Akko 1 and Akko 2, and Scientists from Israel and Abroad, and Has Started a the Rampart Connecting the Tower of Flies to the Shore

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Yaacov Kahanov, Dear Friends 1 Dor Edelist Influence of Levantine Artificial Reefs on the Fish Sariel Shalev Assemblages of the Surrounding Seabed and Global Archaeomaterials in the Marine Environment 3 History and Evolution of Artificial Reefs 32 Beverly Goodman Simcha Gweta Caesarea Tsunami Project 2007 7 Venomous Fish along the Israeli Mediterranean Coast: Samuel Tarsitano, Kari Lavalli, Ehud Spanier History of Research, Scope and Characterization Life under a Lobster Carapace – A Newly of Injuries by Marine Organisms 33 Discovered Organism? 9 Yona Levin Benno Meyer-Rochow, Stanley Lau, Ehud Spanier The Genetic Structure of the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) New Discoveries Regarding the Vision of the Population along the Mediterranean Coast of Israel, and Slipper Lobster 10 Interactions between Humans and Marine Turtles in Ancient Civilizations 35 Ehud Spanier, Kari Lavalli, Daniel Weihs Can the Morphology of Slipper Lobsters Explain Possible Limor Gruber Adaptations to Habitat and Swimming? 11 Population Dynamics of Two Larger Symbiont-Bearing Foraminifera as Environmental Indicators of the Carmel Coast 37 Dan Kerem IMMRAC 2007 Reports 13 Paula Waiman Barak Reconstruction of the Surroundings of Tell Abu-Hawam Yaacov Kahanov, Deborah Cvikel in the Late Bronze Age II: The 2001 Excavations 40 Dror Pashut, Amir Yurman Akko Underwater Excavation 2007 16 Shalom Yanklevitz Provenance of Imported Pottery and Pebbles from Dror Planer Tell Abu-Hawam 2001 Excavations: Evidence of Maritime Tantura E – Dor Lagoon, 2007 19 Trade in the Late Bronze Age IIB 41 Nadav Kashtan Erez Heilweil An Intelligent Mobile Guide for Archaeological and Maritime Evaluation of the Alleged Reduced Narcosis of Nitrox Exhibits – A New Interdisciplinary Research Project 21 Mixtures 43 John Tresman Yaacov Kahanov RAMSES², Round Table, Istanbul 2007 22 J. Richard (‘Dick‘) Steffy 46 Deborah Cvikel Publications 47 The Nautical Archaeology Society’s Annual Conference 23 Deborah Cvikel Overseas Expedition: The Underwater Excavation of the Mercure 23 Editor: Nira Karmon Summaries of Theses Submitted to the Department of Editorial Board: Yossi Mart, Daniella Bar-Yosef Mayer Maritime Civilizations, 2006-7 English editing: Laura Cohen, John Tresman Simona Rodan Graphic design: Noga Yoselevich Maritime Related Cults in the Coastal Cities of Philistia Printing: Printiv – Zamir Bar-Lev Ltd. during the Roman Period: Legacy and Change 24 ISSN-0792-6073 Daphna Feingold © January 2008, by RIMS. All rights reserved Cetacean Conservation in the Northern Red Sea: A Preliminary Ecotourism-Oriented Project 28 Michal Sapir Front Cover: Tantura E, 2007 (Photo: I. Grinberg) Cetaceans in the Mediterranean: Modern and Ancient Back Cover: Reassembling the Ma’agan Mikhael ship Distribution from Dietary and Paleontological Aspects 31 (Photo: P. Peled) Dear Friends, environment, ecology of sponges, treatment of aquaculture wastes, and the use of the ecosystem approach in The Recanati Institute has just completed its first year coastal zone management. under the leadership of the younger generation of the Dr. Nadav Kashtan has received a grant within Department and the Institute. We thank Prof. Ehud the framework of the Trento-Haifa collaboration for Spanier for his achievements in this post, and we hope creating a new portable digital assistant (PDA), a hand- to continue the development of the Institute. held guide for visitors to archaeological museums. The start was promising, as last year was inten- Dr. Kashtan also carries on his research on ships and sive and successful, with considerable achievements in navigation from Greek, Jewish and Christian sources. advancing marine projects. Dr. Daniella Bar-Yosef Mayer continued her research Within the framework of the Tsunami Project, Prof. on Late Stone Age (7,000 year-old) shell middens along Yossi Mart supervised two weeks’ drilling by marine the Red Sea coast of Eritrea, and on biological and geologists in Caesarea. cultural aspects of tusk shells used to decorate 12,000 Dr. Dorit Sivan, the Head of the Department of year-old Natufian graves in Israel. Maritime Civilizations, has devoted most of her time Dr. Hassan Khalilieh continued his studies into the to the Department, as well as continuing on-going history of medieval Mediterranean maritime law. research projects, mainly on sea level changes. These Three archaeological underwater expeditions were include several joint international projects. carried out over the past year: In marine biological activities, Prof. Spanier A four-week season at Akko, where three sites conducted several research projects on lobsters with were excavated: shipwrecks Akko 1 and Akko 2, and scientists from Israel and abroad, and has started a the rampart connecting the Tower of Flies to the shore. comparative study of the marine biota in a marine This project was one of the largest ever conducted by protected area and similar fished marine areas. the Institute; at times six underwater dredgers were Lack of funding for marine mammal research, operating simultaneously in three different sites, with headed by Dr. Dan Kerem, caused a shift of emphasis about 40 divers a day, and with 100 divers involved from open-sea surveying to gathering data from altogether. beached animals, broadening the traditional scope of In a four-week season at Dor lagoon, Tantura F was analysis (genetics, contaminants, age distribution and excavated for the fourth season, and Tantura E was stomach contents) to include stable isotope determi- excavated for the second time. nations, comparative morphometry and comparative An additional successful season of the combined skeletonizing techniques. project of the University of Ankara and the Univer- Several basic and applied interdisciplinary joint sity of Haifa at Liman Tepe, Turkey, was conducted by international projects in marine and coastal ecology Prof. Michal Artzy, who also directed the surveying and management are being carried out by Dr. Dror work in the Phoenician harbor at Athlit. Prof. Artzy Angel. These include the use of artificial reefs in collab- continues the research for the Bichrome Ware project, oration with Chile, interactions of aquaculture with the and Cypriote imports to the Carmel Coast. These excavations will provide material for research projects for the coming years. In the past year Prof. Sariel Shalev has resumed his archaeometallurgical research at the Institute, after three years in Cairo as the representative of the Israeli Academy. Another major undertaking was the reassembly of the Ma’agan Mikhael ship (Fig. 1). Work on this famous vessel, one of the flagship projects of the Institute, took more than 20 years. The ship was previously reassembled in the Ship Wing of the Hecht Museum at the University, but thanks to the generosity of Lord Anthony Jacobs, Sammy Ofer and the Hecht Fig. 1. The Ma’agan Mikhael ship on permanent display in the Ship Wing Foundation, a new support was designed and of the Hecht Museum (Photo: I. Grinberg) built. After more than three years’ work on re-

assembling the ship, it has been transformed into the Institute. Yossi Tur Caspa, the Director of the Insti- permanent exhibition display. tute since 1995, has retired, and Dina Zvielli has been A major development has been taking place at the appointed to the position. We wish Yossi all the best and University, involving the Recanati Institute and the good luck, and wish Dina success in her challenging Department of Maritime Civilizations. The new School new post. for Marine Sciences is being established, thanks to a The activities of the Institute could not have been most generous donation by Mr. Leon Charney, who was sustained without the generous and continuous support elected to the Chairmanship of the Board of Governors of the Recanati family, with the close involvement of of the University of Haifa. Meanwhile, the school’s new Ariel and David Recanati, Sir Maurice and Lady Irene researchers have been accepted as Research Fellows in Hatter, and generous donors, some of whom have asked the Recanati Institute. We are all involved in the project to remain anonymous (Figs. 2, 3). and are working for its success. There has been a major change in the staff of the Yaacov Kahanov

2007 Recipients of the SIR Maurice and Lady Hatter Fellowships in Maritime Studies

Simona Avnaim-Katav Deborah Cvikel Dafna Goldberg Philip Nemoy Dror Pashut Vardit Shotten-Hallel

Fig. 2. Prof. M. Artzy (third left) and Dr. D. Sivan (third right) with recipients of the 2007 Sir Maurice and Lady Hatter Fellowships (Photo: A. Horesh)

2007 Recipients of the Jacob Recanati Fellowships in Maritime Studies

Dana Cohen Dana Harari Philip Nemoy Dror Planer Ayala Urman

Fig. 3. Mr. David Recanati (center) presenting a Jacob Recanati Fellowship to Dror Planer (Photo: A. Horesh)

Archaeomaterials in the Marine Environment

Prologue: it is all because of a nail holding the frames to the planking of the Ma’agan Mikhael ship (Fig. 1). These nails, peculiarly round in It was ten years ago when the late Prof. Avner Raban shape and relatively thick, were preliminarily published suggested that I come to the University of Haifa to the as being of iron, but in the dry atmosphere they started to (at that time) Center for Maritime Studies (currently develop a green patina - definitely not typical of rusting the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies) and teach iron. They were therefore analysed at the Technion and a course in archaeometallurgy which has been my field found to be made of copper (Figs. 2, 3). of research for the last 20 years. And, yes, I came and In order to better understand their original shape found a multidisciplinary group of scientists interested and material and their depositional history under the in maritime history, archaeology, geology and biology. shallow Mediterranean water close to the shore, Yak In my course sat a scholar who was an expert in under- brought a selected group of these nails to the Depart- water archaeology and shipwreck excavation and ment of Materials at Oxford University where I was conservation; Dr. Yak Kahanov (currently the Head of still working at that time. After cutting, mounting and the Institute), who at that time was co-excavator with polishing the nails we analyzed their metallography Dr. Elisha Linder and the conservator and restorer of by optical microscopy, and their chemical composi- the famous Ma’agan Mikhael shipwreck. One day Yak tion in a wavelength dispersive spectrometer (WDS) came to the class with some metal nails that were found on a scanning electron microprobe (SEM-PROB). The

Fig. 2. One of the Ma’agan Mikhael copper nails found detached from the wreck (Photo: S. Shalev)

Fig. 3. A section of an upper part of a nail found close Fig. 1. The Ma’agan Mikhael Ship – nails in situ to the wooden structure of the Ma’agan Mikhael ship (Photo: I. Grinberg) (Photo: S. Shalev)

results were spectacular in their aesthetic appearance the voids between the nail and the wood, cracks caused and highly interesting in their scientific meaning (Figs. by the sinking of the ship, and the cellular structure of 4a‑d). For me it was, and still is, the most beautiful the wood. The process ended when there was no copper metallographic microstructure I ever saw (for detailed left to be mineralized, or when the nails were detached scientific description see the suggested reading list). from the wood and removed from the anaerobic condi- The results of this work showed that the original nails tions. These 2500-year-old nails introduced me to the where made of unalloyed copper and were hammered magnificent world of underwater archaeology and to into their final shape, which was rectangular in section, the fascinating scientific world and the scientists of the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies at the Univer- different and much thinner than their corroded sity of Haifa. product. They were relatively new when the ship sank, and therefore unprotected by a crust of oxidation which would grow over time in the sea water. Due to their Archaeometallurgy and archaeomaterial studies electrostatic vulnerability they were exposed in the in the service of coastal and marine archaeology local anaerobic conditions, created by the rotting wood research frames of the ship, to a violent attack of free sulfides After joining the Institute, I started to learn more released by bacterial processes, converting the original about coastal and marine archaeological sites and copper metal to the mineral covellite (CuS). This filled materials with the help and scientific cooperation of my

Fig. 4a. Equiaxed small grains and twins representing cycles of Fig. 4c. Large covellite crystals between replaced nail (left) and hammering and annealing replaced wood (right)

Fig. 4b. Imbedded sand and shell fragments in a covellite grain Fig. 4d. The outer covellite zone preserving the cellular structure supported framework above the nail’s head of the wood

colleagues from the University of Haifa. The first work artifacts and materials are not the primary subject of was on what could be described as ‘non-features’ in our current research. In association with Prof. Shimon field and coastal archaeology. During a rescue excava- Reich of the Weizmann Institute of Science, we devel- tion in the area of the Ashqelon Marina headed by Dr. oped a new and independent method of dating lead Amir Golani, and later by Dr. Yuval Yekutieli, strange artifacts. Our method is based on the Meissner effect: archaeological features were uncovered. In an open the complete loss of magnetism when metal becomes area on the Hamra soil and below the sand, remains superconducting at very low temperatures. Lead of dozens of small shallow man-made pits were found. becomes superconducting at 7.2°K, but the products of All showed a similar structure of a hard red layer a its corrosion – principally lead oxide and lead carbonate few centimeters thick with a few millimeters of white – do not. Magnetic measurements can provide a figure lining. No archaeological material was found with for the mass of undecayed lead in an object, and if the these scanty remains. Nearby, and detached from the total mass is known, the amount of corrosion product installations, were scattered sherds, bone fragments, present can be estimated. We tested this technique on copper slag remains and some pieces of clay crucibles, samples of objects of known age, from 2500 years to 10 which were dated by 14C and pottery typology to the years, and found that the mass of corrosion product is Early Bronze Age I, about 5500 years BP. To see if we a direct reflection of their age (Fig. 5). Lead degrades could connect the cleaned remains of these shallow at a slow constant rate at pH values above 6.5, typical pits to the nearby archaeological remains, we analyzed to coastal and marine environment. In such soils the them and found that the red layer was the product of corrosion process is very slow, and the corrosion heating the natural ground into which the pit was dug, products accumulate over hundreds of years. For our and the white layer was calcite deriving from wood first case study, material from coastal sites of Tel Dor, ash. To see whether these installations were used at the Persian period, Caesarea, the Byzantine and the the time of the nearby archaeological remains, and Crusader periods, as well as contemporary data, were are therefore part of the same story, we (Dr. Dorothy used to establish the dating correlation. Godfrey-Smith from Dalhousie University in Canada and myself) conducted optical dating (OSL) of the fill of the pits, and thermo-luminescence dating (TL) of �� quartz grains extracted from the red layer to date the last burning operation in the pits and how soon after that they were buried. Optical dating of the fill yielded an age of 5260 BP, in excellent agreement with the 5180 years TL age of the rim (with standard deviation of 380 �� years for each). These results enabled us to conclude the date and function of the pits during EB I on the Ashqelon coast. Lately, Prof. Sana Shilshtein from the � Weizmann Institute of Science and I built a movable X-Ray Florescence Analyzer (XRF), based upon an �� available industrial bench-top XRF modified to make ��

optimal quantitative elemental analyses of archaeolog- � ical artifacts and sediments, and adapted to field work. Using this instrument in archaeological excavations of �� coastal sites such as Tel Dor, enabled us to identify the �� exact locations and periods of metal-working during �� the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age (some 3500-2800 �� years ago). This allowed us to reconstruct the pyrotechnological events of re-melting bronze, for example in a �� campfire in an open area, although the metal remains, � � �� the crucible and the tuyères had been removed, leaving the remains of the fire exposed to the coastal wind and ��

rain (for further detailed description see reading list). Fig. 5. Average corrosion mass mc per unit nominal surface area Compositional analyses of coastal and marine of the discs as function of time

Epilogue: or - what’s next? institute, which combines different research disciplines with the Mediterranean Sea as its laboratory. Currently we are working with Kobi Sharvit, Head of the Marine Archaeology Section of the Israeli Antiq- The ‘field laboratory’ includes two major ongoing uities Authority (IAA) on dating lead fishing weights underwater archaeological projects of excavating found in the sea with no clear or datable archaeolog- shipwrecks of different periods in the lagoon of Dor/ ical context. We hope to be able to date them precisely Tantura and the Bay of Akko. These projects, headed enough to establish a high-resolution typological and by Dr. Yak Kahanov, are academically connected and chronological table for the development and changes are nearby. in shape and size of fishing net weights in the Eastern Portable XRF and X-radiographer equipment is part of the Mediterranean. Another marine archaeo- proposed for on-site assistance and real-time first evalu- logical problem that we are trying to help solving with ation of the marine archaeological and geological data this new dating method is the date of the sinking of in the field, which will assist in decision-making during the Akko 1 shipwreck, currently being excavated in the the excavations. This new laboratory will be a signifi- ancient harbor of Akko by Dr. Yak Kahanov and his cant contribution to the planned multidisciplinary team. School for Marine Studies currently being established In the near future, we (Prof. Mart, Dr. Kahanov, at the University of Haifa. and I) are planning to start building a central analytical laboratory in the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies. This will be devoted to underwater research Suggested reading of materials, their original chemical composition and micro-structure, and their chemical and structural * Kahanov, Y., Doherty, C., and Shalev, S., 1999. The changes in a marine environment. In this wide range metal nails from the Ma’agan Mikhael ship. Interna- of research we intend to concentrate on the study of tional Journal of Nautical Archaeology 28.3: 277-288. the multidisciplinary aspects of the compositional and structural changes of archaeological artifacts and * Godfrey-Smith, D. I. and Shalev, S., 2002. Determina- natural materials found on the seabed and shore. Our tion of usage and absolute chronology of a pit feature aim is to reconstruct the intimate interrelations between at the Ashkelon Marina, Israel, archaeological site. these archaeological objects and their immediate under- Geochronometria 21: 163-166. water geological, mineralogical and chemical environment. * Shalev, S., 2003. Early Bronze Age I copper production Such wide-ranging studies can succeed only if three on the coast of Israel: archaeometallurgical analysis major research requirements are fulfilled: of finds from Ashkelon-Afridar. In: Potts, T., Roaf M., 1. Manpower capable of covering most of these very and Stein, D., eds. Culture through Objects: Ancient Near different research fields, with the ability of working Eastern Studies in Honour of P.R.S. Moorey. Griffith Insti- together with mutual understanding, in order to be tute, Oxford, pp. 313-324. able to build a coherent model of the processes that man-made and natural materials underwent in the * Reich, S., Leitus, G., and Shalev, S., 2003. Measurement geological, chemical and mineralogical environment of of corrosion content of archaeological lead artifacts by the seabed. their Meissner response in the superconducting state; a 2. A ‘field laboratory’, in the form of an underwater new dating method. New Journal of Physics 5, 99: S1367- archaeological site, which will provide raw data of 2630. remains of different materials from a range of different * Berna, F., Behar, A., Shahack-Gross, R., Berg, J., Boaretto, periods, located close to the coast and to the conserva- E., Gilboa, A., Sharon, I., Shalev, S., Silshtein, S., Yahalom, tion and analytical laboratory. N., Zorn, J. R. and Weiner, S., 2007. Sediments exposed 3. An analytical lab for on-site and detailed high-resolution analyses. to high temperatures: reconstructing pyrotechnological These requirements would be satisfied by: processes in Late Bronze and Iron Age Strata at Tel Dor Locating this multidisciplinary research and its analy- (Israel). Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 358-373. tical laboratory in the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies at the University of Haifa - a unique research Sariel Shalev

