COPYRIGHTED By Paul Peter Vouras

1956 THE ROLE OF ECONOMIC-GEOGRAPHIC FACTORS IN THE DESTINY OF RHODES

DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By PAUL PETER VOURAS, B.S., M.A. The Ohio State University 1956

Approved by:

/ Adviser Department of Geograp: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is a pleasure to acknowledge help and suggestions from many quarters. X am deeply indebted to Dr. Eugene

Van Cleef, Department of Geography, of The Ohio State

University, for the benefit of his critical judgment, and innumerable fruitful suggestions.

I want to express my appreciation for the friendly counsel and valuable suggestions which I have received from Dr. Fred A, Carlson, Dr. John R. Randall, and Dr.

Lawrence A, Hoffman, Department of Geography, of The Ohio State University

I wish to express my deep obligation and sincere thanks to the Greek government officials who furnished the data that I used in the study. All errors of commis­ sion or omission are my sole responsibility.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 11 LIST OP TABLES vl LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS vlll INTRODUCTION 1 I PHYSICAL ASPECTS 3 Location 3 Geology 3 Surface Configuration 5 Climate 7 Soils 11 Water Resources 13 Forests 14 Minerals 14 Sea 16 II PRE-OTTOMAN HISTORICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 18 III THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESOURCES OF THE ISLAND UNDER TURKISH RULE, 1522-1912 26 Agriculture 29 Land Tenure 30 Types of Agriculture 33 Grain Culture 33 Olive-tree Culture 35 Viticulture 38 Fruit-tree Culture 40 Animal husbandry 4l Industry 43 Handicrafts 43 Ceramics Industry 44 Shipbuilding 45 Shipping 46 Commerce 46 IV THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESOURCES OF THE ISLAND UNDER ITALIAN RULE, 1912-1943 53 Agricultural Conditions In General 56 Measures to Improve Agriculture 56 Scuola dl Agrlcoltura 58 111 iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT'D.) CHAPTER PAGE Land Reclamation 59 Irrigation 60 Agricultural Credit 6l Land Tenure 62 Land Acquisition 64 Italian Settlements 64 San Marco 66 San Benedetto 68 Peveragno 72 Land Use 73 Cereals 77 Olives and Olive Oil 80 Grapes and Raisins 84 Tree-Prults other thanthe Olive 90 Aprlculture 93 Other Crops 94 Livestock 96 Forests 103 Fishing 106 Mining and Quarrlng I07 Industry 108 Handicrafts 110 Mechanical Manufacturing 110 Tobacco 111 Ceramics 112 Wines and Distilleries 113 Flour Milling 114 Soap-making and Olive Oil 115 Shipping 116 Foreign Trade 118 Tourism 128

V PRE-GREEK HISTORICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND, 1945-1947 134 VI THE DEVELOPMENT OP THE RESOURCES OF THE ISLAND UNDER GREEK RULE, 1947-1954 139 Agriculture I39 Agricultural Extension Work I4l Development of Minor Irrigation Projects 142 Soil Conservation 143 Other Measures 143 Fruit and Vegetable Growing 144 Livestock 14.5 Forestry 147 Fishing 148 TABLE OP CONTENTS (CONT'D.) CHAPTER PAGE Industry 149 Shipping 150 Foreign Trade I50 Tourism I50 VII CONCLUSIONS I58 Strategic Factor I58 Commercial Factor I58 Ethnic Factor 159 Economic-geographic Factor I60 Economic Development I62 Obstacles to Economic Problems l64 Disposition of the Island I65 BIBLIOGRAPHY I67 AUTOBIOGRAPHY I73 DIST OP TABLES TABLE PAGE I Export and Import Trade of Rhodes In the Years I908 through 1912 47 II Value of Imports and Exports Into and from Rhodes, by Countries, 1909 49 III Shipping that Entered and Cleared at the Port of Rhodes during the Years, 1908-12 50 IV Production of Agricultural Crops in San Marco, 1940 68 V Production of Agricultural Crops in San Benedetto, 1940 69 VI Production of Agricultural and Animal Products In Peveragno, 1938 73 VII Land Use in Rhodes, 1938 74 VIII Income from Agricultural Crops and Livestock Products, 1938 75 IX Area, Production, Yield; Wheat, Barley, 1935-38 79 X Production of Olive Oil and Edible Olives in Rhodes, 1935-38 84 XI Cost of Operating One Hectare of Vineyards in Rhodes for a Period of Six Years 87 XII Wine Exports, Rhodes, 1926-1932 88 XIII Production of Raisins in Rhodes, 1935-1938 90 XIV Shipping that Entered and Cleared at the Port of Rhodes during the Years, 1927 to 1933 117 XV Annual Trade Balance of Rhodes, 1926-1939 (in tons) 120 XVI Annual Trade Balance of Rhodes, 1928, 1930, 1931-1939 (in dollars 121 XVII Exports of Rhodes, 1933 122 vi vil LIST OF TABLES (CONT'D.) TABLE PAGE XVIII Imports of Rhodes, 1933 (in tons) 124 XIX Imports of Rhodes, 1933 (in dollars) 125 XX Imports and Exports of Rhodes and Countries of Origin, 1930 and 1938 (in tons) 127 XXI Number of Tourists and Nationality of Tourists Visiting Rhodes, 1932-1939 131 XXII Total Shipment of Commodities and Value by Categories Shipped to Rhodes, August, 194-5 to September, 1946 136 XXIII Production of Major Agricultural Crops, Rhodes, 1938, 1948, 1954 (in tons) l40 XXIV Imports of Rhodes, 1954 151 XXV Total Quantity and Percentage of Principal Imports from Foreign and Interior Ports to Rhodes, 1954 152 XXVI Exports of Rhodes, 1954 154 XXVII Total Quantity and Percentage of Principal Commodity Exports to Foreign Countries and Greece from Rhodes, 1954 155

XXVIII Number of Tourists Visiting Rhodes, 1948-1954 157 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 1. Location 4 2. Typical rugged mountain slopes of Rhodes 6 3. Dissected hills west of the city of Rhodes 6 4. Distribution of population 8 5. Coarse, bouldery alluvial soil In the Cattavla plain 12 6 . Fertile alluvial soil 12 7. The barren hills and the Islands of trees are typical of Rhodes 15 8 . Maquis covered slopes 15 9. Italian settlements 65 10, General view of the Irrigated areas In Peveragno 67 11, Reclaimed land In San Marco 67 12, The Panomllo reservoir 70

13, An Irrigation canal JO 14, A general view of the Stablllmento Ortlcoltura Vlvalo dl Coschlno 71 15. An Irrigated olive grove In San înedetto 7I 16, Land utilization map 76 17. Distribution of olive trees map 82 18, Distribution of vineyards map 86 19. Workers cleaning raisins 91 20, Women sorting raisins 91 21, European beehives 95 22, Native beehives 95 vlll IX LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS (CONT'D.) FIGURE PAGE 23. Dairy cattle 98 24. Improved sheep stock 98 25. Milk goats 100 26. Cattle grazing 100 27. The main highway of Rhodes I30 28. The airport of Rhodes I30 INTRODUCTION

One of the problems that confronted the allied nations in the 1919 Peace Conference was the disposition of enemy-held areas which were claimed by the different allied nations under the doctrine of self-determination. Areas which had become integrated into the economy of some nations were separated from them and turned over to other nations. Certain economic, political, and social disloca­ tions resulted from these transfers. The island of Rhodes off the southwestern coast of Turkey was one of the proper­ ties involved. Under the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), the island was transferred from Turkey, an agrarian nation, to Italy, a semi-industrial nation.1 In 1947, sovereignty of the island was again shifted, this time to Greece, a semi­ agrarian nation, on the grounds that Rhodes was inhabited by Greeks. Greece was pleased to get the island because it meant an increase in the size and population of her country. In both transfers the decisions of the statesmen were based mainly on non-geographic factors. Since the island of Rhodes was bandied about, it has seemed worth­ while to try to determine from an economic-geographic

1 Actually, all of the Dodecanese islands were transferred to Italy. 2 viewpoint its logical status. In this investigation, we consider first the actual development of the resources of the island under the Ottoman

Empire, Italy, and Greece respectively. Secondly, the results of the economic policies of each of the governing nations are reviewed. Thirdly, in the light of economic- geographic circumstances an attempt is made to determine what its logical status should be: (l) continued affilia­ tion with Greece; (2) a return to Italian or Turkish rule; (3 ) conversion to an independent state. I PHYSICAL ASPECTS

Location:

Rhodes, one of the Dodecanese Islands, has an area of 565 square miles, and is located I5 miles off the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. It is not only close to the coast but essentially a member of the Cyclades islands forming a part of the Aegean archipelago. Proximity to the coast of Asia Minor, ready accessibility to traffic in the eastern Mediterranean and potentiality as a base for ship operations have attached to it exceptional interest among

Mediterranean powers.

Geology :

Rhodes, geologically, belongs to the unsubmerged segment of the sunken land bridge that formerly connected Asia Minor with Greece.1 The island consists of a massive core of resistant metamorphic rocks, poor in economic ores. Over the flanks of this core are sedimentary beds of marls, sandstones, and limestones. Coastal plains and terraces are generally narrow. They extend from the northern end of the island as far as the town of Kalavarda on the west coast.

^ The island seems to occupy a zone of weakness in the earth's surface. This is attested by the number of earthquakes that have taken place since recorded history. Eight earthquakes have occurred since 227 B.C. ISLAND OF RHODES

Figure 1 5 and Zambia cape on the east coast. Small patches of allu­ vium are scattered south of the village of Lindos, the

largest of them at the town of Kattavia uniting southern ridges of the main highland to what once was an inshore

inlet, between Cape Prasso and Caravola.^

Surface Configuration:

Rhodes is mountainous. It is dominated by a central chain, one which extends from Crete through Rhodes to Asia

Minor. Among the principal heights are Mount Atavyros, 4,068 feet, Acramytis, 2,569 feet. Mount Prophet Elias,

2,394 feet, and Psinthos, 1,497 feet. Their abrupt slopes are often bare, and also occasionally luxuriously forested.

A few lesser elevations on the coast, south of the town of Archanggelos and west of Lindos, attain heights of approxi­ mately 1,500 feet. In the north, as in the south, altitudes

decline noticeably at the same time that the island's width narrows at its eastern end. A northwest plain with a width of five miles at

Trianda is the broadest of the island. On the west coast the available lowland is restricted by the low ridges of the central mountain chain which extend to the sea. On the east

coast a narrow rolling coastal lowland lies between

2 For a detailed scientific treatise on the geology of Rhodes, See Carlo Migliorini, "Geologica di Rodi," L 'Agricoltura Coloniale. Vol. 19, 1925, PP. 2-5 6 . Pig. 2. Typical rugged mountain slopes of Rhodes.

Pig. 3. Dissected hills west of the city of Rhodes. The dark spots along the highway are Irrigated fields. 7 Archanggelos and Lindos. Other small scattered plains occur in the southern section.

The rugged terrain of Rhodes, except for the small coastal plains and valleys at the foot of hill slopes. Is unsuitable for permanent settlement, and scarcely capable of exploitation for any agricultural and pastoral activity.

!5ils has resulted not only In fragmented landholdings, but also In over-populatlon of the fertile and well-watered plains and valleys In the northern section of the Island

(Plg. 4). More than 85 per cent of the population lives along the northwestern and eastern shorelines of this sec­ tion. The density of population In the northwest plain is approximately 400 persons per square mile. Farmers In this area are attempting to make a living on less than one acre of scattered arable pieces of land^ per family. The parcels are likely to be distributed throughout the village.

Climate:

The climate of Rhodes Is typically Mediterranean, being characterized by hot dry summers and mild wet winters.

Rhodes' temperature, though moderated by the sea. Is varied. On the narrow coastal plains the highest tempera­ tures In summer range from 80° to 95® F., and the lowest from 60° to 75° P. Even In winter, temperatures below 40® P

3 It does not include orchards and vineyards. 8

se» RHODES DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION-1954 RHODES 24feO

POPULATION SCALE # 2000-3000

# 1000-2000

# 900-1000

SCALE 200-900

90-200 MILES Figure 4 9 are rare. Freezing temperatures occur occasionally at the higher levels of the island, especially on Atavyros mountain.

However, they are of no economic significance because they occur in non-habitable areas. The mean temperature for the period from April to September is approximately 75° F., and from October to March approximately 58° F. The rainfall of Rhodes occurs mainly in the winter from November to March. The average annuc^l precipitation varies from 46.3 inches at Afandou on the north coast to 25.2 inches at Kattavia on the south coast. In the spring, thunderstoiTOs can do much damage if they coincide with the blossoming of the trees or with the threshing and winnowing of wheat. Also, enormous areas of surface are eroded.

Variability in precipitation is a hazard to the island's agricultural activities. In some years rainfall is insufficient for such crops as grapes, olives and cereals.

Owing to this uncertainty irrigation is practiced wherever a permanent water supply is available.

Relative humidity in winter and in summer is low.

The main consequence is to render summer heat bearable and by no means as oppressive as the summer heat in the eastern

Mediterranean.

The island's prevailing winds are the well-known

Etesian winds. These dry, rainless winds blow from the north across the Aegean Sea with such force as to prevent 10 tree growth in many exposed places on the north coast. In some places bent and gnarled olive trees attest to the steadiness of the winds. The latter start approximately in

May and last until September. They are of great importance to both the mariners who still use sail-propelled caiques

(sail-boats), and to the farmers who use wind mills for irrigation pumping and for grinding wheat. From October until April the winds are variable, contributing to unstable weather conditions. Cold and gusty winds, which accompany the passage of a storm over the island, cause stormy seas.

Occasionally, the outer fringes of the hot dry sirocco from north Africa sweep across the south coast, and do much dam­ age if they coincide with the critical development period of cereal and fruit crops.

Land and sea breezes are well-developed in the summer.

On the east coast they occur on 70 to 80 per cent of all summer days. Ordinary sea breezes do not penetrate inland more than five miles. But, where they coincide in direction with the valley breezes, they penetrate much deeper inland.

Over the northwest coastal plain sea breezes are strong due to the local warming influence. Sea breezes not only ameliorate the summer heat, but like the Etesian winds provide the farmer with power to operate his windmills. The annual range of cloudiness reveals the same characteristics as that of precipitation. The range reaches its maximum in winter (heavy frontal cloudiness) and its 11 minimum in summer (desert-like cloudlessness). The daily march of cloudiness shows that broken skies are much less

frequent in summer than in winter. Clear skies are more frequent in the evenings than during the day.

In summer few storms, and relatively cloudless skies,

together with pronounced Etesian winds provide the island with more than 2,500 hours of sunshine.^

Soils;

Soils consist largely of coarse, bouldery alluvial deposits. They are productive in the presence of water.

Red soils and pebble-mixed limestone soils of low fertility also occur but are less widespread. They are deficient in nitrogen, phosphorous and calcium. Residual soils, origi­ nating from crystalline rock formations, are generally infertile, rocky, acid, very porous and dry.

In many areas soil erosion is and has been a serious problem. Forested slopes have been over-grazed by goats and periodically burned by the villagers for the sake of pasture thereby,, exposing them to the weather elements. As a result, the slopes have been strongly dissected and the soil cover washed away, leaving only bare rock surfaces. A white allu­ vium which collects in the hollows and gulfheads is culti­ vated intensively.

^ Ministry of Air, Meteorological Service, Athens, Greece. 12

Pig. 5. Coarse, bouldery alluvial soil in the Kattavia plain. Much of the area is devoted to the extensive cultivation of cereals, chiefly wheat.

Pig. 6. Fertile alluvial soil. Lack of water is chiefly responsi­ ble for its low yields. 13 The best soils for cultivation comprise approximately 13,000 acres oz^ four per cent of the total area. More than

fifty-five per cent of the better soils occurs on the nar­

row western coastal plain extending in a southwesterly direction from the city of Rhodes to the village of Soroni.

That the soils are fertile is reflected by the variety of

agricultural crops grown here.

Water Resources:

Water resources are not ample. There are no perma­

nent streams. Water for irrigation is derived from springs

in alluvium-floored intermontane basins and from ground

water under alluvial coastal plains. Small springs and dug wells in alluvial deposits along the coastal plains supply

water for domestic consumption. Wells and springs are

equally common as sources of household water. The seasonal character of precipitation and the total absence of permanent streams, together with the porous

nature of the rock formations make storage dams generally

impractical. There are very few places where physical

conditions are suitable for dams with satisfactory reservoirs,

Scarcity of water is restricting the expansion of

irrigated land thus reducing Rhodes' ability to support the population without importing agricultural products. No matter what plan is introduced to increase the agricultural output, its success will depend on how efficiently the 14

available water resources are utilized. Without a doubt, water Is more Important than any other natural resource In

Rhodes.

Forests:

Although Rhodes Is reported to have been covered with dense forests of sea-plne, cypress, oak and evergreen oak, cedar, and plane-trees In ancient times, there are no longer large forest areas today. They have dwindled during the course of the centuries, owing to such malpractices as ex­ cessive cutting and burning. Forested areas, generally scrubby, cover approximately l60,000 acres.5 Many slopes have a scanty cover of stunted maquis.

Two-thirds of the forest land Is located In the central section of the Island (Plg.l6 ), mostly on the wind­ ward slopes of Atavyros and Mount Prophet Ellas. Approxi­ mately one-third of the area Is In cypress and oak. The remainder scattered between Lindos and Kattavia Is equally divided between pine and maquis.^

Minerals :

The known mineral resources of the Island are limited.

5 Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Rhodes. 6 For a detailed study of Rhodes' flora, see Adriano Fiorl, "La Flora dell'Isola dl Rodl," L'Agrlcoltura Colon­ iale. Vol., 18, 1924, pp. 161-168. Also, R. Fampaninl, '“L'Esplorazlane Botanlca dell^Isola dl Rodl dal 176I al 1922," L«Universo. Vol., 6 , 1923, pp. 281-293. 15

Pig. 7. The barren hills and the islands of trees are typical of Rhodes. The deforestation and consequent removal of soil from the hills of hard relatively pure limestones has caused an almost irreparable injury.

Pig. 8. Maquis covered slopes. Reforestation would reduce the winter run-off which is largely wasted. 16

Existing deposits of chromium and gypsum in the Appolona and Lindos areas, and lignite deposits in the vicinity of

Profillia have not as yet been thoroughly explored for possible commercial exploitation. The poor quality of the minerals and not the lack of roads had prevented extensive development. Marls, sandstones, and limestones, are used as building stone. The last is also used in the production of quick lime. Suitable clay deposits for the production of pottery and tile are scattered throughout the island.

Sea:

The adjoining sea is not as productive as the water between the islands of Kos and Patmos located forty-five miles north of Rhodes. A narrow continental shelf, strong currents, deep off-shore waters, relatively high water temperatures, and an inadequate supply of plankton are not conducive to good fish production and fishing.

Dynamiting for fish has also reduced the available supply of fish. Since the schools of fish run far up in the Aegean Sea, the fishermen of Rhodes must navigate to distances upward of 40 to 50 miles to get their catch.

Much of the fishing is done in the sea between Rhodes and Kos and Asia Minor.

After water, the next most valuable resources are the rugged landscape and bold coastline, which combined 17 with Its equabble climate Is attractive to tourists. The quality of Its remaining resources Is poor and the quantity

Is too meager to support Its present population of approxi­ mately 60,000 people. II PRE-OTTOMAN HISTORICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND

Tlie Island of Rhodes has been "relegated to a back

alley of commerce"^ by the shifting of the center of com­ merce to Western Europe. Yet, in the early years of Aegean

civilization, Rhodes occupied a vantage ground which, not only enabled it to become a powerful thallasic power, but

also made the island a highly sought after prize by the neighboring Mediterranean nations. Its location adjacent

to the mainland has given it a commercial importance similar to that of many other outstanding islands.

In the Aegean Bronze Age, Rhodes was colonized by

Minoans, who emigrated from Crete to Rhodes following the

fall of Knossos.^ Later immigration brought to the island

settlers from the Ionian city states^ and from the Pelopon­ nesus,^ but all these colonizers were quickly assimilated into the culture of Rhodes. Prior to 408 B.C., the most important settlements in the island of Rhodes were Lindos,

^ M. Cary, The Geographical Background of Greek and Roman History. Oxford, 1949, p. 102.

^ Knossos was the city state in the island of Crete, which fell to the Minoan invaders in the l4th century B.C. There is no record of what transpired prior to the 14th century.

^ The Ionian city states were Greek settlements on the western shores of Asia Minor. ^ Henry Field, The Greek Islands and Turkey after the War. New York, 1920, p. 30. 18 lé Camiros, and lalysos,^ Lindos, with its eastward facing harbor became a thriving port.

The rise of the island of Rhodes into a maritime power is closely associated with its territorial extension in Asia Minor. This move was necessary because the increas­ ing population had outgrown the resources of the island.

The attachment of the hinterland of Caria^ to its territory gave it a position of exceptional prosperity and political importance.

