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Obesity with Comorbid Eating Disorders: Associated Health Risks and Treatment Approaches

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Obesity with Comorbid Eating Disorders: Associated Health Risks and Treatment Approaches nutrients Commentary Obesity with Comorbid Eating Disorders: Associated Health Risks and Treatment Approaches Felipe Q. da Luz 1,2,3,* ID , Phillipa Hay 4 ID , Stephen Touyz 2 and Amanda Sainsbury 1,2 ID 1 The Boden Institute of Obesity, Nutrition, Exercise & Eating Disorders, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia; [email protected] 2 Faculty of Science, School of Psychology, the University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia; [email protected] 3 CAPES Foundation, Ministry of Education of Brazil, Brasília, DF 70040-020, Brazil 4 Translational Health Research Institute (THRI), School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +61-02-8627-1961 Received: 11 May 2018; Accepted: 25 June 2018; Published: 27 June 2018 Abstract: Obesity and eating disorders are each associated with severe physical and mental health consequences, and individuals with obesity as well as comorbid eating disorders are at higher risk of these than individuals with either condition alone. Moreover, obesity can contribute to eating disorder behaviors and vice-versa. Here, we comment on the health complications and treatment options for individuals with obesity and comorbid eating disorder behaviors. It appears that in order to improve the healthcare provided to these individuals, there is a need for greater exchange of experiences and specialized knowledge between healthcare professionals working in the obesity field with those working in the field of eating disorders, and vice-versa. Additionally, nutritional and/or behavioral interventions simultaneously addressing weight management and reduction of eating disorder behaviors in individuals with obesity and comorbid eating disorders may be required. Future research investigating the effects of integrated medical, psychological and nutritional treatment programs addressing weight management and eating disorder psychopathology in individuals with obesity and comorbid eating disorder behaviors—such as binge eating—is necessary. Keywords: obesity; eating disorders; binge eating; dieting; treatment 1. Introduction Obesity is commonly associated with health complications. Individuals with obesity are at high risk of several physical diseases, such as certain cancers, diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, stroke, as well as being at increased risk of mortality [1–7]. Obesity is also often associated with mental health problems and psychosocial difficulties. Indeed, women with obesity tend to report worse mental health than women without obesity [8]. Moreover, women tend to experience more mental health complications associated with obesity than men [9], albeit mental health problems associated with obesity (e.g., anxiety) occur in both women and men [9]. One factor that can be detrimental to the mental health of individuals with obesity is exposure to well-documented discriminatory attitudes and behaviors in different areas, such as employment, education and healthcare [10]. Additionally, discrimination against individuals with higher body mass index (BMI) can be particularly problematic because it can induce strong dissatisfaction with one’s body weight and/or shape, which is a risk factor for the development of comorbid eating disorder behaviors [11]. The eating disorders that have been most frequently studied in individuals with obesity are binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa. Binge eating disorder is defined in the current Diagnostic Nutrients 2018, 10, 829; doi:10.3390/nu10070829 www.mdpi.com/journal/nutrients Nutrients 2018, 10, 829 2 of 9 and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) by recurrent binge eating episodes occurring at least once a week for the past 3 months, and associated with marked distress [12]. The DSM-5 criteria for binge eating disorder also require that individuals experience at least three of the following five features: eating much more quickly than normal; eating until feeling excessively full; overeating when not feeling physically hungry; eating alone because of embarrassment related to the amount of food consumed; and feeling disgusted, depressed, or very guilty after the binge eating episodes [12]. Bulimia nervosa is characterized by self-evaluation that is excessively influenced by body weight and shape, recurrent binge eating, and recurrent unhealthy compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain (i.e., self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives, diuretics or other medications; fasting; excessive exercise) [12]. The DSM-5 criteria for bulimia nervosa require that the binge eating episodes and compensatory unhealthy behaviors have occurred at least once per week for the past 3 months [12]. In addition to binge eating disorder and bulimia nervosa, individuals with obesity can also experience “other specified feeding or eating disorder” when presentations cause significant distress or impairment but do not completely meet the DSM-5 criteria for a specific eating disorder [12]. For example, according to the DSM-5, a person may have binge eating disorder of low frequency and/or limited duration. In this case, the person meets the DSM-5 criteria for binge eating disorder, except that binge eating has occurred less than once a week and/or for less than 3 months [12]. There is a significant co-occurrence of eating disorders, particularly binge eating disorder, in individuals with higher BMI. In Latin America, for example, the prevalence of binge eating disorder was 16–52% in individuals with obesity (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) attending weight loss programs [13]. In the United States, a study with a nationally-representative sample of 9282 people assessed in 2001–2003 found that 42% of individuals that had had a binge eating disorder at any stage in their life had obesity at the time of the survey [14]. A more recent study in the United States, with a sample of 36,306 participants assessed in 2012–2013, found that relative to those with no history of eating disorders, participants who met criteria for binge eating disorder in the last 12 months, or at any time in their lives, had significantly increased odds of having obesity or extreme obesity [15]. On the flip side, a study with a clinical sample of 1383 individuals with current eating disorders, including 123 with binge eating disorder and 551 with bulimia nervosa, found that 87% of individuals with binge eating disorder, and 33% of individuals with bulimia nervosa, had also had obesity at some point in their lives [16]. These studies show a significant co-occurrence of obesity and eating disorders, and are consistent with the hypothesis that these conditions can potentially contribute to and/or exacerbate each other. Additionally, obesity with comorbid eating disorder behaviors, such as binge eating, may be a growing problem. In a population-representative sample of 9053 people in Australia between the years of 1995 to 2015, there were significant increases in the prevalence of obesity and eating disorder behaviors independently; however, the greatest increases were in the prevalence of individuals with obesity and comorbid binge eating or very strict dieting (7.3 fold and 11.5 fold, respectively) [17]. The increases in the prevalence of obesity and comorbid eating disorder behaviors mentioned above may be related to a potential contribution of binge eating to obesity [14,18,19], as well as to the social expectancy for people with obesity to lose excess weight [17]. The potentially growing prevalence of individuals with obesity and comorbid eating disorder behaviors is concerning due to the medical and psychosocial risks that these individuals are exposed to. 2. Health Risks of Obesity with Comorbid Eating Disorders Individuals with obesity and comorbid eating disorders are at high risk of several medical and psychosocial complications. A study with 152 treatment-seeking individuals with obesity found that those with binge eating disorder had higher BMIs, more severe levels of depression and obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and stronger feelings of inadequacy and inferiority than those without binge eating disorder [20]. Similarly, bariatric surgery candidates with comorbid binge eating disorder had significantly more mood and anxiety disorders than bariatric surgery candidates without binge eating disorder (27% versus 5% for mood disorders, and 27% versus 8% for anxiety disorders, Nutrients 2018, 10, 829 3 of 9 respectively) [21]. Indeed, 40% of bariatric surgery candidates with comorbid binge eating disorder had a mood or anxiety disorder, with some participants having both a mood and an anxiety disorder [21]. Similarly, gastric bypass surgery candidates with binge eating disorder had more disordered eating attitudes and behaviors, as well as worse physical, emotional and social quality of life, than gastric bypass surgery candidates without binge eating disorder [22]. Not only is binge eating in individuals with obesity associated with poor mental health and poor quality of life, but binge eating can also hinder weight loss in individuals with morbid obesity. For instance, a systematic review found that individuals submitted to bariatric surgery that had clinically significant binge eating before and after the surgery had worse weight loss outcomes than those without pre-surgical binge eating, or than those who stopped binge eating after the surgery [23]. The occurrence of obesity in individuals with eating
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