Caesarea Tsunami Project 2007

In April 2007, the second expedition to collect sediment �� cores from areas outside of Caesarea’s ancient harbor �� (Fig. 1) was directed by postdoctoral researcher geo- archaeologist Dr. Beverly Goodman and Prof. Yossi Mart. The project’s goals were to 1) collect a series of shore-parallel (-15.0 m contour) and shore-perpendic- ular sediment cores as a means to reconstruct the lateral extent of the tsunamigenic horizons discovered in 2001, � and 2) reopen the original deposit (area W), to record �� its stratigraphy in more detail, and extensively sample the deposit for further analysis. Prior to the initiation of the project, micropaleontological and sedimentological analysis on two 2005 pilot cores was completed. The �� results from that study were promising, as the tsunamigenic horizons could be correlated to a depth of -20 m. The expedition was generously supported by the Ministry of National Infrastructures, RIMS, Sir Maurice �� and Lady Irene Hatter, EcoOcean Organization, and an anonymous donor. Fig. 1. Map of coring locations The team Due to the technical challenges of the project, the century CE tsunami event. team was limited to divers with extensive underwater While the source event that led to the deposit was working experience at greater depths and preferably tentatively established, the actual understanding of how technical dive training. Fortunately, there were many large this event was, or the impact it had on the harbor experienced, willing and able volunteers who partici- and city of Caesarea was unclear. To resolve this, the pated. The core research team consisted of (all RIMS unless noted) lead scientists Prof. Yossi Mart, Dr. Beverly size and extent of the deposit had to be determined as a Goodman (RIMS and IUI), and Dr. Eduard Reinhardt means to reconstruct the wave height and impact zone (McMaster University, collaborator), Dr. Hendrik Dey for wave run-up on shore. (American Institute of Rome, staff archaeologist and historian), Steve Breitstein (Technical Operations), The method Amir Yurman (Technical and Dive Operations), Erez Heilweil (assistant to Yurman), Daniel Schaffer (Captain One of the biggest challenges of the expedition lay in of EcoOcean’s Mediterranean Explorer), Itai Katzman the methodology itself (Fig. 2). While coring techniques (Skipper, Mediterranean Explorer), and Rami Tsadok abound, there is a dearth of methods suitable for (Mediterranean Explorer, Kibbutz Sdot Yam). Volunteer collecting cores in sandy upper shelf environments, divers came from all over Israel. such as that near Caesarea. In 2005, the first attempt was made to use a new coring method to overcome Tsunamis in Caesarea this limitation, and after trial and error two cores Three tsunamis described in the earthquake and were retrieved. During this year’s expedition, the tsunami catalogues specifically refer to Caesarea. method was further refined, including the production Until recently, there was no published (and very little of a task-specific weighted base, the use of a larger air anecdotal) physical evidence for these events. A chance compressor, and extensive dive-planning to maximize discovery in 2001, during excavations to ground-truth, the work productivity time. a magnetometry survey revealed an anomalous deposit The method uses a pneumatic hammer (Inger- that was then interpreted as preserved evidence of a 2nd soll-Rand ‘Rivotbuster’) attached by an adapter to an

aluminum pipe, and balanced by way of lines attached The preliminary results to floats. The hammer air is supplied through hoses to The project began with opening an excavation trench in the surface, and the hammer is diver-operated. Airbags Area W. The horizons recognized in 2001 (Reinhardt et and wire cables are attached to the core for removal. al. 2006) were distinguishable and were sampled exten- To maintain the sediment within the core during core sively. Included in the observations, which was not retrieval, the bottom of the pipe is fitted with a hand- noted previously, was the presence of muddy rip-clasts made brass core catcher (Figs. 2, 3). within the horizons, an especially telling and important piece of evidence for recognizing the presence of a major disturbance event in the harbor’s history. During previous excavations within the harbor proper it was common to find patchy areas of preserved harbor floor. The rip-clasts outside the harbor may be those missing parts of the harbor floor. Despite terrible seas (the project lost over 25% of shiptime due to bad weather, and the ‘working days’ were only marginally workable), the researchers succeeded in collecting six cores which now await analysis. Two cores were opened in August 2007 at the Geological Survey in Jerusalem and sampled for dating using the OSL-technique. Multi-proxy environmental analysis, such as that completed on the first two cores and excavation trenches, will also be carried out on the new cores over the upcoming year. The results are antic- ipated to help resolve the question of the extent of the deposit (and by extension, the magnitude of the wave), and provide the necessary information to create the Fig. 2. Illustration of the coring method world’s first facies model of a preserved, in situ tsunamigenic deposit. These results will make it possible to fully model the tsunami wave and understand how it impacted Caesarea.

Special thanks In addition to the listed financial supporters above, much appreciation and thanks are owed to the entire RIMS staff and administration, the powerplant and harbor of Hadera (M. Cohen, M. Inbal, S. Reuven), M. Artzy, G. Anker, S. Einbinder, E. Brokovich, I. Mukovsky, Y. Sharon, Y. Shaked, G. Hartman, D. Tchernov, T. Katz, D. Tobias, G. Neuman, D. Harari, M. Rosenfeld, A. Weil, N. Krischner, M. Oren-Pascal, and Y. Pertussi.

Suggested reading

* Reinhardt, E., Goodman, B., Boyce, J., Van Hengstum, P., Lopez, G., Rink, J., Mart, Y., and Raban, A. 2006. The Tsunami of December 13, 115 A.D. and the destruction of Herod the Great’s Harbor at Caesarea Maritima, Israel, Geology 34, (12): 1061-1065.

Fig. 3. Loading Mediterranean Explorer with equipment at the Hadera Power Station harbor Beverly Goodman

Life under a Lobster Carapace – A Newly Discovered Organism?

While dissecting the gill chambers of the Mediterranean slipper lobster, Scyllarides latus, found off the coast of Israel, Prof. Samuel Tarsitano, Worcester State College, Massachusetts, USA, Prof. Kari Lavalli, Boston Univer- sity, Massachusetts, USA and Prof. Ehud Spanier, RIMS, discovered tubular structures adhering to the ventral surface of the carapace (Fig. 1). The tubes have a bifur- cating pattern, are composed of calcium carbonate, and measure about 1mm wide and vary in length between 1- 2 cm. There are no indications of pockets for zooids of either bryozoans, corals or graptolites. Few small openings were found on the tubular walls, but it is a unknown if these represent any openings for zooids, hydranths or tube worms. In addition, there is no regular patterning for these openings that appear to be too small to house any creature that could have made the tubes.

b Fig. 2a,b. The internal structure of the tubes (Photo: S. Tarsitano)

Fig. 1. External view of the mysterious organism (Photo: S. Tarsitano)

The internal view of these tubes could be seen due to breaks in the walls. The internal structure of these tubes is complex, having a honeycomb pattern of partitions (Fig. 2a,b) unlike that seen in other tubular structures secreted by marine worms. The partitioning appears to run the length of the tubes. At intervals along the tubes there are circumferential indentations Fig. 3. A circumferential indentation seen along the tubes (Fig. 3) that might represent either joints or segments (Photo: S. Tarsitano) of the creature making these tubes. When viewed with transmitted light, the external tube surface has an archi- unidentified. Until living forms can be collected, this tecture of minute ridges. Thus far the tubes have been organism is represented only by its apparent skeletal found in three specimens of the Israeli Mediterranean tubular structures. slipper lobster. Although scientists at various institutions have examined these specimens, the creature remains Samuel Tarsitano, Kari Lavalli, Ehud Spanier

New Discoveries Regarding the Vision of the Slipper Lobster

Although chemo- and mechano-reception seem to be the dominant sensory modalities of lobsters, investigations involving clawed and spiny lobsters have indicated that they possess well developed visual capacities useful in a variety of behaviors such as feeding, predator avoidance and intra-specific interactions. Yet, despite the high number of species (at least 88) and the variety of habitats that they occupy, no studies on the visual capabilities of slipper lobsters have so far been carried out. It is important to study vision in slipper lobsters since earlier studies have demonstrated how very different the eyes of different taxonomic groups of lobsters can be. Prof. V. Benno Meyer-Rochow of the Jacobs University Bremen (formerly known as ‘International University Bremen IUB’) and the Department of Biology (Eläinmuseo), University of Oulu, Finland, his Ph.D. student Stanley Lau, and Prof. Ehud Spanier of RIMS have recently completed a preliminary examination of the anatomy and ultrastructural organization of the eye of the Mediterranean slipper lobster, Scyllarides latus. This species has been the subject of numerous investigations into its general biology, ecology, and behavior, mainly by Ehud Spanier’s research group. In this first of its kind research, a comparison of the structural organization and ultrastructure of day – and nighttime light – and dark-adapted eyes of the Mediterranean slipper lobster has revealed that the retina of this commercially important crustacean responds to different ambient light intensities with photomechanical changes, involving principally screening (e.g. Fig. 1) and reflecting pigments, and that a circadian component controls full dark-adaptation. Although similarities to the previously investigated eyes of spiny- and rock-lobsters exist, one significant difference concerns the spindle shape of the adult slipper lobster’s rhabdom and the banded structure of the latter, caused by orthogonally-aligned layers of microvilli (Fig. 2). The rhabdom structure of adult slipper lobsters thus resembles that of larval rock lobsters and suggests sensitivity to polarized light. It may seem odd that a nocturnal bivalves-eater like the slipper lobster should possess polarization sensitive photoreceptors, but since many piscine predators possess UV-vision that could be useful for recognition and orienta- tion in the presence of polarization patterns and, moreover, polarization vision can help to enhance contrasts, there could be an advantage to have polarization sensitive eyes (e.g., considering that one of the main diurnal predators of the Mediterranean slipper lobster is the Mediterranean triggerfish, Balistes carolinensis). The extensive clear-zone between dioptric and light-perceiving elements in the eye of the slipper lobster, the relatively large number of ommatidia and facet diameters of up to 90 μm, suggest that the slipper lobster eye is particularly suited for vision in a dimly lit environment and operates on the principle of ‘reflecting optics’. The position of the eyes on the head and the thick cornea are indicative of a need to protect the eyes against physical damage as a result of inter – and intra-specific interactions.

Fig. 1. Light micrographs of longitudinally-sectioned ommatidia of the eye of the Mediterranean slipper lobster. (a) Dark-adapted night-time retina with black screening pigments predominantly in a proximal position below the spindle-shaped rhabdoms (Rh) just above the basement membrane (BM). Retinula cell nuclei (RCN) occupy distal and tapetal cell nuclei (TapCN) proximal positions. Scale: 50 μm. (b) In the light-adapted state (irrespective of time of day) the retinal screening pigment migrates away from the basement membrane into a more distal location near the tips of the rhabdoms. Scale: 50 μm. The inset shows axon bundles just below the basement membrane. Scale: 50 μm. (Photo: Prof. V. B. Meyer-Rochow).

10 Fig. 2. Electron micrographs of the retinal organization of the slipper lobster eye. (a) Most distal region, showing retinula cell nuclei (RCN), cone cell root (asterisk) and start of the rhabdom (Rh), Scale: 5 μm. (b) Eight retinula cells (numbered 1-8) contribute to the distal 10% of the rhabdom. Scale: 4 μm. (c) Only seven retinula cells are involved in forming the rhabdom over the remainder of its length. Scale: 4 μm. (d) High magnification of rhabdom edge at mid-rhabdom level, showing microvilli and adjacent retinula screening pigment granules. Scale: 0.4 μm. (e) Near the basement membrane, retinula cells contain black screening pigment and clusters of much larger globules, most likely representing lipids. Surrounding the retinula cells are tapetal cells (arrows) that contain reflecting vesicles and the swollen proximal ends of the cone cell roots (asterisk). Scale: 4 μm. (f) Part of a longitudinal section through the rhabdom, showing the banded arrangement owing to the orthogonal align- ment of the microvilli. Scale: 2 μm. The inset shows two orthogonal layers at higher magnification. (Photo: Prof. V. B. Meyer-Rochow).

V. Benno Meyer-Rochow, Stanley Lau and Ehud Spanier

Can the Morphology of Slipper Lobsters Explain Possible Adaptations to Habitat and Swimming?

Yes they can, as Prof. Ehud Spanier from RIMS has shown in a recent preliminary study with Prof. Kari Lavalli from Boston University, U.S.A and Prof. Daniel Weihs from the Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology. Slipper lobsters belong to a diverse family of lobsters distributed in a variety of geographical regions, habitats, and depth ranges. Adult slipper lobsters are also diverse in morphological features and size ranges. The slipper lobster family includes four subfamilies, 20 genera, and at least 88 living species recognized to date, compared to about 48 species of clawed lobsters, and 45 species of spiny lobsters. The few studies done on the behavior of these lobsters indicate that they have strong tail-flip swimming abilities (see RIMS Newsletter No. 30). In the present study, morphological features of representative species of slipper lobsters were examined and these features were linked to the different habitats in which they are found, as well as to their behavior and lifestyle. Preserved specimens representing all four slipper lobster subfamilies (26 species in 8 genera) were examined at Leiden’s National Museum of Natural History-Naturalis, Harvard University’s Museum of Comparative Zoology, and the Invertebrate Museum at Tel-Aviv University in Israel. Morphological features measured included the flattened second antennae (mistakenly called ’shovels’) that play an important hydrodynamic role in controlling swimming movement by serving as stabi- lizers and rudders and the tail fan that acts as a propulsor, but also may serve as a control surface. The circumferences of each of these structures were drawn and their areas were calculated using the ImageJ program. Other features noted include the center of gravity, shape of the carapace (rectangle, triangle), thickness of the carapace, length (CL),

11 carapace width (CW in anterior and posterior positions), cross-section of the carapace (flat or thick), CW/thickness, abdominal length, and maximum (stretched) and minimum (folded) size of the tail fan and the flattened antennae surfaces. Since there are great differences in sizes between species, these features were normalized, for the purpose of comparison, by dividing the areas or measurements by the square of the total length (TL). The size, position of, and distance between the eyes were also compared. Additional measurements were taken on a few species of clawed and spiny lobsters. The current analysis refers mainly to genera, to obtain a broader view of the morphological features, because some of the older preserved specimens (collected some 150 years ago!) have had their genera revised. In all genera, linear relationships were found between the posterior, as well as anterior CW, and TL and also between the area of the flattened antennae and the tail with TL, indicating isometric growth. However species of the genera Scylla- rides and Evibacus have relatively larger flattened antennae that provide better maneuvering ability while swimming. Members of the former genera have also a relatively larger tail which provides better propulsion for swimming. When comparing width (CW Anterior) and thickness (T), slipper lobsters are broader and more dorso-ventrally flattened (CW/T: >1.3) than either spiny (CW/T: <1.0) or clawed lobsters (CW/T: <0.85). This flattened morphology of slipper lobsters adds to lift and makes them better swimmers as they can invest less energy in getting up in the water, and more into a faster and longer swim. Comparison of Width/Thickness (CW/T) among slipper lobster genera (Fig. 1) pointed to two groups: a) those with narrower and thicker bodies – inhabiting mainly complex substrates such as rocky coral reefs, rubble, seaweeds and b) those that are flatter and thinner, inhabiting mainly plain substrates such as sand and mud. Body shapes also split into 2 groups: a) those with triangular shape (CW Anterior/CW Posterior >1.2) representing species in the genera Thenus, Ibacus, and Evibacus, and b) those with rectangular shape (CW Anterior/CW Posterior <1.2) such as in the genera Arctides, Scyllarides, Scyllarus. The triangular shape is assumed to be an adaptation for non-complex habitats with soft bottom and for maximal lift and better swimming speed when exposed. The rectangular shape is assumed to be adaptive for living in complex hard substrates (e.g., rocks, coral reefs) and sheltering in crevices during the day (that have back doors for escape from an intruding predator). The relationship of the distance between the eyes and the anterior CW was very consistent and typical to each genus. Widely spaced eyes (near the edges of carapace), as in the genus Thenus, are assumed to enable better binocular distance estimation (to detect prey/predator) and a larger visual field around the animal (lessened if eyes are small). Closely-spaced eyes (medially located), such as those found in the genera Ibacus and Parribacus, are assumed to be an anti-predator adaptation since they are harder to attack than those located on the periph- eral edges. Also the size of the eyes varies among taxa: they are large in Parribacus species, �� intermediate in Scyllarides � species, and very small in Thenus species. Smaller eyes �� may represent shallow water

�� species or those that are less � nocturnal (more exposure to light) and may also represent �� burrowing habits. The small � eyes would then be an adaptation to minimize damage to �� a photoreceptor (the function of which would be limited to � �� detect changes in brightness/ day and night). Fig. 1. Comparison of width (mean CWa = mean anterior carapace width) and thickness among slipper lobster genera. The four left histograms represent slipper lobsters living mainly Ehud Spanier, Kari Lavalli in complex substrates, and the four on the right represent slipper lobsters living mainly in plain substrates and Daniel Weihs

12 IMMRAC 2007 Reports

Cetacean Survey in War-Stricken September-October 2006, reported to IMMRAC by fishermen, yachtsmen, etc., were grouped for compar- Marine Zone off Northern Israel ison to those reported during the same period in 2005. Following the Armed Conflict of A dedicated six-day dolphin survey, graciously funded by the Marine Conservation Action Fund of the New July-August, 2006 England Aquarium, was conducted from October 25 to November 10, following a rough zigzag line, starting each Background day at 07:00 from Haifa port, sailing parallel to the coast Cetaceans are vocal animals, particularly susceptible to the starting point, then west to about 25 km offshore to the effects of oceanic anthropogenic noise. Direct and back towards the shore, 8 km south of the start point, adverse effects range from mild hearing threshold before returning to port at mid afternoon (Fig. 2). Total effective “on effort” survey length was 200 km. shifts to frank phonal trauma or other injury, and may culminate in events of atypical mass stranding. Indirect disturbances may include changes in species diversity, impaired social cohesion, jeopardized infant development, or survival and exclusion from critical/preferred habitat. To our knowledge, the effects on cetaceans of noise emanating from military warheads has never been studied. During the last Israeli-Lebanese conflict of July 14 - August 23 2006, approximately 4,000 rockets were launched by Hezbollah towards Israel, 250-280 of which fell into the sea between Rosh Hanikra (Israel-Lebanon border) in the north, and Haifa in the south (Fig. 1). IMMRAC scientists assumed that resident cetacean populations in this area might be adversely affected by Fig. 2. Jonathan Liberzon filling the tracker role on one of the this assault, either directly, or by being forced out of a survey’s shifts (Photo: M. Markovich) preferred habitat for an unknown length of time.