The city of Rhodes was founded in 408 B.C., when the three old Rhodian cities, Lindos, Camiros, and lalysos, were abandoned.? The dissolution of the alliance between them and the Ionian states is partly responsible for the decision to concentrate their energy and capital resources into one city and port in the northeast corner of the island, thus commanding the channel and the sea routes to the Levant. The Rhodians converted the open bay into the best-equipped port of the Greek world.®

The city of Rhodes owed its great wealth to transit

5 John L. Myres, Geographical History in Greek Lands. Oxford, 1953, P. 296. ^ Caria was the territory in Asia Minor between the Meander and Indos Rivers.

7 Myres, op. cit.. p. 296.

8 Ibid.. p. 321. 20 trade.9 This was largely due to its geographical position

as a way station for vessels bound from the Levantine coast to Greece, and to the close proximity and accessibility of

the island to the mainland of Asia Minor. The latter pro­ vided" the city of Rhodes with a considerable share of its

re-exportable items. Toutain reports that the city of Rhodes

"raised a net sum of goods worth about fifty millions, a very large sum for the time."^^ A considerable portion of the port revenues and trade were used to maintain a fleet large enough to protect the city's interests from rivals and from the danger of piracy.Therefore, the prosperity of the city of Rhodes, as well as that of the island, depended upon unbroken sea communications between it and the mainland and the Levantine coast. Disruption of com­ munications, or the decision of the traders to use another port, always resulted in an economic crisis. Extensive trading was carried on between Rhodes the

Black Sea States, Rome and Egypt. These areas supplied the island with wheat, cattle, honey and wax, linen and cotton.

Rhodes exported olive oil, wine, chalk, white-lead, sponges, purple and saffron unguent to them.^^

9 M. Rostovtzeff, Rome and the Mediterranean. Vol. 8 of The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge, 1930, p. 624. Jules Toutain, The Economic Life of the Ancient World. New York, 1930, p. 163. 11 Field, OP. cit.. p. 31. 12 Cecil Torr, Rhodes in Ancient Times. Cambridge, 1885, PP. 48-50. 21 Prora 300 B.C. to I50 A.D., the policy of Rhodes was to prevent any state from gaining control of the sea. Rhodes was sufficiently strong to prevent other powers from con­ quering the islands of the Aegean Archipelago. To maintain the freedom of the seas, Rhodes even fought Byzantium in 220 B.C. to keep the Straits open.^3

But the marine and commercial activity of Rhodes began to decline after 167 B.C. Rome conquered the main- land^^ possessions of Rhodes after having defeated the naval fleet, and reduced the city of Rhodes to the status of a small trading center. The loss of the mainland trade was not as severe a blow, as the decision of Rome to establish

Delos as a free p o r t . ^5 Rhodes' port revenues dropped from 1,000,000 drachmas in 170 B.C., to about 150,000 in l64 B.C.^G

The diversion of the Levantine trade from Greece to Italy reduced the importance of Rhodes as a transit station. Rhodes became a Roman province in 297 A.D.^7

In 653 A.D. the Saracens took Rhodes. This marked the beginning of the island's strategic importance in the

^3 Rostovtzeff, op. cit., p. 624.

Mainland refers to Anatolia or Asia Minor. ^5 Delos is a small island off the southwestern cor­ ner of the island Mikonos, Cyclades, Aegean Sea.

Cecil Torr, Rhodes in Modern Times. Cambridge, 1887, p. 68, ^7 Cecil Torr, Rhodes under the Byzantines. Cambridge, 1886, p. 3 . 22 power struggle among those Mediterranean states which wanted to control the Eastern Mediterranean.18 Ultimately the Saracens were expelled from the island by the Byzantines, following which it was occupied successively by the

Venetians (1204-1271), the ^zantines again (1271“1309)# the Knight Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem (1309-1522), the Turks (1522-1912), the Italians (1912-1943), the Germans

(1943-1945), the British (1945-1947), and the Greeks since 1947. The first crusaders to make camp in Rhodes were the

Venetians. Under the Golden Bull of May, 1082, they had been allowed to trade with Rhodes.19

After the crusaders captured Rhodes in 1204, the latter declared its independence from Constantinople.

Independence was temporary, for Rhodes was provisionally assigned to Venice under the division of the Byzantine

Empire among the crusaders. Venice agreed to provide mili­ tary protection for the city in return for the privilege of trading without payment of dues in the areas under the jurisdiction of Gabalas, the “Governor" of Rhodes, while the

Rhodians had to pay the accustomed dues for trading.^

16 Mvres. OP. cit.. p. 312.

19 Torr, Rhodes in Modern Times, p. 5 . 20 Ibid.. p. 8. 23 After 1271, Rhodes came under the administration of

the Greek Byzantine Emperor. Rhodes defense was assigned to Genoese admirals — nauarchol. The admirals used the

Island as a base for piratical expeditions to Cyprus and

the Levant. The nauarchol*s defense of the Island from the buccaneering attacks of the other states was successful In

the early years, but It started to weaken toward the end of the l4th century. The high cost of maintaining a standing

naval fleet, the loss of revenue due to diversion of trade

to other ports, and the growing resistance of the Greek

population against the unilateral decisions of the admirals made the continuation of the agreement with the Byzantine

Bnperor less attractive; and In 1306, the commanding ad­

miral, Vlgnoto de Vlgnoll, without consulting the Eknperor,

transferred the Island to the Knights Hospitallers of St.

John of Jerusalem.Rhodes surrendered to the Knights after a prolonged struggle In 1309, and was held until 1522

as the Pope's v a s s a l . 2 2

The Knights took full advantage of the commercial

location of Rhodes. Like the Rhodians, they became, not only protectors of a mixed group of traders, but they also granted commercial privileges to merchantmen from their own states.

21 The Knights withdrew to Cyprus after the Turks cap­ tured Acre. This order was composed of Knights from Prance, Auvergne, Aragon, England, Provence, Castile and Portugal, and Italy. 22 Torr, op. cit.. pp. 10-11. 24 In 1356, the Knights granted commercial concessions in Rhodes to the merchants of Montpellier and Narbonne. Torr says that the merchants from these two commercial cities In Prance

Were exempted from dues on merchandise Im­ ported at Rhodes and on their exports thence. Also, the prohibition of the export from Rhodes of wine, oil, com, salt, meat and provisions generally...was suspended In the case of provisions Imported by merchants of Montpellier and Narbonne from the west.23

Individually the Knights were not permitted to engage

In commerce. Trade was carried on by the Order as a body.

Illegal trade and piracy were practiced by some Knights despite the feeble attempts of the Grand Master to put a p2i halt to It.^^ Their major task, however, was to provide naval protection to the merchants of R h o d e s . 25

The chief articles of trade were spices. Incense, saffron, wax, pepper, wine, olive oil, the woolen and linen goods. Food grains were imported from Anatolia, Cyprus, and South Italyj wine, olive oil, and nuts were imported from of. the islands of Crete and Sicily; while carpets, silks, and

23 Torr, op. cit.. p. 5 0 . 24 Deficits in the annual budget were made good by piracy on Turkish shipping. 25 Torr, op. cit.. p. 5I.

2^ It is interesting to note the absence of goods from Greece proper. 25 animal products were Imported from Cyprus in exchange for Rhodian woolen and linen goods.^7

27 Torr, op. cit.. pp. 47-49. Ill THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESOURCES OF THE ISLAND^

UNDER TURKISH RULE - 1522-1912

The conquest of Egypt by the Turks in 1517> made possession of Rhodes in the mind of the latter, imperative, since Rhodes was on the route of communications between Constantinople and Alexandria.

Rhodes surrendered to the Ottoman (Turkish) Ehipire in

1522.2 Because the people resisted Sultan Suleiman?s forces, they did not receive the privileges which Suleiman accorded the other islands. Unlike Rhodes, the other islands were not in a position to offer either a successful or prolonged resistance to the formidable army of Suleiman; therefore, the privileges granted them entailed, not only political and economic autonomy under Turkish sovereignty, but also the right of maintaining their own fortifications for defense purposes. Their only visible limit was the payment of a yearly tax or maktou to cover the cost of Turkish protection.

^ The records of the 490 years of Turkish occupation are scanty. We have nothing in print beyond the descrip­ tions of occasional travellers and sundry references in histories of Greece, Turkey and Levant.

2 Rhodes did not receive military help from the west. The bankers of Italy and France were no longer interested in Rhodes. With the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in i486, Rhodes lost some of its importance as an entrepSt.

26 27 Rhodes, however, was allowed considerable latitude

under the Indifferent Turkish regime. Consequently, the

Rhodians took advantage of this situation. There was a Turkish governor and a Turkish garrison, but the Rhodians

were permitted to trade freely with other parts of the Ehipire and with Europe, to own land and property, to regu­

late their own revenues, to appoint their own officials, and to emigrate either to the mainland or to any other part of

the world as long as they paid the maktou.^ The maktou was not oppressive, but the mode of col­ lecting it and the arbitrary power given to the governor to

fix the value (in piasters) of the lira in his district were

unjust and ruinous to the individual as well as to the economy of the island.^

The tax was not collected directly by the governor, for he sold the right of collecting it to the highest bidder.

The speculator who purchased the maktou usually came from the non-Moslem groups. A speculator bought the maktou from the

Sanjak^ of Rhodes. He, in turn, sold it to others at a profit, so that a comparatively small portion of the tax

3 B. Randolph, The Present State of the Islands in the Archipelago. Oxford, 16Ô7 , p. 2b.

^ Piaster was a nickel coin. The value of a piaster and the number of piasters in a lira varied from year to year. The official value of a piaster was 2.166 pence in 1860. 5 Sanjak is an administrative unit similar to the county in the United States. 28 went to the benefit of the state. Farmers, shepherds, trades­ men, and merchantmen were heavily taxed. This tax was especially harsh on the farmers because they could not evade it as did the shepherds. Rhodes’ contribution to the Bnpire was 13,563 sterling pounds.^ Reactivation of the agricultural, handicraft indus­ tries, and commercial fields was left to the Rhodians, because of the apparent apathy of the Turkish government in taking an active part in the islandCs development. The econ­ omy of the island was disrupted by the Turkish war. Every­ where there were burned houses, devastated villages, and scattered livestock. Not even olive groves or vineyards escaped destruction by Suleiman’s army. The best land of the island, especially in the northwestern plain, was not culti­ vated during the siege of the city of Rhodes, for the farmers had moved to the city. Many did not return to their farms after the war, because the task of restoration and the re­ planting of olive trees and vineyards would have been slow and expensive. Some emigrated to the privileged islands, even though these had a poorer agricultural base than Rhodes; others went to Egypt to seek their livelihood in Alexandria or Cairo. Monetary remittances from the Rhodians who emi­ grated to Egypt provided the capital that was needed for the rehabilitation of the handicrafts and commerce.? The

6 James Baker. Turkey. New York, 1877, PP. 377-378. 7 Georgios Papamanole, Podos (Rhodes), Athens, 1951, p. 143. 29 shipping industry was almost completely destroyed. Many of

the vessels were commandeered by the Turks and were lost in

the campaign of Rhodes. The few ships which succeeded in

escaping to friendly Italian ports later served as the nucleus of the rehabilitated Rhodian shipping industry.

A. AGRICULTURE

The agricultural resources of Rhodes were not suffi­ cient to feed its population. Torr indicates that before the conquest of the island by Turkey, the maintenance of an uninterrupted supply line of wheat was the key of Rhodes' foreign policy.8 Undoubtedly, the whole problem of sub­ sistence was always a major one.

In addition to the imperfections of the land tenure system, favorable climatic conditions for the development of agriculture did not exist everywhere. Precipitation variability, together with uncertain duration of the long summer drought, periodically hampered the production of cereals and fruit-tree crops. To the unfavorable growing conditions must be added inefficient traditional methods of cultivation, the poverty of the soil in plant nutrients and organic matter, and a dearth of labor.^

^ Torr. op. c i ^ , p. 45.

9 The emigration of Rhodians to the mainland resulted in much land remaining uncultivated and valueless. In 1829, a 50-acres farm containing about 3,000 orange and lemon trees, were sold for 3,500 francs. See M. Marraont, The Present State of the Turkish Empire. London, 1839, p. 220. 30 Land Tenure:

The land tenure system in Rhodes was patterned after

that of the mainland. The three categories of land owner­

ship were the Vakouf land, the Mulk land, and the Bmiri land.10

Vakouf land was the property (land and buildings) administered for the benefit of religious institutions. Two-

tenths of the cultivated land was under this category .H Mulk included lands held in full ownership, generally

urban property. The owner of the Mulk had certain rights which were protected by the law. He could sell his property, preserving either to himself or to someone else, a perpetual title to it. Three-tenths of the cultivated land were in this category.

Land not claimed by the religious institutions and by the Mulk land owners was called the Bniri, or domain land. This land technically belonged to the Sultan or Porte, but, actually, it was the property of those who cultivated it. The Porte could claim the land if it were uncultivated for more than ten years. A part of the domain land was assigned to offices controlled by Viziers. Five-tenths of the

10 LiVi Livio, Storia Demografica di Rodi. Firenze, 1944, pp. 92-93. 11 Abba Kotre, Die Insel Rhodes. Vol. B, Translated into Greek by Mallearake and Karavokerou, Athens, 1881, p.351. 1^ Ibid. 31 cultivated land was in this category, The practice of this system led, not only to the emergence of a few big landlords, but also to a refragmen­ tation of the small land holdings. This segmented character of the land was largely due to the legal system of division of land among the descendants after the death of the owner.

The land holdings of the big landholders were not consoli­ dated into one big unit, but were scattered throughout the island.

Landed proprietors in Rhodes were absentee-owners and their estates usually comprised what was called the beylik or home farm. The farm had its own b a m and sheep sthble.

In charge of the farm was a bailiff who kept the accounts and acted under instructions from the owner. Besides the bailiff, there were the sheep-herder, the cow-herder, the blacksmith and the farra-laborers, These workers were paid either in goods or in money by the proprietor.

The economic and social status of the tenants depended, not only upon the quality of the farm, but also upon the wealth and character of the landlord. The condition of tenancy varied. In all cases, however, the landlord provided them with a mule or donkey, stable, b a m , and seed. Occa­ sionally, the tenants paid the owner a fixed rent of about two bushels of wheat to the acre. This was an unsatisfactory arrangement for the landlord, because in poor years the

13 Ibid, 32 tenant could not pay, and, in good years, he obtained only his average rent. In cases where the crop was equally divided with the landlord, the latter in a good year re­ ceived a high rent. The tenants were also given a small amount of land to sow grain crops for the winter feed of their livestock, and this crop they did not share with the landlord.

The landlord had to keep the tenants, even though they were poor cultivators. Since the tenants knew that the proprietor had to support them, they became lazy and care­ less. The dismissal of the tenants would have meant the sacrifice of a certain amount of capital to the landlord.

Although the landlord was responsible for his tenants, he had no control over the manner in which they cultivated his lands,

It would seem that under such a system the tenants should have prospered, but they did not. Two reasons explain their deplorable economic conditions. First, only the docile remained behind. Aggressive tenants emigrated to Asia Minor where agricultural land was not only plentiful and cheap, but also fertile. Secondly, their religion declared too many fast or feast days, which meant absenteeism from work. Tenants would not labor in the field because the priest had forbidden them to work. Therefore, the strict observance of the social customs by the tenants led them to practice

Kotre. OP. cit.. pp. 351-360, 33 Inefficient traditional cultivation methods.

The average size of the small land holdings were not more than three a c r e s , ^5 The position of the farmers who devoted a great portion of the land to grain culture was madie more hazardous, because of foreign competition in cheap grain. On the other hand, the grain farmers had less to fear from invasion than the olive and fruit-trees growers to whom the destruction of their groves either by man or by plant diseases brought irreparable disaster. The prosperous and self-confident peasant was the one who had equally dis­ tributed his land among cereal culture and orchard culture.

Types of agriculture:

Grain culture, with and without irrigation, olive-tree culture, viticulture, fruit-tree culture, and animal hus­ bandry were practiced on the island.

Grain culture:

Grain fanning over much of Rhodes was not an economi­ cal undertaking. The Rhodian grain farmer, besides competing with unfavorable growing conditions, had also to compete with imported wheat from the mainland. Wheat was grown nearly all over the island, because every peasant wanted to produce at

^5 The information was obtained from conversations with the elderly peasants in the villages. 34 least a part, if not all, of his grain needs. Most of the

wheat was produced by the big landowners,

Owing to variability in annual precipitation, the two-field system was practiced. Cereals were sown in the

autumn, wheat on the better land and barley on the poorer. About two-thirds of the remaining land was left fallow, and one-third was devoted to a vetch crop in the season between

crops. The small amount of dung left by flocks of sheep and goats grazing on the stubble and fallow land was the only fertilizer which was used for the cereals. The wheat variety almost exclusively grown in Rhodes was the flinty Macaroni wheat. It was used because of its resistance to red rust and because it was rarely bent over by rough weather. Wheat, rye and barley were grown. Rye was planted on small patches next to wheat, and it was used for tying sheafs of wheat at harvest time. The combined production of wheat and barley in 1800, was estimated by Berg to be in the vicinity of 540,000 pounds.1? Although the production of cereals was unsatisfactory, this culture did not lose its importance for the island. The main reason was that its displacement by another culture was hard to effect, since the difficulties attendant upon the introduc­ tion of new agricultural techniques were a result of the

Ch. Cottu. "L^Ile de Rhodes," Revue des Deux Mondes. Vol. 50, 1844, p. 833. ^7 Albert Berg, Die Insel Rhodusi Historisch. Geographischi. Aroheologisch, Braunschweig. 18b2. p. 91. 35 lack of necessary capital for substitute cultures. Further­ more, the inhabitants were disheartened by the indifference of the Porte toward agriculture. Since the production of cereals did not meet the domestic needs of the people, wheat and other grains were imported from the mainland.Most of the imported wheat was consumed by the urban population of the island.

Olive-culture, viticulture, and fruit-tree culture:'

The olive, fruit-tree culture, and viticulture were just as important in Rhodes as in the other areas of the

Eastern Mediterranean. Every farmer combined the previously mentioned cultures with cereal culture in order to provide his own bread, olive oil, olives, and fruits. Orchards and vineyards of Rhodes, which were an essential feature of sedentary agriculture as opposed to pastoral nomadism, also provided the major export products.

Olive-tree culture:

The olive was an important economic tree on the island, because farmers used its products - olive oil and olives - as a nutrient, lubricant, illuminant and emollient.

The culture of the olive also suited the political

John Came, Letters from the East. London, 1862. p. 484. 36 situation of the island. If the farmer abandoned a vineyard

for any length of time, the possibility of its being ruined

by lack of care would have been greater whereas little dam­

age would have happened to the olive grove itself. Hence, the cultivation of olive trees was held as an inestimable advantage by the Rliodian peasant. If for some reason or

another the head of a peasant family had to flee from the

village, he could be certain that the means of subsistence for his family would continue to be available and when he

returned he could begin where he left off.

The most important olive area was the northern section

of the island. Extensive groves were to be found in the villages of Trianda, Afandou. Archanggelos, and Malena (See

Fig. 1 for the location of the villages). Besides olive trees planted in groves, a considerable number of them were

scattered in the fields of the other cultures. Cottu states that the northern section of the island was filled (forested) with olive trees.

It is impossible to find accurately the annual produc­ tion of olive oil and edible olives prior to 1922, for neither the Greeks nor the Turks kept production statistics. Berg estimated that the production of edible olives was 140,000 pounds in 1860.^0 This low production figure is largely due to inefficient traditional cultivation methods.

19 Cottu, op. cit.. p. 835. 20 Berg, op. cit.. p. 91. 37 The use of nurseries was unknown. When a farmer wished to plant an olive tree, he would either replant an old trunk or plant a young shoot. The transplanted old trunks started to yield fruit after the l6th year. The new plants yielded fruit after the 12 year. The practice of irrigation of the olive-tree was Irregularly practiced on the northwest plain, but that of manuring was universally neglected. Olive trees were never manured unless some flocks of sheep came by chance to the grove.

Pruning was not practiced. The peasant either did not know the art of pruning or felt that pruning a tree would reduce Its yield. Grafting was also little known. The smallest branches were grafted by Incision and the largest between the bark and trunk.

The practice of Intercropping olive trees with barley, oats, and vetch robbed them of moisture and plant nutrients.

The common harvesting method of shaking the branches of trees with a pole was destructive, since the young branches which would have given fruit the following year often were broken off.21

Prom the foregoing It becomes clear why olive oil production was low. The yield of the olive even under pru­ dent cultivation does not result In a good annual crop. This condition was accentuated when little or no care was

21 % e Information concerning the methods of cultiva­ tion was obtained from conversations with the elderly peasants in the villages. 38 given to the tree.

Viticulture ;

Viticulture spread throughout the northern section of the island and it formed a very important and intensively exploited branch of agricultural activity.Agricultural malpractices that characterized the cultivation of the olive trees were not to be found in the vineyard areas. Inter­ planting was avoided in order to make available a maximum of soil moisture. Fertilization and pruning of the vines was practiced.

The Sultana vine was introduced from Asia Minor in oo 1838. Its cultivation spread quickly following an attack of phylloxera in French vineyards. There was no difficulty in disposing of the crop as the winemakers of Europe required currants for the manufacture of wine. In the course of time, however, the European vineyard growers brought phylloxera under control, after which a serious economic crisis arose in the island. The crisis coincided with the economic de­ pression that occurred in the Eastern Mediterranean after the Greek-Turkish war of 1893.^^

Henry Blunt, A Voyage Into the Levant. London, 1638, pp. 31-32. 23 ujhe date was obtained at the Department of Agri­ culture, Rhodes.

