: Westbury, Rare Breeds Survival Trust Self-employed Shepherd, Hunts Close, Townsend, Hunts Close, Townsend, Hebridean Sheep Society teacher, landlord Baldwins Corner,
    [Show full text]
  • The Ice Age in North Hertfordshire
    The Ice Age in North Hertfordshire What do we mean by ‘the Ice Age’? Thinking about ‘the Ice Age’ brings up images of tundra, mammoths, Neanderthals and great sheets of ice across the landscape. This simple picture is wrong in many ways. Firstly, there have been many different ‘Ice Ages’ in the history of the earth. The most dramatic happened between 2.4 and 2.1 billion years ago, known as the Huronian Glaciation. About the same time, earth’s atmosphere suddenly became rich in oxygen, and some scientists believe that the atmospheric changes reduced the temperature so much that the whole planet became covered in ice. 1: an Arctic ice sheet (© Youino Joe, USFWS, used under a Creative Commons licence) Another global cover of ice happened 650 million years ago when the first multi-celled animals were evolving. Geologists sometimes refer to this period as the ‘Snowball Earth’ and biologists know it as the Proterozoic. Temperatures were so low that the equator was as cold as present-day Antarctica. They began to rise again as concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rose to about 13%, 350 times greater than today. Some carbon dioxide came from volcanic eruptions, but some was excreted by microbial life, which was beginning to diversify and increase in numbers. Neither of these Ice Ages is the one that dominates the popular imagination. Both happened many millions of years before life moved on to land. There were no humans, no mammals, no dinosaurs: none of the creatures familiar from The Flintstones. The period most people think about as the ‘real’ Ice Age is the geologists’ Pleistocene era, from more than two-and-a-half million years ago to the beginning of the Holocene, almost 12,000 years ago.
    [Show full text]