Results Methods Strandings: There were no reports of strandings Sea sightings of cetaceans, as well as acoustic detec- during the period that could be unequivocally tied to tions by the Navy in the study area during the period the bombings. Opportunistic detections: Four reported sightings of common bottlenose dolphins (including one acoustic detection in the midst of the bombing period) with an average group size of 4, compared well with the yield of 2005 (Table 1). Survey: During the entire survey we only sighted a single solitary dolphin of an unknown species, on the first day. During the 2005 survey, parts of 3 days were spent in the same area, covering 150 km, during which 3 sightings of single common bottlenose dolphins were recorded (0.5 and 2 animals per 100 km, respectively).

Conclusions The lack of conflict-related strandings would make us Fig. 1. Rocket volley off Haifa, August 2006 believe that no animals were seriously harmed. Given

13 Distance Year Date Type Reporter from Group Calves shore (km) 16/09 Shore-based lifeguard 0.25 4 + 19/09 Shore-based lifeguard 0.05 5 - 2005 23/09 At sea fisherman 7.5 2 - 01/10 At sea 1.8 5 - Average number of animals per sighting 4 07-08 Acoustic* Navy - 1 ? 15/09 By-catch trawler 13 ? ? 2006 01/10 Shore-based IMMRAC 0.08 6 - 06/10 Shore-based fishermen 0.05 2 - Average number of animals per sighting 4

Table 1: Opportunistic detections of bottlenose dolphins in the impact zone the scant data collected during the survey, the scope of dives and apparently busy foraging. Following photo- the study turned out to be too low to reach any firm identification, it was decided not to intervene and to conclusions on relocation. The rare acoustic evidence return on the morrow to check on its whereabouts. It proves that there was not a total evacuation of the was last reportedly seen inside the port at 15:30. impact zone during the bombing, and taken together Next morning the dolphin was not spotted in with the opportunistic sightings, it seems that any effect or around the port. In the late afternoon, joggers on that may have occurred was short-lasting. Actually, Poleg beach, 60 km south of Haifa Port, reported on a their high mobility (cruising speed of 7-10 km/h) would body of a dolphin floating in the breakers. IMMRAC’s allow dolphins to move out of range in a matter of a few team arriving just before dark identified it as a mature hours, and if necessary to perform diel excursions, as female common bottlenose dolphin and transported it bombing ceased at night. to IMMRAC’s headquarters in Michmoret to be autop- The low yield caused IMMRAC to forsake plans sied on the next morning. for investing in biannual multi-day dedicated surveys aimed at abundance estimation and ecological modeling, as the return from such surveys may be too low for the Gross necropsy creation of a suitable database in a reasonable time. Hard The dolphin measured 303 cm, the longest female ever to come by funds may be better invested in attempts at documented by IMMRAC. Comparison of external scars passive acoustic monitoring of the coastal population and dorsal fin notch pattern left no doubt that it was the of bottlenose dolphins, by means of bottom-anchored same individual that was sighted inside the port. The hydrophones strategically spaced along the shoreline. dolphin was very thin, showing distinct muscle wasting In fact, the presence of such devices in the impact zone and weighing only 180 kg. Tooth sections performed would possibly have allowed on-line monitoring of some time later revealed it to be 16 years old. acute effects of the rockets on this population. Kidneys, liver and heart were grossly unremark- able, yellowish frothy liquid filled the airways. Dissec- tion of the glottis revealed nylon netting filaments The Haifa-Poleg Dolphin wrapped midway around the larynx and leading down the esophagus. The cetacean larynx protrudes into On February 2nd 2007, at 09:00, IMMRAC received the glottis all the way up to the soft palate where it is a report from the Haifa Port Authority of a dolphin inserted into the lower (bony) nare and tightened in swimming inside the port, between the breakwater place by a circular muscle. This ingenious arrangement and the passenger docks. Upon arrival of IMMRAC totally separates the respiratory and alimentary tracts, crew half an hour later, it was identified as a very thin allowing simultaneous swallowing and breathing/ mature common bottlenose dolphin, that nevertheless vocalizing with no risk of aspiration. Obviously, it was swimming actively, performing up to 2 min long was not designed to handle the swallowing of loose

14 filaments. The latter cut deep through the wall of the larynx, just short of perforating it. The cut looked quite old. Inside the fore-stomach was a solid ball of netting, parasites and tarry-like cement. Several fish hooks were embedded in it. The rest of the stomach chambers and the gut were empty. It could only be imagined what this animal must have suffered, when every act of swallowing and every contraction of the stomach pulled on the filaments to cut deeper into the larynx and which soon enough must have caused it to give up feeding altogether. Its final journey seems quite remarkable and the direct cause of death is still a guess.

Fin Whale Body in Haifa Port

On Thursday, February 15th 2007, several reports were Fig. 3. Emaciated whale lifted out of water received about a dead whale floating inside Haifa Port. Realizing that delaying action may result in losing the body through sinking, floating out or active removal, Dr. Oz Goffman and Sara-Lee Granit with the help of the Maritime Police braved stormy waters and finally succeeded in roping the pectoral fin of what turned out to be a young fin whale Blaenoptera( physalus) in an early stage of decay, and securing it to a mooring post at the passenger dock. Next morning IMMRAC’s crew in consultation with Dr. Ruth Yahel, the Marine Biologist of the Nature and Parks Authority, considered several options of dealing with the large carcass, with the aim of preserving the skeleton. Racing against the beginning of the Sabbath it was decided to bury it, sandwiched in compost, in Habonim nature reserve. Port authorities offered the use of a crane (Fig. 3), the Nature and Parks Authority hired a truck and a ‘bagger’ and purchased the compost, and the whale was lifted and transported to the site. It was a very thin male, weighing 4 tons and measuring 11.5 meters in length, estimated to be six months old. It was buried in late afternoon after removal of the entire baleen-plate apparatus and the pectoral fins for separate treatment (Fig. 4), and after obtaining tissue samples for toxicological and genetic studies. Two weeks prior to the event, the trawler Iris reported sighting a live whale off Herzliya matching the above description. Last winter we received two rather credible reports on groups of what sounded like fin whales on the Israeli Fig. 4. Whale on truck (lying on back). Rolled tongue reveals the continental shelf. However, until these reports are inner surface of the baleen plates hanging from the upper jaw corroborated by photographs we will have to stand by our assertion that our waters are certainly not feeding grounds, nor are they regular wintering grounds for this species. Dan Kerem

15 Akko Underwater Excavation 2007

The Akko underwater excavation season in June 2007, on a local fisherman’s boat. Two rubber boats shuttled was one of the most challenging excavations ever divers between the shore base and the sites, a distance conducted by the Recanati Institute for Maritime of about 300 m. Shifts were scheduled every hour, and Studies. The scientific plan included the excavation of sometimes 12 divers were replaced at a time. All this three underwater sites simultaneously: two shipwrecks ran smoothly in a good atmosphere for a period of four and the submerged rampart, connecting the Tower of weeks. Flies to the shore. All three studies, within the frame- Of course luck had an important role, as Poseidon work of Ph.D. and M.A. programs, were successful, and has to assure good sea and weather conditions – one are reported briefly below. of the reasons that June was preferred as the project About 100 divers participated in the expedition, season. In spite of a few days of rough sea and limited between 25 and 40 each day: professionals with different visibility, not a single working day was lost on the two skills, more and less experienced amateurs, students wreck sites, and only two days of work were lost on the shallower rampart. Generally, the visibility was signifi- and volunteers from Israel and abroad, from 15 to 75 cantly better than in the previous season, September years old. A major key for this kind of operation was the 2006. The excavation was challenging for many reasons, reliable logistics system and technical support (Fig. 1). but enjoyable, exciting and successful at the same time. Not an hour was lost due to malfunctioning of technical The expedition was organised by the Recanati Insti- equipment. Six dredgers were operated in the three tute for Maritime Studies at the University of Haifa, sites, and were shifted from one to another according headed by Dr. Yaacov Kahanov, with the participation to need. They were supplied from one pump installed of the Nautical Archaeology Society of Great Britain, headed by Chris Brandon. As last year, the expedition’s base was in the facilities and shore area of the Israel Nautical College. Its welcoming hospitality and multi- purpose infrastructure contributed significantly to the success of the expedition. The three sites, excavated under the supervision of Y. Kahanov, were: the Akko 1 shipwreck, which was reported in RIMS Newsletter no. 32, and is the subject of a Ph.D. dissertation by Deborah Cvikel, who directed the work on the site; the Akko 2 shipwreck, which is reported in this issue for the first time, and is the subject of a M.A. thesis by Dror Pashut, who directed the work on the site in collaboration with Victoria Timberlake from London; and the submerged rampart, which is also reported in this issue for the first time, after two Fig. 1. Moving the metal frame to the site (Photo: P. Faiferman) excavation seasons directed by Amir Yurman.

16 Akko 1

The Akko 1 shipwreck turned out to be more interesting with each passing day. Two days before the end of the excavation season the stern of the wreck was discovered, causing much excitement. This part of the wreck will be thoroughly studied during the next season scheduled for June 2008. The total length of the wreck, at the very bottom, from the last frame at the stern, to the lower end of the false stem was 23 m, and the port Fig. 3. Views of block found in Akko 1 (Photo: J. J. Gottlieb) side was 4.38 m wide from the keel to the start of the turn of the bilge. compared to the previous season. This time various In order to conduct a thorough research of the visitors – flocks of colorful fish, pipefish, seahorse and framing pattern, the ceiling planking, after recording cuttlefish, visited the site. The most unwanted visitors and documentation, was removed and brought to – a few jellyfish – were kind enough to arrive at the very shore, in an operation which was complicated and very end of the expedition. delicate at the same time. The planks were kept wet for two weeks, and were documented on land. S. Haad was in charge of the drawing; A. Yurman and S. Breitstein Akko 2 were in charge of the photography, and D. Cvikel, with the help of volunteers, measured the planks (Fig. 2). Akko 2 shipwreck was discovered in September 2006, At the beginning of the fourth week of excavation, the during the excavation of the submerged rampart. The ceiling planks were gently returned to the site, and shipwreck was located 50 m to the north of Akko 1 buried next to the wreck. shipwreck, in a water depth of 3 m, and was buried In addition to leather flasks, and other finds as were under about 0.6 m of sand, small shell remains and found during the previous season of excavation (Fig. 3), stones. The wood remains spread over an area of 12 by there were some interesting new finds – what might be 3 m. two muskets, covered with marine encrustation. Unlike At the end of the second season of excavation, in the previous season, when many clay tobacco pipes were June 2007, all the ends of the shipwreck remains had found scattered on the wreck, this time several were been revealed. The southern part of the shipwreck was found in situ. It is hoped that the analysis of the weapons damaged by Teredo navalis, but most of the timbers were and pipes will lead us not only to the date of the ship, but in a good state of preservation, allowing measurements also to her origin, and to the discovery of her part in the and analyses. Parts of 39 wooden components were maritime history of Akko. found, among them remains of 37 planks, a section of Another reason for excitement during the excavation the keel and one section of a frame. On the west side of was the relatively large number of marine creatures, the keel, parts of 23 planks were found, most of them in good condition, and on the east side 12 planks, also in good condition. Two disarticulated plank remains were found in the southern part. All the wood remains were sampled and identified as Pinus brutia. Carbon 14 analysis was made in Switzer- land, determining with high probability that the ship was built between the 16th and 17th centuries. Three other samples were sent to the laboratories at Cornell University for dendrochronology analysis. The keel survived to a length of 5.70 m; it was 14 cm sided and 18 cm molded. A rabbet 5–8 cm deep was found only towards its northern end. The hull planks were on the average 17–18 cm wide and 4 cm thick. Frame staining pattern and nail remains were evidence for the existence of frames, of which, except for one Fig. 2. Measuring the Akko 1 planks (Photo: P. Faiferman) small fragment, no extant wood survived.

17 The finds include decorated clay tobacco pipes, a This study combines underwater excavation tech- cannonball, small lead shot metal objects and fragments niques with the use of GIS. In 2006, a bathymetric of ceramics. Most of these were found while removing survey of the rampart was conducted, in addition to sand and stones. high-pressure water-jetting, in order to study the depth Timber remains, the evidence of components, attach- of the sand layer on both sides of the rampart. In the ments, and their setting and shape, indicate that this was same season, Area AR1 on the north-western side of the a medium sized flat-bottomed vessel, which may have rampart was excavated. No structure was found. served as a barge or lighter in the harbor of Akko. No In 2007 a new area (AR2) was opened on the north- archaeological parallels or historical evidence have shed western side, and later Area AR3 in the center of the light on the shipwreck at this stage of the research. rampart was excavated, in order to better understand The project was made possible thanks to the gener- its internal structure. An additional small area (AR4) osity of Ron Marlar, USA, the Yaacov Salomon Founda- was opened on the south-eastern side of the rampart tion, Israel, the President, the Rector, the Dean and for comparison with the north-western side (Areas AR1 Faculty of Humanities of the University of Haifa, the and AR2) and with AR3. Sir Maurice Hatter Fellowship for Maritime Studies, The AR3 area was marked at the center of the the Jewish National Fund Fellowship, and an anony- rampart in order to find the sediment base layers of the mous donor to whom we are all grateful. The foreign rampart. Two parallel 5 m-long baselines were set out and Israeli volunteers – the Akko Dive Team, deserve on compass bearing 150°–330°, 5 m apart. During the our special thanks for their help, efforts and enthu- progress of the work the trench was extended 5 m more siasm (Fig. 4). on bearing 150°. The depth over the rampart was 1–1.5 m, and it was excavated down to 5 m. A well-defined structure of sediment layers was discovered, starting with all kinds of large stones mixed with packed sand, some of them being building stones (Fig. 5); and as the trench went deeper, the stones became smaller. At the bottom of the trench fine sand with small stones was found. The stones were limestone, schist, and kurkar. At all depths there were archaeological finds, such as pottery, organic materials (among them remains of several wooden items), and metal finds, such as cannonballs and nails. High-pressure water-jetting at the bottom of the trench showed that there is no solid foundation to the structure, so it is probably based on sand.

Yaacov Kahanov, Deborah Cvikel, Dror Pashut Fig. 4. Volunteers about to enter the water (Photo: P. Faiferman) and Amir Yurman

The Submerged Rampart

A submerged rampart stretches from the shore towards the Tower of Flies. Historical sources, ancient drawings and maps indicate that there was some structure between the Tower and the shore. Combining this evidence with a modern aerial photograph contributed to the hypothesis that this rampart was man-made and constructed for some reason, as yet unknown. In the 2006 and 2007 underwater excavation seasons several segments of the rampart were excavated in order to study its physical characteristics, the reason for its construction, and the length of time that it was in use, as well as the geology and geomorphology of its surroundings. Fig. 5. Working on the submerged rampart (Photo: A. Yurman)

18 Tantura E – Dor Lagoon, 2007

During four weeks at the end of October–beginning of gable channel, at a maximum water depth of 2.85 m. November 2007, a joint expedition of the Recanati Insti- The wreck was spread over an area of 7.57 m by 3.10 tute for Maritime Studies (RIMS) headed by Yaacov m. Most of the excavation was carried out on the west- Kahanov and the Nautical Archaeology Society of ern side of the hull. Recording methods were by direct Great Britain (NAS) headed by Chris Brandon, together measurement, Direct Survey Method (DSM), and still with Kurt Raveh, excavated in Dor/Tantura lagoon. The and video photography. sea and weather conditions were excellent, allowing The hull remains included the keel, sections of the excavation for all but one day. Two shipwrecks were false keel, keelson, wood remains of 16 frames, 21 strakes excavated: Tantura F for the (12 on the western side and 9 fourth season and Tantura on the eastern side of the keel), E for the second season. In 9 stringers, 13 ceiling planks, addition, the site of Dor 2004 and a bulkhead support (Fig. was also surveyed. This 1). The entire keel survived: it report describes the Tantura was 6.18 m long, made of two E findings. sections scarfed together. At Tantura E was discovered the north-western end, the and excavated for one day at keel was scarfed to another the end of the 1995 excava- component (gripe) that con- tion season by a combined nected the keel and the end- expedition of the Institute post. At the south-eastern of Nautical Archaeology at end it ended with a scarf to an Texas A&M University, and additional component, appar- the Center for Maritime ently an endpost, of which Studies at the University of only a small piece remained. Haifa, headed by Prof. Shelley The keel was 10 cm sided and Wachsmann. The wreck was 17 cm molded, on the average. also excavated for 10 days in The whole keel had rabbets October 2006, when the finds 1.6 cm deep for the garboards. were collected, and the site Its tree species was identified, was sandbagged at the end of as all other components, by the season. Prof. Nili Liphschitz from Tel Based on 14C tests and Aviv University, as Cupressus preliminary ceramic analy- sempervirens (cypress). sis, the wreck has been pro- The framing pattern, with visionally dated to between some exceptions, was of alter- the 7th and 9th centuries CE, nating floor timbers and Fig. 1. View of the ship from north-east to south-west between the end of the Byz- (Photo: I. Grinberg) half-frames. The frames were antine and the first half of the nailed to the keel by iron nails Islamic periods. The 14C anal- with a cross-section of about yses were carried out by the Institute of Particle Phys- 10 X 6 mm. Planks were iron-nailed to the frames by 1 to ics, Zurich, Switzerland, and the Weizmann Institute, 3 nails, depending on the plank width. The maximum Rehovot, Israel. As is usual in Tantura lagoon, ceramic transverse span of a framing timber was of a pair of sherds from many periods were found in the site, and half-frames that occupied 2.2 m. The frames were 10 cm thus cannot be used for dating the wreck without addi- sided and 12 cm molded with room and space of about tional supporting data. In 2007, ceramic pieces dating 20 cm on the average. from the Persian through the late Ottoman periods The frames were made of seven different tree were again found in the site. species: Pinus brutia (Calabrian pine), Tamarix (X5) The wreck is oriented North-West/South-East, about (Tamarisk), Tamarix (X4) (Tamarisk), Quercus cerris 25 m offshore, on the western side of the lagoon’s navi- (Turkey oak), Quercus coccifera (Kermes oak), Ulmus

19 campestris (Ulmus minor) (Common elm) and Fraxinus Cupressus sempervirens. The longest surviving stringer excelsior (Common ash). Most of the frames were of was 3.94 m long and was charred on its upper surface. Pinus brutia. A 1.65 m transverse timber, 7 cm wide, was found A longitudinal timber was found at the northern between frames 20 and 21 on the western side and end, above the frames. It was 2.14 m long, 10 cm wide frames 23 and 24 on the eastern side. It had a groove and 15 cm thick on the average. It was connected to the on the top 3.5 cm wide and 1 cm deep, perhaps for a keel by two iron nails, one of them spanning the gap bulkhead. between the timber and the keel between two frames. The construction of the hull was based on frames, From nail remains on the upper surface of the southern without any edge joints between planks. Frames were part of the keel, which were not frame-keel nails, it may nailed to the keel, and planks to frames, with butt joints be suggested that the timber continued from the point at frame stations and caulking in seams. Thus it was a it stopped in the archaeological find for an additional 3 frame-based hull from a relatively early period, specifi- m: thus it was a keelson and not a shorter central longi- cally about 250 years before the Serçe Limanι. tudinal timber. Remains of 13 ceiling planks were found, their In the site were found several hewn stones, many dimensions varying between 40 and 90 cm in length ceramic sherds (not confidentlyin situ), several bricks, a and between 8 and 25 cm in width. Incised marks were few dozen lead fishing weights, and two wooden tools. found in two of them (Fig. 2). The finds are being studied by Jonathan J. Gottlieb at Nine stringers were found, three on the western the Recanati Institute. side and six on the eastern side of the keel. The stringers The information gathered from hull components: were made from half-logs; four were of Pinus brutia and the relatively strong longitudinal backbone of the ship, the close setting of relatively large frames, the many relatively narrow and short planks, and the finds suggests that Tantura E was a small local vessel about 10 m long that carried building stones (Fig. 3). The excavations were carried out thanks to the generous support of the Hecht Foundation, Uri Barkai from Zichron Yaakov, the Israel Science Foundation and two anonymous donors. We are grateful to all of them.