2^ Arthur Perkins, Agriculture in Other Lands. Adelaide, 1912, p. l6. 39 Extension of viticulture was affected by excessive taxes Imposed by the Turkish government. Growers had to surrender the equivalent of an eighth of their production.

Since the tax could not be taken In kind. It was converted

Into a monetary value which was fixed annually by the local tax collector. The basis of the value was the market price

In the city of Rhodes, Instead of the price of the place of production. Besides the tax In kind, an export tax plus an export duty had to be paid on wlne.^S The natural conse­ quence of these excessive Impositions was a decline In culti­ vation of the grape for which the Island is particularly well adapted.

How far the planting of vines encroached upon the arable land of Rhodes, thus curtailing the growth of cereàls. Is a difficult question and one to which perhaps no definite answer can be given. Probably much of the land formerly devoted to cereal culture before the Import of grains from the mainland became general was diverted to vineyards. This would appear to be a reasonable assumption, but It must be regarded as one for which no conclusive proof can be given. Cottu Is Inclined to believe that the encroachment upon arable land In the Trianda village area must have been small, vines and olive trees having been planted upon lands which

25 william Turner, Journal of the Tour In the Levant. Vol. 3, London, 1820, pp. 11-13. 40 had been cleared of forests and shrubs.26

Although It Is difficult to give the annual produc­ tion, Berg estimated the production in i860 to have been 350,000 pounds of grapes for 'must?27 and 10,000 for rai- sins.28 A small quantity of wine was exported to Europe. Its sharp and bitter taste did not appeal to the Europeans who had a preference for the sweeter French wine,29

Fruit-tree culture:

The most important of the cultivated fruit-trees were the fig and citrus. The production of citrus-fruit was con­ centrated on the east coast between the villages of

Archanggelos and Massari, where alluvial soils are fertile and well-drained. Irrigated orange and lemon orchards were grown in the Malona village area. Citrus-fruit were not grown as widely as the grape, because only a few places had the necessary climatic and edaphic conditions. Although the fig tree was cultivated nearly everywhere to a small extent, the most important production center was the village of Soroni.

26 Cottu. op. cit.. p. 836 27 «Must? is the juice of the grape before fermenta- tion. 28 Berg, OP. cit.. p. 92. 29 Turner, op. cit.. p. 10. 41 B. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Mixed farming did not exist. Hot summers made graz­ ing very difficult and the cost of irrigated fodder crops prohibitive. Cattle were used for working the farms and animal husbandry was confined to the fallows and the village pastures. Animal fodder was scarce. Farmers were often in conflict with shepherds because of the depredations of their flocks among crops and forested areas.

Sheep and goats:

The raising of sheep was most common in the less ad­ vanced agricultural sections of the island, especially the southern section. Sheep were raised by shepherds who, in contrast with those of the mainland of Turkey, had a fixed establishment in the mountain villages. These shepherds and their families migrated from one pasture area to another.

Some of them even carried their flocks across the water to

Anatolia where better pasture lands were available during the summer. Since they had a fixed winter place, it was possible for them to protect the flocks against cold weather.

Breeding of sheep for one particular line of produc­ tion was not generally practiced, and sheep were usually kept for the production of meat, milk, fat and wool. Sheep milk was used for cheese, called kefalotiri. and for the produc­ tion of butter, both for local consumption. Since the wool 42 was coarse and short. It was not exported, but It was used

to make articles of apparel and carpets,

A jiatlve breed of fat-tailed sheep was commonly developed. Toward the end of the 19th century an inferior

type of short-wool Merino sheep was introduced, but it failed

to become popular. The native shepherd?s ineradicable prejudice against such sheep was too difficult to overcome. Furthermore, attempts to obtain a sound and useful type of

selective breeding had failed because of the indifference of the Porte.

Goat herding was generally practiced in the hilly

areas of the drier sections of the island which were covered with brushwood and low shrubs. Goats thrived in localities where other types of livestock would starve. From goat#s milk a good grade of butter was made, but goat's cheese was inferior in quality to that made from sheep milk. Domestic goats kept by families in the outskirts of villages were carefully selected to provide milk.30

It is impossible to give accurate figures on the size of the sheep and goat flocks. However, taking into consid­ eration the relatively small amount of sheep pasture and the abundance of goat pasture, we can safely assume that the goat population was larger than that of sheep.

In general the development of agriculture was beset

30 The information was obtained from the division of livestock. Department of Agriculture, Rhodes. 43 by many problems, sociological, technical and economic. On the sociological side there were the social organization and land tenure. On the technical side there were production problems inherent in a fragmented system of farming and the over-riding influence of the climate with its long, hot, dry season. On the economic side there was competition for the markets of Rhodes from the farmers on the Turkish mainland. Rhodes had all the disadvantages of intensive cultivation without any of the advantages.

C. Industry

The economy of the island was chiefly agrarian, with almost 80 per cent of the working population being engaged in the cultivation of the soil and its associated activities. Industry, insignificant and backward, was mainly dependent on agriculture. The city of Rhodes had most of the cottage in­ dustries, potteries and shipyards.

Handicrafts:

A complete picture of the handicraft industries is impossible, because of the lack of information. Some clues, however, in the journals of travellers and in consular re­ ports give an inkling of the types of handicrafts which were practiced. The two major industries were ceramic and cottage handicrafts. The making of brocades, and of silk and linen apparel 44

employed a considerable number of w o r k e r s . Local and im­

ported textile fibers were incorporated in the manufacture

of apparel. Embroideries were used to adorn skirts, cur­

tains and bedspreads. The patterns which were most original consisted of diamond shaped figures of the richest colors,

Most of the production was used locally,33

The textile industry started to decline when factory-

made brocades and cotton goods became easily available to

the inhabitants. Displaced workers found employment in the

cotton mills of Turkey and Greece.34

Ceramics industry:

The ceramics industry was initiated by the Knights of

St. John in Lindos when they brought Persian and Damascene potters captured by the Knights aboard a ship enroute to

Lebanon from Greece. The sand in Lindos was suitable for glazing, and these potters succeeded in making pottery products which were highly sought after by the Europeans.

The industry was trasnferred to the city of Rhodes by the

Turks.

31 p, Griffiths, Travels in Europe. Asia Minor, and Arabia. Edinburgh, 1805, pp. 237“38. Sanford Marden, Greece and the Aegean Islands. Boston, 1907, p. 324.

33 Athena Tarsoule, Kentimata kai Poresles tes Dodekanesou (The Costumes of the Dodecanesians), Athens, 1951, p. 2. 34 Ibid.. p. 3. 45 The most outstanding characteristic of the Rhodian pottery was a peculiar red pigment, coralline in color, which was applied in such a manner that it stood out in relief. Designs were mainly those of the Turk^s favorite flowers-roses, carnations, and hyacinths.35 Rhodian plates were a cross between the "Majolica platter in American and an American amateur's first attempt at Chinese decoration,"3^

The industry throve under the Turks, There was a market for its products, not only in Turkey but also in Europe,

Shipbuilding :

The shipbuilding industry, utilizing excellent local timber, prospered until the middle of the 19th century. The principal types of ships were naval vessels for the Porte and sponge-fishing boats for the fishermen of the islands of

Kalyranos, Chalki, and S i m i , 3 7 when the forests were depleted of their good timber, many of the shipbuilders emigrated to Greece to work in the shipyards there,38

35 Henry C, Luke, The Fringe of the East, London, 1914, p, 47. 3^ Charles M, Reeves, How We Went and What we Saw. New York, 1891, p, 298, 37 Frederick Hasselquist, Voyages and Travels in the Levant, in the Years. 1749-1752, MDCCDCVI, London, p. 175.

3 8 Papamanole, op, cit.. p, 143, 46 D, SHIPPING

Circumstances which helped the Rhodians to expand the shipping industry were the indifference of the Turks to com­ merce, financial assistance given to Rhodians by Egypt, and the apparent susceptibility of the Turkish officials to bribery.

Rhodians benefited from the development of trade between the island and the mainland, because ten per cent of the working population was engaged in shipping. They replaced the Pranks and Venetians as the leading merchants.39

Their small vessels sailed throughout the Mediterranean region and connected the port of Rhodes with other ports of the basin. About thirty of these crafts were engaged in wheat trade.^

E. COMMERCE

It is difficult to give a satisfactory survey of the trade of Rhodes. The information supplied by the consular reports is often deficient. Furthermore, trade statistics prior to 1909, are totally lacking. Kotre reports that in 1880, the island showed an unbalanced trade, with imports exceeding exports by 2,375,000 francs.Some of the

39 Papamanole, op. cit.. p. 144.

Cottu, op. cit.. p. 835. Kotre, op. cit.. p. 384. 47 principal imports were butter, rice, wheat, animal products,

tapestries, cotton and silver, while the principal exports were dry beans, fruits, hides, sesame seeds, olive oil, wine, onions, and sponges.

The volume of trade between 1908 and 1912 remained fairly constant although a noticeable decline in trade was recorded in 1912 (Table I), The value of imports decreased from $1,180,228 in 1909 to $946,720 in 1912. That of exports declined from $461,l6o in 1909 to $234,240 in 1912. In this latter year, trade was adversely affected by the war between Turkey and Italy. The composition of imports and exports

TABLE I

EXPORT AND IMPORT TRADE OP RHODES IN THE YEARS 1908 THROUGH 1912 (in dollars)*

Year Imports Exports

1908 1,069.940 421,510

1909 1,180,228 461,160 1910 1,104,978 475,800

1911 1,112,640 405,040 1912 946,720 234,240

* Islands of the Northern and “Eastern Aegean. Number 64, His MajestysStationery Office, London, 1920, p. 51. 48 did not change much from that of 1880. The island still

impot?ted textiles, cereals, flour, sugar, and rice and ex­ ported fruits, sesame seeds, hides, olive oil, wine, onions, and sponges. The trade was also unbalanced,

A large amount of both imports and exports, repre-* sented by about $366,000 annually, consisted of transit trade to and from Anatolia and the neighboring islands. The latter exported through the port of Rhodes sesame seeds, olive oil, wax and honey, almonds, figs, and sponges, and imported cotton and woolen goods, hardware, cereals, sugar and rice. The growth of this type of trade was hindered by the insufficiency of the warehouse accommodations at the port,^2

Turkey was the leading importer of ^ricultural products from the island (Table II), The major exporters of the manufactured goods were Austria-Hungary, Germany, the

United Kingdom, and Italy. In 1909# these nations exported to Rhodes goods valued at $575#84o or 49 per cent of the value of imports. The bulk of the trade was under the con­ trol of the merchants of central Europe, who succeeded in capturing the Turkish and Jewish market by consigning goods direct via Trieste in subsidized Austrian vessels,^3 La

Credit Lyonnais, La Banque de Salonique, the Anglo-Egyptian Bank and Die Deutsche Orient Bank provided the merchants of

Islands of the Northern and Eastern Aegean, op, cit.. p, 51, ^3 Ibid.. p, 52. 49 TABLE II

VALUE OP IMPORTS AND EXPORTS INTO AND FROM RHODES, BY COUNTRIES, 1909 (in dollars)*

Percent­ Percent­ age of age of total ex­ total im­ Countries Exports ports Imports ports

Austria- Hungary 37,088 8.0 122,000 10.0 Belgium ** ** 26,840 2.2 Brazil ** ** 22,936 2.0 Bulgaria 39,040 9.0 15,616 1.3 China ** ** 8,784 .8 Cyprus 18,544 4.0 1,464 .1 Egypt 82,960 18.0 41,480 3.5 Prance 39,040 9.0 43,920 3.8 Germany 4,880 1.0 136,640 12.0 Greece 9,760 2.0 6,344 .6 India 7,320 1.0 40,260 3.4 Italy ** ** 86,376 7.0 Rumania 5,368 1.0 22,448 2.2 Russia 34,160 7.0 17,080 1.4 Turkey 183,000 40.0 390,400 33.0 United Kingdom ** ** 186,904 15.8 United States ** ** 4,880 .4 Other countries ** ** 5,856 .5

Total 461,160 100.0 1,180,228 9 9 .9 ***

* Islands of the Northern and Eastern Aegean, op. cit.. p. 58. ** No data are available. *** Less than 0 .1 per cent. 50 Rhodes with credit.^4

The port of Rhodes became an Important entrepôt be­ cause sail-propelled vessels stopped at Rhodes on the Journey from the ports of the Levant to Greece. The coming of steamers replacing sail, however, decreased the importance of Rhodes as a port of call since steamers could ply the waters of the Mediterranean without having to take on sup­ plies at Rhodes. Stops were made only if a cargo had to be picked up, and even the establishment of a lazaretto^^ did not increase the number of vessels that called at the port

(Table III). In 1909# 1,012 steam vessels and 2,761 sailing vessels entered and cleared at the port of Rhodes. Tonnage

TABLE III SHIPPING THAT ENTERED AND CLEARED AT THE PORT OF RHODES DURING THE YEARS, 1908-12*

Number of Number of bailing ves­ Year steamers Tonnage sels Tonnage

1908 873 518,796 2,961 74,304 1909 1,012 585,430 2,671 59,381 1910 740 495,651 2,304 69.706

1911 660 531,183 2,693 42,995 1912 572 528,490 706 7,900

* Islands of the Northern and Eastern Aegean, op. cit.. p.50,

M Ibid. Lazaretto is a warehouse. 51 carried by the former was 585,430 tons and 69,706 by the

latter,More than 90 per cent of the sailing vessels were under the Turkish flag, but were operated by Rhodians and Greeks,Approximately 47 per cent; olof the steam vessels were under American and Greek flags. 48 Although the Turkish government did not actively par­ ticipate in the economic development of the island, attach­ ment of the island to the Turkish Empire proved to be a great boon to the Rhodians, The mainland provided the islanders not only with foodstuffs and other commodities, but also with more alternative opportunities than their home region. Many Rhddians— farmers, carpenters, masons, shipbuilders, and traders— emigrated to the mainland to seek employment. It was not very difficult to find jobs in the cities of Smyrna and Istanbul or to purchase farms in the vicinity of the cities. Not all of the emigrants, however, went to Asia Minor, A small number of them emigrated to other parts of the Bnpire, namely Egypt and Syria,

Under the prevailing political, economic and geo­ graphic conditions, the Rhodians wisely utilized the oppor­ tunities provided them by the geography of the island. They

4^ The following steamship lines called regularly : Messagerie Maritimes, Archipelago-American Steamship Co., Pantaleon and Co,, La Phoceene, Khedival Mail Steamship Co,, Russian Steam Navigation Co., Societa Nazionale de Servizi Marittimi, and Austrian Lloyd,

Islands of the Northern and Eastern Aegean, op. olt,, p. 5ÏÏI 48 Ibid, 52 engaged in commerce and were successful in returning to the island some of the transit trade which formerly had made the port of Rhodes prosperous.

Income earned from shipping and from exports, to­ gether with the monetary remittances from abroad, enabled them to lead a comfortable life despite unjust tax collec­ tion methods.

Although the majority of the Rhodians were of Greek 49 descent, they did not regard their incorporation under Turkey as running contrary to their political desires. They were satisfied with the rule of the Turkish government, because of the political and economic privileges that were indirectly granted to them by the regime. Opposition became evident only when the government tried to curb some of these privileges.

There is no doubt that if the Turkish government had taken an active part in the economic development of the island, it would have recovered its former prosperity and therewith probably have favored continued political subjec­ tion to Turkey,

Michael Volonakis, The Island of Roses and Her Eleven Sisters. New York, 1922, p. 4l4. In 1912, there were 37,777 Greeks, 4,854 Turks, and 2,445 Jews in Rhodes. IV THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESOURCES OF THE ISLAND

UNDER ITALIAN RULE. 1912-1943

Turkish suzerainty over Rhodes ended when Italy pro­ visionally occupied the island during its war against the Ottoman Empire in 1912, However, Italy agreed to restore

Rhodes to Turkish sovereignty immediately following evacuation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica by Turkish forces. But Rhodes was still occupied when Turkey entered World War I,^

At the conclusion of World War I, Italy continued in possession and claimed that under the Treaty of London

(1915) it was entitled to such possession. In 1919, however. Signor Tittoni signed an agreement with Venizelos under which Italy agreed to yield Rhodes to Greece, if and when Great

Britain surrendered Cyprus to Greece, and if a plebiscite O showed a majority in Rhodes favorable to Greece, This plebescite, however, was not to be held for fifteen years.

Both parties were adhering closely to the doctrine of self- determination, Venizelos* thesis was that under the princi­ ple of self-determination there could be no excuse for placing the Rhodians under Italian sovereignty. Implementa­ tion of this agreement was to be dependent on the ratifica­ tion of the Treaty of Sevres,

1 Rene Albrecht-Carrie, Italy from Napoleon to Mussolini, New York, 1950, p, 88, 2 Maxwell Macartney, Italy's Foreign and Colonial Policy. 1914-1937. London, 1^38, p, 6^,

53 54 The non-ratification of the Treaty of Sevres, the

defeat of Greece by Turkey in 1922, the economic and polit­

ical pentration of French and British influence in the Middle East, and the desire of Italy to extend its influence

eastward caused it to denounce the agreement. In 1923

Turkey, under the Treaty of Lausanne, renounced in favor of

Italy, all rights, titles and privileges, "the future of the island being settled or to be settled by the parties con­ cerned. "3 Italy did not try to settle the question and it

kept the island until 1943 when the Germans took over Rhodes.

Italian occupation of Rhodes may be divided into two periods: the pre-fascist period (1912-1922) and the fascist

period (1922-1943). The former is characterized by politi­

cal indeciveness and economic depression. Italy did not undertake any positive economic rehabilitation measures because the political status of the island was indefinite.

The outbreak of World War I decreased the trade of Rhodes with neighboring countries. Also, the boycott of Greek merchandise by the Turks brought economic depression not only to the merchants of Rhodes but also to Istanbul, for its businessmen depended on Greek merchants to provide them with goods.^ Unfavorable economic conditions led people to

3 Antoine Tsacalakis, Le Dodec^ese; Etude de Droit International. Alexandria, 1928, p. 8b. 4 Paul Jeancard, L'Anatolie: Smyrhe. Sparte. Hour- dour. Hierapolis. Le Dodecanese. Paris. 1919. p. 137. 55 emigrate. The population of Rhodes decreased from 45,000 In 1912 to 41,000 In 1922.5

External economic assistance and the introduction of a long range economic development program characterized the

Pasicist period. This resulted from Italy's economic and

political penetration of the Eastern Mediterranean. Princi­

pal among the motives which stimulated Italy (Mussolini) to pursue a colonial policy in this area were: over-population,

development of trade, and culture.^ since Rhodes was near

the colonial areas of Great Britain and Prance in the Middle

East, the island provided Italy with an excellent base to introduce its economic and social fascist experiment in an under-developed area. Italy wanted to enhance its political position in the Eastern Mediterranean. Each of the Rhodian's sources of income received some attention from the Italian government, but agriculture, livestock, industry and tourism received more assistance because they not only constituted the major sources of in­ come, but were also susceptible to expansion and improvement. The development of the resources of Rhodes and the measures undertaken by Italy to improve them are analyzed below.

5 Agapetides, E. Katastasis es ten Dodekaneson (The Dodecanese Situation), Athens, 194b, p. 10.

^ Herbert Schneider, The Fascist Government of Italy. New York, 1936, pp. 133-138. 56 A. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS IN GENERAL

Measures to improve agriculture:

The apparent desire of the Italian government to im­ prove the island's agriculture and to expand the total land area available for agricultural production is evidenced by the creation of The Department of Domains, Forests, and Reclamation (Servizio Demanio. Foreste e Bonifico). and The

Department of Agriculture, Labour and Research (Servizio Agriculture. Lavoro e Sperimentazione). The former was re­ sponsible for survey and administration of domain land; reclamation of waste land; reorganization of backward high­ land areas in the interior; drainage of marshes; protection and propagation of forests; and tree planting along roads and in public places. The latter was responsible for propa­ ganda and training of cultivators; study of plant pests and diseases; acclimatization of new species and varieties; and experimental farming,^ A number of agricultural societies was also interested in the improvement of the island's agriculture. The Societa Agriculture Industriale, which replaced the older Oleificio Italiano and Stabilimento Enologioo. was interested in im­ proving the quality of export olive oil and wine,8 Ente per

7 Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. Istituto Poli- grafico. Vol. 22, 1934, pp, 142-143. ® Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. Istituto Poli- grafico. Vol. 21, 1933, PP. 325-27. 57 l*As3lstenza della Bonlflca Agrarla was responsible for the dissemination of agricultural information, the introduction of agricultural machinery, and the importation of proven

quality seeds, fertilizers, and agricultural implements.9 Agricultural credit was extended by the Banco di Sicilia.

