Authenticity in the Revival of Orthodox Ecclesiastical Embroidery in Post-Soviet Russia Luba Dovgan Nurse, Dinah Eastop and Mary M
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Authenticity in the revival of Orthodox ecclesiastical embroidery in post-Soviet Russia Luba Dovgan Nurse, Dinah Eastop and Mary M. Brooks ABSTRACT The Russian Orthodox Church, together with the skills and practice of ecclesiastical hand embroidery, was undermined during the Soviet period of 1917–1991. The late 20th- century revival of ecclesiastical embroidery was possible because of the work of conservators and historians in museums in Russia who ensured the preservation of both the artefacts and the understanding of their ecclesiastical use. This paper focuses on the idea of the authenticity of these new embroideries, which is sought by the embroiderers as a key attribute to assert in relation to other types of ecclesiastical textile production. The case study provides a vivid example of the importance of authenticity and how it is invoked. Introduction argues, first, that this emphasis on authentic- ity manifests the Russian Orthodox Church’s This paper explores the nature of the ‘real central, but contested, position in Russian soci- thing’ by examining the authenticity attrib- ety and, secondly, that women have played an uted to embroidery made for use in the important role in constructing the perceived Russian Orthodox Church in the post-Soviet authenticity of this revived Orthodox art form. era.1 This ecclesiastical embroidery (tserko- Interviews with embroiderers and conservators vnaia vyshivka) has two names according to conducted by Luba Dovgan Nurse in Russia the techniques and materials used: metal thread in 2006 provide the primary source for this (zolotnaia) and pictorial (litsevaia). The latter research.2 term derives from the word lik meaning face, image or representation, and is closely related to the art of religious illustration as in the illus- trated biblical chronicles (litsevye rukopisi) and Revival of the Russian Orthodox Church to icons. The roots of this embroidery originate and embroidery in the 10th century with Russia’s acceptance of Christianity following Byzantine traditions The Soviet period, with its ideology of athe- (Mayasova 2004). Production was undermined ism, reached a crisis point in the 1980s that during the Soviet period of 1917–1991 when has been characterised as ‘a disintegration atheism was central to the state-imposed ide- of the social groups and institutions, a break ology of communism. ‘Unpicking’ how this up of people’s identification with former new embroidery has gained the attribution of social and cultural values and norms … loss authenticity is at the centre of this paper which of the state’s monopoly of official values’, and AR-07-Dovgan-Nurse-v2.indd 74 30/01/2014 09:27 AUTHENTICITY IN THE REVIVAL OF ORTHODOX ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY 75 citizens’ growing trust in the Russian Orthodox dissident Orthodox movements, and criticised Church coupled with their loss of faith in the by many as an attack on freedom of conscience Communist Party (Lapin 1992: 10). Informal and the rights of other religious and secular social networks and countercultures, including institutions (Lekhel 1999). those of the Orthodox Church, became a form of social response to the so-called ‘spiritual vac- uum’ (see, amongst others, Ellis 1986). Women in particular took an active role in Orthodox Researching authenticities in Orthodox religious practices during the Soviet period ecclesiastical embroideries (Anderson 1993). The persistence of religious belief in this period despite the state’s policies What definition of authenticity is appropriate has been discussed by several authors (such as for the analysis of authenticity in the context Ramet 1993). The 1990s saw a restructuring of of this form of religious art? The connection the relationship between the state and women, with icons, which have a central and well- and the rapid creation of new social and pro- defined functional role in liturgical services in fessional roles available to women, including Orthodox Christianity, is significant. Pictorial within the Church. embroidery comes with a strong aesthetic These new roles came about as a result tradition characterised by its two-dimensional of the political and economic reforms of the plane, inverse perspective (the vanishing point 1990s. One of these was the ‘Law of the USSR for creating perspective is located outside of on Freedom of Conscience and Religious the image, in the viewer), and conventional, Organisations’ (1990) that ended atheism as symbolic representations of objects and fig- state ideology and acknowledged the equal- ures accompanied by inscriptions identifying ity of all religious confessions (Codevilla those represented. At its heart is the belief that 1991). The revival of the Russian Orthodox the prototype (i.e. the holy figure) is present in faith, among other religions, was demon- the image: for example, there is a presence of strated by the number of churches opened.3 Christ in the image of Christ. This presence is Ecclesiastical embroidery was revived