Fig. 2. Incised marks in two of the planks (Photo: A. Yurman) Dror Planer

Fig. 3. Divers cleaning the north-eastern side of Tantura E (Photo: I. Grinberg)

20 An Intelligent Mobile Guide for Archaeological and Maritime Exhibits – A New Interdisciplinary Research Project

This project is the outcome of the collaboration between common parameters. These include: technology, date, the University of Haifa and the Irst Research Institu- geographical, cultural or ethnic origins, utilization and, tion, Bruno Kessler Foundation, in Trento, Italy. The museum aspects. entire research is under the auspices of the Caesarea In this way, a large variety of presentations are Rothschild Institute (CRI). Its main objective is to inves- offered to the visitor, who may focus on his or her preferred themes or perspectives during the visit. tigate and promote the application of modern technolo- The PDA is not only an intelligent personal guide gies and artificial intelligence in different domains of enriching the museum visit, but also serves other aims the humanities related to cultural heritage. of the present research by locating the exact position The museum, on the whole, still serves as a central of the visitor in the museum and compiling a report stage for the presentation of highlights of past material of what he has already seen. The guide can then create culture expressed in the fields of archaeology, history a profile and suggest additional exhibits in the same and art. This is especially true in Israel, where the large museum, parallel artifacts elsewhere or additional sites number of archaeological sites and their excavations related to the personalized profile identified. Another are a source of continuous data and research. However, major objective is the group visit, elaborated by the as an educational and public institution, the museum is possibility of sending short messages (‘SMS’ or ‘post it’) undergoing changes on the way to becoming an ‘active to a friend, colleague or member of family who came together to the museum. The communication between museum’ which offers new attractions utilizing modern members of a group can serve for the visit itself as well interactive technologies. as for ‘post visit’ purposes, again taking into consider- With these considerations in mind, the Hecht Museum, an archaeological museum situated on the University of Haifa campus, was chosen (Fig. 1). The two pilot exhibitions chosen were the Ma’agan Mikhael Ancient Ship and Phoenicians on the Northern Coast of Israel, both archaeological and maritime displays which relate to the themes taught and studied at the Department of Maritime Civilizations and at other departments within the Faculty of Humanities. The principal objective is to develop a museum visitor’s guide system, based on a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), which, through its innovative technologies, will contribute new dimensions to the experience of the museum visit. Until now, most devices used were either audio guides which present recorded explanations for selected items in specific exhibitions, or static visual devices (screens) added to the exhibit. The PDA offers a broader combination of audio-visual materials programmed in a mobile, interactive and personalized form. The collaborative research consists of two main phases. The first phase is the preparation of short presentations (30 to 60 seconds each), covering a large range of themes. The recorded text needs, of course, to present briefly the exhibit by the selected theme, linked to the entire menu. During the second phase, the text is integrated with the images and graphic elements which enrich the visual aspects of the visit. In order to create a rich and coherent menu of presentations for the visitor, several ‘perspectives’ were defined, representing the fundamental themes or Fig. 1. Julia Sheidin testing the PDA at the Hecht Museum

21 ation the profile and interest of the individuals and the group, and suggesting more attractions. This application is of particular significance because it increases awareness of the larger context of the ‘museum experience’, related to cultural heritage. From an academic point of view it encourages broader links to material and literary resources, and sites or institutions to which motivated visitors can be attracted. Future research will concentrate on the elaboration and diversification of information offered to the museum visitor and on the development of systems permitting advanced interaction between members of the group during and after the visit. The research group includes: Dr. Tsvi Kuflik and Dr. Pnina Soffer, from the Department of Management Informa- tion Systems, Dr. Yaakov Kahanov and Dr. Nadav Kashtan, from the Department for Maritime Civilizations, all at the University of Haifa, together with Dr. Dina Goren-Bar, Dr. Massimo Zancanaro and Prof. Oliviero Stock of the Irst Research Institution, Bruno Kessler Foundation, in Trento, Italy, with Shachar Katz, Julia Sheidin, Ariel Gurfinkel, Sadek Jbara and Shlomo Berkovsky, all students at the University of Haifa. The research carried out by the students involved will be submitted in the form of M.A. and Ph.D. dissertations in various departments of our University. Nadav Kashtan

RAMSES², Round Table, Istanbul 2007

The 3rd RAMSES² Round Table, devoted to the marine archaeology of the Mediterranean, was held from 19 to 21 May 2007 in Istanbul, Turkey. RAMSES² is a network of Mediterranean Studies funded by the European Commission. It comprises 45 academic institutions from 14 E.U. and associate countries and 11 Mediterranean partners, researching the history, societies and current politics of the Mediterranean area. As part of this network, the Round Table series of meetings has been inspired and directed by Patrice Pomey, director of the Centre Camille Jullian, CNRS – Université de Provence. The Istanbul Round Table was the third meeting in this series. The 20 or so participants were from France, Italy, Spain, Greece, the USA, Turkey and Israel. Leading figures in the field of Mediterranean marine archaeology and ship construction participated, including Patrice Pomey, Eric Rieth, Cemal Pulak, Carlo Beltrame, Kostas Damianides, Lucien Basch and Yaacov Kahanov. Yaacov Kahanov of the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, and Hadas Mor and Ofra Barkai, Ph.D. students of the Department of Maritime Civilizations at the University of Haifa, presented papers, and Deborah Cvikel and John Tresman participated by invitation. The theme of the meeting was Technology Transfer in Ship Construction. The 13 papers were presented in three sessions: From Sewing to Mortise-and-tenon Assembly, From Shell to Skeleton Construction, and Technology Transfer and Cultural Identity. The first session dealt with new material, and the Ma’agan Mikhael ship was not discussed per se. Yaacov Kahanov was chairman of the second session, discussing the transition in ship construction in the 1st millennium CE in the Mediterranean. Hadas Mor presented The Dor 2001/1 Shipwreck, describing the earliest frame-based shipwreck found to date in the Mediterranean; and Ofra Barkai presented The Tantura F Shipwreck (8th c. CE) describing the hull remains and the basic construction concept. The third session, although dealing with specific cases, also widened the discussion. The theme of the symposium lent itself to various interpretations of the archaeological evidence, and the topics presented were analysed critically and objectively, with lively and sometimes controversial discussions. The unresolved questions will give an extra impetus to future archaeological excavation and analysis. Papers were also presented by, in addition to the participants mentioned above; Sait Basaran, Giulia Boetto, Nergis Günsenin, Carlos de Juan, Işıl and Ufuk Kocabaş, Xavier Nieto, and Mark E. Poltzer. The atmosphere was open and friendly, the more junior participants receiving the benefit of the experience and opinions of those with decades of activity in the field. On the last day Cemal Pulak of INA and Sait Basaran of the Istanbul Archaeological Museum guided the participants around the excavations of the Byzantine harbor of Istanbul at Yenikapi and the Naval Museum at Beşiktaş. The conference was hosted by the Institut Français d’Etudes Anatoliennes, and organized by Nergis Günsenin and Markus Kohl, headed by Patrice Pomey. It fulfilled its objective of bringing together the leading personalities in marine archaeology of the Mediterranean in a fruitful exchange with the promise of future international cooperation. John Tresman

22 The Nautical Archaeology Society’s Annual Conference

The Annual Conference of the Nautical Archaeology Society of Great Britain (NAS) was held in the Historic Dockyard in Portsmouth, UK, on November 10th 2007. The theme of the conference – ‘Celebrating NAS Worldwide’, created a forum for scholars of underwater archaeology, as well as amateurs, from all over the world to meet and present their work. The University of Haifa was represented by Deborah Cvikel and Amir Yurman of the Department of Maritime Civilizations and the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies, who were warmly welcomed by NAS divers, past and future participants in the Akko and Dor underwater excavations. This conference was the stage for the first academic presentation of The Akko 1 Shipwreck by Deborah Cvikel. In addition, a poster describing the underwater excavation of Akko 1 was presented by Keith Clark, an enthusiastic NAS supporter of the project. The Conference dinner was held at the Victory Gallery at the Royal Naval Museum, and enabled the participants to get acquainted, enjoy the exhibition, and discuss subjects raised during the conference in a relaxed atmosphere. Tall Ship sailing in the Solent the following day gave the participants the opportunity to learn how to set sails, handle the sheets, take the helm, keep a proper lookout, and be involved in all the other various tasks that keep a Tall Ship sailing. These two events greatly enhanced the conference. The participants from the University of Haifa are most grateful to Sarah Ward of the NAS for her warm welcome and personal attention, and look forward to strengthening the collaboration between the Nautical Archaeology Society and the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies at the University of Haifa. The author would also like to thank NAS members: Victoria Timberlake, Joe Williams, Laura Holland, Keith Clark and Chris Brandon, for their generous hospitality and warm support.

Overseas Expedition: The Underwater Excavation of the Mercure

In February 1812, during the Battle of Grado (Italy), the French-Italian brick Mercure, armed with 16 carronades, was attacked by the English brig Weasel, and exploded. Only three of the brick’s crew were rescued by the English. Since her discovery in 2001, the shipwreck has been excavated by Carlo Beltrame of Università Ca’ Foscari di Venezia, and his team. In August 2007 the author was privileged to join the fifth underwater excavation season. The remains of the Mercure lie under 18 m of clear water (Fig. 1), 6 miles off shore, about one hour’s sail from Grado. The excavation was conducted from a diving vessel, using the ‘sorbona’ (water pump). Documentation was by photogrammetry, direct measurements, photography and video- filming. The excavation team, headed by Beltrame, was composed of Fig. 1. View of a part of the Mercure wreck highly experienced divers: Dario Gaddi, Tiziana Lanave, Stefano Caressa, (courtesy C. Beltrame) Francesco Dossola, Mariangela Nicolardi, Alessia Alvera and Roberto Zucco. The wreck of Mercure can be referred to as ‘a time capsule’. The excellent visibility enables the diver to see the remains of the ship and her contents scattered over the seabed, as if time had stood still since her explosion, with only the divers floating above, gently excavating, and thoroughly documenting. The area which was excavated was a square of 3x3 m, and included part of the ship’s hull, in which many interesting objects were found: wooden blocks and pulleys, uniform buttons of various sizes, lead shot, ropes and leather shoes. Five human skeletons have been excavated so far, and one of them retrieved for analysis. In addition, three pistols and various jewels have been recovered. It was a fascinating and enriching experience, and the author is most grateful to Beltrame and his team for their kind hospitality and personal attention. Deborah Cvikel

23 SUMMARIES OF THESES SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MARITIME CIVILIZATIONS, 2006-7

Maritime Related Cults in the Coastal Cities of Philistia during the Roman Period: Legacy and Change

The study questions the origins and the traditions of merchants throughout the Mediterranean region. They the cultic rites practiced during Roman times in the also developed agricultural and industrial products cities along the southern shores of the Land of Israel. which were marketed by sea to all corners of the Roman The geographical area extends from the el-Arish river in and Byzantine Empires. the south to the Yarkon river in the north. From biblical Most of the cults of the coastal cities of Philistia times this area was known as ‘Pleshet’ (Philistia), the were closely associated with the sea as shown in this name of one of the groups of ‘Sea Peoples’ that had study. They reflect the existential dependency of their settled there at the beginning of the Iron Age and which inhabitants on the sea that supplied them with suste- had reached as far as Jaffa and the site of Tell Qasile. nance and livelihood and was regarded by them as a The important cities in this region during the divine beneficent power. These cults echo the lives of Roman period were: Jaffa, Ashqelon, Gaza and Rafiah. the sailors, their beliefs and fears, derived from encoun- We know their cults from a wealth of historical sources tering the dangers of the sea: storms, floods, reefs and and a variety of archaeological finds, which indicate giant fish portrayed as monsters. that they were integrated within the Greco-Roman The main myths of Jaffa were woven around the world from a cultural and religious standpoint. Greek royal family of the city and its relationship to the sea and Roman gods were included in their pantheons. At gods. Already in the Persian period, the people of the the same time, each city developed its own original and city worshiped a sea creature called Cetos (monster) unique group of myths and cults that had their roots believed to be the messenger of the sea god, to whom in earlier periods. In each city, gods and local heroes princess Andromeda was offered as a sacrifice (Fig. 1). were idolized. An aim of this study was to conduct a From the description of Pliny the Elder it seems that this thorough search into the myths and cults associated was the skeleton of a whale, 12 m long. Indeed, different with these gods, and to discover their origins and species of whales live in the Mediterranean and are unique attributes. Their emergence and formation were often sighted along the Israeli shores (Fig. 2). According influenced by environmental conditions as well as by to a Greek myth, Poseidon was angry with Cassiopeia, social structure and political circumstances. the queen of the city, for boasting that she was more Environmentally, the cities along the coast of beautiful than the Nereids, the sea nymphs. In Greek Philistia enjoyed a highly advantageous geopolitical and Roman literature and art Andromeda is depicted location. The Land of Israel is a bridgehead of three tied between two wooden stakes, just like an anchoring continents: Asia, Europe and Africa. Its southern shores vessel, or chained to an arched rock-cut cave, presum- served as crossroads for the east-west and north-south ably one of the nausoikoi (ship-sheds), which existed in routes connecting the main centers of culture and Jaffa’s harbor up to the 17th century CE. commerce in ancient times. Jaffa served Jerusalem and Jaffa is also linked to similar Jewish sea myths. Judea as the main port until Herod constructed the port According to the Bible Jaffa was included in the domain of Sebastos in Caesarea. Rafiah, Gaza and Ashqelon of the people of Dan, described as seamen and dwellers were the sea-gates of the caravan routes from the Far of boats. Another myth concerns the prophet Jonah, East, Arabia and Africa through which the most costly who sailed from the port of Jaffa to Tarshish, following merchandise of the ancient world were transported: his disagreement with God and was swallowed by a perfumes, spices, finely woven fabrics, and exotic great fish after being thrown overboard by the sailors of animals. In their harbors cargo was transshipped and the ship during a storm. The phenomenon of the Cetos’ marketed to Mediterranean countries, and from there veneration in Jaffa during the rule of the Hasmoneans, to other areas in Europe. Through these endeavors, who had deported the pagan inhabitants from the city, the cities became financially enhanced as commer- is understood only by relating it not only to Androme- cial middlemen. Their citizens worked as sailors and da’s myth, but to Jonah’s as well. Other sea-associated

24 Fig. 1. (Up) The rescue of Andromeda from the ‘sea monster’ as depicted on a Greek Hydria, 4th c. BCE (Mehsorer, Y. The City Coins of Eretz-Israel and the Decapolis in the Roman Period, 1985, 25) Fig. 2. (Left) False killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens), Dor beach 30/06/2004 (Photo: O. Goffman)

In Rafiah, the inhabitants venerated Dionysus, whose exploits were mostly associated with the sea. His epithet was Eriphos (Capricorn) and he was associated with the Eriphos constellation that predicts storms. Other sea gods in the city were Apollo, Isis, and Tyche, who is said to have been the nurse of Dionysus. As for the socio-ethnic and cultural character of the gods worshipped in Jaffa were Aphrodite, born in the cities of Philistia – their population during the Roman waves, Athena, the builder of boats, and Tyche-Fortuna, period was of mixed and varied origins. This was the the goddess of fortune. The variable luck is associated result of the waves of conquests and migrations that they with the fickle sea and sailing conditions. had undergone over the ages, yet each city was noted for In Hellenistic Ashqelon, the inhabitants worshiped its unique ethnic components. At the beginning of the Aphrodite Ourania (the heavenly), ruler of climate, Iron Age, the cities were settled by various groups of the protector of sea voyagers; Derketo, the Syrian goddess ‘Sea Peoples’: Pleshet (Philistines), Shekelesh, presum- of water and fertility; Apollo, the protector of ports and ably settlers of Ashqelon (who were described in an anchorages; Heracles who wandered throughout the Ugaritic document as “dwellers of boats”), and Denyen, world saving mankind from sea monsters; Hermes, the identified by many scholars with the tribe of Dan. Philis- patron of merchants and travelers; Asclepius, the god of tines, who eventually adopted the language and some medicine, who was seen as the protector and guardian of the cults of the Canaanites, became dominant in the for the safety of sea-going vessels, and Tyche-Fortuna. area. Some of them, identified as originating in Crete, The inhabitants of Gaza worshiped gods and heroes settled the area from Gaza to Rafiah. Their attempts at associated with sea voyages such as Marnas, Minos and expansion towards the center and north of the country Io. At the beginning of the 5th century, a statue of nude were eventually checked by their Judean neighbors, and Aphrodite, situated on the street leading to the port, Jaffa was conquered by David. was still venerated. Temples to Apollo, Helios, Heracles However, in spite of the political, cultural and and Tyche/Fortuna were also present in the city. religious rivalry, there were periods in which the Jewish