Further help was given to the farmers by the Tabacchiocoltura. olivocoltura. viticoltura. frutticoltura. and zootecnia dlvi-

sioni of the department of agriculture in Rhodes, The drive to improve the agriculture of the island started in 1926 with the proclamation of the "Battle of the

Olive," The proclamation stated that the decaying of the economy of the island could be arrested by improving the cul­ tivation of olive trees. Inefficient traditional cultivation methods had to be terminated If the island wanted to witness an improvement in the economy. The governor's program called for the planting of albout 11,000 grafted olive trees imported from Italy in the year 1926-27 and 14,000 in 1927-1928, Me also urged the olive growers to adopt efficient cultivation methods, to increase the grafting of wild olive trees, and to reduce the damage caused to the trees by the Oacus fly.12

9 "Sperimentazione e Propaganda Agrarla," L'Agrlcol- tura Coloniale. Vol. 23, 1929, p. 527.

10 Ibid.

11 Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie, o p . cit.. 1934, p. 143. 0. Slttorl, "Prowedlmentl per 1* Increment© della Coltlvazlone dell Olive nelle Isole Bgeo." L'Agrlcoltura Coloniale. Vol. 22, 1928, pp. 377-78. 58 To Instruct practically every fanner on the practica­ bility of scientific farming and to stimulate this activity, the Governor established agricultural demonstration exhibits in the villages of Rhodes. Agricultural technicians demon­ strated to the farmer the use of iron plows, the value of tree pruning, the proper planting of fruit-bearing trees, the proper selection of seeds, the best techniques of com­ batting plant diseases, especially control of the Dacus fly, and the need for improving livestock.

In 1928, the Istituto Sperimentale Agrario was estab­ lished in Yillanova. This station was assigned the task of providing fanners with advanced information concerning the cultivation of dlive trees, grape-vines, citrus-fruit, and vegetable crops. Similar research was carried on at the

Agricola de Pane and Stabilimento Orticoltura Vivaio di Coschino.^3

Scuola di Agricoltura:

Vocational training in agriculture was made possible

Jîhrough courses in the Scuola di Agricoltura. which was estab- lilshed in 1929.1^ The school was only fairly well equipped with laboratories and other physical facilities for teaching. The staff and student enrollment were small. Analysis of

13 Enrico, Bartolozzi, "L#Italia Nel Levante Eco.," Agricoltura Coloniale. Vol. 23, 1929, pp. 513-529* “Sperimentazione e Propaganda Agraria," Agricol­ tura Coloniale. Vol. 23, 1929, p. 527. 59 courses offered to the students showed thete was great empha­ sis on applied subjects, an enqphasls more characteristic of

a vocational school than of an educational Institution that

attempts to prepare students for agricultural leadership.

Land Reclamation:

Since available cultivable land was not sufficient to meet the basic needs of the people of Rhodes, the Italian government focused attention upon reclamation as a possible means of expanding the total area available for production.

Reclaimed land did not total as much as had been anti­ cipated. Reclaiming land for agriculture was expensive, and the cost was carefully weighed against the benefits that could be derived from any such undertaking.^5

The government tried to make sure that such develop­ ment would result not only In a net Increase In agricultural production of the island, but would serve as an example of the application of agricultural techniques In an under­ developed area. Italy wanted to demonstrate to the people of the Levant area that It was a more conscientious colonial power than either Great Britain or Prance.

By 1938, about 2,404 acres were reclaimed through drainage.The war Interfered with the reclamation of more

^5 By 1938, the total cost of the reclamation and Irrigation expansion program was about $500,000.

K. Doxlades, Dodekanesos (Dodecanese), Athens, 1947, PP. 94-95. 60 land in the southern section of the island. If all of the area had been reclaimed, the total cropland actually avail­ able would have been increased by 3 per cent.

Irrigation:

Expansion of the irrigation system in the interior of the island and the revamping of existing irrigation methods in coastal areas added considerably to the total agricultural area. As a matter of fact, most of the agriculture was dependent upon irrigation.

The irrigated areas drfw their water either from springs or from small reservoirs, built by constructing an earthen or cement dam across streams. The life span of such reservoirs was very short because of rapid silting. In an effort to reduce the rate of silting, tree planting was encouraged in the entire watershed area.

A concomitant problem with irrigation was the loss of water through seepage. To reduce seepage, irrigation canals were lined with cement. In the San Benedetto area the loss of water was thereby reduced to less than 2 per cent.

The total acreage under irrigation amounted, approx­ imately, to 5,000 acres. Of this area 600 acres received water from springs and the remainder from well water drawn to the surface by wind-propelled pumps. Gas operated water pui#s were installed at the agricultural experiment stations 61 and on the farms of Italian settlers.

Agricultural experiment stations demonstrated that irrigated olive trees and citrus-fruit trees yielded more fruit per tree than non-irrigated trees. Also, that irri­ gation presented an insurance against damage to crops as a result of prolonged dry spells.

Agricultural Credit;

A factor of prime importance in relation to agricul­ tural prosperity in Rhodes was that of indebtedness. Many farmers, being without substantial resources, had been com­ pelled in times of difficulty to borrow money on the secur­ ity of their land from individual lenders and merchants.

Though some of those who lent money were reasonable and even considerate in their attitude toward debtors, there were numerous instances of harsh treatment.

In order to ameliorate the position of the debtor and to eliminate the private money lenders who were charging exhorbitant interest rates, the Governor of Rhodes in 1928, authorized the Banco di Sicilia to establish an office to grant agricultural credit. The bank also advanced money to the peasants to assist them in repaying the private money lenders. Interest charged by the bank was less than that usually charged by private individuals. Unfortunately, bad

Istituto Agricole Coloniale. Gove mo delle Isole Italians dell 'Egeo, No, 1208, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1934, PP. 54-59. 6g seasons and poor crops made It Impossible for many peasants to meet their agreed obligations, with the result that debts stood at a very high figure.

Land Tenure:

Italians retained, with slight modifications, the land tenure system that existed under the Turkish regime, for two reasons: (1) revision of the laws governing the sub­ division of agricultural properties would have met with resistance from the peasants; (2) Inability of the peasants to produce documents showing that the Emlrl land belonged to them enabled the government to confiscate the land for Its own purposes without having to pay for It In some Instances.

The land technically belonged to the State,

Transfers of real property under the Turks were sup­ posed to be effected by two parties In the presence of a Turkish official. However, the peasants neglected to follow this plan. Transfer, sale or leasing of land was done verbally. Turkish authorities were aware of this violation and In the absence of cadastral plans or any technical abil­ ity, boundary descriptions were mostly confined to mentioning the limits of properties held In the names of the owners of the adjoining property. When Italy took over the administra­ tion of the Island, It was difficult for her to ascertain the real owner In property disputes. To unravel this problem. 63

the government initiated a cadastral survey in 1925.^® The objective was two-fold: (l) to determine the exact bound­

aries of the holdings of the faimers, and (2) to provide the

courts with information needed to adjudicate property con­ flicts.

The Italian government also took advantage of the situation by refusing to honor private documents or trans­ fers as valid. Since in nearly every village transfers were made by private documents, a great number of peasants found themselves dispossessed or obliged to pay rental to the government for their own land. Some of the dispossessed farmers migrated to the city of Rhodes to work as manual laborers.

The cadastral survey showed th&t 90 per cent of the peasants operated their own land. The remainder either worked as tenant-farmers on Rhodian-owned faims or as farm hands in the Italian agricultural settlements. It also revealed that the size of the farm holdings was too small to permit efficient operation. Many farms did not provide enough income to enable the owner and his family to support themselves. The largest farms were operated by the Italian government and private agricultural organizations. These farms covered approximately 2,689 acres or three per cent

bgnda Tenura. Covemo delle Isole Italiane dell# Egeo, No, 378, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1925, p. 31. 64 of the total cultivated land,^^

Land Acquisition:

The land which the Italian government used for the establishment of agricultural settlements, agricultural experiment stations, for the development of resort areas, and for the construction of military Installations was obtained by the application of the expropriation law of

1926. ^ The law permitted the government to expropriate private land on the basis of public Interest, Dispossessed owners were not allowed to appeal against forceable seizures. Valuation of the expropriated property was made by an Italian commissioner assisted by a committee of land-appralsal experts. The price paid for the property was usually far below Its assessed value for taxation.

B. ITALIAN SETTL0ŒNTS

In the reclaimed area the Italian government estab­ lished three agricultural settlements and one settlement for the foresters (Figure 9 ). These settlements were occupied by Italian fsuroers who were brought to the Island by the government. The land belonged to the government and It was

^9 Concessions, Terrenl Demanlall a Scope Agricole. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell#Egeo, No. l470, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1934, p. 14. 20 Esproprlazone Leglslazlone. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dellf]%eo. No. 527, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1926, p. 23. 65

RHODES

ITALIAN LAND OEVELOfMENTS

19) I I W I V SPCRlMENTâi.E

VIVAIO 01 AtRICOLA o r COtCHINO FANEA

CAMFO CHIANO

SAN tENSOETTO

LEGEND

A A0RI6ULTURAL CXFENIMENT

s t a t io n s

SCALE

MILES

Figure 9 66 cultivated by farmers under the mezzadrla system,Culti­ vators rented the land from the government for one-half of the total agricultural output. They also received from the government a base salary for the upkeep of their families.

These settlements were located close to historic sites, Italy wanted the tourists to observe the difference between

Italian-owned villages and those of the natives. Considera­ tion of each of the settlements follows,

San Marco:

San Marco was located In the southern section of the Island near the town of Kattavla, and covered an area of about 303 a c r e s , development of this area represented a means of rehabilitating and preserving agricultural land of great value. Since the area was naturally dry and produc­ tion was greatly limited by the lack of water, a small reservoir was constructed to provide water for Irrigation

In the summer. Underground water was also used. The settlement was operated by farmers who had all or part of their land under Irrigation, A land-use study made

In 1940 showed that 270 acres were cultivated In cereals.

Incremento. Agricole-Studl. Propaganda. Conferenze. Govemo delle Isole Italians dell?Egeo, No. 1008, Arohlvlore l&l, Rhodes 1931, P, 4, Tlttorn? Solerl, "Sullar Sallnlta dl Una Parte Terrenl della Bonlflca de Cattavla." L'Agrlcoltura Coloniale. Vol, 25, 1928, pp, 187-193. 67

Fig. 10., General view of the irrigated areas In Peveragno,

Pig. 11. Reclaimed land In San Marco. m 75 acres in vineyards and the remainder in olives, citrus-

fruit and vegetables.

TABLE IV

PRODUCTION OP AGRICULTURAL CROPS IN SAN MARCO, 1940*

Commodity In tons

Wheat 114

Olives 55

Grapes 55 Horticultural Crops 352

Ouadrl-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Ufficio Centrale dl Statistica, Rhodes, 1940, p. 40.

San Benedetto:

San Benedetto was located half-way between Afandou and Archanggelo. It covered 445 acres of which about 75 were irrigated. The settlement was established in 1932 and included 35 houses,, twelve small warehouses, a carpenter shop, a school, and a church. About 32 Italian families occupied the village. The total working population includ­ ing the native farm hands amounted to 400 people.23 The

^3 Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. Istituto Poligrafico, Vol. 21, 1933, P. 1035. same land tenure was in effect here as that In the other

settlements.

Water for irrigation was provided by a reservoir in

the vicinity of Epta Pegai (seven fountains), situated about five miles northwest of San Benedetto. The water from the

surrounding hills was collected by an extensive net work of canauLs which emptied into the Panomilo reservoir from which

it was delivered by a single canal to the needed area.

A land use study made in ig40 showed that 340 acres were in wheat, 60 acres in vineyards, 30 acres in olives

and other fruit bearing trees, and 5 acres in meadow.

TABLE V PRODUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS IN SAN BENEDETTO, 1940*

Commodity In Tons

Wheat 87

Forage Crops 275 Olives 1

Fruits 2

* Quadri-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1940, P. 39. 70

Pig, 12. The Panomilo reservoir which supplies San Benedetto with Irrigation water.

Fig. 13, This canal brings Irrigation water to more than 75 acres of farmland In San Benedetto. 71

Fig, l4, A general view of the Stabili- mento Orticoltura Vivaio di Coschino. By 1932, 14,000 olive trees, 15,000 citrus-fruit, and 75,000 vines were planted in the area.

Pig, 15. An irrigated olive grove in San Benedetto, 72 Production was very small, because the objective of the government was not to Increase the output per acre, but to develop phylloxera-resistant vines, to improve the live­ stock of the area through scientific breeding, and to demonstrate to the farmers of the neighboring villages the economic value of specialized farming,

Peveragno:

Peveragno was under the direction of the La Prutti- coltura di Rodi and was situated in the northwest section of the island and covered about 1,203 acres. The types of soil found here were suited to a wide range of crops, and the fertility of the land assured high productivity under irrigation. The village consisted of 23 houses, several warehouses, stables, a working shop, a church, and a school.

An extensive road system connected the village with the farms,

Since the settlement represented a serious effort by the Italian government to introduce to the farmers of Rhodes the economic benefits of large scale farming, it received all the cooperation that it needed from the government to accomplish its work. Large plot farms (1,3 acres or more) were established. Since most of the land surrounding the

Rassegna Economics, delle Colonie, op, cit.. 1933, P. 1035. 73 settlement teas hilly, attention was given to dry land farm­

ing problems,

A land use study made in 1940 showed that 484 acres

were cultivated in cereals, 484 acres in vineyards, and the

remainder in olives and other horticultural crops. About 50 acres were under irrigation,

TABLE VI PRODUCTION OP AGRICULTURAL AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS IN PEVERAGNO, 1938*

Commodity In Tons

Wheat 349 Forage 425 Grapes 350 Olives 250

Fruits 174

Pulses 8 Vegetables 10

* Quadri-Statistic. Govemo delle Isol Italiane dell'Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1938, p, 40,

C, LAND USE

Although there are many conflicting data on land use in Rhodes, Table VII represents the best estimates derived from consulting available sources of statistical material 74 TABLE VII

LAND USE,IN RHODES, 1938* Per cent of Land Use Acreage total land

LAND IN FARMS

Cereals 23,550 6.9 Vegetables and potatoes 5,300 1.6 Pulses 3,500 1.0 Forage crops 1,935 .6 Other annual crops 2,600 .8

Total rotation crops 36,885 10.9

Vineyards 4.500 1.3 Olive trees 10,200 3.0 Fruit-trees 3,450 1.0

Total rotation, tree and vine crops 55,035 16.2 Fallow land 45,000 13.2 Grazing and Meadow 17,165 5.0 Total land in Farms 117,200 34.4

LAND NOT IN FARMS

Mountains, nomadic graze 33,000 9.7 Forests 160,000 47.0

Total land in some productive use 310,200 91.0

Unused Land (hills) 30,150 8.9 Total Land 340,350 100 éO

* ûuadri-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane deUl^Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistics, Rhodes, 1938, PP. 75-77. 75 and from conversations with former officials of the Servizio.

Agricultura. Lavoro e Sperimentazione Agraria department. A serious error in the compilation of land use data was the lack of estimates of double-cropped and interplanted acreage. There was much interplanting of cereals and other crops among the trees and vineyards on the northeast plain. In 1938, approximately 11 per cent of the total land area was in cultivated crops, 24 per cent in tree and vine crops, fallow, and grazing. The remainder of the land not in farms was in forests and unused land (Figure l6). The most important crops in terms of cultivated land and gross income were cereals, olives and other fruit bear­ ing trees, grapes and raisins, and vegetables. Livestock products were also produced in small quantities and accounted for a substantial share of the agricultural income (Table

VIII). TABLE VIII

INCOME FROM AGRICULTURAL CROPS AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS , 1938* Value in Total dollars value Principal Crops 1,492,875 Cereals 593,140 Olives and olive oil 384,125 Grapes and raisins 283,225 Tree-fruit crops 106,310 Other crops 126,075 Livestock Products 285,345 Total 1,778.220 * Quadri-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Ital­ iane dell*Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statis­ tica, Rhodes, 1938, pp. 89-89. 76

" Ï P RHODES LAND UTILIZATION - 1938

t

LEGEND

CULTIVATED LAND

tR A Z iN O t r e e CROPS

SCATTERED FIELDS

WOODS: MAQUIS RIME MILES

Figure l6 77 Cereals:

Based on the area occupied, the culture of cereals was the most Important sector of the domestic economy of the island, for it provided more than half of the food needs of the people. Then as now, there was not a village where cereals were not cultivated. About 20 per cent of the land in farms was devoted to cereals. Cultivation methods^S— Pre-sowing preparation of the soil varied not only with the cereals to be sown, but accord­ ing to region, soil, exposure, and rotation. When a field was to be used for wheat, the soil usually received two or three plowings. Sometimes the fields were harrowed several times. In many cases, wheat was broadcast and then covered by means of shallow plowing. Very few farmers, except the Italians, used iron plows, because the Rhodian fanners lacked the necessary capital either to purchase them outright or to rent them from the Ente per l^Assistenza della

Bonifica Agraria. Italian settlers were equipped with iron plows and consequently the soil was better prepared. They also used commercial fertilizer.

Rotation— Several crop-rot at ion systems were employed. One of the more common was to let the land be fallow the year following a cereal crop. On the poorer lands, two of the

25 Cultivation methods under Italian rule were sub­ stantially the same as those practiced today. 78 three years of a rotation were reserved for fallow. Some farmers, who did not want their fallow land to be taken over by foresters, practiced continuous cultivation. They were not permitted by law to cut such bushes as might have sprouted if the land had remained fallow for two or three years. The result of such a practice led to low yields per acres.

Despite the efforts of the Italian government to im­ prove the production of cereals by the introduction of better farming techniques and the introduction of selected seed grains, the average yièld per acre of wheat and barley was lower than in other Mediterranean regions. The average yields of wheat in bushels per acre for the period 1935-1938 were 12.8 for the island of Crete, 13.4 for Greece, 21.4 for

Italy, 14.7 for Turkey and 4.9 for Rhodes. That of barley was 15.0 for Crete, 17.6 for Greece, 20.4 for Turkey, 20.2 for Italy and 15.0 for Rho d e s .

The low yield per acre of wheat was largely due to the fragmented character of the farms. Farmers consumed a large portion of their time going from field to field and as a result they were unable to give good care to every small plot of land. Furthermore, some of the cultivated fields were un­ suited for the production of cereals.

International Yearbook of Agricultural Statistics. 1941-1945. International Institute of Agriculture, United Nations, Vol. I, Tables 1,3,9,10, Rome, 1947, pp. 3-53. 79

TABLE IX

AREA, PRODUCTION, YIELD; WHEAT, BARLEY, 1935-1938*

WHEAT 1935 1936 1937 1938

Acreage 14,502 13,777 13,051 13,393 Production in tons 2,650 1,558 1,701 2,803 Average yield (bushels per acre) 6.1 3.0 3.5 6.9

BARLEY

Acreage 3,625 3,262 3,262 3,384 Production in tons 1,700 640 916 1,728 Average yield (bushels per acre) 19 8 11 21

* Quadrl-Statlstlcl. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell*Egeo, Ufficio Centrale dl Statistica, Rhodes, 1935# 1936, 1937 1938. 80 High yields were registered on the experimental plots at the Peveragno settlement. The 1937 agricultural statis­ tics of the settlement shows 15.5 bushels per acre of wheat.

Many factors were responsible for the great margin of pro­ duction, the most important being more careful soil cultiva­ tion, the planting of selected seed grains, greater use of fertilizer, and better harvesting and threshing methods. Production of cereals was sufficient to meet domestic needs for about three months. Estimated pre-war per capita annual consumption of wheat based on 2,200 calories per day was 321 p o u n d s . 27 Average production of wheat per capita in the period 1935-1938 was 90 pounds. Deficits were made up by importing cereals from neighboring countries. The aver­ age amount of imported wheat for the period 1935-38 was

7,000 t o n s , 28 Besides wheat, such crops as barley, oats, and rice were also imported.

Olives and Olive Oil:

For quality and value of output the olive was not only the most important of all the tree crops of the island, but also the second important branch of agriculture. Climatic

" 2t Dodecanese H^dbook. Part III, His Majesty Station­ ery Office, London, 1Ô43, p. 6.

28 Quadri-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell*Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1938, pp. 68-70 , 81 and edaphic conditions were especially suitable for its growth. Varieties differ with elevation. In general, 1,800

to 2,000 feet was the upper limit for olive production. The olive provided both food and a cash crop, Olive

yields per tree were lower than in the neighboring countries. The average production of olive oil on Rhodes was 2.2 pounds 29 per tree as compared with 3.7 pounds for Greece, and 3.1

pounds for Italy and T u r k e y . 30 Besides the periodic adverse

weather conditions and the inefficient traditional methods

of cultivation, the Dacus fly (Dacus Oleae Rossi) was largely responsible for the low yield. It was estimated that the

damage from the Dacus fly in some years was as much as 50 pet

cent of the crop.31 Also, the fly affected the acidity of

the olives. If the Dacus-attacked olives were not quickly

transported to the factory, the acidity of the olive oil

usually increased from 3 degrees to about 10 degrees. The total area under cultivation was 10,200 acres

supporting about 550,000 olive t r e e s . 32 % e chief growing

areas were Trianda, Archanggelos, Massari, Afandou, Malona

and Kalythies (Figure 17).