initially bound to the object by adhering to the estab- in response to the rapid increase in demand lished canons guiding the forms and rules of for liturgical artefacts by these newly built and representation. These embroideries, like icons, restored churches. The 1990 law gave regis- can be understood as material representations tered religious organisations the right to set up of the immaterial. Authenticity attributed to educational establishments. Workshops spe- ecclesiastical textiles used for veneration and cialising in hand embroidery were established liturgy thus rests on the theological ideas and an under Church patronage or as part of theo- understanding of religious rituals. Such views logical educational institutions. Embroidery in have had a prescriptive effect on Orthodox these workshops is carried out by women and embroidery. has acquired the label ‘traditional embroidery’. The development of the Russian Orthodox Following the dissolution of the Soviet aesthetics supposedly ceased with the Union (1991), the Orthodox Church’s promi- Communist Revolution of 1917. During the nent social and political role was reinforced period of the state’s repeated attacks on reli- by the 1997 Federal Law, ‘On Freedom of gion, limited production of ecclesiastical Conscience and Religious Associations’, which textiles was restricted to monasteries, which stressed ‘the special role of the Orthodoxy in retained relative religious freedom. Under the history of Russia, in the establishment and severe repression, adherence to religious aes- development of its spirituality and culture’ thetics was masked as secular. A priest’s stole (Federal’nyi Zakon 1997: Preamble). This law, made in a forced labour camp serves as an and the expansion of the Russian Orthodox example here. This was made in the shape of Church’s power, has been opposed by the a secular false shirtfront, embroidered with AR-07-Dovgan-Nurse-v2.indd 75 30/01/2014 09:27 76 LUBA DOVGAN NURSE, DINAH EASTOP AND MARY M. BROOKS geometric patterns in cross-stitch, to mask its represents the divine being. When the priest ‘true’ religious function which is to signify the wears the embroidered cuffs, his hands may be priest’s power to serve the Eucharist.4 understood as standing for the divine. A short While the teaching and the aesthetics of prayer is read as clergy put on each vestment this form of art are familiar to religious and prior to a service. The prayers for the cuffs are: secular audiences in Russia, such familiarity cannot be taken for granted outside the coun- Right hand: ‘Your right hand, O Lord, is try. This study of the perceived authenticity of glorified in strength. Your right hand has newly made ecclesiastical embroidery is there- crushed the enemies. In the fullness of fore based on analysis of materiality (valued Your glory You have shattered the adver- features of techniques and producers) and lan- saries’ (Exodus 15:6–7). guage of ecclesiastical embroidery production. Left hand: ‘Your hands have made me The Russian adjective podlinnyi (authen- and have fashioned me. Grant me under- tic) is used to explain the values assigned to standing and I shall learn from Your Orthodox embroideries at different points in commandments’ (Psalm 119:73). history, and is a property attributed both to persons and objects. It has three meanings: The role of the vestments as material meta- original and not a copy; someone or something phors for the transfer of divine power is that is genuine, not an imitation or fake; and evident. These cuffs demonstrate what Tilley that which is true in essence (Slovar Russkogo calls ‘metaphoric condensation’ of primary and Iazyka 1999). secondary meanings that would require ‘an entire string of different linguistic metaphors to accomplish’ in words but is achieved in an unspoken, condensed form by the cuffs in ritual Language and the ‘real thing’ use (Tilley 1999: 263). The starting point for this research was Eastop’s teaching on ‘Textiles as Metaphors’,5 which drew on Tilley’s insight that culturally salient Authenticities explored artefacts may function as material metaphors (Tilley 1999). Often ‘taken for granted’ in the This research suggests that contemporary context of their use, their meaning is expe- Orthodox embroidery gains authenticity via rienced; it does not need to be articulated in the following three main attributes: words. The value of ‘experiencing’ is important because Church Slavonic remains the primary • by being made for veneration; language of Orthodox services. This is known to • as a form of religious art that is handmade the celebrants but is only understood by those and thus viewed as a form of prayer; contemporary Russians who regularly attend • by reference to historic textiles as models. services or study it independently. The metaphorical impact of elaborate vest- ments is shown in the following analysis of ecclesiastical cuffs embroidered with scenes of Made for veneration the Annunciation and explanatory inscriptions from the Gospel of Luke (Fig. 1). Two types of Orthodox textiles with pictorial embroidery meaning transfer occur simultaneously: met- can be grouped into four main categories onymic and metaphoric.