25 inhabitants were influenced by Philistine culture. ties of Mycenae and Sparta. According to the Bible, Jaffa Evidence of agricultural and commercial cooperation was part of the inheritance of the tribe of Dan who was between Judea and Ashqelon exists as well. Occasion- noted for being dissimilar to the other tribes of Israel. ally, the Philistines and Judeans made political alliances. Samson, the hero of the tribe of Dan, adopted Philistine There was a partial exile of the citizens of Gaza and culture, was married to a Philistine woman, but fought Ashqelon to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar II, and they against the Philistines. Both members of the tribe of also, like the Judeans, returned to their land with the Dan and Spartans held the snake, characterized as permission of Cyrus the Great. This explains the conti- aggressive in battle, as their symbol. Indeed, traditions nuity of Philistine and Cretan elements in the cults dating from the Hellenistic to the Byzantine period tell in Gaza and Ashqelon even in the Hellenistic, Roman of the family links and common origins of the Judeans and Byzantine periods. The citizens of Rafiah, on the and Spartans. The Assyrian influence can be seen in other hand, were completely uprooted and exiled by the pagan and Jewish myth of the great fish sent by the the Assyrians. Consequently, there are no previous god. In Assyrian mythology, Apkallu the fish-man was pre-Hellenistic cultic remains in Rafiah of the Roman the messenger of Ea, the god of creation and water. This period. myth also reflects Phoenician influence. Jews, Chris- The conquering empires, such as the Assyrians tians and Moslems saw Nebi Yunis, which is located and Babylonians, encouraged international maritime between Ashdod and Jaffa, as the place where the fish commerce of the coastal cities of Philistia with the aim vomited out Jonah on dry land, Jonah’s eventual burial of profit. During the th6 to 4th centuries BCE, the kings place. From archaeological evidence it appears, that of Persia transferred control over the coast, as far as the Phoenicians performed there cultic rites to Baal- Ashqelon, to the Phoenicians who were experts in the Sd, the fish-Baal. Phoenician cultic heritage of Jaffa is sea trade; the southern coast, from Gaza also reflected in the myth of the beauty to Khan Yunis was transferred to the contest between Cassiopeia and the control of the Nabateans who were in sea nymphs. Greek gods like Poseidon, charge of the caravan trade. The coastal Aphrodite, and Athena, the patroness of cities were the first cities in the country to Perseus, were included in the pantheon of be influenced by Greek culture, by their Jaffa. The Greek influence is also notice- trade connections with the Greek world, able in the basic changes that occurred in and many Greek gods were identified the Cassiopeia myth. For the Greeks, she with local eastern ones. was a mortal who had sinned because of After the conquest of the East by hybris in wishing to outdo the Nereids. Alexander the Great in 333 BCE, migrants Fig. 3. A coin of Ashqelon from Moreover, some of the Nereids’ names from all parts of the Greek world settled the time of Vespasian showing indicate that the Greeks compared well- in the coastal cities and Hellenization was Astarte, Tyche, standing on a balanced and righteous polis regime to accelerated. Each city received the status ship’s deck (Mehsorer, Y. The the prosperous, calm and safe sea. Conse- City Coins of Eretz-Israel and and privileges of a polis, and educational the Decapolis in the Roman quences of undermining social order are and administrative institutions were set up Period, 1985, 26) calamities compared to flood and sea to disseminate Greek social and cultural monsters. Only Perseus, the ideal hero, values, as well as language and religion. could re-establish social harmony. After the conquest of the East by Pompey In Ashqelon, memory of the Philis- in 64 BCE, the coastal cities adopted many elements of tines was also preserved until the Hellenistic and Roman social and religious values, and served as loyal Roman periods, and the founding of the city was supporters of the Roman regime. Ashqelon and Gaza ascribed to Askalos and Mopsus, who had arrived became the foremost cultural centers in the world. Their from Anatolia. The inhabitants of the city continued to gods and unique cults gained world-wide prestige and worship the Philistine Astarte, identified with Aphro- found devotees in Greece and Rome. dite Ourania (Fig. 3). The Phoenicians also placed their Philistine, Assyrian, Babylonian, Phoenician and stamp upon the cultic rites of the city by propagating the Egyptian religious influences were absorbed in the cult of the Ashqelonian Astarte/Aphrodite, including cultic life of each city. In Jaffa, during the Roman period, cultic prostitution, in their Mediterranean trading the inhabitants cherished the memory of the Danean posts. Eshmun, the god of medicine and the head of the Perseus who married Andromeda and brought her to Sidonian pantheon, was turned into Greek Asclepius the Peloponnese, where they founded the royal dynas- who appears in sculpture and on coins. His epithet,

26 Leontoukhos (takes hold of a lion), implies his power to on their coins carrying the horn of plenty and a palm control diseases, symbolized in Phoenicia by predator frond, symbols of prosperity and peace. lions. The cult of Ashqelonian Asclepius spread to A new type of city goddess was created in the area Greece and survived till the 6th century CE. Additional in 68 CE, at the height of the first rebellion against Greek gods were Apollo, Heracles and Hermes; Pan, Rome. The goddess appears as an Amazon, armed with who was associated with water because of his fertility, the weapons of a Roman soldier, standing at a prow of and the Dioscuri, who helped mariners in trouble. a ship. She embodies the rule of Rome, based on the The cultic rites of Gaza were probably linked with power of the sword, and warns against attempts of the Cretans. Ancient Pagan, Jewish and Christian rebellion. Among the coastal cities of Philistia, Tyche- literary sources also stress the Cretan origin of the Amazon appears exclusively in Jewish Jaffa. Jaffa took inhabitants of that city. During the Roman and Byzan- part in all rebellions of the Jews from the days of Herod tine periods the city’s pantheon was dominated by until the time of Septimus Severus. The prow symbol- Marnas, also called Zeus Cretagenes (native of Crete), ized a naval victory, and this was apparently associated and by Minos, the legendary king of Knossos and the with the victory of Vespasian in Jaffa and the destruc- Cretan goddess of hunting – Artemis-Britomartis. It tion of the Jewish rebels’ navy. It may also be that the seems that the city maintained a continuous link with cult of Athena/Minerva in Jaffa is bound up with the its Cretan lineage, presumably through thousands founding of the city by Vespasian, since this goddess is of Cretan mercenaries who were present in the area considered as the patroness of the Flavian House. th rd during the 6 to 3 century BCE, serving the Persian, In Ashqelon, the figure of the warrior god Phane- Egyptian and Hellenistic rulers. During this period, the balos, depicted on coins, expresses the sense of empow- local god called Maran (Lord) was apparently merged erment by the citizens of the city with the decline of with the Cretan Zeus, from which the name Marnas its rivals, the kingdoms of Judea and Nabatea. Hatred was derived. Marnas, like the Cretan Zeus, was the god prevailed between Hasmonean Judea and Ashqelon, of growth and fertility. He was also the god of grain, and the Ashqelonites assisted the Romans against the like Dagon the main god of the Philistines. Apparently Jews during the first rebellion. In the coinage of Gaza, he was identified also with Consus, the Roman god of the cults of the Cretan gods were first given official harvest. Greek gods and heroes such as Heracles, Tyche, and public expression during the days before the Bar- Aphrodite and Kore/Persephone were also worshiped Kokhba revolt against Hadrian, who tried to strengthen in Gaza. The Nabateans were the economic and political this Hellenic element and its ancient heritage in this allies of Gaza, and Nabatean art also shows its influence country as a counterweight to the Jewish population. nd in the colossal statue of Zeus of the 2 century CE. The cities of Philistia continued to practice their The cultic rites of Rafiah were mainly Greek in pagan cults for hundreds of years after Christianity nature. The Greeks called the city Raphia which means became the official religion of the Empire. St. Peter a suture, and is associated with the myth of the still began his missionary activities among the pagans of unborn Dionysus who was sewed into the thigh of Jaffa, but the citizens of Ashqelon, Gaza and Rafiah Zeus. According to the Homeric Hymn 1 “To Dionysus”, strongly opposed Christianity, which threatened their a tall, afforested hill near the ‘Brook of Egypt’ (Wadi ancient traditions and unique character. For thousands el-Arish), was the birth place of Dionysus Eiraphiotes of years, the coastal cities of Philistia were a meeting (Insewn). Apollo, Artemis and Leto also appear on the place of peoples and cultures. They constituted an coins of the city in the Roman period. The city was also economic and cultural ‘crossroad’ both for trade and subject to Egyptian influence in the cult of Isis. for spiritual and religious values, and became a melting This study also deals with the political circum- pot in which myths and cults of people from East and stances, which had a decisive impact on the forma- West were united and merged together. At the same tion of religious life and cultic rites in all four cities. time, these cities were proud of their ability to maintain The study of the cults sheds new light helping in the local traditions. They became spiritual and religious understanding of the events and historical processes centers, and some of their cultic rites were dissemi- in the cities of Philistia. In Jaffa, Ashqelon and Gaza, nated throughout the Mediterranean region and the the image of Tyche was engraved on coins to express the autonomy of the poleis in the Hellenistic and Roman Roman Empire. periods. During the Roman period, Ashqelon, Gaza and Rafiah, as well as other cities in the country, adopted Simona Rodan (Ph.D.) Roman Fortuna as the city goddess. She was depicted Supervisors: Profs. M. Artzy and A. Segal

27 Cetacean Conservation in the Northern Red Sea: A Preliminary Ecotourism-Oriented Project

Compared to most seas, the Red Sea is still considered one of the least ecologically disturbed. However, tourism and recreation usage are rapidly growing, increasing the risk of environmental degradation. Cetaceans are one of the least researched animal groups in the Red Sea and most reports are based on incidental sightings or stranded specimens. The present research aims to collect preliminary data regarding cetacean species inhabiting the north- ernmost part of the Red Sea (Fig. 1), and their general distribution and habitat use. In addition, this study examines the prospects and the economic feasibility of long-term research in the region, based on an ecotourism operation comprised of dedicated multi- Fig. 2. Dolphin watching – Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus) day cruises that will include dolphin-watching (Fig. 2), sighted near the Straits of Tiran, Gulf of Aqaba. There are no environmental awareness, and tourist eco-education vessel-behavior guidelines when meeting a group of dolphins in on board. the Northern Red Sea (Photo: D. Feingold) While most human activities are priced in some way or another, there is no simple means of determining waters of the northern Red Sea. The first, from 1993 to monetary value for species conservation. The environ- 1996, yielded 151 opportunistic sightings collated by Oz mental economic analysis presented here attempts to Goffman and Mia Elasar. The second, from 2004 to 2006, evaluate Willingness To Pay (WTP) for participating in was based on surveys by the author, lasting 3-4 days, Dolphin-Watching Research (DWR) cruises by applying on board various SCUBA-diving safari boats, ranging the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM). The estimated from 23 to 27 m in length. Ninety-three sightings were WTP may represent the value people attached to the recorded during this period. The safari boats were conservation of cetaceans in the Red Sea, where this used as platforms of opportunity rather than dedicated value includes both use and non-use values. research platforms. Surveys therefore followed routes Data regarding cetaceans were collected during and locations dictated by safari operators, rather than two separate periods, in a core study area in the coastal pre-designed line transects. Eco-oriented lectures dealing with oceanography, biological and ecological aspects of the Red Sea and cetacean research, were presented every evening aboard the boat. These offered new knowledge and added value to the safari divers who voluntarily participated in these lectures. Cetacean data analysis mainly concentrated on factors which are independent of effort, such as group size and presence of calves. These were analyzed according to species, geographical region, time of day, seasonality, sea state and presence of large groups. Depth data analysis was attempted only when accurate sighting positions were available. In general, data were analyzed by species from a biological aspect, though all species were combined for analysis from an ecotourism aspect, as there is less relevance to the species being sighted by the ecological tourist. Economic evaluation was conducted by handing Fig. 1. All sightings in the research area out 100 Willingness To Pay (WTP) questionnaires

28 presenting respondents with a hypothetical market, in which they were asked to say how much they would be willing to pay for a combined DWR cruise. Three venture versions were presented: single day, three days, or one week. Economic feasibility was analyzed by comparing the willingness of tourists to pay for a DWR cruise, compared to a similar and popular Red Sea venture – a snorkeling cruise. Basic supply and demand curves were calculated and compared to data obtained from the Inbound Tourism Survey Annual Report, 2005, which included demographic data-sets representing 55,000 non-Israeli tourists in the Red Sea (Israeli tourists were not taken into consideration due to lack of demographic data concerning them). As maritime research and dolphin-watching is not a typical holiday or vacation style, these were later narrowed down to tourist groups more inclined to marine ecotourism. The purpose of this analysis was to gain some perspective on consumers who would be interested in such a project in the future. Six cetacean species were sighted in the research area: Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus), common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphinTursiops ( aduncus, Fig. 3), spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), pantropical spotted dolphin Stenella( attenuata), and false killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens). The analysis showed that overall on-effort sighting frequency equaled 0.48 individuals/km-effort, a conservative value considering the presence of only one experienced observer. About 80% of the surveys during the second research period included at least one dolphin group sighting, with a maximum of 10 encounters during a 4-day safari in June 2006. Ventures with no sightings were characterized by very high sea states during the majority of the time (> Beaufort 4). Eighty one percent of Risso’s dolphin sightings were recorded over depths of 100-1000m, a core habitat of this species, which in the northern Red Sea lies only a few kilometers from shore. Larger groups have been seen in the deep Gulf of Aqaba, whereas no sightings have been recorded in the relatively shallow Gulf of Suez proper. The relatively small mean group size (8) observed in the present study is perhaps due to low prey availability. This could serve as preliminary data regarding Risso’s dolphin distribution and home range in the region. Calves were observed at all seasons and geographical regions. Two bottlenose dolphin species have been observed in the region, though it is not always easy to tell them apart. When species identification was certain, T. aduncus was observed over bottom depths of up to 100 m, whereas T. truncatus was observed over depths of up to 500 m. The deeper water of the Gulf of Aqaba could be the reason for group sizes of Tursiops sp. being larger than in the Gulf of Suez. Mean Tursiops sp. group sizes were smaller than those observed in the Indian Ocean. Perhaps the distance from the Indian Ocean, which contains higher nutrient concentra- tions, forces the dolphins to reduce group size due to a less abundant food supply. Mean group size of T. truncatus and Tursiops sp. is generally larger in spring than in summer, due to the presence

Fig. 3. Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus) sighted while SCUBA-diving on the Thistlegorm Wreck near Shaab Ali Lagoon, Gulf of Suez (Photo: Y. Nir)

29 of a few unusually large groups. This could be related locations in the present study should be considered. One to an aggregation of local groups, or to an influx of large location which may deserve particular consideration in transient groups due to higher seasonal availability of future research is the area of Shaab Ali, a lagoon-type prey, or perhaps to mating. Further research, mainly area used for night anchorage by vessels, and which photo ID analysis, is needed to reveal the cause for this presents high cetacean sighting frequencies. in the northern Red Sea. As for the economic feasibility of such a project, we Stenella sp. group size analysis shows that the proba- found that tourists earning higher than average income, bility of meeting large (>20) and small (<10) groups and/or who are environmentally active, are willing to is higher than intermediate-sized groups, possibly pay additional fees for eco-tourism marine mammal evidence of fission-fusion behavior in the region. Over conservation programs. In addition, non-Israeli tourists 50% of spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) sight- and tourists living in urban areas are more willing to ings, a species known to use inshore islands and atoll pay the extra price. These characteristics should be habitats for daytime rest and to forage over deep waters eminent in any future advertising campaign concerning at night, occurred after 17:00. They were observed in this type of tourist attraction. several lagoons which are also used for night anchorage The daily tour was the only venture for which by SCUBA-diving safari boats. Further research will the number of people on board was found to be irrel- reveal whether lagoons in the area serve these dolphin evant, as mean willingness to pay proved to be higher groups daily. If this is found to be true some areas may than the actual costs. In addition, WTP questions require a zoning system. regarding dolphin-watching tours were answered by One general finding was a clear overlap between the most respondents and had the lowest percentage habitats used by dolphins and by humans for tourism of “no opinion” or “zero payment” replies. However, purposes. Ten sightings were recorded during diving, this type of tour has the least value as a research tour, seven of which involved Tursiops species. Further and includes the fewest eco-tourism-oriented features. research is needed in order to evaluate human influ- Supply and demand curves revealed economic feasi- ence on dolphin species in the region. There is clearly bility and relatively high profits for all tourist popula- a need to establish motor vessel codes of conduct when tions, including the case where total number of tourists meeting dolphin groups in the region. available was reduced to a minimum. The Red Sea is a unique body of water, containing A three-day tour includes not only dolphin deep waters and steep slopes near shore. This allows watching, but also research and eco-tourism elements. pelagic species such as the spinner dolphin and Risso’s The projected number of annual participants is lower dolphin, usually occurring over the deep end of the than for a one-day tour, though annual profits are continental slope, to be observed and researched in this higher. A week-long tour, which is the most research- region with relative ease. oriented venture, is economically feasible in all tourist No significant difference was found in the proba- population scenarios, and profits were found to be bility of observing dolphins over the various seasons equal for all designated populations, even though the and locations in the northern Red Sea, making it an ideal proportion of respondents who were not willing to pay, region for year-round eco-tourism excursions. Although or had “no opinion” was highest. no large cetaceans and very few medium-sized ones In general, all three tour types were economically (such as false killer whales) have been recorded during feasible, though a seven-day tour was the most effec- this research in the study area, an eco-tourist can enjoy tive all-round venture. Such a tour allows coverage of a sightings of at least five different dolphin species, large larger research area, bad weather and high seas usually groups (>40) of dolphins, and groups including calves, do not last long, leaving some days at least for effective on a regular basis. The eco-tourism project in Sharm sighting effort. Tourists interested in gaining research El Sheikh presented here encompasses all ecotourism abilities are guaranteed to learn the basic methods in a characterizations and enables (a) long-term data collec- week, whereas three-or one-day tours may not suffice. tion of local marine megafauna; (b) a broad educational At this basic stage, when most cetacean activities in the program presenting the environment as a whole; and region are unknown, more days spent at sea promise (c) use of data for species conservation. a greater probability of observing and researching There does not seem to be a significant difference in cetaceans in the northern Red Sea. species density between the various locations. There- fore, when deciding on a systematic coverage of the Daphna Feingold (M.A.) research area or on a future cetacean sanctuary, all Supervisors: Drs. Dan Kerem and Iddo Kan