29 Doxiades, op. cit.. p. 97. 30 MiCO8 Lychnos, To Dendron tes Elaias kal e Kalliergia tou (The Cultivation of the Olive Tree), Athens, 1948, p. 4o. 31 Olivocolture. Olio. Oleifici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell#Egeo, No. 8 4 4 , Archivoire 131, Rhodes, 1929,P.13. 32 Olives and Olive Products. Production Trade. In­ national Institute of Agriculture, No. 6 , Rome, 1940,pp.163- 64. 82

RHODES

DISTRIBUTION OF OLIVE TREES - 1964

WASSARI

36® 1000 OLIVE TREES

SCALE

MILES

Figure I7 83 The production of olive oil per tree was much higher

on experiment stations and in agricultural settlements,

where trees received scientific care. In San Benedetto and

in the Istituto Speriraentale, the average yield of the olive

tree was 6 pounds. The Laboratorio di Chimiea Agraria aided the stations by providing them with new methods of Dacus-fly and plant disease control,33

Despite the efforts of the Italian agriculturists to propagate their own olive growing techniques, the cultivation methods of the olive tree practiced under Turkish rule con­

tinued, Farmers either were not ready to accept Italian

techniques or they felt that their own time-tested cultiva­ tion methods were much better than the transplanted Italian methods. The latter belief was strengthened by the fact that grafted olive trees imported from Italy did not physiologi­ cally adjust to the climate of the island. Also the demand

that they must graft trees made the peasants more hostile than ever to new ideas concerning the betterment of olive culture. However, high yields of olive trees under Italian

care showed that opposition by the farmer was based more on emotional than economic or technical reasons. The peasants did not wish to adopt better farming techniques of their #conqueror# because if they had done so they would have been

33 vittorino Vezzani, "Rodi e il Suo Problema Zootecnico," L#Agricoltura Coloniale. Vol, 23, 1929, p. 551. 84 called ^Italophllol• by the Greeks in the neighboring coun­ tries.

TABLE X

PRODUCTION OP OLIVE OIL AND EDIBLE OLIVES IN RHODES, 1935-1938 (in pounds)*

Year Olive oil Edible olives

1935 336,760 353,308 1936 1,842,680 880,000

1937 1,481,100 705,100 1938 2 ,136,420 990,000 *Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. Istituto Poligrafico, Vol. 21, 1933, p. 321.

Since the production of olive oil was sufficient for about six months, the needed supply was imported from Italy,

Greece, and Turkey. Prom 1929 to 1939 approximately

7 0 0 , 0 0 0 pounds of olive oil were imported annually.34

Grapes and Raisins;

Viticulture formed the third important agricultural sector. The aridity of the climate was of vital importance to the culture for two reasons: (l) the absence of rains during the ripening period reduced damage and (2) the drying

•sli Olives and Olive Products. Production Trade. op. cit.. p. l64. 85 of raisin grapes could take place in the open air.

The total area in grapes and raisins was approximately

4,550 a c r e s . 35 The most important growing areas were the

villages of Kremasti, Soroni, Tholo, Panes, and Kalavarda on the west coast and Afandou, Kalythies, Lindos, Yannadi and

Bmbona on the east coast.3^ Afandou and Kalythies concen­

trated on the production of raisins and table grapes. The

long summer heat and the hard clayey soil were ideal for

the sweetening of the raisin (P’gure 18).

Viticulture was limited in extent because of lack of

capital. Three years are required for vines to bear. Table XI reveals that the total expenses at the end of a six year year period were $61.70 more than the revenue received from the sale of grapes and % u s t % Since eight years had to pass before a profit could be earned, the farmers who wanted

to practice commercialized viticulture needed a substantial

capital outlay to carry them over until the vineyard yielded

a commercial crop. Even then they were confronted with economic and weather fluctuations.

Technical assistance was given to the growers by the Bureau of Viticoltura. To combat the insect phylloxera.

35 Bartolozzi, op. cit.. p. 513.

36 Umberto Solleri. "L'^Essiccamento dell^Uva nelle Isole Italiane dell*Egeo," L»Agricoltura Coloniale. Vol. 30, 1936, p. 361. 86

RHODES

DISTRIBUTION OF VINEYARDS - 1954

KALAVARDâ .;f;

AFANDOU

SCALE

MILES

Figure 18 87 which attacked the root-stocks, phylloxera resistant vines

were imported from Italy. The native stocks were grafted with scions from the resistant varieties. Research was also

TABLE XI

COST OP OPERATING ONE HECTARE OP VINEYARDS IN RHODES POR A PERIOD OP SIX YEARS

Percentage of Amount in the total dollars cost Interest on1 loan 96.2 16 Ploughing 40.0 Grading 3.0 Planting of' vines 156.0 36 Pruning 41.0 7 Hilling 160.0 27 Spraying 26.0 4 Harvesting 60.0 10

Total 582.2 100 Income 520.5 Net Loss 61.7 * Caselli, Alberto, "La Coltura della Vite nell?l8ola di Rodi L'Agricoltura Coloniale Vol. 17, 1923, pp. 402-403. ' carried on to determine the best varieties of vines for the production of table and wine grapes. The most widely used varieties of vines were Diminitri. Amorghiano, and Atiri.35

The Italian government took an active part in the pro­ motion of wine exports. The Societa Anonima Prutticoltura and PAIR were assigned to the task of helping the producers to standardize the quality of exportable wine and table

35 Bartolozzi, op. cit.. p. 515. 88 grapes. The export of wine to Italy was facilitated by low import duties (Table XII),

TABLE XII

WINE EXPORTS, RHODES, 1926-1932* Volume in Year pounds

1926 47,146

1927 228,399 1928 941,151 1929 1,839,380 1930 1,860,414 1931 1 ,805,230 1932 1,911.478 * Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. - Istituto Poligrafico, Vol. 21, 1933, p. 821.

The production of table grapes was important because of the close proximity of the island to Egypt, Egypt im­ ported a considerable quantity. Exact figures are net available. The Rosakia table grapes were the best liked by the Egyptians.

The culture of Sultana grapes for dried raisins was also given encouragement by the Prutticoltura Eteea organiza­ tion, which constructed a plant in Rhodes for the drying of the g r a p e s , 36 This organization was interested in the

Soleri. OP. cTt,. p, 368. 89 63?port of raisins to western Europe, especially to Italy.

Further assistance was given by the Societa Prutticoltura di Rodi. which provided the growers with new varieties of raisin-grape vines.

The total area devoted to dried vine fruits was about

1,000 acres.37 The most important growing areas were the villages of Kalythies, Afandou, and the agricultural experi­ ment station Stabillmento Orticoltura Vivaio di Coschino.

Only a small acreage of raisin-grapes was irrigated. The expansion of the irrigated acreage was limited by the scarcity of water and the reluctance of the growers to irri­ gate the vines. They felt that the addition of water to the field would reduce the sugar content of the raisin- grapes .

More than three-fourths of the dried grape output was produced by small proprietors who also cultivated grape­ vines for ' m u s t '.38 The amount of employed labor was small, except during the harvest period, when a number of migratory laborers were employed to pick and process the crop. Adult female and child labor was also used. Many of the growers could not afford to hire outside labor.

During the economic depression after 1929, the pro­ duction of viticulture products was probably the most stable

37 Ibid.. p. 361.

88 Ibid.. p. 367. 90 rural activity in Rhodes. Stability was largely due to the protection given to the industry by tariff preferences in the markets of Italy, In addition, the government aided the

TABLE XIII

PRODUCTION OP RAISINS IN RHODES, 1935-1938* Amount in Year Pounds

1935 156,200 1936 231,880

1937 162,140 1938 258,280

*Quadri-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane deli Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1935, 1936, 1937,1938,

Prutticoltura Ikea organization in improving the methods of processing and packing. In aonsequence, the products reached a standard of quality and unifoimity in respect to grading which enabled them to command the confidence of wholesale buyers, and to realize a higher price than would otherwise have been possible,

Tree-fruits other than the olive:

Tree fruits occupied an important part in the economy of the island, since they added to the total food supply. Citrus-fruits were numerous. They included oranges, lemons. 91

Pig. 1 9 . Workers are cleaning raisins before spreading them on reed or straw for drying. Used by permission of the periodical L ’Agricoltura Coloniale.

Pig. 20. Women sorters are soiting raisins ac­ cording to quality. Used by permis­ sion of the periodical L^Aericoltura Coloniale. 92 and mandarins. In 1935, 47,000 orange trees, 10,450 lemon trees, and 33,300 mandarin trees were under cultivation,^^ Their fruits were produced mainly in the irrigated land near Malona, Archanggelos and Trianda villages. The larg­ est area of oranges and lemons was concentrated around the village of Malona where production had been prominent for many years, A small portion of the production was scattered and plantings were frequently interrupted with vineyards. The vineyards served as a cash crop until the citrus-fruit trees reached bearing stage. Yields per tree were behind those of Greece and Italy, because of inadequate cultivation methods. There was an ample opportunity for raising tree yields by adopting more modern growing practices. This called for more attention to the choice of varieties and selection of parent stock for grafting purposes, for improving methods of cultivation and application of fertilizer, but the growers were reluctant to invest their capital for this purpose, because they could not compete successfully with Italian growers in Italy, Unlike viticulture, this culture did not receive tariff preferences. Also, lack of cold storage facilities as a factor in market­ ing resulted in low prices. Dried tree-fruits were produced in small quantities

39 Q.uadri-Statistici, Governo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo. Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1936, pp. 123-24, 93 In areas where the climate was suitable or where irrigation made high yields practicable.

Pigs led all other dried fruits in output on the island. Most of the production was in the Soroni village area, where the climate was well suited to the production of thin-skinned and fine textured dried figs.

The harvest season began the first week in August and continued until the first week of October.^ Figs which had dropped to the ground were picked once or twice daily. In drying yards the figs were spread on reed or straw mats one layer deep, and were turned by hand during the drying process of three or four days. When dried, the figs were sacked and shipped to the city of Rhodes and in turn to Egypt and Italy.

Apiculture;

A minor rural activity which was carried on by a few farmers to provide extra cash, was apiculture. The presence of aromatic wild flowers throughout the year, together with the fruit-tree orchards were ideal for the raising of bees.

Another factor was the low cost of initial investment. Any farmer could build a successful salary from a single colony of bees and an investment of but a few dollars.

Apiculture was practiced in every village of the

Harvesting methods under Italian rule were sub­ stantially the same as those practiced today. 9# island. In 1932, there were 690 beekeepers who took care of 1,560 European hives and 11,687 native hives,The latter were wicker baskets covered with mud mixed with straw, while the former were rectangular wood boxes. The European hives were very expensive and few beekeepers could afford to pur­ chase them. Every village had a small number of European hives. The village of Malona had 1,420 native and 50 Euro­ pean hives.

In 1932, the production from apiculture was 110,500 pounds of honey and 17,565 pounds of wax, with a value of approximately $34,000.^2 More than two-thirds of the pro­ duction was exported to Italy,^3

Other Crops:

Besides the aforementioned cereals and fruit-crops, a small acreage was devoted to the production of cotton, tobacco and vegetables. The Italian government increased tobacco acreage to meet the needs for tobacco for the troops stationed on the island. The production of tobacco increased from 112 tons in 1935 to 267 tons in 1940,^^ Cotton

41 "L^Apicoltura nelle Isole Italiane dell#Egeo," Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. Institute Poligrafico, Vol. 21, 1933, p. 356, ^2 Ibid,. p. 366.

^3 ftuadri-Statistici, Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1941, p. 135. Ibid,, p. 134. 95

w

Fig. 22. A well arranged apiary (European hives) in the village of Soroni, Used by permission of the period­ ical Russegna Economica Dell Colonie.

Pig, 22. Native hives. Used by permission of the periodical Rassegna Eco­ nomica Delle Colonie. 96 production was not very large. In 1941, it amounted to about two tons.^5 Vegetable crops, including melons, were grown nearly everywhere for home use. However, a few irri­ gated commercial areas in the village of Trianda produced early season crops which were exported largely to Egypt.

In 1938, the income from these crops were approximately

$126,075.

D. LIVESTOCK

Since livestock production was an important adjunct to the agricultural economy of the island, the zootecnia division of the department of agriculture carried on re­ search to improve the quality of the animals. Breeding stock for the purpose of cross-breeding was imported from

Italy, Greece and Turkey. Careful consideration was given to the techniques of improving productivity by the selection of native types.

Livestock improvement centers were established in agricultural settlements of San Benedetto, Peveragno and Campo Chiarro,^^ with a view to disseminating information on techniques of livestock improvement which were applicable to the area, as well as making available for breeding purposes livestock of high productivity and local adaptability.

^5 Doxiades. op.~~cit.. p. 100.

46 vezzani, V., o p . cit.. p. 258. 97 Expansion in livestock and dairying which should have resulted from the application of better livestock methods did not materialize, because of the lack of available credit at reasonable cost and of the restrictions placed by the

Italian government on foraging.

The goat had been a cause of much controversy for many years and a source of discord between farmer and shep­ herd. Owing to the absence of farm boundaries, herds of goats repeatedly tresspassed on cultivated areas, and the shepherds did little to restrain them. Pines imposed upon the shepherds, however, did not deter them from continuing such practice. To check the growth of this practice, the villagers appointed agricultural guards (astoifilakas) to protect cultivated lands against the depredations of goats and to report violations to the village council, A survey taken in 1938 showed that the goat popula­ tion decreased from 37,100 in 1922 to 30,000 in 1937 and that sheep increased from 14,000 in 1922 to 19,500 in 1937.^7

About three-fourths of the sheep and goats in Rhodes were In nomadic herds collected from several families and placed in the care of s h e p h e r d s , ^8 These herds would migrate from one pasture to another, TJie practice of taking flocks of sheep

^ ftuadri-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell#Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1938, pp. 57-59. Information was obtained from the Department of Agriculture, Rhodes, The same practice is followed today. 98

Fig. 23. The output of a dairy cow was very small. The dally production was about .82 gallons. Credit at reasonable cost for purchasing more producing animals, for establishing and Improv­ ing pasture, silos and bams, and for supplies and equipment are some of the reasons for the low dally production of milk. Used by permission of the periodical L^Agrlcoltura Coloniale.

Pig. 24. Improved sheep stock grazing near the village of Afandou, Used by permis­ sion of the periodical L'Agrlcoltura Coloniale. 99 and goats to the pasture lands of the mainland of Turkey In the summer came to an end when the Italians occupied the

Island. This restriction imposed upon goat and sheep graz­ ing resulted in a decrease in the production of livestock products. The production dropped from approximately 2,000 tons in 1910 to 550 in 1936,^^ To meet the demand for meat products, Rhodes imported about 4,000 tons annually from the neighboring countries, Turkey supplied about 65 per cent of the total imports,50 Besides goats and sheep, there was a small number of cattle, horses, donkeys, and swine.

Sheep and goats furnished the principal sources of meat and milk for the people of the island. The market of the city of Rhodes was supplied with milk by a few farmers in the villages of Cova, Asgourou, Kandili and Trianda,

This agricultural activity, however, received little atten­ tion from the government even though dairying was suscepti­ ble to great expansion, for the production of animal products fell far short of the demand, A considerable quantity of livestock products was imported from Greece and Turkey to meet the local demand.

Despite the fact that the Italian government had

^ ftuadri-Statistici. Governor delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1936, pp, 48-49, 50 Ibid,, p, 95. 100

Fig. 25 , One or two goats were kept by each family in the village to furnish it with milk. In some villages the families hired a shepherd, who took out the goats in the morning for grazing and brought them back to the village in the evening for milk­ ing, Used by permission of the periodical L*Agricoltura Coloniale,

Pig, 26, Cattle grazing on the improved pas­ ture land the Peveragno settlement. Used by permission of the periodical L^Agricoltura Coloniale. 101 established the necessary agencies to improve the agricul­

ture of the island, little improvement, with the exception

of that in the Italian agricultural villages, was experi­

enced by the Rhodian farmers, because of their inability to

obtain agricultural credit for the purchase of fertilizer and machinery. Primitive methods of production, marketing

and transportation were common.

Low crop yields together with low market prices forced many farmers to abandon their farms and to migrate

to the city of Rhodes to seek employment either as con­

struction workers or as factory hands. The fortunate ones

emigrated to the United States, Egypt, and Australia. Small monetary remittances which they sent back home enabled their parents or relatives to purchase goods and services which they needed. In 1938, the income from foreign mone­ tary remittances was approximately $225,810.

The agricultural problems of Rhodes could have been ameliorated if Italy had made a fuller utilization of available manpower through increased capital investments and improved farm management. The problem of increasing output remained unsolved because the government did not en­ list the participation of the native farmers. Apparently, the Italians were either unaware of or refused to recognize the Greek philotimo. Fhilotimo is the Greek?s view of him­ self; a view which determines his Greekness as well as his

status within a family, village, and district. Any . 102

suggestion by an outsider (non-Greek) concerning the raising of his standard of living would violate his philotimo as a person and as a Greek. The Greek philotimo did not allow the Rhodian peasant to support wholeheartedly the Italian sponsored agricultural reform program. If he had done so, he would have revealed to the outside world his own failure to produce enough food for his family needs. His Inability to produce more food was not his own fault, but was "an act of God." In addition, the Idea of being Greek meant ?to be free#, and gave him the alibi necessary to adopt an apathetic attitude toward

Italian reform measures even though this meant the continu­ ance of a substandard existence.

It seems that both the Italians and the Rhodians are to be blamed for the poor showing of agriculture despite the fact that It was the Islandis most Important source of In­ come, Prom conversations with Rhodians the writer gathered the Impression that the Italians deliberately neglected the

Rhodian farmers because they wanted them to emigrate In order to settle vacated farms with their own farmers. If

World War II had not Intervened, the possibility exists that, today, more than 50 per cent of the population of Rhodes would have been Italian, 103 E. FORESTS

The forest industry, which formerly not only engaged a considerable number of workers, but also provided the local shipbuilding industry with lumber, was an insignifi­ cant source of income under the Italian regime. In 1938, the income from forests was approximately $45,000,

Devastating fires, wasteful and reckless felling, and extravagant methods adopted for procurring resin had reduced the forests to sparse areas of shrub, with the exception of those stands in the nearly inaccessible mountainous areas. The lower slopes had been practically depleted of their wealth, supporting dwarfed scrub almost worthless for the production of timber.

When Italy took over the administration of the island, the evil of goat-grazing and the necessity of restoring the forests were quickly recognized. The legal position of the owners of goats and sheep in the State forests was clearly laid down and appropriate laws were enacted.

The first important measure for the conservation of the forests was the issuance of forest conservation decrees in 1921,51 Destructive habits of the people were partially checked, and the remnants of the forests were saved from destruction by strict law enforcement.

51 Testo Unico Delle Leggi Forestall. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell#Egeo, Number 56, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1921, p, 9. 104 Forest laws made Illegal the felling or uprooting of

trees or bushes. In view of the scarcity of forest growth

on the island this seemed to be a wise and necessary measure. As the clause was interpreted by the foresters it prevented the farmer from cutting myrtles or other bushes which grew

up in his field during the period the land lay fallow. The result was that some land which was formerly cultivated

even though it was not as productive as the irrigated land

became worthless. Many of the marginal fanners migrated to

the city to work as manual laborers. In some areas the poor land in which nothing would

grow except stunted bushes, was used as pasturage by goat and sheep herders. Enforcement of the law restricted the

areas of pasture, depriving many shepherds of their only means of support and forced them either to migrate to the city or to emigrate, A Greek writer has criticized the

strict enforcement of the forest law by saying, it not only deprived many people of their only means of livelihood, but

also reduced the acreage of cultivable land,^^ But the re­ generation of the forest would have been difficult if graz­ ing animsas had been allowed within the area. By snipping- off the tops of the young trees, goats destroyed the possibility of their growth into commercial timber. Further­ more, the government wanted farmers to practice more intensive agriculture.

52 Doxiades. op, cit,, p, 95. 105 Full-time technically trained foresters were employed by the government to execute the reforestation program, A

special camp -Campo Chlarro- for the foresters was construct­

ed near the village of Platanl, It consisted of 45 houses and 10 general purpose buildings. The foresters produced

their own food by cultivating about 75 acres of Irrigated land located In the vicinity. Irrigation water was provided by a reservoir which also supplied the city of Rhodes,53

Besides protecting the forest against the depredations by goats and fires, foresters devoted some time to the con­

sideration of two problems; (1) the reservation of good timber areas to provide an adequate supply of forest products for future needs; (2) protection of the forested catchment areas which functioned as regulators of stream flow In areas where dry spells were considered normal,5^

In 1 9 3 5 , forested areas covered about 1 6 3 , 0 0 0 acres. Relatively good forest land covered with pine and cypress comprised about 12,000 acres,55

Another objective of the reforestation program was to

Increase wildlife by Improving Its forest habitat. The most

Important game was deer. The bird population had declined

53 Doxiades, op, clt,. p, 174, 54 istltuto Agrlcolo Coloniale. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell^Egeo, Number 1291, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1933, p. 3. Agapltldes, op, clt,. p, 43, 106 as a result of the destruction of their habitat through care­

less clearing of woods and various agricultural activities.

The first move was the setting aside of game land as refuges and establishing hunting restrictions. Game laws

and regulations limited the annual take by prescribing hunt­

ing seasons and restricting the time and manner in which

game might be taken. Rhodians were not allowed to hunt.^^ Hunting was the exclusive right of Italians and tourists.