30 Cetaceans in the Mediterranean: Modern and Ancient Distribution from Dietary and Paleontological Aspects

Cetaceans originated in the Eocene epoch, 55 to 34 million Black Sea, but absent from the Mediterranean. Its presence years ago. These ancient whales, known as archaeocetes, in the Black Sea must be the result of migration from underwent extreme evolutionary changes during their the Atlantic through the Mediterranean, as its genetic gradual transition from land to sea, mainly brought relationship to the Atlantic population proves that it is not about by the dictates of aquatic food-seeking. During the a remnant from the Para-Tethys aquatic environment. Its Eocene, archaeocetes demonstrated enormous morpho- absence from the Mediterranean must stem from oceano- logical and physiological diversity. Between 34 and 24 graphic features which preclude its thriving there. million years ago, during the Oligocene epoch, the early During the years 1994-2005, 27 Odontocet whales whales split into two sub-orders: Mysticeti – baleen and dolphins and one Mysticete were stranded on the whales, and Odontoceti – toothed whales, each group coasts of Israel in a condition that allowed collection adopting different feeding specializations. The baleen of stomach contents. The stranded animals include 15 whales lost their teeth, replacing them by baleen plates common bottlenose dolphins Tursiops ( truncatus), two hanging from their upper jaw which functioned as food striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba), one Indo-Pacific filters. The toothed whales’ teeth lost their morpholog- bottlenose dolphin(Tursiops aduncus), two rough-toothed ical specialization in favor of a uniform conic denticulate dolphins (Steno bredanensis), one short-beaked common shape adapted to impaling and gripping their slippery dolphin (Delphinus delphis), three Cuvier’s beaked whale prey before swallowing it whole. In later evolutionary (Ziphius cavirostris), two Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griseus), developments each species developed its own feeding and one minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata). The specialization, which involved anatomical, physiolog- stomach contents of these cetaceans have been collected ical and behavioral changes. and examined (Fig. 1). Specimens from 20 fish families, The current distribution of cetaceans in the Mediter- six cephalopod and unidentified crustacean species, ranean was established 5 million years ago, at the begin- were represented. Fish families, in decreasing order of ning of the Pliocene epoch, by the invasion by Atlantic occurrence, were Solidae (in seven stomach contents), species after the re-flooding of the Mediterranean that Sparidae, Ophidiidae Scombridae (three contents each) desiccated at the end of the Messinian salinity crisis, and Atherinidae, Ophichthidae and Serranidae (two which most probably wiped out the entire preexisting contents each). The commonest cephalopode families fauna. Today, the Mediterranean hosts 11 species of were Histioteuthidae (four contents), Sepiidae (three contents) and Thysanoteuthidae (two contents). cetaceans, belonging to five families in the two sub- Reflecting the oligotrophic nature of the easternmost orders. The short evolutionary course and the persis- Mediterranean, it has been shown in this research that tence of genetic flow through the Straits of Gibraltar did cetacean species living in this area are indeed catholic not allow the development of endemic species. and opportunistic in their diet, and tailor it according to Only a few studies have addressed the dietary the inventory of their habitat. Thus, we found that the content of cetaceans in the easternmost Mediterranean, local species feed on prey different from that of the same which differs in oceanographic and biological aspects species in other parts of the world. from the western part. The eastern basin of the Mediter- ranean has a relatively lower general biomass and species diversity, and would therefore be expected to Michal Sapir (M.A.) harbor cetaceans with opportunistic and catholic dietary Supervisors: Dr. Dani Kerem and Prof. Yossi Mart habits. Dietary-specialized cetacean species, some of which do occur in the western basins, especially those requiring large concentrated quantities of prey (baleen whales), probably find the easternmost Mediterranean uninhabitable. Moreover, some species are absent from the Mediterranean as a whole, but exist at the same latitudes in the Atlantic Ocean and the Black Sea, despite the ready access from Gibraltar and the Turkish straits. Apparently, these species cannot cope with existing conditions in the Mediterranean. Fig. 1. Identified otoliths of the horse mackerel (Trachurus mediter- Of special interest in this regard is the harbor porpoise raneus). a) Otolith pair from a fresh specimen. b) Otolith pair (Phocena phocena), occurring both in the Atlantic and in the from the stomach of a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)

31 Influence of Levantine Artificial Reefs on the Fish Assemblages of the Surrounding Seabed and Global History and Evolution of Artificial Reefs

This thesis is an interdisciplinary study of artificial reefs (ARs) and hence combines two fields - history and ecology. The historical aspect of the thesis describes for the first time the evolution of the practice of ARs in different continents, regions and countries. Through historical, archaeological and contemporary literature, the evolutionary pattern uncovered is one of clustered, separate AR traditions, which emerged in different regions over several millennia. Primarily used as a fishing enhancement tool, these structures varied significantly in size, material, design, location and target species. The study spread over 41 coastal countries where AR activity was registered. Of 18 countries with a pre-20th century AR tradition, 11 are engaged in inten- sive deployment today (61%), whereas only 4 out of 23 countries which had no deployment history (17.4%) Fig. 1. One of the cubic artificial marine surface (AMS) units deploy ARs intensively today (all four in Southeast Asia). deployed 3 km west of Haifa (Photo: S. Breitstein) Nevertheless, only a few traditions, the most prominent of which was the Japanese, revealed straightforward a habitat for several species absent from a control site, evolution from an ancient practice into the present and consistently showed higher abundance, richness, one. No evidence of large-scale geographic transfer of diversity and biomass within a 3 m radius. Further- knowledge was found prior to the 20th century, even more, even though it is postulated that predation though several trends were common in more than one pressure increases near units, juvenile shoaling, mostly location – such as the use of fish aggregating devices of Chromis chromis, by far the most abundant fish, was (FADs) in both India and Italy, the existence of ancient significant only within 1-2 m of units. Survey quadrates fishing weirs in Europe and North America, and the use located 13 m from the structures still had significantly of stone mounds in Hawaii and Japan. The most notable higher biomass, richness and diversity than similar modern AR trend is the exponential growth in deploy- bathymetry control quadrates, which suggests the ment, research and applications in the latter half of the existence of an enhancement halo of at least a 13 m 20th century. As in other ecological fields, the acceler- radius around units. Surprisingly, abundance, diversity ating development and deployment is in growing need and biomass values in these 13 m quadrates were also of sustainable management. significantly higher than those in quadrates located 3-8 The second aspect of this thesis is the influence of m from units. It is suggested that there is a 3-8 m halo an AR on its natural surroundings. ARs are assumed of relative depletion within the outer enrichment halo. either to aggregate existing fish from the surrounding When certain species of fish approach units, at about ecotone, or allow secondary biomass production 8 m distance they directly sense (sight, smell, lateral through growth, increased survival and juvenile line) AMS presence, and then swim to within 1-2 m to recruitment. Determining the identity of the governing benefit from current lee and shoaling advantages. Some mechanism in an AR – attraction or production – is of these species (most notably the Lessepsian herbivore vital in any AR study. In order to provide site-specific Siganus rivulatus) then venture out to forage or graze answers for the Levantine basin hard substrate fauna, in sites further from the units (~13 m), either due to and understand the mutual effects of an AR with its resource quenching, or to reduced threat of predation. surrounding seabed, four small cubic artificial marine The largest AR predators recorded were moray eels and surface (AMS) units were deployed at a depth of 20 m on groupers. The latter are commercially important species a flat, hard substrate, 3 km west of Haifa, Israel (Fig.1). threatened by overfishing, for which the units served Fish surveys were carried out bi-monthly by divers for as habitat until a sudden disappearance, suspected to a period of one year. Over 9,000 fish belonging to 30 be fishing-related. The most abundant of predators, species of 18 families were recorded. Units provided however, was the Lessepsian migrant Sargocentron

32 rubrum (Fig. 2). This species utilized the inner AMS deployed on a sandy soft bottom, emphasized the habitat much more than any other, and its population different potentials of each type of AR. Comparing the consistently increased. Experimental FADs, tethered Haifa AMS fish counts to similar structures deployed and buoyed 1 m above the seabed units, attracted in Eilat, on the other hand, enabled to demonstrate the altogether different fauna, of a pelagic nature. Schools differences between these two ecosystems. of up to 250 specimens of transient Sardinella aurita and migrant Alepes djedaba dominated the FAD assemblage. Dor Edelist ) M.A.( However, no fish were observed inside FADs, which Supervisors: Prof. E. Spanier and Dr. E. Lev means that pelagic species did not seek shelter from predation but benefited from current lee, feeding and shoaling. Unfortunately, due to the tethering of FADs to the seabed units, the site was partially demolished by winter storms. Site structural stability and longevity were found to be crucial for the assemblage to develop properly. Data also suggest that site protection against fishing is, at present, the first and most important crite- rion ARs need to meet for them to produce, rather than merely attract, fish. In order to capitalize on AR benefits in the future, deployment in Marine Protected Areas, fishing regulation and enforcement are mandatory. In order to broaden the perspective of the thesis, the data derived from Haifa AMS was contrasted with three other data sets. Comparison with previous ARs deployed in the general area of the site provided a temporal dimension for faunal fluctuations in the Fig. 2. The red squirrelfish (Sargocentron rubrum) on and in the region. Comparisons with a steel and concrete pipeline, artificial reef (Photo: S. Breitstein)

Venomous Fish along the Israeli Mediterranean Coast: History of Research, Scope and Characterization of Injuries by Marine Organisms

Certain human populations are exposed directly to questionnaires filled in by fishermen in personal inter- the marine environment and its inhabitants, including views. The questionnaire related to the following marine animals which may be a potential health hazard. aspects: fishing methods, geographical data, fisher- The aim of the present research was: man’s identification of the harmful species, using the 1. To examine historical information regarding past relevant identification handbooks. The other part of injuries by venomous animals in the Mediterranean. the questionnaire related to medical aspects, such as 2. To characterize and assess the extent of injuries caused a description of the intensity of the pain (according to at present by marine organisms along the Mediterra- a ‘Visual Analogue Scale’), description of the clinical nean Coast of Israel, their severity, the type of injuries, symptoms, referral to professional medical treatment, and the professional medical treatment given. duration of hospitalization, and medical treatment 3. To estimate the number and proportion of harmful given. The research also took into careful consideration species among those migrating into the Mediterra- the descriptions given by fishermen. nean. The second source was medical records reporting The research was based on two main sources of toxicological consultations provided by the Israel Poison information: The first was a survey conducted among Information Center (IPIC) in the Rambam Health Care professional fishermen, located in the fishing ports of Campus, Haifa, to the health care system and the general Israel: Akko, Kishon Harbor, Nakhsholim, Jaffa and public, pertaining to injuries by marine creatures during Ashdod (altogether 79 cases). This is a subjective the years 2003-2004, (altogether 306 records). This is source of information based on data gathered through an objective source of information based on a formal

33 procedure of recording all cases referred to the IPIC due to acute poisoning, including marine injuries. The medical record contains the following details: personal details of the injured person, the site and circumstances of the exposure, the marine organism causing the injury, the length of time between the injury and the consultation, clinical manifestations accompanied by assessment of the condition, including laboratory evaluation, treatment and recommendations for follow- up, and grading the severity of the case according to previously published criteria. Two other sources of information that have been partly used in this research include swimmers at 1 Dado beach in Haifa during the bathing season of 2005 (altogether 207 cases, where the proportion of injuries by marine creatures was minor), and professional divers from a special unit of the Israeli Navy, trained for diving assignments. However, as mentioned above, most of this research focused on the first two sources of information. When one follows historical descriptions from the 2 Greek and Roman periods, it appears that venomous fish in the Mediterranean were already known to Aristotle, Oppian and Pliny. They frequently described Fig. 1. Common stingray Dasyatis pastinaca (Grevin, 1571) how great was the fear of encountering venomous fish Fig. 2. Venomous dorsal spine of a striped catfish Plotosus like the stingray, the weever fish, the scorpionfish; and lineatus (Halstead, 1988) the electric ray (torpedo). Venom taken from the stingray was considered even more deadly than a weapon made infection the hospitalization may have been extended of metal, and it was smeared on the sharp edge of a with irreversible damage if the fisherman had delayed spear to enhance its lethality. seeking medical treatment. From data available at This research found that injuries from marine the IPIC, it appears that the circumstances of injuries creatures are not rare in Israel, although most cases inflicted by marine creatures can be broadly divided are relatively not severe. Most fishermen tend to treat into four main categories: Injuries resulting from these injuries themselves, especially in cases of injuries cleaning and preparing fish for consumption, leisure by venomous marine organisms, utilizing traditional methods such as blood-letting or blood sucking. activities (swimming, diving, surfing etc.), injuries The most frequently reported injuries by venomous stemming from handling aquaria, and fishing. fish were caused by weever fish, Trachinus spp. The most prevalent fish responsible for injuries (17 reports), the common stingray (Fig. 1), Dasyatis pasti- following cleaning and preparing fish for consumption naca (14 reports), rabbitfish, Siganus spp. (10 reports) and are Cichlidae, Cyprinidae and gilthead sea bream. This the striped (eel-tailed) catfish (Fig. 2), Plotosus lineatus prevalence correlates with the relative consumption of (8 reports). these fish in Israel. Some of the cases reported to a medical authority Most of the cases reported to the IPIC are graded were injuries by unknown venomous fish, such as the as having ‘minor severity’ (85%). In 64% of the cases Indo-Pacific Lessepsian migrant, striped (eel-tailed) the call for consultation came from the general public, catfish, P. lineatus. In such instances the fishermen compared to 36% referred by medical staff. Among reported pain intensity disproportional to other known the recommended treatments in cases of venomous pains. It was also found that relatively severe clinical fish stings, is immersing the injured area in warm symptoms reported were actually due to a secondary water (HWI), which is a common and efficient treat- infection following a sting by organisms which are not ment, according to international professional literature. necessarily venomous, such as injuries that had not In a survey held among fishermen, they too reported been properly treated in time. In cases of secondary using warm water, usually taken from the boat engine,

34 however, not always at the correct temperature or especially of the general public, regarding primary length of time. The proportion of recorded injuries treatment of injuries caused by marine creatures, is caused by marine creatures, in comparison with those poor. Although physicians are well acquainted with caused by terrestrial creatures, is relatively low (12%), principals of general supportive treatment care, they and compared with other poison categories reported to may lack knowledge regarding the specific treatment the IPIC, it constitutes only 1%. of marine injuries. It is important to note that the medical records of Among the conclusions arising from the present the IPIC characterize the severity of the injuries at the research is the need to spread the principles of manage- time of call, which does not always correspond to the ment and treatment of injuries by marine creatures peak of severity. In addition, the IPIC database may not among the relevant organizations, such as existing reflect the true incidence of marine poisonings because medical bodies in the various fishing ports and bathing reporting to the IPIC is not mandatory. sites. It is also advisable to consider establishing medical The present research is the first of its kind in Israel. services in these places. There is a need to expand it into a multi-center study which will provide more adequate data regarding the Simcha Gweta (M.A.) frequency and severity of injuries inflicted by marine Supervisors: Prof. E. Spanier, Dr. N. Kashtan creatures. It has been shown that the basic knowledge, and Dr. (MD) Y. Bentur

The Genetic Structure of the Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas) Population along the Mediterranean Coast of Israel, and Interactions between Humans and Marine Turtles in Ancient Civilizations

The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) is distributed world- wide in tropical and subtropical oceans, and is endangered in many parts of its range, including Israel. In Israel, its population consists of fewer than ten nesting females, due to excessive hunting during the 1930s. In 1979, the Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority began a project of protection and conservation of the population of sea turtles along Israel’s coasts, as part of a world-wide project (Fig. 1). This research analyzes for the first time the genetic structure of the green sea turtle population along the Mediterranean coastline of Israel. Mitochondrial DNA sequences of this population were analyzed and compared to those of the Atlantic and other Mediterra- nean green sea turtles, on the assumption that the Israeli green sea turtle population is unique. In addition, the present thesis includes historical and archaeological reviews, from which we learn the extent of the exploitation of sea turtles, which lasted for many centuries, and which continues globally in various locations, causing their inclusion in the endangered species list. Samples for the present study include dead embryos from nests, as well as from dead and live sea turtles washed ashore, collected over a period of two years by the Israel Nature and National Parks Protection Authority. The research consisted of an analysis of the genetic struc- Fig. 1. A young green turtle (Chelonia mydas) at the Israel ture of 21 embryos, each from a different nest, and of 44 Sea Turtle Rescue Center of the Nature and Parks Authority, dead and live turtles washed ashore, using mitochon- Michmoret (Photo: Y. Levi)

35 drial DNA control region sequences. A 556 bp (base pair) fragment of the control region revealed three different haplotypes. The most common haplotype, CM-A13, was observed in 63 individuals. The other two haplotypes, which came from two turtles washed ashore, are new, and could indicate nesting colonies in the Mediterra- nean which have different genetic structures. Comparison of the haplotype sequence of the Mediterranean green sea turtles with those of Atlantic turtles can be explained by one of the two conflicting hypotheses regarding the unique genetic structure of the Mediterranean green sea turtles: 1. The colonization of the Mediterranean by green sea turtles began about 10,000 years ago, by one female, after the last glacial period, due to the warming of the region. 2. This colonization started before the last glacial period or much earlier. By the process of natural selection, the only green sea turtles that survived the decrease of temperature due to glacial events were those with the common haplotype CM-A13. In both theories, the phylogeographic pattern in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic may be interpreted in terms of female nest site fidelity and episodic dispersal events. Fig. 2. A two-month-old baby in a turtle shell which served as a The results of this part of the research provide cradle at the beginning of the 20th century primary data on the genetic structure of the green turtle (Photo: D. Bar-Yosef) along the Mediterranean coast of Israel, and add important information on the genetic structure of the green turtle population in the Mediterranean. These data form sea voyages. The main problem with this information is the basis for additional genetic study, with the aim of that it is rarely clear from the texts and artifacts whether building effective conservation strategies for the preser- the animals in question were sea turtles, fresh-water vation of the endangered sea turtle population. turtles or land turtles (tortoises). The historical and zooarchaeological evidence Occasionally, on remote coasts, the existence of these presented in the present research sheds light on the reptiles was crucial in saving the local human popula- exploitation of sea turtles in the Mediterranean area, the tion from starvation. An ancient Greek source, Agath- nd Arabian Peninsula and the Indian Ocean basin, from archides of Cnidus, who wrote in the 2 century BCE, prehistory until the first millennium CE. From analysis describes a group of barbarian natives called ‘Turtle of the evidence it is possible to determine the distribution Eaters’ (Chelenophagi). This group lived on a small of sea turtles and their importance for the economy and island, apparently in the southern part of the Red Sea. culture of coastal civilizations during ancient times. The The island is described as lacking either wild or domes- zooarchaeological and historical information partially ticated vegetation to support the population, and their complement each other, and some conclusions regarding economy depended solely on sea turtles. zooarchaeological remains are based on various histor- An additional textual source, Periplus Maris ical sources. The exploitation of sea turtles, which lasted Erythraei, by an unknown author (possibly a Greek for thousands of years, still continues to this day in many Egyptian), gives the impression that he was a trader. regions, and has caused the current reduction in global The 1st century CE text is concerned with trading goods, populations (Fig. 2). especially luxury goods, around the Indian Ocean, and The most ancient texts which mention turtles are from their import to Egypt and the Mediterranean. Turtle Mesopotamia. These state that turtle meat was used for shells, imported by sea to Egypt and the Mediterranean, food – even by royalty, as well as for medical and ritual were mentioned more than any other trade item. practices. Their shells were an important trade item, in Zoological remains are a means for learning about which offerings were served to the gods after successful the natural environment during ancient times in these