The government encouraged tourism, for it was an important

source of income. The law was strictly enforced and by 1935

there was a considerable increase in the amount of game available,

P. PISHING

The catch of fish was limited because of the lack of refrigeration, processing facilities, marketing and trans­ portation. Local fisherman also could not afford gear and equipment. The catch of 1938 was estimated at 1,200,000 pounds, valued at $80,000. About 200 fishermen were engaged, who had at their disposal 4 gill nets, 29 cast nets and 52 fishing boats,57

Por the purpose of helping individual fishermen and the fishing industry, a hydrobiological institute was estab­ lished at R h o d e s , 58 one of the functions of the institute was

56 Doxiades. op, cit,, p, 150, 57 Ibid,, p. 150, 58 Ibid,. pp, 124-127. 107 to carry out exploratory fishing to appraise the potential­

ity of the fishing grounds actually exploited and to dis­

cover new productive banks. The work of the institute was hampered by lack of capital. The Italian government was

more interested in developing the fishing banks of the Canary

islands in the Atlantic Ocean. Financial assistance that

was needed for the purchase of boats and equipment, and for

the provision of refrigeration, processing, transportation and marketing facilities was not available.

G. MINING AND QUARRING

Since mining was an insignificant source of income its development was not encouraged by the Italian government.

Working conditions were difficult, and much capital invest­ ment for the installation of modern machinery to make operations economical would have been necessary.

The Italians exploited for a short time the chromium

deposits in the vicinity of Apollona and Spenoli, Deposits were mined during World War I, but were abandoned when the war ended. The mines were re-opened in 1938, but their development was interrupted by World War 11.59 %t was almost impossible to ship chromium to Italy during the war, for the

Allied naval forces had complete control of the Eastern

Mediterranean Sea,

59 Doxiades, op. cit.. p. 153, 108 Marble and limestone were quarried for the domestic market. Limestone of varied physical qualities was found throughout the Island and was used for the production of qulck-llme. It was also used as a paving stone and for building. The marble was of excellent quality, but was less weather-resistant than Carrara marble.

H. INDUSTRY

Industry, which Included handicrafts and manufacturing, was an Important sector of the economy of Rhodes, Notable strides In Industrial development took place during the decade preceding World War II, the value of Industrial pro­ duction Increasing from $75,000 In 1921^0 to $657,485 In

1938. The base of this development, however, was extremely small. The Island lacked, not only cheap motive power, but Insufficient agricultural production to keep the Industries working at full capacity for the whole year. Lack of capi­ tal, skilled management, competent technicians, and markets retarded the development of new Industries. Such Industrial expansion as was registered was largely due to the subsidiza­ tion of the Industry by the Italian government.

It Is Impossible for one to state precisely the motives behind the decision of the Italian government to promote the

oO S o d et a. Implanto Nuove Industrie, Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell^Egeo, Number 488, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1922, p. 4. 1Q9 growth of manufacturing on Rhodes even though the Island did not provide a sound economic base for such activity. Four possible motives, however, may be advanced, (l) Altruistic reasons— it wanted to raise the level of living of the inhabitants; (2) political— it wanted to bring about a bal­ anced economy in contrast to the unbalanced economy of the colonial areas of Greôt Britain and Prance and to make Rhodes a show window for the Arab world to observe the economic accomplishments of Italy as a colonial power; (3) economic— it wanted to establish industries in the colonial areas to employ the surplus skilled Italian labor; (4) social— it wanted to transplant the ? fascist? experiment to a non- Italian area.

Regardless of what the motives were, the Italian gov­ ernment provided Italian-owned industries with tax benefits, tariff preferences, credit facilities at low rates, adequate marketing facilities, competent technical advice, and skilled workers. These benefits were not granted to the Rhodian- owned industries and many of them were either absorbed by

Italian-owned companies or closed down. The few surviving

Rhodian-owned companies owed their survival to the prefer­ ence of the local people for their products and to the mone­ tary remittances from abroad. However, these industries struggled along with inadequate equipment and insufficient working capital. 110 Handicrafts;

Prior to the introduction of electricity in 1922,^1

the needed commodities were produced by cottage industries.

Most of the latter were family-owned and their products consumed locally. Surplus production was absorbed by the city of Rhodes.

After 1923, production of the cottage industries started to decline because of competition from the large

plants and because a large number of the handicrafts workers migrated to the city of Rhodes to seek employment in those

manufacturing industries which paid higher wages than they could earn at home.

Mechanical Manufacturing:

Judged by western standards, the factories of Rhodes were extremely small and few employed more than 50 persons. Those employing more than 100 persons were the eictric plant

and the tobacco factory. Manufacturers of tapestries, how­

ever, used 850 workers, but the work was farmed out to small units in the villages.

Most of the manufacturing units in Rhodes were pri­ vately owned by the Italians, but a few of them were quasi- public enterprises like the tobacco industry. Greek plants were privately owned.

The plant was constructed by SIER (Societa Indus­ trie Electriche Rodi). 11:1 The great majority of the industries in Rhodes had to import, not only their machinery, but much of their raw materials as well. Agricultural production was not adequate to keep the factories working at full capacity for more than four months.

The 1938 census recorded 1,500 workers engaged in manufacturing,^2 Production was valued at approximately

$557,485.

Tobacco ;

The manufacture of tobacco products was the exclusive monopoly of TEMI (Tabacchi Egei Manifattura Italiana). This company was established in 1926 and in 1934 received the privilege of manufacturing and selling tobacco products in

Rhodes and Cos, In 1938, the right was extended to include the other Dodecanese islands. Since more than 70 per cent of the stock was owned by the Italian government, it received most of the income,^3

The plant in Rhodes was m o d e m and had five cigarette- making machines. Raw tobacco was imported from the island of Cos, because local production could keep the factory work­ ing at full capacity for only about two months, A small

^2 Quadri-Statistic. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Ufficio Centrole di Statistica, Rhodes, 1938, p, 42, Doxiades, op, cit,. p, 182, lia quantity of tobacco was Imported from Turkey, Greece and

Albania for blending. In 1938, the plant produced 10,591,000

packages of cigarettes and employed 223 workers. Most of

the production was consumed locally.64 More than two-thirds

of the output was earmarked for Italian troops stationed on

the Dodecanese islands, Italy did not want to import tobacco products for use by troops from Italy,65

Ceramics:

Pottery was made on the island, both in small factor­

ies and as a cottage industry. Brick and tile were manufac­ tured in the villages of Archanggelos and Yennadi, The largest brick and tile plant was built in 1922 by

SAIGA company near the village Yennadi where there were some workable deposits of clay. In 1938, the plant produced 3 ,000,000 pieces of roofing tile and brick and it employed 100 workers,The products were taken by boat to the city of Rhodes where they were sold. Pottery products of good quality were made by IKAROS

(Industrie Ceramiche Artistiche Rodia Orientali) employing technicians who were foimerly engaged by small cottage

64 Quadri-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell^Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1938, p, 6l, 65 Ibid,, p, 62,

66 Doxiades, op, cit,. pp. 192-193. 113 industries in the villages of Lindos, Archanggelos and

Afandou, In 1938, the plant employed 37 workers and pro­ duced 10,000 pieces plates and vases,^7 Most of the pro­ duction was consumed locally. Only a small part was exported to Italy, Clays found in the island were not suitable for the making of procelain products. High quality procelain products were imported from Czechoslovakia,

Wineries and distilleries;

There were a number of small wineries of various capacities on the island. The largest was operated by the

Italian Company CAIR (Compagnia Agricda Industriale Rodi), established in 1928 with an original investment of $60,000 which increased to about $160,000 in 1938,^8 Unlike small

Rhodian-owned wineries, CAIR received special consideration from the Italian government, the most important being the provision to market their products in Italy,^9 This was made possible by low import duties. Furthermore,CAIR took advantage of its bargaining position by forcinggrape growers to sell at low prices. Lack of grower-owned ware­ house facilities meant that the farmers had to sell during

^7 Ibid,, p, 193,

^8 Ibid,, p, 184,

^9 Alfredo Lenzi, "Le Industrie ed il Commercio Delle Isole Italiane dell*Egeo," Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. Istituto Poligrafico, Vol, 22, 1934, p, 118. 114 the harvest period when prices were low.

In 1938, the output of the company was about 28 tons

of bottled wine. About 78 per cent was exported to Italy, and the remainder to Egypt, Mexico and the United States.70

The wine produced by the small Rhodian-owned wineries was consumed locally.

In connection with the production of wine, alcohol was also produced. The largest producer was A. P. SAIPE (Societa Anonima Itsiliana Pruttindustria Egea). In 1938, it produced 28 tons of alcohol. All of the output was consumed locally.71

Besides producing alcohol, the company also processed dried fruits. The production of dried fruits, mostly

Sultanas and raisins, was IO68 tons. To keep the plant working at full capacity, it imported Sultanas from Turkey and Greece. Most of the production was exported to Italy and Germany.72

Plour Milling;

The largest flour mill SAMICA (ftdcieta Anonima Moli- tora Industrie Commerce Affini) was located in the city of

Rhodes. It was a modem plant capable of producing all

70 ftuadri-Statistici. Govemo Delle Isole Italiane dell#Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1938, P. 73. Ibid.. p. 74.

72 Lenzi, OP. cit.. p. 133. 115 grades of flour. Its daily (24-hour) capacity was 71,000 tons of wheat and if operated at full capacity it could have produced the full annual flour requirements of the Dodecanese islands. A large amount of wheat was imported from abroad. In 1938, production of flour totaled 5,910 tons.73

Soap-making mills and olive oil;

There were three plants which produced 710 tons of soap. The largest was Rhodian-owned (Agiakatsikas) estab­ lished in 1906.74 The Italian company RODIA produced 168 tons of soap in 1938, which was exported to Italy.75 The production of other firms was used locally. The same com­ panies also produced most of the olive oil. Pulp residue was pressed once more and the resultant oil used for the soap manufacture.

Despite the fact that this sector of the economy con­ tributed about $657,485 to the total income of the island, it was not ecrmomically sound, for most of the raw materials had to be imported from abroad. The island?s agricultural production was adequate to keep the plants working at full capacity for only about four months. These industries

73 Doxiades, on. cit.. p. 186.

7^ No production data dre available.

75 Doxiades, on. cit.. p. 185. Ii6 succeeded In growing because the Italian government elim­ inated some of the obstacles - lack of credit, technicians and markets - which had retarded the growth of the Rhodian- owned industries prior to 1922. There is no doubt that the industries of Rhodes could only survive if the #motherI country guaranteed them a market for their products as the

United States did for the Philippines and Puerto Rico, It seems equally true that full development of the island was impeded by the arbitrariness of the Italian regime which did not operate in the interest of all the people. It would seem that the Rhodians might have fared better as an independent people had they had progressive leadership or even as a colony had they been given freedom to work out their economic destiny.

I. SHIPPING

The circumstances which enabled the Rhodians to take shipping away from the Pranks and the Venetians under the

Turkish regime were not present under Italian rule. Restric­ tions placed on the movement of Rhodian-owned steamers and sailing vessels between Rhodes and the other islands, the great distance between Rhodes and its markets in western

Europe, the designation of the port of Rhodes as the port of entry untij. 1932, and the subsidization of the Italian- owned steamship lines permitted the Italians to control shipping. The steamship lines -Lloyd Triestimo and 117 Adrlatlca- connected Rhodes with Turkey, Egypt, Greece,

Syria, Palestine, Cyprus and Italy.76 coastal traffic was carried on by sailing vessels of the Adriatica steamship line,

To accommodate medium-sized steamers, two small har­ bors of Rhodes were improved, but their shallow waters restricted them to small and medium tonnage vessels. Large vessels had to anchor one or two miles off the port and lighters transported passengers and cargo from the vessel to the port, A mole 200 feet long was built on the east side of the harbor to protect it from heavy storms accompanied by strong northeast winds in winter. Warehouse accommodations were also improved, TABLE XIV

SHIPPING THAT ENTERED AND CLEARED AT THE PORT OP RHODES DURING THE YEARS, 1927 to 1933* Sailing Year Steamers Tonnage vessels Tonnage

1927 685 667,879 2,364 22,022 1928 725 826,211 2,618 23,914 1929 677 ** ** ** 1930 642 717,912 2,605 22,599 1931 622 801,792 2,627 26,473 1932 561 989,133 2,806 25,551 1933 582 977,000 2,524 26,639

* Rasseana Economica Delle Colonie. Istituto Paligrafico, vol. 21, 1933, P. 821, **No data is available.

7 5 " Lenzi, A,, op, cit,, p, 375. 118 More than 60 per cent of the sailing vessels and 75 per cent of the steamships operated under the Italian flag. Besides the Italian steamship lines, the French line

Messageries Maritimes and a small number of Greek-owned steamers called regularly at the port,

J, FOREIGN TRADE

Rhodes had to obtain most of its primary needs, in­ cluding food, raw materials, manufactured goods and machin­ ery, from abroad. With the exception of local cereals and tree-fruit crops, it imported practically everything.

On a per capita basis, Rhodes* commodity imports in the year 1938 amounted to approximately $62, and exports to $6;?? as compared with per capita imports of $25 and exports of $17 for Italy,78 The ratio of trade to the total income of the island is even more significant, Rhodes' imports were equivalent to about 71 per cent of its income, while exports were about 8 per cent. The income from tourism, import duties, shipping, and exports, together with the financial subsidies granted by Italy helped to pay for the imports.

77 Quadri-Statisticl. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1938, p, 35. 78 statistics of National Income and Expenditure. United Nations, Statistical Papers, Series H No, 4, New York, 1953, p . 69. 119 Tables XV emd XVI show the annual trade balance of

Rhodes for the 1928-1939 period. Imports exceeded exports by very large amounts, the deficit reaching the figure

$5 ,368,318 In 1939. The cumulative excess of Imports from 1928 to 1939, excluding the year 1929 for which no data are available, was $26,809,093, The deficit did not result from a sharp decrease In exports, but mainly from an Increase In

Imports used for the development program Involving expansion of Industrial and recreational (tourist) facilities. In addition, the construction of military outposts and fortifi­ cations consumed a considerable portion of the non-edible

Imports,

Table XVII shows that one of the major characteris­ tics of Rhodes* export trade was the small number of products, most of which were agricultural (olive oil, olives, early season vegetables, dried fruits, wine, and some live­ stock), Rhodes was by no means unique In Its dependence on a few exports. Such dependence has been typical of econom­ ically-under-developed areas. For example, olive oil makes up about 50 per cent of Crete’s exports;79 half of Cyprus* export value Is made of copper concentrates,80 jn fact, the export trade of practically every Island In the

79 Leland Allbaugh, Crete -A Case Study of an Under­ developed Area. Princeton, 1 9 5 3 , p, 2 9 9 , ^ H, A, Mangolan, The Island of Cyprus. Nicosia, 1 9 4 6 , p, 1 4 7 . 120 TABLE XV

ANNUAL TRADE BALANCE OP RHODES, 1928-1939 (in tons)*

Excess of imports Year Imports Exports over exports

1928 30,343 2,970 27,373 1929 42,604 4,070 38,534

1930 40,125 2,342 37,783 1931 38,792 2,726 36,066 1932 33,872 1,274 32,598

1933 41,875 1,332 40,543 1934 34,340 3,022 31,318

1935 88,315 4,703 83,612 1936 41,830 2,186 39,644

1937 48,402 2,550 45,852 1938 50,075 2,350 47,725 1939 75,430 4,975 70,455 Total 566,003 34,500 431,503

* Quadri -Statistici, Govemo delle Isole1 Italiane dell' Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1928-1939. 121

TABLE XVI ANNUAL TRADE BALANCE OP RHODES, 1928, 1930, 1931-1939 (In dollars)*

Excess of Imports Year Imports Exports over exports

1928 2,071,796 251,714 1,820,082 1930 2,795,291 385,045 2,410,246 1931 2,319,876 224,188 2,095,688 1932 2,817,514 315,571,501,943 2 1933 1,349,850 261,550 1,088,300 1934 1,442,363 191,662 1,250,701 1935 2,400,204 407,680 1,992,524 1936, 2295,950 257,805 2,038,145 1937 3,224,680 305,687,918,993 2 1938, 3671,574 347,475 3,324,099 1939 6.020.974 652,656 5.368,318 Total 30,410,072 3,601,033 26,809,039

*Quadrl-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell? Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1928, 1930, and 1931 to 1939< 122

TABLE XVII

EXPORTS DP RHODES, 1933*

Volume Total $ Value In Total $ Articles In Tons of ex­ dollars of ex­ ports ports

Animal Products 38 2.9 45,650 17.5 Agricultural Products 984 74.0 153,505 58.6

Wood Products 50 3.7 6,675 2.6 Leather Products 6 .2 3,150 1.2

Ceramic Products 25 1.9 6,185 2.4 Pharmaceutic al Products 104 7.9 9,100 3.4

Métal Products 75 5.7 14,950 5.7

Miscellaneous 50 3.7 22,335 8.6

* Q.uadrl-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell’ Egeo, Ufficio Centrale dl Statistica, Rhodes, 1933. 183 Mediterranean Sea depends on two or three products, namely, olive oil, citrus-fruits and dried fruits. The basic character of Rhodes' import trade did not change greatly after the end of the Turkish regime. The island still imported a large share of its food supply and almost all of its manufactured goods. Wheat, and animal products remained the island's principal edible imports, while cotton textiles, iron and steel products, wood prod­ ucts, pharmaceutical and chemical products continued to be the leading nonedible imports. Table XVIII shows that in 1933 edible imports consti­ tuted 43.2 per cent in volume of total imports, while non­ edible imports made up about 53.2 per cent, of which 43.2 per cent was construction materials. Cement, construction steel, lumber and other building materials were imported in large quantities. Eighty-five per cent or 12,236 tons out of 14,348 tons of construction materials were imported from Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Turkey. Yugoslavia supplied almost all of the cement.81 Italy supplied about 24 per cent of the total imports into the island.

Table XIX shows the total value of imports. Edible imports constituted more than one-half of the total, while nonedible imports made up about two-fifths of the total.

The most striking fact about the character of Rhodes ?

Lenzi, op. cit.. p. 129. TABLE XVIII IMPORTS OF RHODES, 1933 (In tons)* ^ of total ^ of total 56 of From imports from From other imports from Total Total Articles Italy Italy countries other countries Imports imports Animal Products 49 3.0 1,316 97.0 1,365 3.2 Agricultural Products 5,907 35.0 10,876 65.0 16,783 40.0 Textile fibers and manufactures 99 33.0 204 67.0 303 1.0 Synthetic fibers and manufactures 10 16.0 53 84.0 63 .1 Pharmac eut ic al Products 101 6.0 1,500 94.0 1,601 3.8

Chemical Products 121 14.0 698 86.0 819 1.9 Wood and Paper Products 867 20.0 3,384 80.0 4,251 10.2 Machinery, Vehicles and metal products 326 19.0 1,366 81.0 1,694 4.0 Construction materials 2,112 15.0 12,236 85.0 14,348 34.2

Miscellaneous 447 69.0 201 31.0 648 1.6 Total 10,041 100.0 31,834 100.0 41,875 100.0

Statistica, Rhodes, 1933. TABLE XIX IMPORTS OP RHODES, 1933 (in dollars)* of total ^ of total i of From imports from Prom other imports from Total Total Articles Italy . Italy countries other countries Imports Imports Animal Products 24,200 10.0 225,900 90.0 250,100 18.5 Agricultural Products 114,800 23.0 377,350 23.0 492,150 36.5 Textile fibers and manufactures 30,950 32.0 66,500 68.0 97,450 7.3 Synthetic fibers and manufactures 8,200 45.0 10.000 55.0 18,200 1.3 Pharmaceutical Products 16,150 20.0 57,250 80.0 73,400 5.5 Chemical products 22,300 43.0 30,050 57.0 52,350 3.8 Wood and Paper Products 25,150 42.0 35,200 58.0 60,350 4.5 Machinery, Vehicles and metal products 75,600 59.0 52,300 41.0 127,900 9.5 Construction materials 38,750 42.0 53,250 58.0 91,400 6.7 Miscellaneous 75.750 12.0 10.800 88.0 86.550 6.4 Total 431,250 100.0 918,600 100.0 1,349,850 100.0 * Quadri-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell 'Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1933. 126 external trade (Table XX) was the role of Italy as the best customer for its exports and its dependence on the neighbor­ ing countries for its imports. Only 19*3 per cent of Rhodes exports in 1938 went to countries other than Italy, but 58 per cent of the imports were of non-Italian origin.

In 1930, 80 per cent of the total volume of imports were from countries other than Italy.

Trade with the neighboring countries -Greece, Turkey,

Egypt, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia- dominated Rhodes' commerce with non-Italian areas. Almost all of the nonedible im­ ports came from western Europe and Italy. The United King­ dom sent woolen apparel and machinery; Prance, silk stock­ ings, synthetic fibers and dresses; Germany, paper and metals; Czechoslovakia, glass, procelain, machinery and metals; and Italy, machinery, vehicles and metals.

Most of the edible and a few of the nonedible imports came from the neighboring countries. Turkey and Greece ex­ ported animal products, cereals, and olive oil to Rhodes;

Bulgaria, animal products and attar; Egypt, rice and cotton; Yugoslavia, cement; and Rumania, petroleum and construction timber. Australia shipped in cereals. In 1930, 10 per cent of the total imports were from Australia. Most of the foreign trade was under the control of

Italian Commerciale and Coloniale companies. The factors responsible for the transfer of the trade from Rhodian hands to Italian hands were the unlimited credit granted by TABLE XX IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF RHODES AND COUNTRIES OP ORIGIN, 1930 AND 1938 (in tons)* IMPORTS 56 of total EXPORTS io of total Country imports exports . 1930 1938 .- 1930 1938 1930 1938 1930 1938

Italy 8,046 20,977 20.00 42.00 1,300 1,894 55.6 80.7 United States 360 560 .9 1.1 8 69 .3 3.0 Australia 4,097 2,097 10.2 4.2 1 1 .04 .04 Bulgaria 1,275 1,875 3.3 3.7 18 1 .76 .04 Czechoslovakia 962 1,225 2.4 2.5 ** ** ** «« Egypt 1,785 2,132 4.4 4.3 325 80 13.9 3.4 Prance 350 1,350 .9 2.7 65 39 2.7, 1.7 Germany 265 519 .6 1.0 15 20 .64 .84 Greece 3,070 1,984 7.6 3.9 415 136 17.7 5.9 United Kingdom 310 5,350 .8 10.7 15 74 .64 3.2 Yugoslavia 8,056 ** 20.0 ** 3 ** .02 «« Rumania 2,075 3,169 5.2 6.3 ** 1 *« .04 Turkey 8,215 6,262 20.4 12.5 150 25 6.5 1.1 Other Countries 1,349 2,575 3.3 5.1 27 10 1.2 .04 Total 4 0 ,215: 50,075 100.0 100.0 2,342 2,342 100.0 100.0

ftuadri-Statlsticl. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell?Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1930 and 1938. **No data is available.

H 10 128 Italian Banks to Italian settlers, the restrictions placed on the granting of export and import licenses to Rhodian merchants, and the protected Italian markets. A few of the

Rhodian merchants emigrated to other countries; the others opened small stores in the city of Rhodes, One of the striking features in Rhodes' international trade is the fact that during the Italian period Turkey con­ tinued to hold a dominant position.

K. TOURISM

Next to manufacturing, tourist trade was an important source of income. It represented the export of food, shel­ ter, services, history, hospitality and other local products in exchange for liretta. In no industry did Rhodes possess so decisive a natural advantage. Its rugged topography, its striking coastline, its pleasant summer climate together with its historical monuments offered an unequalled range of tourist attractions among the Aegean islands. In 1938, the income of the industry was approximately $975,340. The Italian government recognized the importance of tourism to the economy of the island and in consequence a considerable amount of capital was invested to make the island attractive. First-class hotels were built in the city of Rhodes, bathing beaches were improved, the ruins of Kamiros, and Lindos were restored, the Palace of the Grand

Master of the Knights was completely restored, the walls 129 surrounding the old city were repaired, harbor facilities as

well as the streets of the city were Improved, thermal baths of Kallthea were rebuilt, and the highway network of

the Island was completely revamped. The city of Rhodes

was connected by a modern highway with the villages and resort areas. The total length of the road which encircled the Island was 134 miles. The Istituto Storlco-Archaeloglco.

established In 1927, was In charge of the restoration of the ancient sites and monuments,82 it seems that Italy was de­

termined to make Rhodes the ‘Riviera' of the Eastern Mediter­ ranean,

Tourist trade expanded very rapidly. The total number

of tourists to Rhodes Increased from 10,568 In 1932 to 17,700 In 1934 or about 66 per cent. Of greater signifi­

cance, however, was the fact that the proportion of visitors

remaining for longer stays also Increased. Thus from 1932

to 1934 the number of ‘long-staying? visitors Increased by 40 per cent, while that of ‘short-staying' visitors rose by only 20 per cent.

Table XXI shows the number of visitors to Rhodes from

1932 to 1939 and their nationality. The figures Include both 'long-staying' and 'short-staying' tourists. Through­ out the period 1932-1939, Italian tourists averaged more

82 Istituto Storlco-Archaeologlco dl Rodl, Governo Delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Number 680, Archlvlore 131, Rhodes, 1928, p. 3. 130

Pig. 27. The main highway along the coast was rea­ sonably good. Although the original purpose of the highway improvement program was of a military nature, nevertheless, it helped the island?s tourist trade by making the 'scenic? spots of the island accessible to tourists.

Fig. 28. The Aiir>ort of Rhodes. A regular air­ line connected the island with Italy via Greece. 131

TABLE XXi: NUMBER OP TOURISTS AND NATIONALITY OF TOURISTS VISITING RHODES, 1932-1939*

Year Italian German British Greek Turk Egyptian Others

1932 3,550 840 5,000 78 ** ** 1,100

1933 6,310 1,410 1,900 275 ** ** 2,315 1934 6,500 2,750 4,950 350 ** ** 3,150

1935 4,388 177 152 678 457 315 550 1936 5,541 155 190 454 465 610 740

1937 7,000 294 250 674 500 550 1,100 1938 6,238 802 290 651 410 529 870

1939 5,103 ** 63 242 169 ** 885

* Quadri-Statistici. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell^Egeo, Ufficio Centrale di Statistica, Rhodes, 1932-1939.

**No data are available, 132 than 50 per cent of the total. A large number of ‘short-

staying^ British tourists visited the Island between 1932

and 1934. With the advent of the Ethiopian war, the total number of tourists decreased from 17,700 In 1934 to 8,055

In 1936, After the war the recovery of tourist trade was slow. The numbers varied with economic and political

changes from year to year. In 1938, the total number of tourists was 10,602.

The number of persons employed by the tourist Indus­

try Is uncertain. In 1938, the Industry directly and

Indirectly employed about 575 p e r s o n s . 83 workers, though benefited from the expenditures, derived only a small part of their Income from tourism.

The economic development of Rhodes was retarded either by purely non-economlc obstacles such as adverse political and social attitudes or by a lack of energy on

the part of the people at all levels In the community.

Italian rulers supported the economic enterprises of their own nationals on Rhodes rather than those of the natives. Economic concessions granted to the Italian- owned activities enabled them to grow at the expense of the Rhodian-owned enterprises. It Is difficult to deteiTOlne whether the agricultural

83 Quadrl-Statlstlcl. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Ufficio Centrale dl Statistici, Rhodes, 1938, pp. 156-58. 133 refoiTOS and the expansion of Industry and tourism Initiated by the fascist government of Italy after 1922 were Intro­ duced to Improve the economic status of both the Italians and the Rhodians or merely to make Rhodes a show case for the 'fascist* experiment In colonial areas. Economic con­ cessions that had been Indirectly granted to them by Turkey, were now replaced by those of Italy In the form of a pro­ tected market In Italy, and the subsidization of Its major economic activities.

Despite the disabilities Imposed on Rhodlan-owned agricultural and Industrial enterprises by the arbitrari­ ness of the Italian regime, the Italians made some notable contributions to the economy of the Island. They built physical structures such as roads, hotels, factories. Irrigation canals, and reservoirs for the Island#s economic activities. V. PRE-GREEK HISTORICAL AND ECONOMIC

BACKGROUND. 1945-1947

The Island of Rhodes was liberated from German occupa­ tion on May 8, 19^5.^ Pending a decision on its ultimate status, a British Military Administration was set up by the Allied military authorities to act as a de facto government.

This government remained in control until March, 19^7, when the island was formally transferred to Greece following the signing of the Peace Treaty with Italy,^ Rhodes emerged from the war with its productive capacity severely reduced in both agriculture and industry, its fishing fleet destroyed, its public finances and credit structure in chaos, the health of its people seriously undermined by malnutrition, and its foreign exchange re­ sources insufficient for the purchase of even the most essential relief supplies, Italian government expenditures, tourists traffic, and remittances from abroad, which provided the islanders with substantial foreign exchange currency to import edible and nonedible products, ceased with the entry of Italy into war,

^ George Woodbridge, UNRRA; The History of the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration. New York, 1950, Vol, 2, p. 322, 2 UNRRA -Assistance to the Dodecanese. Operational Analysis Paper, No. 15, UNRRA European RegioraL Office, Lon­ don, 1947, p. 7. 134 135 The main tasks that faced the British Military Admin­ istration were to supply the people with food and clothing and to rehabilitate agriculture, the fisheries, tourism and industly. To help BMA carry out its work, the Allied nations requested UNRRA to assume responsibility for supply­ ing Rhodes with the goods and services necessary for relief and rehabilitation. The request was based upon the reason that although Rhodes was an enemy-held territory, its people were not enemy people and they should be assisted in the early stages of their economic recovery. Furthermore, the island was unable to pay for its supplies with foreign currency.3 An agreement was reached between BMA and UNRRA on August 1, 1945, to provide the island with the needed supplies and services.

UNRRA^8 and BMA#8 shipments consisted in 1946 princi­ pally of foodstuffs -wheat, wheat flour, sugar and canned fish. It was the aim of both agencies to maintain approxi­ mately the authorized ration of 1850 calories per day.^

Besides shipments of edible products, nonedible products were shipped to Rhodes to rehabilitate industry, agriculture and the fisheries (Table XXXI). Relief and rehabilitation

^ UNRRA; Report of the Director to the Council for the Period 1 April 1945 to 30 June 1945. Washington. P.O.. 1945. p. 45. ^ W. Wankowich, Historical Record of the UNRRA Dodecanese Mission. New York, 194?, p. 2. 136

TABLE XXII

TOTAL SHIPMENT OP COMMODITIES AND VALUE BY MAJOR CATEGORIES SHIPPED TO RHODES, AUGUST 1945 TO SEPTEMBER, 1946*

Commodity Thousands of Program** U, S. Dollars

Food 2,375,730 Clothing, textiles, foot-wear, medical and sanitation 614,000

Agricultural rehabil­ itation 182,320

Industrial rehabili­ tation 350,000***

Total 3,522,050

* UNRRA -Assistance to the Dodecanese. Operational Analysis Paper, No, 15, UNRRA European Regional Office, London, 1947, P. 11. **S±nce Rhodes is the largest and most populous of the I^Dodecanese Islands, it received most of the supplies,

***Most of the imports were petroleum products. 137 were combined because it was found that outright gifts of cash relief had a demoralizing effect on the population; it upheld the wrong conception that all the people were en­ titled to get unlimited relief«5 Hence the public works program became one of the most important activities of the mission.

The rehabilitation projects were many and varied. In 1946, UNRRA spent $300,000 in promoting public works in the island.^ This program comprised such developments as repair­ ing roads, rebuilding walls against the floods, repairing the drainage systems, swamp draining, repairs to harbors, rehabilitation of village springs, repairs to aqueducts and reservoirs and irrigation of land for olive groves.

The rehabilitation of the economy of the island would have been more rapid if it had not been for the artificial low rate of exchange of the lire. External commerce was possible only by way of barter. The flow of emigrant remittances to Rhodes was reduced to a minimum because of unfavorable exchange rates. Remittances to Rhodes from abroad totalled B52,000 from May to December, 1945.7 Although it cannot be claimed that Rhodes was left

5 Woodbridge, op. cit.. p. 328.

6 Bureau of Reconstruction, Rhodes. 7 Francis Rennel, British Military Administration of Occupied Territories in Aifrica. During the Years 1941-1947. London, 1948, p. 519. 138 economically self-supporting by the time it was taken over by Greece, the UNRRA-BMA contribution kept the island going.

Both missions developed welfare agencies and a program of public works and agricultural, fisheries and industrial re­ habilitation which, though inadequate, promoted a return to a pre-war standard of economy. The assistance officially ended on March 31, 1947. VI. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESOURCES OF THE

ISLAND UNDER GREEK RULE. 1947-1954

Greece, doing as Italy did when It first occupied the island, is emphasizing the development of Rhodes? agricul­ tural resources and tourism. It does not, however, have to

build new tourist facilities. It has only to improve the amenities associated with tourism. The development of

agricultural and other resources and the measures undertaken

to improve them are analyzed below.

A. AGRICULTURE

The objective of the Greek government has been first

to improve agriculture. In the absence of large scale industry, agriculture has to carry most of the burden of

producing the food and non-food requirements of the people. Also, some surplus agricultural production is needed for

export in order to secure additional essential requirements either from Greece or from abroad.

An increase in agricultural output was accomplished by bringing more land under irrigation; by increasing the pro­ duction of intensive crops; by improving crop and livestock output through better practices; by extending the use of

139 140 agricultural machinery whenever possible;^ and by providing the farmer with long-term and short-term credit at low interest to purchase necessary tools, better seeds and fertilizers.

TABLE XXIII

PRODUCTION OF MAJOR AGRICULTURAL CROPS, RHODES, 1938, 1948, 1954 (in tons)*

Percentage increase or decrease Cron 1938 1948. 1954 over 1938

Cereals 4,531 3,653 7,800 72.1

Olive oil 1,068 850 1,200 12.3 Edible Olives 450 180 550 15.5 Wine-grapes 3,000 2,790 5,250 75.0

Raisins 129 135 245 89.9 Tobacco 267 ft* 50 -81.0 Cotton 2 ** 20 1000 .0

* Department of Agriculture, Rhodes.

** No data are available.

In connection with the agricultural reform program, the contribution made by agricultural specialists of the Ameriaan

1 While the 3ijcreased use of tractors and other power machinery is desirable in some areas in Rhodes, such power cannot wholly supplant animal power because of the small holdings and rough stony character of the hilly country. 141 mission should be mentioned. They Introduced farm extension work, the development of minor Irrigation projects and soil conservation.

Agricultural Extension Work;

The agricultural extension program Is based upon per­ suasion and example rather than duress and government decree.

It has the following alms: (l) to encourage farmers to Increase agricultural production through the practice of Im­ proved farming techniques; (2) to Improve rural conditions and family living through the training of women In homemaklng, canning and preparation of food for home use; (3) to train young farmers and farm laborers In the principles and prac­ tices of better farming; (4) to encourage rural families to contribute more effectively to projects for the communal benefit, such as small Irrigation and drainage works, and to Improve sanitation. The farm extension program Is working well. It Is believed that In the long run It may do more to

Improve Rhodian farming than other aspects of the American

Aid Program, If every Rhodian farmer could learn to produce one more bushel of wheat on land already farmed, the total Increase In wheat production would be far greater than the new production on reclaimed land. 142 Development of Minor Irrigation Projects

To increase the agricultural productivity per family and to ameliorate the living conditions of the low income groups in the rural areas, the government encourages the construction of minor irrigation projects. Extension of large collective irrigation projects is limited by (l) the porous nature of the rock formations which make large scale dams generally impractical, (2) the seasonal character of precipitation, and (3) the scarcity of capital.

Small and individual projects offer important advan­ tages to the general program of agricultural recovery.

First, unemployed man-power in a large number of farmer families is put to use; secondly, the annual income of farm­ ers in areas which experience droughts is increased.

Since the liberation of the island and up to 1950, nearly 5,500 acres were supplied with water through irriga­ tion works. This is due to the strong post-war tendency of the producers themselves to reclaim arid areas through irrigation.

By granting short-and long-term loans, and issuing various kinds of equipment, the Agricultural Bank and the

Ministry of Agriculture has contributed greatly to these achievements. By the end of 1954, more than 50 water-pumping units had been installed. These were granted to the fanners on a 10 per cent -cash- ninety per cent long-term basis. 143 Through these installations the irrigation of over 1,000

acres of land was achieved. It is expected that when the projects under consideration are completed nearly 2,000 acres will be irrigated.

Soil Conservation;

Soil conservation is encouraged because the fertility of the soil is an asset and must be protected if the agri­

cultural production is to be maintained or increased. An extensive system of fertilization and land manage­ ment is now practiced. Commercial fertilizers are used on a

large scale and the increased number of livestock provide

small quantities of manure. Green manuring and soil build­ ing practices are common over most of the island.

Other Measures :

To reduce the number of landless peasants and to im­ prove their lot, the government distributed formerly Italian- owned land. About 1,205 acres were evenly divided among 600 families. This was not much for each family, but better than none at all. The size of individual landholdings was also decreased.

Absentee-owners were limited to 6 acres of land. Excess land was purchased and then leased to tenants at low rent.

Today, peasants who cultivate their own land are restricted to 24 acres. This action represents a conscientious effort 144 by the Greek government to eliminate the large landholding class.

Fruit and Vegetable Growing:

The development of fruit and vegetable growing is receiving special attention for three reasons: (1) the island is suited to them; (2) fruit and vegetables are much needed to make the present diet adequate; (3) they provide one more substantial agricultural activity. The promotion of fruit-growing has been a part of the relief and rehabilitation program. Assistance is granted to the farmers not only to get many of the present orchards back into production, but also to plant new trees.

The Agricultural Bank of Greece encourages the forma­ tion of grower’s fruit and vegetable cooperatives to provide equipment, to control grading and packing, and to arrange for storage, processing factories and marketing agents. The plant to process tomatoes in the village of Paradisi and the olive pressing plants in Archanggelos and Malona were financed by the bank.

In the fruit and vegetable growing industries factors other than the presence of favorable growing conditions should be taken into consideration. The success of these enterprises will depend on a profitable disposition of the products. This requires different skill and enterprise than is required for the production of other farm crops. Farmers 145 must be trained in the growing and care of fruit trees.

They must understand how to prepare the harvest for the market and to meet market tastes. Research is carried on to determine the likes of the consumers not only in the urban centers of Greece, but also those of neighboring countries. The islanders are interested in recapturing the former profitable trade with Egypt, but will need better sea communications. A change in agriculture involving products for non­ family use calls for social changes. These have not been difficult to work out because farmers have discovered they can earn more money in specialized agriculture than in generalized fanning.

The production of vegetables (early season) has in­ creased by 50 per cent since 1938. Chief markets are the urban centers of Greece proper. In the spring of 1955, the village of Paradisi received about $100,000 from the sale of tomatoes and cumcumbers in the city of Athens, No vegetables were sold to Turkey.

B. LIVESTOCK

The number of sheep is almost back to pre-war level, and there has been an increase in the number of goats. This was made possible by opening more land to grazing. Research is under way to determine the economic value of the goat and the possible substitution of another type of goat that is a 146 better producer and less destructive.

It appears that the measures of the Greek-sponsored

agricultural reform program are similar to those introduced by Italy, The registered increase in agricultural produc­ tion is the result not only of government technical and

financial assistance, but also of the untiring efforts of

the peasants to improve their lot. Unlike Italy, Greece appealed for the participation of the peasants in the execution of the agricultural improvement program in the

name of their philotimo as Greeks. The peasants wanted to show the world that they, too, could become efficient farm­ ers,

Desg)ite the increase in agricultural production and

the improvement of the standard of living of the peasantry, there is a constant emigration of people (young men) from

the rural areas either to the urban centers of Greece or abroad. This is largely due to the fact that there is not enough cutivable land to support the surplus population in

the villages. The pressure of population on the existing resources is also aggravated by the influx of migrants from the agriculturally poor Dodecanese islands seeking employ­ ment in the city of Rhodes. Unemployment in the city of

Rhodes and under-employment in the villages have been the inevitable consequences.

Large scale emigration provided a sort of safety valve before 1911; but since 1912, emigration has been checked by 147 the restrictions imposed on immigration by the United

States and other nations. About 2,000 Rhodians have emigrated to the United States and Australia since 1948.

The main argument of the emigrants leaving the rural areas of other countries is that they are going to make a greater contribution to the economy of Rlriodes by sending back home regularly monetary remittances than by remaining behind and working either as farm hands or manual workers. The argument will hold valid as long as the money is invested in productive enterprises. As a matter of fact, more than

90 per cent of the income received from foreign remittances is expended on non-productive enterprises (e.g., the con­ struction of luxurious residences in the cities of Rhodes and Athens). There is no doubt that foreign remittances constitute an important source of income for Rhodes, but their importance would be more effective if they were acora- panied with ideas. For example, if an emigrant wished to make a financial contribution to the economy of his village, it would be more beneficial in the long run for the village if the money were spent to line irrigation canals with cement than to build statues in honor of village founders or liberators.

C. FORESTRY

Since 1947 more than 1,000,000 saplings have been planted. The government tree nursery supplies about 800,000 148 young trees annually, free of charge, Olive and walnut

trees are planted in accessible deforested areas near the villages of Archanggelos and Malona, Farmers feel returns

from fruit-bearing trees are greater in the long run than those from non-fruit-bearing trees.

The cultivation of burned-over areas is forbidden for

a period of 15 years. If a peasant illegally cultivates a small patch of this land, he not only loses his crop but is fined,

D, PISHING

After 1947, there was a gradual improvement in the

fishing industry. Foreign assistance has contributed to the rehabilitation of fishing, through the provision of

fishing boats, new nets and modern fishing gear.

The results of these measures have made themselves

quickly felt. The present fleet is far superior to that before the war. Production is over 200,000 pounds higher

than before the war.

Important gaps, however, still remain to be bridged in this sector of the island's economy. Proper installa­ tions for increasing production in the lagoons are needed. Over-fishing (dynamiting) takes place in fishing grounds, with resulting depletion. The distribution of fish to the consuming centers is unsatisfactory, because of lack of proper facilities for preserving, transporting and marketing. 149 Plants for processing and preserving fish have not been developed and therefore catches cannot be fully exploited.