36 regions, along with an understanding of the way of life (8000-6000 BCE). Another bone of the species Chelonia and culture of the local populations. Notwithstanding mydas was found at a site from the Early Bronze Age I the often sparse evidence, it can be assumed that what (3600-3300 BCE) in the Afridar area of Ashqelon. Nine little has been found is due to the fact that the slaughter sea turtle remains were identified in Tel Dor during an of such large creatures occurred on the beach, in order to excavation of the Early Iron Age (1200-1000 BCE) site, make it easier to transport the meat; and therefore bones with no indication as to species. Additionally, in Kinet were widely scattered. From analysis of such remains, Höyük in the Iskenderun Gulf of Turkey, at a site from the the distribution of sea turtles can be inferred, and so Late Iron Age (700-550 BCE), 666 fragments of sea turtle also their importance to the local economy and culture remains were discovered. Analysis of these remains of the ancient civilization in that area. These remains point to a coastal settlement for which sea turtles were can sometimes be identified to the level of species, and important elements of the economy, and which showed sometimes only to the level of family. full exploitation of all parts of the sea turtle. The most ancient evidence of sea turtle use by humans In spite of the scanty evidence, it can be assumed was found in South Africa, during the Middle Stone Age that there was exploitation of sea turtles all around the (90,000-40,000 years BP). From the bone assemblage, eastern Mediterranean coast during much of ancient it is postulated that this human population engaged history. in skilled hunting of many species, and not only from The results of this present interdisciplinary study the opportunistic gathering of available food resources. may assist in the development of effective conservation There are not many remains of sea turtles at this MSA strategies for the repopulation of sea turtles around the site, but it is clear that this population was aware of the world. There have been many initiatives for the protec- importance of turtles for their diet. tion, conservation and improving the situation of the A great deal of archaeological data come from a global sea turtle population, both in the sea and on large number of sites, especially in the eastern Arabian land. These actions include further research, dissemina- Peninsula, from the Ubaid culture (5500–4000 BCE), tion of educational information about their needs, and the Early Bronze Age (3500–2000 BCE), and the Dilmun the preferable steps to protect them. The present study culture (2000-1000 BCE). At some of these sites, sea turtle combines genetic data with historical and zooarchaeo- remains were a major part of the findings, which shows logical information, thus contributing to the further their importance in the daily life of coastal civilizations. understanding of the complex lives and needs of the sea In the Mediterranean the evidence is sparse, and is turtles. found in the eastern coast; therefore it is difficult to come to unequivocal conclusions concerning the importance of turtles to the local civilizations. One bone comes from Yona Levin (M.A.) a site in Ashqelon and is dated to the Neolithic Period Supervisors: Prof. E. Spanier and Dr. D. Bar -Yosef

Population Dynamics of Two Larger Symbiont-Bearing Foraminifera as Environmental Indicators of the Carmel Coast

Larger symbiont-bearing benthic foraminifera are the southeastern Mediterranean during a single year considered to be an important group for reconstructing (2003/2004), in conjunction with a detailed population paleoenvironments. Their occurrence in the geological dynamics study of these two newcomers. Character- record is usually associated with global warming, drier ization of these species will be used for reconstructing periods, sea level rise and slowing of oceanic circula- Pleistocene records from the Israeli shallow continental tion. They live in the tropics and subtropics in oligo- shelf that contain symbiont-bearing species, such as trophic shallow water environments rich in carbonates. Amphisorus/Sorites. The Mediterranean is the most northerly boundary of In order to study the population dynamics of Amphi- their distribution in the oceans, and also that of the stegina lobifera and Amphisorus hemprichii we sampled two recent invaders Amphistegina lobifera and Amphi- a mixture of the brown macroalgae Cystoseira sp. and sorus hemprichii. This study aims to identify the local the red-coralline macroalgae Jania rubens that gener- environmental variability of the shallow shelf off Tel ally grow together and are known to be a preferred Shiqmona, as an example of the local conditions in habitat for these two species. Fifteen algal samples

37 were collected from a water depth of about 1.5 m off Tel is well adapted to the high light intensities, while the Shiqmona at intervals of 3–5 weeks, from 25/8/2003 to other more sensitive individuals show a more patchy 2/9/2004. Water column properties, including tempera- distribution pattern. ture, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen and turbidity, were Growth rate of individuals is relatively fast, and measured. The samples were weighed wet, washed, juveniles can reach a size of 710 µm within 46 days, and freeze-dried. The samples were then dry-sieved similarly to rates determined elsewhere in the tropics, through 500, 710 and 1000μm sieves. Living specimens, including the Gulf of Eilat with a growth rate of 3.8 %/day. recognized by the presence of chloroplasts, were identi- From fall throughout spring growth rate is significantly fied, counted and weighed. Diameter and weight of reduced. The sharp decrease in shell growth rate seems some specimens were measured individually. to be caused by low winter temperatures, which were Water temperatures are more extreme in the shallow close to the minimum that this species can tolerate. water of Tel Shiqmona than in the open Mediterranean, The average weight of juveniles of A. lobifera and vary from 14.88°C in winter to 30.35°C in summer. <500µm is 0.1 ± 0.01 mg, and of adults >1000 µm 1.14 ± Salinity varied from 38.5‰ in winter and 39.95‰ in 0.07 mg. The comparison between individuals from Tel summer. The lower winter salinity values result from Shiqmona and those from the Gulf of Eilat of the same local runoff. The high salinity values during summer diameter indicates that individuals in Tel Shiqmona reflect the reduction of the Nile River flow to the south- are heavier by 15–25% than specimens from the Gulf eastern Mediterranean about 40 years ago, and the of Eilat. As suggested before, it seems that the heavier, gradual increase in salinity since then. Nutrient concen- thicker and more biconvex forms of Amphistegina trations were usually low, similar to values that occur lobifera in Tel Shiqmona reflect the higher wave energy in the oligotrophic SE Mediterranean. in shallow water. The macroalgae which were sampled for this Amphistegina lobifera is considered to be a major study, Jania rubens and Cystoseira sp., show a different carbonate producer in the shallow water environments seasonality, with the main growth period of Cysto- of the Pacific and the Indian Ocean, mainly in tropical seira sp. occurring in spring, and that of Jania rubens in islands and atolls. Along the Israeli coast, mainly in rocky summer. From late summer through fall and winter the areas like Tel Shiqmona (Fig. 1), this species precipitates -2 -1 fast-growing Jania intermix with Cystoseira, creating a at about 260 g CaCO3 m yr . This conservative value is complex structure which is difficult to separate. In this based on an average individual test weight of 1.3 mg, an algal complex Amphisorus hemprichii is attached to the average numerical abundance of 200 adult specimens/g ‘stems’ of Cystoseira sp. using organic glue, while Amphi- dry algae, and algal coverage area of 5%. stegina cling to the thicket, mainly of Jania rubens, using Living specimens of the soritid Amphisorus hemprichii their pseudopodia. (which in its younger stages may resemble Sorites orbic- Amphistegina lobifera reproduces once a year during ulus) were found at Tel Shiqmona only during summer the peak summer season, from the end of July to the and fall, when water temperature varied between end of August, unlike its counterpart in the Gulf of 21.15°C and 30.35°C. The reproduction period of this Eilat, which reproduces twice a year, in June and species is short. Juveniles (<500μm) and intermediate January. The reproduction in the SE Mediterranean is growth stages (500-1000μm) comprise nearly 100% asexual, as evidenced by the large average size of the of the population during July to early August. More proloculus (first chamber) – 60.3μm. During the repro- advanced growth stages reach a maximum during fall duction season the population is composed mainly of (September). The size and weight of the Tel Shiqmona juveniles that occur in low constant numbers, around specimens are significantly less than those of speci- 150 specimens/dry g algae. During the rest of the year mens from the Gulf of Eilat. This may be explained by the numerical abundance of the population fluctuates the extremely low water temperature during winter from 50/g to 700 specimens/g dry algae. During this 2003/4 in Tel Shiqmona, which was 2°C lower than the period the assemblage is almost totally composed of minimum temperature that this species can tolerate. adult individuals. This unique numerical abundance From the end of November until the end of March, a pattern of nearly constant and low numbers of juveniles period in which the temperature range was 15.04–19.58 during summer, alternating with greatly fluctuating °C, no living specimens of A. hemprichii were found at numbers of adults during the rest of the year, may Tel Shiqmona. reflect sensitivity of this species to high light intensi- The new arrival Amphisorus hemprichii in the south- ties that occur during summer in the shallow water of eastern Mediterranean, reported in this study (Fig. 2), the area studied. Furthermore, it seems that the small was recently found west of the Nile Delta and along the number of juveniles which occur in nearly constant northeastern Mediterranean coast, off Antalya, Turkey. numbers may represent a distinct sub-population that The same species was identified as‘Marginopora ’, which

38 is synonymous with Amphisorus hemprichii or Sorites this species in Pleistocene coastal sequences in southern orbiculus in Pleistocene sequence. In these sequences Israel indicates that the coastline at that time was 4–5 it is frequently used as an important biostratigraphic km east of that at present. marker, indicating the Tyrrhenian transgression and the At present, the southeastern Mediterranean is entrance of faunal elements of a low latitude Senegalian considered as ultra-oligotrophic. High minimum winter origin. Lately this species, together with some other sea surface temperature coupled with the extreme larger, symbiont-bearing foraminifera, were reported oligotrophy enabled Amphistegina lobifera, a Lessepsian from a unique carbonate unit that was deposited on invader, to colonize rocky environments and even to the Israeli shelf 320 to 245 kyr BP. Knowing the present- take over the local foraminiferal assemblage in some day ecological regime that allowed the existence of this shallow Israeli continental shelf areas. species in the eastern Mediterranean, we can suggest Throughout the Pleistocene, geographic barriers that its occurrence during interglacial marine isotope between the Indian and Atlantic Oceans prevented stages 9.2 and base 7.5, as well as the mild glacial direct contact between the low latitude Indo-Pacific and marine isotope stage 8, indicates that minimum winter Atlantic-Mediterranean marine systems. The opening surface water temperatures were equal to or above the of the Suez Canal allowed the migration of this species lower limit of their existence at present, that is 17–18 ºC. to the Israeli coast, where it is flourishing. Furthermore the occurrence of the symbiont-bearing foraminifera along the southern Israeli coast indicates that during this period productivity decreased signif- Limor Gruber (M.A.) icantly, probably because of reduced Nile River Supervisors: Drs. A. Almogi-Labin, D. Sivan discharge and fine sediment supply. The occurrence of and Prof. B. Herut

Fig. 1. Amphistegina lobifera. Scale bar of SEM photographs: Fig. 2. Amphisorus hemprichii. Scale bar of SEM photographs: 3, 4, 5: 200µm, 2: 500µm. All specimens were collected at Tel 5: 200µm6, 8: 1 mm, 7: 2 mm. All specimens were collected at Shiqmona during 2003-4 Tel Shiqmona during 2003-4

39 Reconstruction of the Surroundings of Tell Abu-Hawam in the Late Bronze Age II: The 2001 Excavations

Tell Abu-Hawam, an archaeological site on the outskirts Due to urban development, which began in the 19th of modern Haifa is situated between the Carmel Ridge century CE, the modern geographical setting of the and the Qishon River. Several studies of the site and its site’s surroundings has changed dramatically. Urban environs have taken place over the past 90 years, among development was also the trigger for the 2001 salvage which are Guy & Fitzgerald 1922, Mayer & Makhouly project. The squares excavated were not adjacent, but 1930, Baramki 1930, Hamilton 1932-33, Anati & Praus- placed in a rectangle, 30 m from east to west and 10 nitz 1952, Anati & Olami 1963, Balensi & Herrera 1984, m from north to south from each other. Because of the and Galanti & Raban 1988. Despite these efforts, the random geographical nature of the collected archaeolog- architectural and human nature of the site has not been ical data, starting with the early excavations, a digitized conclusively determined: not its size, nor the presence map and 3D model were prepared (Figs. 1, 2). The of the ancient anchorage or anchorages, nor the paleo- previous mapping of the area included a topographical geography and environmental surrounding. map of the Bay of Haifa, prepared by J. Tridel for the In 2001 and 2002, a combined salvage excavation Jewish National Fund in the 1920’s. J. Balensi re-located project of the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies the Tridel map and used it for her own studies of the site and the Israel Antiquities Authority, under the direction in the 1980’s, incorporating her excavated areas as well. of Prof. M. Artzy with the assistance of S. Yanklevitz, Tridel’s, Hamilton’s and Balensi’s maps, the geological U. Ad and A. Abu Hamid, was carried out at Tell Abu- trenches of Raban and Galanti, and the areas excavated Hawam. The 2001 excavation took place in the northern in 2001 and 2002, were all combined in this study. The edges of the Tell, an area that had not been previously emphasis was placed on the remains of the Late Bronze studied, and thus was expected to better address the II period, namely Hamilton’s Level V. question regarding landscape configuration and Previous archaeological studies have concluded theories suggested by previous researchers. that in ancient times the shoreline was very close to the In this study, data from the 2001 and 2002 salvage edges of the site. The city was an island located in the excavations were combined with previous archaeo- heart of the Qishon estuary. These studies suggested logical and geomorphological data. The results of these that the area has endured the recurrence of marine and recent salvage excavations reinforce the theory of the river flooding. The question regarding the position of existence of repeated marine and river flooding events, an anchorage or harbor area during the Late Bronze and of changing sea levels around the site. The exact Age is addressed. The results of the 2001 excavation routes of the rivers continue to be unclear and the recognized four Late Bronze Age phases (designated extent of sea level change remains uncertain. A defini- Va-Vd), all representing shallow water environments, tive flow chart (Harris Matrix) of the stratigraphy of the which were most likely adjacent to a primary anchorage latest excavations was prepared in an attempt to better area. The position of the site, with roads leading inland, understand the layering and nature of the area. allowed some control of the Qishon estuary. The coastal landscape is protected from the prevailing

southwesterly winds, thus providing � � natural shelter for fishermen and seaman. � � � � � � � The research presented in this thesis �� examines and analyzes the archaeological �� data from the dig, and presents a recon- �� struction of the Late Bronze Age site as � �� understood from this additional informa- �� tion, including stratigraphic data, mollusk �� presence and a partial ceramic analysis. The results indicate that the area examined �� represents the edge of the Late Bronze Age site, within the shallows of an adjacent Fig. 1. Three-dimensional map of Tell Abu Hawam based on Tridel’s 1920s anchorage. Evidence of this includes topographical map (prepared by P. Waiman Barak) shallow-water mollusks and an abundance

40 �� of imported pottery, ballast stones, and the remains of � coastal industry dating to the 14th and the first half of �� the 13th centuries BCE. The study further shows that as early as the Late Bronze II period the ancients battled the environs by constructing retaining walls, Hamilton’s �� Stratum V. These walls were discerned in some of the excavated areas on which similarly, Iron Age, Hamil- �� ton’s Stratum III, retaining walls are based. From the �� present study, it seems likely that segments of the �� site, assumed to have been robbed prior to Hamilton’s �� projects in the 1930’s, especially of the Level V defen- sive wall, did not have such a wall. However, this topic �� should be addressed in future studies. The changes of

�� the natural landscape seemingly led to several archi- �� tectural changes during the Late Bronze Age. During �� that same period, the city functioned as a commercial center, serving the eastern Mediterranean.

Fig. 2. Three-dimensional model of Late Bronze Age architectural remains of past excavations at Tell Abu-Hawam. Layer Vd repre- Paula Waiman Barak (M.A.) sents RIMS’s excavation area (prepared by P. Waiman Barak) Supervisors: Profs. M. Artzy and Y. Mart

Provenance of Imported Pottery and Pebbles from Tell Abu-Hawam 2001 Excavations: Evidence of Maritime Trade in the Late Bronze Age IIB

Tell Abu-Hawam is located within the boundaries of and the author, in association with the Israel Antiqui- the present-day city of Haifa and about 1.5 km from the ties Authority, headed by U. Ad. seashore. It was a settlement with an anchorage on the Out of ten squares, 25 square meters each, situated estuary of the Kishon River during the Late Bronze Age within an area of about 3,500 m², only four yielded signif- II period. During that period the Mean Sea Level was icant archaeological finds. The area seems to have been more than 1 m lower than it is at present. the ancient coastline of the site, rather than an inhabited From the beginning of the 20th century, several area. Several successive layers of coastal sand, beachrock, salvage excavations were conducted on the site. The riverbed clays and pebble surfaces were exposed. Some most significant of these was that of R. W. Hamilton of the pebble surfaces show artificial human interven- in the years 1932- 1933. Hamilton determined the basic tion. Abundant pottery fragments and other small finds stratigraphic and chronological framework for the were encountered among the pebble and the clay layers. site, and within it, Stratum V was assigned to the Late Quantitative examination of the ceramic finds showed Bronze Age II period. that about 40% of the pottery excavated in 2001 was The analysis of Hamilton’s excavations and further imported. The pottery was dated by typological paral- excavations, among them Anati’s, and especially lels to the Late Bronze Age IIb – from the 14th to the third Balensi’s, was intended to refine the stratigraphy of quarter of the 13th century BCE. Strata V, IV and III. In the various excavations on the The typological examination showed that most of site, in Stratum V, large quantities of imported pottery the ceramic imports (30% of the total) originated from were uncovered, among which were large numbers Cyprus. More than 2% of the total (6% of the imported of Cypriote and Mycenaean wares, which led some wares) were Mycenaean. Another 2% were from Ugarit scholars to suggest that Tell Abu-Hawam was a Cypriote and the Syro-Lebanese coast. The rest (6%) were sherds or Mycenaean trade colony. from Anatolia, Cilicia, and a few were Egyptian and In 2001, another salvage excavation was undertaken Minoan. Among the sherds that were first thought to on the outskirts of the site by the Institute for Maritime be locally produced is a group that, following the initial Studies at the University of Haifa, headed by Prof. Artzy ceramic study, was shown to resemble Plain White

41 Fig. 1. Imported pottery from the eastern Mediterranean (Drawing: S. Zagorski)

Wheel-Made Cypriote ware. This Cypriote ceramic analysis of the pebbles showed that most of the non- family was not previously identified as part of the carbonate pebbles were from ophiolithic rocks, which repertoire in our area. dominate the lithology of the Troodos Mountains in The surfaces were packed with pebbles in sizes Cyprus. Other ophiolithic areas in the Levant are Ras varying from 5 cm to 30 cm in diameter. Most of the Bassit, on the northern coast of Syria, and northwards in pebbles are carbonate rocks but many are igneous – Hattay and the Cilician coast from Mersin to the Adana basalt or plutonic, and some are metamorphic rocks. Bay. The results illustrate a good correlation between Basalts are a minor constituent of the lithology of north- the origin of the pottery and that of the pebbles. eastern Israel and the adjacent Carmel and Esdraelon The conclusions of the study are: valley, but the other igneous and metamorphic rocks 1. The existence of a hitherto unknown imported pottery are alien to this area. family to this area – the Plain White Wheel-Made. The data collected raised the following questions: 2. The pebbles exposed in the 2001 excavations at Tell 1. What is the provenance of the plain pottery? Is it all Abu-Hawam are ballast stones, possibly from various local or are there imported wares as well? origins. 2. Is it possible to determine the origin of the non- 3. The distribution of the pebbles on the ancient shore- carbonate pebbles? line may point to the actual landing places of the 3. What is the reason for the pebbles being laid where ships. they were found: are they ballast stones, and can 4. The large quantity of plain pottery found in the maritime routes to Tell Abu-Hawam be determined excavations may have been sailors’ items and not neces- based on their origin? sarily commercial vessels. In order to answer these questions, petrographic 5. This study sheds light on the maritime and trade analysis of the stones and ceramics was chosen. About connections with all the important trade centers of the 250 thin-section petrographic slides were made of eastern Mediterranean from the mid-14th to the third plain wheel-made potsherds, and 100 slides of assorted quarter of the 13th century BCE. pebbles. The results show that more than 40% of the plain pottery was imported, 80% of which originated in Cyprus. 10% came from the Lebanese coast, and the rest Shalom Yanklevitz (M.A.) from Ugarit, Cilicia, Egypt, and the Aegean (Fig. 1). The Supervisors: Profs. M. Artzy and Y. Mart

42 Evaluation of the Alleged Reduced Narcosis of Nitrox Mixtures

Background nitrox or air. In addition, it examines the influence of the breathing mixture on the diver's ability to correctly Research shows that success or failure in performance judge (both predict and assess) the decrement in his is influenced not only by one's abilities and limitations performance caused by nitrogen narcosis. The experi- but also by one's judgment. Nowadays, it is widely mental approach was based on a combination of cogni- acknowledged that one tends to act according to one's tive tests and metacognitive measures, not previously own judgment whether or not it is the right thing to applied in the undersea environment. Sensitive cogni- do. This fact may turn against us, all the more so when tive tests served to quantify performance decrement, and performing underwater tasks under the influence of metacognitive tools were used to quantify the quality of nitrogen narcosis. self-judgment and the matching of self-confidence with Nitrogen narcosis is a phenomenon similar to actual performance. The combination of these allowed alcohol intoxication, caused by high partial pressures the overall mental ability of the diver as a function of of nitrogen that cause its excessive dissolution in the breathing mixture to be assessed. Performance and membranes of the neurons in the central nervous system. judgment were examined at a depth of 30 msw for both The symptoms cover a wide range of severity, starting air (30A) and nitrox (30N), against a control dive at 2 from mild impairment of performance on unpracticed 36 msw with air (2A) – the nature of the mixtures being tasks at 30 m of sea water (msw), up to hallucinations irrelevant at this depth. and general anesthesia (at 90 msw and deeper). The most The main objective was to verify or refute the hazardous outcome of nitrogen narcosis is not that of alleged reduced narcosis of nitrox36 over air. Secondary extreme symptomatology, a rare event in cases of uncon- objectives were determining whether narcosis affected trolled descent to great depths, but rather the stages of the encoding or the recall phase of new information, euphoria, overconfidence and loss of judgment which or both, quantifying the often described over-confi- occur at intermediate depths, and which may cause the dence induced by nitrogen narcosis, and determining diver to lose alertness, take extra risks, and start a chain whether it is affected by the breathing mixture, and of events culminating in a serious diving accident or finally, examining the consistency over time of nitrogen loss of his/her life and/or that of his/her diving buddy. narcosis effects on the individual diver. In addition, even subtle decrements in mental perfor- This research was approved by the Ethics Committee mance occurring at moderate depths, especially when of the University of Haifa (Helsinki Committee). unrecognized by the diver, may compromise intricate underwater missions, both military and scientific. Nitrox mixtures are obtained by adding oxygen Methodology to air, and are known as Enriched Air Nitrox (EANx) The experiments were carried out at the Israeli Maritime or nitroxx, the x denoting the percentage of oxygen in College in Mikhmoret, at two flat-bottomed seabed the mixture, i.e. EAN36, nitrox36. The main advantage of locations chosen to provide the desired depths. The nitrox mixtures is a reduced tissue nitrogen load relative marina enabled the 2 msw (shallow control) dives, and to air at the end of a given dive profile (an advantage a buoy anchored 2.4 km off shore marked the site of the that merited the name SafeAir for EAN). This allows 30 msw dives (deep test dives). increased bottom time and reduces the risk of decom- Participants and experimenters: The participants in pression sickness. Another benefit centers on the claim this experiment were 35 divers, 23 male and 12 female, that nitrox mixtures are less narcotic than air at any between the ages of 20 and 30, with a diving history given depth. The assumption behind this claim, which range of 13 to 44 dives. All were Hebrew-speaking under- so far has not received rigorous experimental support, graduate students, who were paid per dive for partici- is that the high partial pressure of nitrogen is the sole pating in the experiment. All signed a consent form and cause of the effect. However, a high partial pressure a medical declaration, and presented a diving certificate of oxygen, as found in nitrox mixture, might totally and updated insurance. Due to the tight schedule and or partially compensate for the loss of nitrogen, since study constraints, not all 35 participants completed all oxygen is twice as lipid-soluble as nitrogen. scheduled dives (as detailed below). This study attempts to quantify nitrogen narcosis This study was managed by a team of experimenters during open sea sport diving at the moderate depth headed by the experiment manager. Task allocations were of 30 msw, as related to the type of breathing mixture, as follows. The Experiment Manager was in charge of

43 constructing the questionnaires, monitoring the diving of visual episodic memory by exposing the diver to a schedule (depth, questionnaire). The Diving Supervisor picture underwater (plus a single overall JOL score), and was in charge of filling the cylinders, checking the dive then asking him/her to recall details from it when back mixtures, providing diving equipment and keeping on shore, through multiple-choice questions with confi- track of safety issues. The Timekeeper was in charge of dence option (on a scale of 25-100%). The results were timing the phases of the experiment, as well as being later revealed to be biased due to technical problems, the safety diver. The Tester was an advanced diver and therefore this experiment was cancelled. (dive master or scuba instructor), whose role was to act The JOL and the confidence are metacognitive as a dive buddy to the participant, carry, hand out and measures from which we can derive the calibration and collect the questionnaires. The Skipper was in charge of the resolution of the participants. Calibration is a crude the boat and the safety swimmer. estimate of the match between judgment (either JOL or Experiment design: The experiments were double- confidence) and actual performance of the participant, blind (neither the participants nor the testers knew the calculated by subtracting the correct score (%) from the nature of the deep gas mixture); therefore, no-decom- JOL or confidence (a negative score is defined as under- pression limits were calculated for air, causing bottom confidence, a positive score means over-confidence time not to exceed 20 minutes. The experiment was of a and zero means perfect judgment/evaluation). Resolu- self-control type, each diver making two 30 msw dives, tion measures the ability of the participant to correctly one for each mixture, and a 2 msw dive which controlled recognize the questions on which he/she is more likely the effect of submergenceper se. Dive order assignments to err, or on which he/she actually erred. It does so by were balanced by a Latin square. two indices: discrimination index and gamma corre- Tests: In each of the three dives, three kinds of lation. The former, with a range of -100 to +100, is the memory tests were given to the participants (a different difference between the mean (JOL or confidence) score version in each dive). Each test consisted of two phases: given to questions with correct answers, and that of encoding phase and recall phase. Twenty-three divers questions with wrong answers. Gamma correlation, completed the 'Faces Test' (Experiment 1), designed ranging between -1 and +1, is a finer test, taking account to assess depth effects on retrieval of visual episodic of the scores given to each individual question. memory. The encoding phase was performed on land, Experimental protocol: The experimental proce- where divers were required to memorize 30 faces in a dure began with the encoding phase of the Faces Test fixed time, and for each one, note their level of assurance (Experiment 1), followed by equipment organization, in their ability to recall it underwater, when presented gearing up and diving to the sea floor (2 msw or 30 msw). together with three unknown faces. The assessment This process took between 40 to 60 minutes. The recall was a value between 25% (guessing) to 100% (absolute process of Experiment 1 took 2 minutes, followed by the certainty). This assessment is a metacognitive measure, encoding of Experiment 2, and after 30 seconds, the recall known as judgment of learning (JOL). After reaching phase of Experiment 2. Experiment 3 started immedi- the sea bottom, the recall phase began, in which partici- ately after Experiment 2 by a 30 seconds encoding of the pants were asked to identify the memorized face among picture. Half an hour later, after reaching the shore, the three unfamiliar faces, and for each one, note their recall phase of Experiment 3 was executed. This proce- degree of confidence (25%-100%) in the correctness of dure was performed three times per participant, once for their answer. This assessment too is a metacognitive each of the conditions (2A, 30A and 30N), spaced by a measure, known as confidence. period of 1 to 42 days (Fig. 1). The 'Word-pair Test' (Experiment 2) was performed by 26 divers. Its purpose was to assess both encoding Main results and recall of textual episodic memory underwater. In the encoding phase, divers were exposed for a fixed time Experiment 1 showed a striking resemblance between to a list of 50 word pairs which they were instructed to all three dives. Depth did not affect recall performance memorize for free recall of the second word (rather than or confidence, and obviously, there was no effect of the choosing it from a list of 4) when presented with the breathing mixture. Group mean JOL and confidence first. JOL was given, on a scale of 0%-100%. The recall gave near-perfect calibration, demonstrating neither phase was not followed by a confidence judgment, as under- nor over- confidence. In contrast, Experiment 2 the time delay from the JOL was deemed too short. demonstrated a clear decrease in performance at depth. The 'Picture Test' (Experiment 3) was intended to This decrease was not accompanied by a lower JOL, test the effect of depth/narcosis on the encoding phase resulting in a positive mean group calibration value,

44 indicating over-confidence. There were no significant of this research would be to use the tests as a basis differences between nitrox and air. for screening candidates for professional deep diving. There was a significant positive correlation between A necessary condition for this, that seems to exist individual cognitive performances, as well as in the according to the results, is a strong correlation between metacognitive measures between experiments, and for personal performance and judgment during different the two deep dives of Experiment 2. dives. This finding strengthens the contention that both surface performance and judgment and their modula- Discussion tion by depth/narcosis are time-stable traits. Therefore, applying the tests and analyzing individual performance Depth effects: The results prove that even at the and self-appraisal may enable weeding out candidates shallow depth of 30 msw, the Word-pair Test was sensi- possessing a high vulnerability to narcosis and a low tive enough to reveal a deterioration of performance awareness of this fact. not backed by a reduction of JOL, meaning the participants as a group were not able to foretell their impaired Summary ability at depth. The resulting positive calibration value, indicative of overconfidence, has been mentioned in the The primary aim of this research was to determine literature, but never previously quantified. One expla- whether nitrox diving involves a lesser degree of nation for the apparent lack of depth effect in Experi- narcosis at a given depth. Whether the apparent negative ment 1 is that, being recognition rather than a free-recall answer will hold for a larger sample and for a greater type, it was too easy. Another possibility is that it is the depth range will only be revealed by further research. encoding rather than the recall phase that is negatively Overall, this preliminary research was a pilot and probe affected by narcosis. If this is the case, this finding has for future studies using the cognitive-metacognitive never been described before. combination approach. This was why it was constructed Dive mixture: The similarity in results between in a manner that could evaluate different experimental nitrox and air concerning the nitrogen narcosis effect tests and conditions. The metacognitive measures, used may be interpreted in several ways: 1. The two mixtures for the first time under water, provide a new dimension have an identical narcotic potency at this depth; 2. the to the study of the nitrogen narcosis effect. 30 msw depth is too shallow and/or the sample size is It is clear that Experiment 2 gave the better results too small to bring out an existing effect; 3. the impaired and that with time constraints, should be the one used for performance is not due to narcosis, but to other depth the entire experiment, i.e., participants should perform the word-pair encoding and recall, including JOL and factors such as cold, visibility or anxiety. confidence, in all three experimental versions. However, Screening tool: One potential practical outcome since visual memory plays an important role in undersea tasks, the Picture Test �� should also receive a similar evaluation. The results show a clear manifestation of over-confidence at depth, i.e., there is a �� deterioration of performance, which is not � �� matched by a reduced JOL. There is also no �� discernable effect of the gas mixture, and it can be claimed that at 30 msw depth both mixtures have the same narcotic effect. The �� consistency in results over time indicates that Experiment 2 was reliable, and that �� there seems to be an innate individual sensitivity to nitrogen narcosis, which, � �� if verified by further studies, may help

�� construct a screening test for professional �� deep divers. ��

Fig. 1. Experiment process on a time schedule. Top - 2 msw (shore dive) air in tanks. Middle - 30 msw (deep dive) nitrox36 in nitrox tanks. Bottom - 30 msw Erez Heilweil (M.A.) (deep dive) air in nitrox tanks. Supervisors: Drs. D. Kerem and L. Sheffer

45 J. Richard (‘Dick‘) Steffy

Dick Steffy at Akko in 1981

Professor Emeritus J. Richard Steffy passed away on Thursday, November 29, 2007 at the age of 83. Dick Steffy, who turned from electrical engineering to ship reconstruction, became the world authority in this field. He established the foundations of the discipline, with its procedures, terminology and methods, and published his encyclopedic Wooden Ship Building and the Interpretation of Shipwrecks (College Station, 1994). Dick was always available for everybody, no matter what his or her knowledge, skills, age or position, reviewing and responding to every query. He was always quiet, relaxed, honest, encouraging, and generous with good advice. Dick was a frequent visitor to Israel. In 1981 he conducted a field school in the harbor of Akko, directing the Department of Maritime Civilizations and the Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies in the excavation and analysis of shipwrecks. He became a friend of the Department, and a personal friend of Elisha Linder, who celebrated his 80th birthday with Dick at College Station, when Philosophy of Shipbuilding (College Station, 2004) was published in Dick’s honor. At the end of 1981 Dick analyzed the Athlit Ram, preparing the information for a symposium. His analysis is so far the only one of its kind of the bow of an ancient warship. In 1986 he was again invited to Israel for the analysis of the Kinneret Boat: his study still serves as the main source of information on its construction. Dick visited Israel twice more, during the 1995 and 1996 INA/CMS Dor/Tantura Lagoon expeditions. There he encountered a shipwreck (Tantura A), which challenged the traditional dates for the transition from shell-based to frame-based construction. Dick’s examination of the archaeological remains was always patient and instruc- tive. He repeatedly sent us into the water to check details and to gather data, explaining their significance. It was a true hands-on lesson by the leading authority. In 1999, during the conservation of the Ma’agan Mikhael ship, Dick participated in a colloquium on its reassembly, together with experts from around the world. With his experience of the Kyrenia and Serçe Limanı wrecks, he whispered his advice: “Build her ‘shell first’ and listen to the ship, she will talk to you.” It was the best advice we have ever had, and the ship was reassembled in this manner. We met Dick Steffy many more times abroad, at Tropis and ISBSA conferences and at other opportunities: he was always kind, gentle and warm. Searching for a colleague to talk ‘mortise-and-tenons,’ he always had good advice and a professional overview. We all will remember him as an outstandingly unique expert, teacher, director, supervisor and, most of all, as a good friend.

Yaacov Kahanov

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48 RIMS STAFF Research Assistants and Projects Dror Angel, Ph.D. - Marine Microbial Ecologist, Environmental Simona Avnaim-Katav, M.A. - Haifa Harbor Project Biologist Ofra Barkai, M.A. - Dor, Akko Michal Artzy, Ph.D. - Coastal and Underwater Archaeologist Ron Beeri, M.A. - Akko, Cypriote Imports Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Ph.D. - Archaeologist, Archaeoma- Deborah Cvikel, M.A. - Akko, Dor lacologist Dor Edelist, M.A. - Artificial Marine Substrates Stephen Breitstein, M.A. - Diving and Operations Officer Shira Freeman, M.A. - Marine Biological Resources Laura Cohen - Secretary, English Editor Beverly Goodman, Ph.D. - Abu-Hawam, Liman Tepe, Caesarea Uzi Dahari, Ph.D. - Archaeologist Arad Haggi, M.A. - Liman Tepe, Athlit Oz Goffman, Ph.D. - Ecologist of Marine Mammals, IMMRAC Hadas Lubinevski, M.A. - Marine Biological Resources Jonathan J. Gottlieb - Conservator Hadas Mor, M.A. - Dor Yaacov Kahanov, Ph.D. - Director, Nautical Archaeologist Philip Nemoy - Marine Biological Resources Nira Karmon, M.A. - Academic Assistant, Scientific Editor Michal Oren-Paskal - Caesarea Nadav Kashtan, Ph.D. - Maritime Historian Dror Pashut - Akko Dan Kerem, Ph.D. - Marine Physiologist, IMMRAC Dror Planer - Dor Hassan Khalilieh, Ph.D. - Maritime Historian Yossi Salmon, M.A. - Nami GPR, Liman Tepe, Bichrome Elisha Linder, Ph.D. - Director, Ma’agan Mikhael Ship Museum Aviad Scheinin, M.A. - Marine Mammal and Fisheries Research Ezra Marcus, Ph.D. - Coastal Archaeologist Ragna Stidsing, M.A. - Nami, Cypriote Imports, Akko Yossi Mart, Ph.D. - Marine Geologist Ben Tamir - Marine Biofouling Research Rachel Pollak, M.A. - Restorator, Processor of Material Culture Paula Waiman-Barak, M.A. - Akko, Tel Ifshar Sariel Shalev, Ph.D. - Archaeometallurgist Shalom Yanklevitz, M.A. - Applied Archaeology, Abu-Hawam, Dorit Sivan, Ph.D. - Coastal Geologist Cypriote Imports Ehud Spanier, Ph.D. - Oceanographer, Marine Biologist Noga Yoselevich, M.A. - Nami, Akko, Liman Tepe Dina Zvielli - Administrative Director Svetlana Zagorski - Abu-Hawam, Liman Tepe, Bichrome, Cypriote Amir Yurman - Marine Operations Technician Imports Irit Zohar, Ph.D. - Archaeoichthyologist Gil Zioni - Nami, Applied Archaeology Publications, Cypriote Imports

Research Associates Sarah Arenson - Historian, ‘Society of Friends of Old Caesarea’ Zvi Ben-Avraham, Ph.D. - Marine Geophysicist Revital Bookman, Ph.D. - Geologist Christopher Brandon - Architect, Nautical Archaeology Society Miri Brumer, Ph.D. - Biologist Yehoshua Folkman, Ph.D. - Geophysicist Adam Friedman, Ph.D. - Molecular Biologist Haim Goren, Ph.D. - Historian Michael Eric Lazar, Ph.D. - Geophysicist Yizhaq Makovsky, Ph.D. - Geophysicist Yehuda Peleg - Archaeologist Yosef Porath, Ph.D. - Archaeologist The Leon Recanati Institute for Maritime Studies Daniella Ran, Ph.D. - Historian University of Haifa, Mount Carmel, Kurt Raveh - Archaeologist Haifa 31905, Israel Uri Schattner, Ph.D. - Geophysicist, Geologist Gideon Tibor, Ph.D. - Geophysicist Tel: 972-4-8240600, 972-4-8249819 Yaron Ticochinski, Ph.D. - Molecular Biologist Fax: 972-4-8240493 Simona Rodan, Ph.D. - Historian E-Mail: [email protected] Dov Zviely, Ph.D. - Marine and Coastal Geomorphologist Web site: http://maritime.haifa.ac.il