E. INDUSTRY

Industrial output of the island has not yet reached prewar levels. The deterring factors are the lack of pro­ tected markets, the difficulty of obtaining cheap power, raw materials and trained technicians. Also, the capitalists of Rhodes are investing their funds in the Athens-Piraeus area. With the exception of a food processing plant in Paradisi and two small olive pressing plants in the villages of Archanggelos and Malona, no new plants have been con­ structed in Rhodes, A former Italian-owned cigarette- factory and an electric plant are operated by the government.

Other plants were sold by the government to private individ­ uals and agricultural cooperatives.

Industrialists in Rhodes are cognizant of the problems that confront industry and the inability of the Greek govern­ ment to subsidize it, A search is under way to find new external markets for locally produced goods, American technicians have been invited to instruct on how to improve the quality of production and to establish effective market­ ing organizations. The greatest need, however, is not in the administration of sponsored corrective measures, but for capital and protected markets. 150 P. SHIPPING

All shipping is under the control of Greek-owned

companies. Regular passenger and freight service by ship

from Rhodes to Piraeus is provided three times a week, with additional service irregularly. Unfortunately, no large

foreign ships dock nearer than Piraeus.

G, FOREIGN TRADE

The basic character of Rhodes' import trade did not change greatly after the end of the Italian regime. Despite an increase in agricultural production, the island still imports a large share of its food supply and also a large part of its manufactured goods (Table XXIV), Nonedible imports come from West Germany, Italy, Great Britain, United

States and Greece, while edible products originate in Greece and neighboring countries. As in the case of Italy when it controlled the island, Greece is the leading source of sup­ ply for Rhodes,

Approximately 11,2 per cent of the imports came direct from foreign countries and many other items such as petrol­ eum, wheat, machinery and fibers, registered from Greek ports, originated in foreign countries (Table XXV), About 40 per cent of these imports carry extra port charges because of routing through the port of Piraeus, These extra charges could have been avoided by direct shipments from foreign ports. 151 TABLE XXIV

IMPORTS OP RHODES, 195^*

Total per­ Total per­ Volume centage of Value In centage of Articles In tons Imports dollars imports

Animal prod­ ucts 461 7.9 135,189 13.4 Agricultural products 1059 18.2 198,336 19.7 Leather prod­ ucts 53 .9 57,485 5.7 Wood and Paper products 282 4.8 37,760 3.7 Chemical and pharmaceutical products 85 1.5 40,016 4.0 Ceramics and glassware products 70 1.3 15,244 1.5 Machinery, vehicles and metal products 124 2.1 152,386 15.1 Textile fibers and manufactures 68 1.2 211,380 21.0 Building and con­ struction materials 3584 61.6 133,184 13.2 Miscellaneous 31 .5 27,739 2.7

Total 5817 100.0 1,008,719 100.0

Monthly Bulletin of the Special Trade of Greece with Foreign Countries. National Statistical Service of Greece, Athens, 1955# P. 32. 152

TABLE XXV

TOTAL QUANTITY AND PERCENTAGE OP PRINCIPAL IMPORTS PROM POREIGN AND INTERIOR PORTS TO RHODES, 1954*

Item Total Poreign Interior

Total imports shipments in tons 5,817 (Percentage)

Animal products 7.9 1.8 6.1 Agricultural products 18.2 4.3 13.9 Leather products . .9 .3 .6 Wood and Paper products 4.8 .8 4.0 Chemical and Pharmaceu­ tical products 1.5 .5 1.0 Ceramics and glassware products 1.3 .1 1.2 Machinery, vehicles and metal products 2.1 .3 1.8 Textile fibers and manu­ factures 1.2 .4 .8 Building and construction materials 6l,6 3.6 58.0 Miscellaneous .5 .1 .4 Total imports 100.0 12.2 87.8

* Rhodes Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 1955. 153 Direct trade with Turkey is discouraged by the Greek

government for political considerations. As a result the port of Rhodes has lost its profitable transit trade. Im­

ports from Turkey destined for Rhodes are usually shipped

to Piraeus and from there to Rhodes. The Rhodians want to trade direct with Turkey to reduce their costs. Trade with Italy is being gradually revived. Two

reasons may be advanced to explain this trend. (1) Import­

ers are already familiar with the quality of Italian products.

(2) It is hoped Italy will reciprocate by importing Rhodian products, principally bottled wine and tapestries.

The export trade of Rhodes has not reached its prewar level. Its major markets collapsed in consequence of World

War II, and thus the Rhodians no longer enjoy a protected market such as they had when under Italian control. If

Rhodes wishes to increase its exports new markets must be found.

The principal exports from Rhodes have been agricul­ tural products (Table XXVI). Of the 459 tons of these commodities exported during the year 1954, more than three- fifths were early season vegetables, one-fifth citrus- fruits, and the remainder edible olives, and raisins and wine. The latter two commodities were sent primarily to foreign countries. Ceramics and metal products (mostly re­ claimed scrap) were sent to Greece. The major customer of

Rhodes' exports was Greece (Table XXVII). 154

TABLE XXVI

EXPORTS OF RHODES, 1954*

Total per­ Total per­ Volume centage of Value In centage of Commodity In tons exports dollars exports

Animal products ** 10,480 11.3 Agricultural products 459 76.2 72,017 77.7 Leather products ** 4,645 5.0 Ceramic products 44 7.4 1,611 2.0

Metal products . 99 16.4 3,843 4.0

Total 602 100.0 92,595 100.0

* Monthly Bulletin of the Special Trade of Greece with Poreign Countries, National Statistical Service of Greece, Athens, 1955, p. 36. ** No dataar.e available. 155

TABLE XXVII TOTAL QUANTITY AND PERCENTAGE OP PRINCIPAL COMMODITY EXPORTS TO POREIGN COUNTRIES AND GREECE PROM RHODES, 1954 (In tons}*

Poreign Commodity Total Countries Greece All Commoditles- In tons 602 60 557

(Percentage) Agricultural products 76.2 10.0 77.2

Ceramic products 7.4 2.1 5.3 Metal products 16.4 16.4

Total exports 100.0 13.1 87.9

* Rhodes Chamber of Commerce and Industry, 1954. 156

The excess of imports over exports is largely due to an increase in the population of Rhodes from 50,000 in 1938

to 60,000 in 1954, to an increase in the daily intake of food and to the incapacity of the island's economy to pro­

vide goods and services needed by the local market. In 1954, the deficit between imports and exports was approxi­ mately $198,0 00 . The income from tourism, import duties, and exports, together with the financial assistance granted

by Greece helped to pay for the imports. No matter what remedial action is undertaken to narrow the gap between

imports and exports, the foreign trade of Rhodes in terras of

goods is certain to be unbalanced.

H. TOURISM

Intensive work under the direction of the Secretariat

General of Tourism led to the complete restoration of tourist facilities by the year 1949. To increase sleeping accommo­

dations a new hotel -CAIROf- was built. Approximately $300,000 was spent in this rehabilitation. Greece, like Italy, has

recognized the fact that tourism can be Rhodes' greatest

asset. Today tourism constitutes one of the largest single

sources of foreign exchange, and can do much to restore the Rhodian balance of trade (Table XXVIII). Two factors have greatly helped to encourage tourist visitors to Rhodes. The abolition of visas for American tourists entering Greece and the simplification of formalities 157 for visitors from other countries. Prices in Greek hotels are generally lower than those in most countries of western

Europe.

TABLE XXVIII

NUMBER OP TOURISTS VISITING RHODES, 1948-1954*

Year Domestic Poreign

1948 5,523 735 1949 4,198 1,350

1950 11,949 2,755 1951 10,976 1,674 1952 12,258 2,890 1953 14,354 4,267

1954 19,246 5,375

* Office of Tourism, Rhodes.

The number of foreign visitors had not reached the high peaÿ of 1934 when more than 8,000 persons visited Rhodes. Rhodians attribute the slow rise in visitors to the fact that the island is not connected by a regular steamship line with the ports of the Eastern Mediterranean. Another deter­ rent is Rhodes* remote location from the main crossroads of the continent of Europe, VII CONCLUSIONS

Strategic Factor;

The geographical position of the island of Rhodes has made it the objective of every expanding movement, whether political or economic, from the adjacent coasts. The Ottoman Empire conquered Rhodes in 1522, not only to protect

the southern coastline of Asia Minor from invasion and piratical attacks, but also to maintain an uninterrupted

line of communication between Constantinople and Alexandria, Italy conquered the island in 1912 because it offered a foot-hold in the Eastern Mediterranean, a foot-hold which was also coveted by other European powers.

Although recent political developments in the Middle

East have made Rhodes strategically less important than formerly, Greece considers it to be a strategic area, since

Rhodes is situated midway between Greece and Cyprus, If

Cyprus were to join Greece, the occupance of Rhodes by an­ other power could easily threaten communications between Greece and Cyprus,

Commercial Factor:

The position of the island on the main trade route between the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean seas made the

158 159 port of Rhodes an Important commercial entrepot prior to

Greek rule. This port was the clearing house for the adjacent 1"lands and a part of Asia Minor, The latter, more so than the former, provided Rhodes with most of Its re­

export able edible and nonedible Items, Income earned from this source In turn enabled Rhodes to pay for a part of Its

edible Imports, Under Greek rule the port of Rhodes has lost Its

Importance as a transit port, Greece discourages direct and

through trade between Rhodes and Turkey because of Its polit­

ical policies. As a result, a substantial source of foreign exchange has been lost because Rhodes has been divorced economically and politically from Its hinterland - the main­ land of Asia Minor, The loss of the mainland trade and the enforcement of restrictions In those areas In which Rhodes had once traded freely has dealt a stunning blow to Its economic position.

Ethnic Factor:

The people of Rhodes still consider themselves Greeks,

Their culture has not been altered despite the long period of foreign rule, Rhodians belong to the Greek Orthodox

Church, speak Greek, and practice the Greek way of life. The

Institution largely responsible for the perpetuation of Greek culture In the Island has been the church. Ecclesi­ astical authority In Rhodes generally has had almost as l6o powerful an influence as the government. The desire of the

Rhodians to maintain their ethnic and cultural characteris­ tics was demonstrated by their widespread opposition to the

aculturalization program of Turkey and Italy, The present population is almost entirely Greek, The Turkish and Jewish minorities have been reduced in numbers

by voluntary or forced emigration imposed by the Italian and

German regimes. The few remaining Turks are farmers and

live in the village of Asgourou, while the Jews are waiting to emigrate to Israel,

The transfer of the island, either to Turkey or Italy, might possibly cause the Rhodians to become resentful, anta­ gonistic or indifferent to measures imposed upon them by a non-Greek regime. In the present political atmosphere of

Europe neither Turkey nor Italy can afford such a development, since it seems that the Rhodians want to affiliate themselves with Greece even though their decision might yield economic hardships.

Economic-geographic Factor:

Rhodes has been dependent throughout its history on the mainland of Turkey for a large share of its food requirements and raw material because of its own limited areas suitable for cultivation, its scarcity of water for irrigation, and infertile soils. Even with the fullest possible development, the natural I6l resources of Rhodes cannot provide profitable employment for all the people now living on the island. Consolidation of

existing small holdings into fewer but much larger farms, along with better cultivation, would make it possible to

raise output and income per family to satisfactory levels.

But, what will become of the dispossessed farmers? Formerly, they could have emigrated either to the mainland of Turkey or to other countries. Today, however, emigration does not provide a safety-valve for Rhodes' population.

Anatolia, a rich area sparsely populated and endowed with undeveloped agricultural resources, is still attractive to the farmers of Rhodes, Some of them had farms on the mainland, but lost them when Rhodes was severed from Turkey by Italy in 1912. For the first time in its history Rhodes was thrown back upon her own economic resources.

The fundamental similarity of Rhodes to Western Asia Minor has not precluded differences in detail between them sufficient to render them economically complementary nor to draw them together through economic cooperation. Under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, the Rhodians were engaged in economic activities which the Turks disliked, namely fish­ ing, shipping, and trading. However, the real economic advantage of the union with the mainland was that the

Rhodians did not have to use foreign exchange to pay for their food imports as they did under Italy and do now under

Greece, There is no doubt that Rhodes, from the economic- 162 geographic viewpoint, is essentially a continuation of the mainland.

Economic Development:

Reviewing the economic development of the resources of

Rhodes under the political rules of Turkey, Italy and Greece, we discover that each government directly or indirectly sub­ sidized the economy of the island. Economic concessions granted to Rhodes by these nations raised the insular income beyond what it would have been without such assistance.

External assistance was needed because Rhodes' natural re­ sources were inadequate to support its population. Further­ more, the development of the existing resources were retarded by the scarcity of capital and credit, lack of protected markets, and lack of transportation and marketing facilities. Unlike Italy and Greece, Turkey did not participate directly in the economic development of the island. The

Rhodians had to depend upon their own initiative. Neverthe­ less, the tempo of economic improvement was dependent upon indirect economic concessions granted by the Sultan, the income earned by shipping, and the amount of capital received from abroad (foreign remittances). In comparing the development of the island's resources under Italian and Greek rules, we find that the sponsored economic development programs were similar in nature and in scope. Both nations introduced and carried out remedial 163 measures to solve the problems that retarded the development of the agricultural. Industrial and commercial sectors.

Problems that were vigorously attacked included the scarcity of capital and credit, lack of power, skilled labor and management for industrial development, and rela­ tively poor transportation and marketing facilities. They also tried to focus the attention of the farmers on the economic potential of their land to help them apply measures to increase production.

The economic development program of Italy did not bring about the desired results because it was interrupted by purely non-economic obstacles such as adverse political and social attitudes. The desire of the Italian government to support the economic activities of its own nationals rather than those of the Rhodians resulted in the latter adopting an indifferent attitude toward all Italian measures.

Despite the unwillingness of the Rhodians to carry out Italian sponsored economic reforms, they benefited by the injection of Italian capital (private and public) into their economy. Unlike Italy, Greece succeeded in winning the support of the Rhodians for its own economic development program, Greece also stressed the development of agriculture more because Rhodes is a food-deficit area. Furthermore, all of Rhodes' natural resources, as well as most of its economic advantages, are largely related to agricultural activity. 164 It seems, then, that the reaction to Italian economic rule was characterized by a certain amount of indifference and dislike for the measures imposed upon them, whereas under Greek dominance the peasants have shown a less resistant attitude.

Obstacles to Economic Development:

Chiefly wanting in Rhodes is capital to enable the small farmer to improve his fields and find more extensive markets. Some capital is being made available through the counterpart fund.^ However, this source is only a temporary one, and Greece has to find other ways and means of raising capital for investment.

The economic development of the island's resources and the improvement of the standard of living depend upon the economic concessions and financial assistance that Greece may grant Rhodes. Without direct or indirect assistance, Rhodes' economic base is not strong enough to support the present population of 60,000 people. There is no doubt that the future of Rhodes depends upon whether the local govern­ ment of Rhodes is given the necessary budget to guarantee the upkeep of the island.

The Greek government set aside an equal amount in drachmas for every dollar purchase made with U.S. aid funds. This money is spent on projects for internal recovery within Greece. 165 Since the Island Is not capable of initiating any development program out of its own meager capital resources, external assistance has to be granted by the controlling country if the standard of living of the people is to be improved.

Disposition of the island:

Rhodes could succeed in maintaining an independent national existence only by lowering its present standards of living. Consequently, it appears that if Rhodes wishes to maintain and improve its current standard of living, it must attach itself economically to the mainland of Asia Minor which can supply the required food and raw materials. Italy is no longer interested in possessing Rhodes because the recent political developments in the Middle East (the withdrawal of Great Britain and Prance from the area and the rise of new independent States after the war in the area) have made the island strategically as well as politi­ cally unimportant in the Eastern Mediterranean. Since the Middle East is no longer an attractive colonial area for European powers, it is doubtful that Italy would want to continue to support Rhodian economy when there is no pros­ pect of economic gain. It is equally true that neither Turkey nor Greece have the capacity or the enthusiasm to 166 assist the Rhodians In advancing their agricultural or Indus­ trial development within the Island Itself. In the light of the circumstances just what the best permanent status of Rhodes would be presents an almost Insoluble problem. If we consider the soclo-cultural elements alone, then,It seems, the attachment of Rhodes to Greece would be logical. Prom the economic viewpoint, however, Rhodes apparently would fare best as a part of the Turkish mainland. It Is evident, then, that there must be an ultimate resolution of the (l) political, (2) economic and (3) social Inclinations of the people If they are to establish themselves upon a stable basis. This action does not appear bright for the Immediate future. BIBLIOGRAPHY

PERIODICALS AND HANDBOOKS

Bartolozzi, Enrico, "L'ltalia Nel Levante Ecc.," L'AKrlcol- tura Coloniale. Volume 23, 1929, PP. 513-529. Caselli, Alberto, "La Coltura della Vite nell'Isola di Rodi." L'Agricoltura Coloniale. Volume 17, 1923, pp. 401^^03;

Cottu, Ch. "L^Ile de Rhodes," Revue des Deux Mondes. Volume 50, 1844, pp. 809-836.

Dodecanese Handbook. Part III, His MaJesty'sStationery Office, London, 1943, 11 p. Fiori, Adriano. "La Flora dell'Isola di Rodi," L^Agricol- tura Coloniale. Volume 18, 1924, pp. I61-16Ô.

Islands of the Northern and Eastern Aegean. His Majesty Stationery Office, Number 54, London, 1920, 59 P. "L'Apicoltura nelle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo," Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. Istituto Poligrafico, Volume 21, 1933, PP. 353-3Ô1. Lenzi, Alfredo, "Le Industrie ed il Comraercio delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo," Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. Istituto Poligrafico,Volume 22, 1934, pp. 113-l4o. Migliorini, Carlo, "Geologica di Rodi," L*Agricoltura Colonie. Volume 19, 1925, pp. 2-56 . Pampanini, R. "L'Esploraziane Botanica dell'Isola di Rodi dal 1761 at 1922, L'Universo. Volume 6, 1923, pp. 281-293. Rassegna Economica Delle Colonie. Istituto Poligrafico, Volumes 21 and 22, 1933 and 1934. Sittori, G. "Provvedimenti per I'Incremento della Coltivazione dell Olive nelle Isole Egee," L 'Agricoltura Coloniale. Volume 22, 1928, pp. 377-378. 167 168 Soleri, Vittorio, "Sulla Sallnita di Una Parte del Terreni della Bonifica di Cattavia," L'Agricoltura Coloniale. Volume 26, 1932, pp. 187-183. Solleri, Umberto, ^Essiccamento dell'Uva nelle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo," L'Agricoltura Coloniale. Volume 30, 1936, pp. ^1-369. "Sperimentazione e Propaganda Agraria," L'Agricoltura Coloniale. Volume 23, 1929, pp. 526-528. Vezzani, Vittorino, "Rodi e il Suo Problema Zootecnico," L'Agriooltura Coloniale. Volume 23, 1939, PP. 247-265.

OFFICIAL SOURCES

Italian

Concessione. Terreni Demaniali a Scope Agricole. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Number l4f8, Archi- viore 131, Rhodes, 1934, p. 14.

Espropriazone Legislazione. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Number 527, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1926, P. 23. Incremento. Agricolo-Studi. Propaganda. Conferenze. Governo delle Isole Italiane dell?Egeo, Number 108S, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1931, P. 4. Istituto Agricole Coloniale. Governo delle Isole Italiane dell?Egeo, Number 1291, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1933, p. 3. Istituto Agricole Coloniale. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell?Egeo, Number 1288, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1934, pp. 54-59. Istituto Storico-Archaeologico di Rodi. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Number 68b, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1928, p. 3.

Landa Tenura. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Number 37Ô, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1925, p. 31.

Olivocoltura. Olio. Oleiflci. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell*Egeo, Number 844, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1929, p. 13. 169 Socleta Implanto Nuove Industries. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Number 488, Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1922, p, 4. Testo Unico Delle Leggi Forestall. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Number 56 , Archiviore 131, Rhodes, 1921, p. 9. Quadri-Statistici. Ufficio Centrale dfStatistica. Govemo delle Isole Italiane dell'Egeo, Anni 1928-41.

English

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AUTOBIOGRAPHY I, Paul P. Vouras, was born In Vamvakou, Greece, on

November 27, 1921. After completing my elementary education

In Vamvakou, I entered the gymnasium of Sparta, I arrived in the United States, on December 6, 1936, and went to my father’s home in the city of Meriden, Connecticut, My secondary education was completed in the public schools of

Meriden, Connecticut, After serving in the United States Armed Forces from 1942 to 1946, I entered the Connecticut

State Teachers College, New Britain, Connecticut, In 1949

I received the degree of Bachelor of Science. From Clark

University, I received the degree Master of Arts in 1951, In the 1951-1952 school year I taught at the Massanutten

Military Academy, Woodstock, Virginia, I enrolled in the

Graduate School of The Ohio State University in 1952 to continue my graduate work in geography. In March, 1953, I received an appointment in the Department of Geography as a graduate assistant and, later, as assistant, I held these positions for four years while completing the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy,