The History and Usage of the Tuba in Russia

D.M.A. Document

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

James Matthew Green, B.A., M.M.

Graduate Program in Music

The Ohio State University

2015

Document Committee:

Professor James Akins, Advisor

Professor Joseph Duchi

Dr. Margarita Mazo

Professor Bruce Henniss

Copyright by

James Matthew Green

2015

Abstract

Beginning with Mikhail Glinka, the tuba has played an important role in Russian music. The generous use of tuba by Russian composers, the pedagogical works of

Blazhevich, and the solo works by Lebedev have familiarized tubists with the instrument’s significance in Russia. However, the lack of available information due to restrictions imposed by the Soviet Union has made research on the tuba’s history in

Russia limited. The availability of new documents has made it possible to trace the history of the tuba in Russia. The works of several composers and their use of the tuba are examined, along with important pedagogical materials written by Russian teachers.

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Dedicated to my wife, Jillian Green

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Acknowledgments

There are many people whose help and expertise was invaluable to the completion of this document. I would like to thank my advisor, professor Jim Akins for helping me grow as a musician, teacher, and person. I would like to thank my committee, professors

Joe Duchi, Bruce Henniss, and Dr. Margarita Mazo for their encouragement, advice, and flexibility that helped me immensely during this degree.

I am indebted to my wife, Jillian Green, for her persistence for me to finish this document and degree. I am also thankful of her support of my musical and academic endeavors.

I would like to thank my good friends Adam Stevens, doctoral candidate in tuba performance at the University of Iowa, Tracy Luna, band director in eastern Tennessee, and Lisa Muth, freelance hornist and tubist in Cleveland for their help with editing and helping me stay positive through the difficult times.

Without Alexei Levashkin, Russian tubist and teacher, this document would not be possible. His willingness to share his life’s research on the history and teachers of the tuba in Russia his English translation has been the foundation of this paper.

Lastly, I would like to thank every friend, family member, colleague, and mentor not mentioned who has helped me on my musical journey.

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Vita

September 18, 1986 ...... Born, Dallas, TX

2005 ...... High School Diploma, Cedar Hill High School

2009 ...... B.A in Music, Abilene Christian University

2009- 2011 ...... Graduate Assistant, Miami University

2011 ...... Master of Music, Miami University

2011-2014 ...... Graduate Teaching Associate, School of Music, The Ohio State University

2014 to present ...... Lecturer of Tuba, Euphonium, and Bass Trombone, Ohio Northern University

Publications

Corelli, Arcangelo. Sonata No 10 in F Major. Transcribed and edited for tuba by James M. Green. Ledyard, CT: Cimarron Music Press, 2015.

Fields of Study

Major Field: Music

Area of Emphasis: Tuba Performance

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Table of Contents

Abstract ...... ii

Dedication………………………………………………………………………………...iii

Acknowledgments ...... iv

Vita ...... v

List of Musical Examples ...... viii

Note on Abbreviations, Translations, Transliterations, and Pitch Designations...... xi

Introduction...... 1

Chapter 1: History and Development of Brass in Russia from Peter the Great to Glinka...4

Chapter 2: The Establishment of the Russian Conservatory and the Tuba’s Dispersion..28

Chapter 3: The Tuba's Usage in Romantic Era Russia…..………………………………38

Chapter 4: The Tuba in the Silver Age of Russia……………………………………...... 71

Chapter 5: The Soviet Union's Impact on the Tuba…………………………….………..88

Chapter 6: The Russian School of Tuba………………………………………………..118

Chapter 7: Contemporary Trends for the Tuba in Russia………………………………133

Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………...... 142

Works Consulted………………………………………………………………………..144

Appendix A: Writings About the Ophicleide and Tuba in Orchestration Treatises…....151

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Appendix B: Permissions…………………………………………………………….…153

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List of Musical Examples

Example 1.1 Glinka’s A Life for the Tsar, section 17, measures 1-5………………….21

Example 1.2 Glinka’s A Life for the Tsar, section 19, measures 104-121…………….22

Example 1.3 Glinka’s La Jota Aragonesa, introduction, measures 25-31……………..25

Example 1.4 Glinka’s La Jota Aragonesa, measures 6-16 of rehearsal F……………...26

Example 3.1 Balakirev’s Russia, measures 11-18 of rehearsal 3……………………...41

Example 3.2 Balakirev’s Russia, measures 13-16 of rehearsal 13…………………….42

Example 3.3 Balakirev’s Symphony No. 1, mvt. 3, rehearsal 11-12……………...…...43

Example 3.4 Borodin’s Prince Igor Overture, measures 41-48………...……………...46

Example 3.5 Borodin’s Symphony No. 2, mvt. 1, measures 14-19 of rehearsal C…....47

Example 3.6 Borodin’s Symphony No. 2, met. 4, measures 1-8 of rehearsal A………48

Example 3.7 Mussorgsky’s Night on Bald Mountain, measures 15-21………………..51

Example 3.8 Night on Bald Mountain, ed. Rimsky-Korsakov, measures 15-21………52

Example 3.9 Mussorgsky’s Boris Godunov, scene 2, measures 1-7…………………..54

Example 3.10 Boris Godunov, ed. Rimsky-Korsakov, scene 2, measures 1-6……...…..56

Example 3.11 Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade, mvt. 1, measures 1-4……………….58

Example 3.12 Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade, mvt. 4, meas. 11-17 of rehearsal S....60

Example 3.13 Rimsky-Korsakov’s Russian Easter Overture, meas. 13-36 of reh. C…....61 viii

Example 3.14 Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 1, movement 4, measures 57-62………...65

Example 3.15 Tchaikovsky’s 1812 Overture, measures 353-357……………………….66

Example 3.16 Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 5, movement 1, measures 267-270..…….67

Example 3.17 Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 6, mvt. 4, meas. 1-10 of rehearsal L…….69

Example 4.1 Ewald’s Quintet No. 1, movement 1, measures 1-8……….……….……74

Example 4.2 Ewald’s Quintet No. 1, movement 1, measures 52-59……….………….76

Example 4.3 Ewald’s Quintet No. 1, movement 2, measures 10-19…….…………….77

Example 4.4 Stravinsky’s Firebird Suite, movement 5, measures 3-8…………….…..80

Example 4.5 Stravinsky’s Petrushka, tableau 4, measures 3-8 of rehearsal 100………82

Example 4.6 Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, part 1, rehearsal 67-68………………….….85

Example 4.7 Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, part 2, measures 1-6 of rehearsal 186……...86

Example 4.8 Differences between two Petrushka editions………………………….…88

Example 5.1 Prokofiev’s Lieutenant Kije Suite, mvt. 5, measures 1-4 of reh.59……...93

Example 5.2 Prokofiev’s Romeo and Juliet Suite 2, mvt. 5, meas. 4-8 of reh. 49...... 94

Example 5.3 Prokofiev’s Romeo and Juliet Suite 2, mvt. 7, meas. 3-8 of reh. 67…….96

Example 5.4 Prokofiev’s Alexander Nevsky, movement 1, measures 1-4.……………97

Example 5.5 Prokofiev’s Alexander Nevsky, mvt. 2, measures 1-6 of rehearsal 9…....98

Example 5.6 Prokofiev’s Alexander Nevsky, mvt. 5, measures 1-5 of rehearsal 35…..99

Example 5.7 Prokofiev’s Ivan the Terrible, movement 12, measures 1-11…………..101

Example 5.8 Prokofiev’s Symphony No. 6, mvt. 1, measures 1-5 of rehearsal 19…..104

Example 5.9 Prokofiev’s Symphony No. 6, movement 3, rehearsals 71-72…………105

Example 5.10 Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 9, movement 4, measures 1-9……...….108

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Example 5.11 Shostakovich’s First Violin Concerto, mvt. 3, rehearsal 76-77………..110

Example 5.12 Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 13, movement 4, measures 1-23………113

Example 5.13 Tcherepnin’s Andante, measures 12-15…………………………………116

Example 5.14 Tcherepnin’s Andante, measures 61-65…………………………………116

Example 5.15 Tcherepnin’s Andante, measures 37-40, tuba part………………………117

Example 6.1 Vasiliev’s 24 Melodius Etudes, No. 12, measures 13-25……....………120

Example 6.2 Comparison of Two Similar Blazhevich Etudes...... 124

Example 6.3 Lebedev’s Concerto No. 1, measures 6-9………………………………127

Example 6.4 Lebedev’s Concerto No. 1, measures 53-57……………………………128

Example 6.5 Lebedev’s Concerto No. 1, cadenza……………………………………129

Example 7.1 Strukov’s Concerto for Tuba, movement 1, measures 23-26…………..135

Example 7.2 Gubaidulina’s Lamento, rehearsal 15-16……………………….……....137

Example 7.3 Gubaidulina’s Lamento, rehearsal 4-5………………………………….138

Example 7.4 Arutiunian’s Concerto for Tuba, movement 3, measures 9-16…………140

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Note on Abbreviations, Translations, Transliterations, and Pitch Designations

References to dynamic and tempo markings will be included as written in the music. When applicable, I will put any Cyrillic texts in parentheses and use the Library of

Congress transliteration system on Russian words, unless properly accepted transliterations exist. Therefore, I will transliterate Прокофьев as Prokofiev, instead of

Prokof’ev, which is the Library of Congress transliteration.

When applicable, I will use translated materials. However, in the case of Alexei

Levashkin’s Pictures from Tuba History in Russia, there are several grammatical errors in the translation. In cases where there are significant grammatical errors from the translation, I will not directly quote it but reference it. Any other words will be translated with the use of a dictionary.

For musical terminology, I will use italicized symbols when applicable. For example, a fortissimo will be represented as ff.

All musical examples will be created using Finale 2012 notation software. I will only include pertinent instrumentation of the scores and individual instrument lines. All sources are from the editions listed in the bibliography.

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Pitch Notation

Throughout the document, I will be referring to pitches and octaves using the system below. The capitalizations and other markings will refer to the octave. I will be using a similar system to that the International Tuba Euphonium Association journal uses.

CC to BB

C to B

c to b

c’ to b’

c” to b”

c’’’ to b’’’

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Introduction

Russian composers and teachers have made some of the greatest contributions to the advancement of the tuba. Since the invention and incorporation of the tuba in orchestral repertoire, Russian composers have given the tuba significant thematic material and have used its timbre in unique combinations with other instruments. Russian composers have also been among the first to write solo works for the tuba. Other composers, such as Victor Ewald, have written significant parts for the tuba in chamber music. Low brass teachers and pedagogues from Russia wrote many etude books for the tuba, several of which are standard etude books today. The importance of the usage of tuba in the music from Russia will be the focus of this document.

There are various aspects of Russian music that I could write about in this document. When I listen to recordings of Russian orchestras and players, I notice a distinct sound and tone difference than that of many American and European orchestras.

However, without spectrographs of Russian, European, and American players in a controlled environment, no definitive conclusions can be made regarding differences in timbre. I will bring up sound differences by those who have written about them, though this will not be the focus.

To cover every Russian composer’s usage of tuba would be excessive for the scope of this document. I have decided to focus on major composers, teachers, and

1 pedagogues and their advancements to the instrument. I will not cover every work by composers, and the works chosen have been purposely selected. Though some of the works covered will be familiar to many tubists, I hope to shed new light on those. I have also included works that are not as well known which include significant tuba parts. I am hoping that the inclusion of these works will help others gain familiarity with them.

There are many compositions and editions that were not accessible for this project. Many factors, including the political climate at the time of writing this document, prohibited a trip to Russia to do further research. There have been many works made unavailable for purchase due to limitations imposed by the GATT treaty.1 Other works, such as the Textbook for Tuba in Bb (Школа для Тубы in B)2 by Vladislav Blazhévich are no longer available for purchase. I was fortunate to have purchased the book, published by Encore Music Publishers when it was available to purchase.

The term “Russian” has a broad meaning in terms of identity. As the Russian empire grew during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many cultures became influenced by the rule of the Tsar. During the revolutions of 1917, the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Tsar formed the Soviet Union. The Soviet government destroyed symbols of imperial Russia and imposed new ideologies on the people. Though new ideologies, there was no Soviet identity; the personal and individual identity still existed alongside the new ideologies. The dissolution of the Soviet Union caused the formation of fifteen autonomous countries, though no new identities or

1 The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was implemented in 1948 to regulate international trade. The Russian Federation applied to join in 1993. The World Trade Organization was 2 This is the title as it appears in the original edition, including “in B”. 2 cultures were created; the cultures existed in parallel during Soviet rule. The continuous transfer of political powers makes it difficult to refer to a composer as part of a certain nationality. For example, Prokofiev was born in the Russian empire, what is now the

Donetsk Oblast of Ukraine. Alexander Arutiunian was born in present day Armenia, though at the time of his birth it was part of the Soviet Union. For the purpose of this document, I will include composers, teachers, and performers who were born, studied in or otherwise associated with the Russian Empire, the Soviet Union, or the Russian

Federation.

This history and development of the tuba will be included in the opening chapter and will include basic history and development of the instrument.

This document will serve as an overview of the history and usage of the tuba in

Russia based on the sources and information I was able to gather. Though it does not cover every composer that wrote for the tuba, this document will serve as the foundation for further research on the use of tuba and other brass in Russia.

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Chapter 1: History and Development of Brass in Russia from Peter the Great to Glinka

Brass playing in Russia has a unique history that had a significant impact on its usage. Prior to the reforms of Peter the Great, the majority of the music written was meant for performance in the Russian Orthodox Church. Similar to the Catholic Church, the Russian Orthodox Church denounced secular music.3 However, the reforms of Peter the Great created an environment that fostered the influx of music from Europe.

The reforms of Peter the Great opened the doors wide to all sorts of western European imports. Music was one of these, although Peter I himself did not have much of an ear for it. Military music alone appealed to him, and that was only because of his passion for modernization. More important for the musical life of Russia was the founding of St. Petersburg. The European character of that city demanded European music, and Western musicians—who, invited by the tsarist court and the greater nobility, soon took the place of local artists—felt immediately at home in the new environment.4

The reforms of Peter the Great helped connect Russia to the rest of Europe, where music was thriving. Peter the Great also incorporated wind instrument ensembles throughout

Russia. “According to his decree of 1711, a small wind orchestra was to be introduced into every military unit of the Russian army.”5 Though Peter the Great did not have an

3 There were early accounts of the use of trumpets in the storming of Kiev in 968. This event was described as a militaristic use of the instrument, rather than its use musically. 4 Francis Maes, A History of Russian Music: From Kamarinskaya to Babi Yar. Translated and Edited by Arnold J. Pomerans and Erica Pomerans (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006), 14. 5 Lenonid Chumov, “History of Russian Brass Ensembles,” International Trumpet Guild Journal (September 1994), 33. 4 ear for music, he was considered an excellent drummer and introduced trumpets and timpani to his military regiments.6

Though the reforms directly helped the growth of music through its incorporation in military bands, the urbanization of St. Petersburg had a significant impact musically.

As people moved to the cities, they brought folk songs and other music from their homelands. Eventually, the folk songs were harmonized using Western forms of chordal accompaniment.7 The influx of music performances led to people writing music.

However, there were few people trained in music during the early eighteenth century.

“The most fortunate among them [composers]…were sent to Italy for further training.”8

As more composers became trained in Western styles, they incorporated elements of

Western music into their own. This eventually led to the influx of Italian opera to Russia, which led composers such as Mikhail Glinka to write operas using the Russian language.

Though there was not much music written by classically trained musicians during the eighteenth century, there was no lack of music performed in the cities. Italian operas, the most popular of western music played, would be performed in several Russian theatres. Music from other composers throughout Europe was also performed in Russia.

Catherine the Great liked Italian opera, and hired composers from Italy to write them.

“Works by other composers such as Salieri, Pergolesi, and Gluck, who were especially popular in Russia, were also performed at the Imperial opera. There were not only operas,

6 Edward H. Tarr, East Meets West: The Russian Trumpet Tradition from the Time of Peter the Great to the October Revolution, with a Lexicon of Trumpeters Active in Russia from the Seventeenth Century to the Twentieth (Hilsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2003), 7. 7 Maes, 15. 8 Ibid., 16. 5 but also ballets, cantatas, and oratorios.”9 Opera orchestras began to use brass instruments, specifically horn and trumpet, as was prominent practice in Italy. In addition to the growth of operas, several traveling virtuosos began to perform in Moscow and St.

Petersburg. Though the majority of the soloists played string, woodwind, and keyboard instruments, horn virtuosos Ignaz Böck and Anton Böck performed with the Russian

Horn Band.10 The thriving music scene in Russia helped further the growth of music, the extended usage of brass, and the development of Russian style.

In addition to the growth of music in the urban areas in the eighteenth century, the development of brass instrument usage was influenced by the emergence of horn orchestras. The instruments used were similar to hunting horns, and the ensembles consisted of sixteen to thirty players. Each player in the horn orchestra would play a single note, similar to a hand bell choir.

The formation of horn orchestras required a large amount of resources, however the feudal society and serfdom, along with the Russian royalty made these ensembles possible.11 Maresch, a Czech-born serf of the Royal Naryshkin Court, created one of the most famous horn orchestras. Naryshkin was the chief master of the hunt, and he worked to refine the sound of the hunting horn. Like Peter the Great, Empress Elizabeth (who ruled from 1741 to 1762) was influential to the growth and establishment of music, and was pivotal in the development of horn orchestras. “In 1757, Empress Elizabeth heard [a] hunting horn chorus, [and] ordered to create the same chorus at her court. Since then, all

9 Tarr, 16. 10 Ibid., 18-19. 11 Alexei Levashkin, Pictures from Tuba History in Russia (unpublished, 2014), 2-3. New revised edition. Used by Permission. (Originally A Short History of the Tuba in Russia, in the Brass Bulletin, 1999.), 2-3. 6 noble houses in Russia sought to have hunting horn choruses.”12 The Russian royalty set strong precedents to help the spread of music throughout the country.

The Russian horn orchestras grew quickly and the level of playing quickly advanced. These ensembles began to play difficult music, including transcriptions of opera overtures. Eventually, a horn orchestra (conducted by Saltykov) performed in

London and received great reviews for the sound and accuracy of their performances.13

Horn orchestras often played at diplomatic events, weddings, and royal balls. As symphonic music began to grow in Russia, the horn orchestras disbanded. “For more than 100 years, horn music had no rival in Russia and played a leading role in the country’s cultural life. However, time passed by and musical styles began to slowly change and horn orchestras were gradually pushed aside by symphony orchestras and undeservedly forgotten.”14 The ensembles were revived for royal events, specifically the coronations of Alexander III and Nicholas II. It is fitting that the ensemble that was made popular by royalty was later used to coronate the last Tsars of Russia.

The invention and usage of valves on brass instruments was another factor that led to the decline of the horn orchestras across Russia. “The valve to nineteenth-century instrument-makers was like the philosophers’ stone of the middle ages: they applied themselves with all the fanaticism of the alchemists to the task of discovering a means of turning acoustically-imperfect side-holes and restricted harmonic series into golden

12 Ibid., 3. 13 Chumov, 33. 14 Natalia Sumilova, The Horn Orchestra of Russia (St. Petersburg, n.d.), 3. 7 chromaticism.”15 The ability to play chromatically on a brass instrument replaced the need for horn ensembles of sixteen to thirty six players.

Furthermore, the 1861 emancipation of the serfs made it difficult to find enough players to fill these ensembles. Despite the invention of the valve, brass players in most parts of Europe were not quick to utilize it. “The early valved instruments were taken up rather slowly by musicians at the time, probably because they were faulty and inaccurate due to the as yet undeveloped means of manufacture.”16 Another reason for the slow introduction of the valve was because many professionals were accustomed to the older instruments; thus, some performers elected to not use newer ones. Also, the poor quality of many early prevented the dispersion of the valve, As musicians began to use valved instruments, orchestras and bands had a mixture of instruments that used valves and others that did not.

Unlike other parts of Europe, the adoption of the valve in Russia was quickly implemented into ensembles. Earl Cathcart, Colonel of the Second Life Guards, visited

Russia and heard the St. Petersburg Band of the Imperial Guards playing chromatic trumpets. Cathcart expressed his appreciation of the valved trumpets to Tsar Nicholas I.

Tsar Nicholas I showed his gratitude to music by gifting the Second Life Guard Band a set of valved chromatic trumpets. Upon request of Tsar Nicholas I, the instruments were ordered to be partially covered with a bag when playing in public to hide the valves.17

Despite Nicholas I’s desire to keep the presence of the valves a secret, instrument makers

15 Clifford Bevan, The Tuba Family, 2nd. ed. (Winchester: Piccolo Press, 2000), 181. 16 Donald Stauffer, A Treatise on the Tuba (Birmingham: Stauffer Press, 1994), 43. 17 Bevan, Tuba Family 186-187. 8 began to copy the instruments. The dissemination of the chromatic valved trumpets throughout Europe occurred largely because of their usage in Russian bands.

As trumpets became present in military bands, extreme methods of teaching the instrument were employed. “Recruits into the Russian army who were selected at random to become members of the trumpet corps were literally thrashed into playing the right notes.”18 These thrashings eventually ended, and tis could have resulted from the fact that the Trumpet Corps had to play for the general on a daily basis.19 Despite the peculiar teaching of the trumpet in the military bands of Russia, more original compositions for brass began to appear. Mikhail Glinka, commonly referred as the

“Father of Russian Music”, composed a march for trumpets in 1828; this march is among one of the first independent pieces written for brass instruments by a Russian composer.

Trumpeters of the mounted guard performed it on a boat. Glinka later used the march in his opera, A Life for the Tsar, a pinnacle work in Russian opera.

Development and Dispersion of the Tuba Family

The development of the tuba and classification of its ancestors is a topic debated among organologists. The serpent is often considered to be the earliest forerunner of the tuba, though it was made of wood and had air holes. “The serpent was the first attempt to find a satisfactory bass wind instrument played by the players [sic] lips. 1590 is the date given or this invention by a churchman called Guillaume of Auxerre. This was not so

18 Tarr, 43. 19 Ibid., 44. 9 much an invention as an addition of a bass brother to the already existing family of instruments called ‘Zincken’”.20

The serpent’s introduction into church music was well timed, as it gave strength to the cantus firmus lines sung by bass voices.21 The serpent also accompanied the unison singing of church choirs by giving the singers a foundational pitch and added a rich sound to the overall texture.22 Though the serpent did well assisting choirs, it had some design issues that caused intonation issues. The finger holes were spaced so the performers could easily reach them, which resulted in poor intonation.23 Though it added a rich texture to the choir, the serpent’s size and sound restricted its use.

The tone of the serpent could be exceedingly blatant and powerful, fulfilling admirable only its important historical function of doubling the organ bass line in the ‘Dies Irae’. The strident non-blending uneven tone made this instrument quite unsatisfactory for use in the orchestra. This is indicated by the fact that the major composers of the eighteenth century seem to have made no serious attempts to use its output. Outside its office in the church, the serpent also found a place in the various town and military bands. Its life there was not too happy. The serpent player could either play or march; he could not do both.24

There was no documentation showing if the serpent was used in Russia during the seventeenth through nineteenth centuries.

The growing need for a bass wind instrument in orchestras and bands led to many subsequent developments and improvement in the serpent’s design and the teaching for

20 Stauffer, 26. 21 Bevan, Tuba Family 65. 22 J. Kent Mason. The Tuba Handbook (Toronto: Sonante Publications, 1977), 1. 23 The spacing of tone holes can have a major impact on the pitch, however would have made it harder ergonomically. 24 Stauffer, 27. 10 it. These developments led to composers such as George Frideric Handel writing music for the serpent.25

The serpent was introduced to military bands to fulfill a need for a bass wind instrument. When Ludwig Van Beethoven composed his March in D for Military Band,

(WoO 24), the work was scored for woodwinds, brass, and percussion. The serpent plays similar parts to the tenor and bass trombones throughout, without many technical demands. This work was significant because of its inclusion by a prolific composer.

The serpent’s design caused issues when marching and playing became necessary.

“The introduction of the serpent to military service led to new methods of holding, and a modified form.”26 King George III made suggestions to hold the instrument sideways and turn the bell outwards to produce more sound and not interfere with marching.27 As it became incorporated in more military bands, serpent makers began designing upright serpents. One of the upright serpents was referred to as the Russian bassoon, though it was not made or associated with Russia. Another variation of the serpent was the English bass horn, which some consider the instrument that Mendelssohn intended for his overture to A Midsummer Night’s Dream. The Russian bassoon and the English bass horn were rarely used outside of military bands. Though there were design changes, the serpent was not completely replaced. “The Russian bassoon did not succeed in replacing the serpent...it was used alongside the serpent up to about 1850.”28 The serpent in its

25 Handel’s music for serpent included Water Music and Royal Fireworks Music. These pieces were played outdoors. The serpents powerful sound was ideal for these settings, however was less ideal for inside and intimate musical settings. 26 Mason, 8. 27 Bevan, 70. 28 Stauffer, 29. 11 original form was still used for ecclesiastical and other settings that did not require movement while playing.

Other variations of the serpent eventually found themselves into the concert halls.

“There was an immmense [sic] variety of upright serpents. The type found in Italian opera houses, the only orchestral environment in which it made a regular place for itself, had a relatively narrow bore. This was the prototype cimbasso.”29 30 Several Russian composers in the early nineteenth century studied in Italy, where they likely encountered the cimbasso. It is not noted if the cimbasso was used in productions of Italian operas in

Russia; however, the influx of traveling musicians and orchestras suggests cimbasso was used in Russia during the early and mid eighteenth century. In addition to the cimbasso, many Italian opera composers wrote for other instruments, such as the ophicleide.

The continuous developments to the serpent led to the creation of the ophicleide.

The ophicleide differed from other variations of the serpent in that it was made of brass and used keys similar to a modern saxophone. Though it was keyed, the ophicleide used a mouthpiece similar to a serpent.31 Jean Hilaire Asté invented the ophicleide in 1817 and patented it in 1821.32 “History has proven the bass ophicleide to have been the most long- lived keyed brass instrument. Its original design needed only slight modifications and the addition of more keys to make the instrument more flexible, with an array of alternate

29 Bevan, 81. 30 The instrument referred to as the cimbasso has been debated among organologists. One usage of the instrument is similar to a valved contrabass trombone, with a forward facing bell. Another usage is the a variation of the upright serpent. For more information on the etymology of the word cimbasso and its usage, refer to Clifford Bevan’s “Cimbasso Research and Performance Practice: An Update” in Perspectives in Brass Scholarship: Proceedings of the International Historic Brass Society, edited by Stewart Carter. Amherst: Pendragon Press, 1995, 289-299. 31 The ophicleide was a member of the keyed bugle family, and translates to “keyed serpent”. Early mentions of keyed trumpets date back to the 1750s in St. Petersburg, Russia. 32 Mason, 11. 12 fingerings.”33 The ophicleide was used more often in orchestral works because of the improved and controlled tone in contrast to the serpent, and the technical flexibility the keys allowed. However, the ophicleide’s tone was inconsistent, so it was often paired with another ophicleide in a different key.34

French composers frequently used the ophicleide in the nineteenth century.

Hector Berlioz, a prominent French composer in the nineteenth century, was a major proponent of the use of the ophicleide. Berlioz scored the ophicleide in many of his operas and symphonic works. In addition to scoring for the ophicleide, he wrote about it in his Grand traité d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes. (See Appendix A).35

Berlioz was one of the earliest composers to include the ophicleide in several compositions.

The serpent also became established in orchestras of many countries, including

Italy. “Rossini, who specified serpentone in works...composed for performance in Italy, requested ophicleide in operas composed for France.”36 The popularity of Italian opera further helped the dispersion of the ophicleide.

In Russia, several members of the tuba family were used in ensembles. Russian tuba historian and scholar Alexei Levashkin states “during the first half of the 19th century, the bass horn, serpent, Russian bassoon, and ophicleide were the precursors of

33 Ralph Dudgeon, “Keyed Brass,” in The Cambridge Companion to Brass Instruments, ed. Trevor Herbert and John Wallace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 140 34 The most common ophicleides were in the keys of C and B-flat. The weaker sounding notes on one key often were stronger notes on the other, allowing each key to complement the weakness of the other. 35 Berlioz’s op. 10, translated to “Grand Treatise on Instrumentation and Orchestration” 36 Clifford Bevan, “The Low Brass,” in The Cambridge Companion to Brass Instruments, ed. Trevor Herbert and John Wallace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 145. 13 the tuba in Russia.”37 The many traveling musicians who went there to perform introduced these instruments in Russia. Given the propensity of Italian opera composers to score for ophicleide, when this genre became popular in Russia, the use of it increased.

The inconsistencies in tone and intonation of brass instruments at the beginning of the nineteenth century led to the invention of the valve in early nineteenth century. “The first valve to be widely adopted was introduced in 1814 by the musician Heinrich Stözel in Prussia.”38 The Stözel valve was improved over the next several decades to help playability and bore profiles of the instrument. In addition to the Stözel valve, Friedrich

Blühmel introduced the rotary valve in 1828. The rotary valve has not had much design change since it was invented. The invention of the valve allowed brass players to be more flexible and efficient, and the ability to play chromatically in all keys. Though the invention and usage of the valve eventually became standard, some players used crooks and hand-horn because they believed the sound quality was better. This resulted in sections in orchestras and bands having a coexistence of instruments with valves and others with crooks.39 As mentioned prior, valved brass were used in 1831 by the Russian chromatic band of the 2nd Life Guards.40

The invention of the valve can be considered to have led to the development of the tuba as we know it. “The advent of the valve not only transformed French horn and trumpet techniques, but also enabled the development of new kinds of brass instruments…The most important completely new instrument resulting from the valve’s

37 Levashkin,, 5. 38 Arnold Myers, “Design, Technology and manufacture since 1800,” in The Cambridge Companion to Brass Instruments, ed. Trevor Herbert and John Wallace (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), 121. 39 Ibid., 123-127. 40 Other reports and recollections show that the valve may have been in use in Russia as early as 1825. 14 emancipation of bore profiles was the Bass Tuba, the name first used by Wieprecht in

1835 for a wide-bore model valved bass in 12 ft. F.”41 The valve allowed for the tuba to play with a consistent sound in all registers, which the ophicleide was not able to do.

There are several debates among organologists regarding the invention of the tuba. In The Tuba Family, Bevan states “there is only one instrument in the modern orchestra of which we know the precise date of birth: Prussian Patent 19 was taken out on

12 September 1835 by Wilhelm Wieprecht and Johann Moritz of Berlin for the Baß-

Tuba”.42 The tuba invented by Wieprecht and Moritz was pitched in F and had five piston valves, with the two valves on the left and three valves in the right. “The Baß-Tuba’s five valves followed keyed ophicleide convention, with the two valves for the left hand positioned above the three for the right, but its overall form was that of a vertical keyed bugle.”43 The valve design allowed an easier transition for ophicleide players who switched to the new invention.

However, there is conflicting information regarding the date of the invention of the tuba. “It is known that Cerveny invented a contrabass tuba in 1834.”44 (The contrabass tuba is a lower pitch than the bass tuba with the most common keys being BB- flat and CC). The contrabass tuba is a lower pitch than the bass tuba with the most common keys being BB-flat and CC. There is little information available regarding the

41 Ibid., 126-127 42 Bevan Tuba Family, 202. 43 Ibid., 204. 44 Harvey Phillips and William Winkle, The Art of Tuba and Euphonium (Miami: Summy-Birchard Music, 1992), 5. 15

Cerveny patent.45 The Cerveny company exported many tubas to Russia, and thus became instrumental in furthering the instrument’s presence there.

Following the invention of the tuba in the 1830s, instrument designers continued to make improvements to the instrument to better suit it for orchestral playing. The design improvements helped allow the tuba to be a foundation to the brass section of the orchestra.46

Though the tuba was quite popular shortly after its creation, many chose not to switch to it. “The new tuba did not always have the popular acceptance that it does today.

In fact, many ophicleide players were quite antagonistic towards the new tuba and refused to use it.”47 The coexistence of the tuba and ophicleide in orchestras has caused confusion in early editions of compositions during the time. In many instances, ophicleide parts were performed on the tuba. Publishers and composers also changed ophicleide parts to tuba parts in later editions of the work.

Like the ophicleide, Hector Berlioz wrote about the bass tuba in his Grand traité d’instrumentation et d’orchestration modernes. (See Appendix A). In contrast to the ophicleide, he spoke highly of the tuba, especially in terms of sound and low range. In addition to his Treatise, Berlioz’s travels helped further the popularity of the tuba. After enduring some hardships, Berlioz traveled to St. Petersburg and Moscow to witness his works being performed there. Berlioz did not mention the tuba or its usage in his

Memoirs. Some of the works performed in Russia included parts scored for the

45 It should be noted the1845 date in association with Cerveny tubas is associated with the mass production of the Cerveny firm. 46 Phillips and Winkle mention the Moritz tuba was intended to replace the bass trombone. There is little to support this, as the tuba and ophicleide were used alongside the bass trombone in early compositions. 47 Mason, 15. 16 ophicleide. Since Berlioz’s trip occurred after his works were rescored from ophicleide to tuba, there is a high chance the bass tuba, which he highly spoke of, was mentioned to the ophicleide players in the Russian orchestras.

Though Russian orchestras and opera orchestras were in their infancy in the middle nineteenth century, composers such as Mikhail Glinka saw the importance of the ophicleide and tuba by using them in their compositions.

Mikhail Glinka’s Usage of the Ophicleide

Mikhail Glinka is hailed as the father of Russian music. “Music historians proclaimed him the first composer able to express the Russian national spirit and Russian ambitions in music, thanks especially to his imaginative treatment of Russian folk song.”48 Glinka was born in 1804 in Novospasskoye and was mainly raised by his grandmother, who was frequently ill. Her illness isolated young Glinka from almost all music, with the exception of church music and folk song.49

After the death of his grandmother, Glinka became more exposed to music other than folksongs and church music. His uncle, Afanasy, maintained an orchestra of serfs, which fascinated Mikhail. More importantly, this orchestra exposed him to various styles of music that were performed outside of Russia. “His uncle’s orchestra offered Glinka the opportunity of hearing Western dances—écossaises, quadrilles, and waltzes—and Glinka, sitting alongside the orchestra, would take a violin or piccolo and join in on the tonics

48 Maes, 11. 49 Brown, 11-12. 17 and dominants.”50 The experience working with his uncle’s orchestra gave him expertise on the mechanics of the instruments, along with helping strengthen his affection for

Russian folk music.

As Glinka continued his study of music, he enrolled at the Blagorodny Boarding

School in St. Petersburg where he studied with Wilhelm Küchelbecker. Küchelbecker, along with others of the senior staff, studied in Germany, spreading western ideas of nationhood and the end of serfdom.51 Glinka grew as a musician in St. Petersburg, but more importantly, the growth for his love of Russia and its people intensified. Glinka was in the right place at the right time; he heard a wide variety of music while in St.

Petersburg, including popular western opera, the Imperial Horn Band, and other musical genres brought to him courteous of the St. Petersburg Philharmonic Society.52

Glinka continued to grow musically by hearing performers from the west. Hearing

Italian opera in St. Petersburg increased his wanderlust. Due to his declining health, a doctor ordered that Glinka needed to spend at least three years in a warmer climate. In

April of 1830, Glinka traveled to Italy with Nikolai Ivanov, a tenor in the Imperial

Chapel. “It was as much a musical pilgrimage as a pursuit of health, and the two friends added to the interest of the journey by visiting opera houses of the towns through which they passed.”53 Glinka’s travels and excursions helped Glinka mature musically and expand his knowledge of musical composition. While in Milan, Glinka attended many

50 David Brown, Mikhail Glinka: A Biographical and Critical Study (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), 16. 51 Ibid.,, 17-18. 52 Ibid., 26. 53 M. Montagu-Nathan, Glinka (New York: Duffield and Company), 23. 18 performances of Italian opera, including Donizetti’s Anne Boleyn, which was scored for ophicleide.

Glinka does not mention the tuba or ophicleide in his Memoirs. The ophicleide was often doubled the bass trombone in opera works because it was a newly created instrument and was not always readily available.54 There are no current records that state if an ophicleide was used in St. Petersburg when Italian operas were performed there. If

Glinka had not heard an ophicleide or cimbasso while in Russia, he would have heard it in Italy in one of the several operas he heard by Donizetti or Bellini.

Glinka’s health did not improve in Italy, so in 1833 he went to Vienna and Berlin on a further quest for medical improvement. While in Berlin, he stayed with his sister

Natalya and studied with Siegfried Dehn, whose “systematic approach was just what

Glinka desperately needed.”55 Glinka did not hear as much music when he was in Berlin in an effort to aid in the formation of his own musical style. In 1834, he received news of his father’s unexpected death, which caused him to return to Russia. However, his musical training in Italy and Berlin would be instrumental in the composition of A Life for the Tsar.

In1836, after being back in Russia for two years, Glinka decided to write his first opera. “Back in Russia, he [Glinka] felt the time was right to embark on a bigger project.

He had in mind an opera, if possible one based on a nationalistic theme…A ‘national’ opera was very much to the idea of the ideologists. Tsar Nicholas I, who ruled from

54 Many editions of Italian opera scores from the 1830s will state various instruments between scores and parts, including cimbasso, ophicleide, tuba, and bombardon. The instrument that was likely used was the ophicleide because the tuba was not yet invented, and the publisher edited the score posthumously to reflect current trends in instrumentation. 55 Brown, 68. 19

1825-1855, backed the project and agreed to have the opera dedicated to himself.”56

Glinka chose the story of Ivan Susanin as the subject for his opera. The opera was set in the early seventeenth century when Mikhail Romanov was elected as tsar of Russia, and word makes it to the village of Domnino, where Susanin resides. “They [the villagers] welcome the news of the coronation as a sign from heaven: Russia is saved because God himself has appointed a tsar. The tsar alone can ensure the happiness of his subjects. The hero of the opera, Ivan Susanin, identifies himself with the destiny of his country.”57 As a group of Polish invaders come to Susanin’s home demanding him to reveal the hiding place of the tsar. Susanin leads the invaders to the forests making them lose their way, and thereby sacrificing his life for Russia.

A Life for the Tsar received great reviews from critics for several reasons: the opera was entirely sung, included the death of the hero, and it abided with the Official

Nationality of orthodoxy, autocracy, and nationality. It also mixed elements of Russian folk music with western elements, which Glinka learned in Italy and Berlin. Though A

Life for the Tsar stylistically is based on Italian opera, Glinka’s combination of folk song elements and western musical styles helped the popularity of the opera. “It is because of the complex interaction of different musical cultures in Glinka’s music that so many different views have been expressed about its Russianness.”58

It is quite appropriate that the father of Russian music used an ophicleide in A Life for the Tsar59. Glinka’s opera used the ophicleide quite sparingly, as it only appears in

56 Maes, 19-20. 57 Ibid., 20. 58 Brown, 115. 59 Though scored for ophicleide, most modern performances use a tuba as a substitute. 20

Act four, sections seventeen through twenty. Glinka mainly uses the ophicleide doubled with other instruments, as seen in its first entrance opening of the instrumental opening to act four shown in Example 1.1. The only instruments to play the opening are the bassoons, bass trombone, and ophicleide. Many Russian composers use the low winds

Allegro con spirito a2 Bassoons ? b b b c w w Ó w w w ˙ Sp Bass Trombone ? b c w Ó b b w w w Sp ˙ Ophicleide ? b c w Ó b b w w w Sp ˙ Example 1.1 Glinka’s A Life for the Tsar, Act 4, section 17, measures 1-5

and brass to represent darkness or evil. This act is where Susanin leads the Poles to the forest where he ends up getting killed by them. The clarinet and oboe repeat this theme in the style of a conversation. This motive repeats several times throughout the opening.

Glinka also scores the ophicleide with the string basses and gives it a short two measure melodic fragment weaving in and out of the trombone melody.

Though this instrumental section could be performed without an ophicleide,

Glinka’s inclusion of the instrument is for its color. The careful selection of the bass trombone, ophicleide and bassoon helps give the color and mood of the upcoming plot. In other parts of the opera, Glinka scores the trombones together. The separate use of the bass trombone from the tenor trombones further supports Glinka used it for its color and © 21 timbre with the ophicleide. The ophicleide does not have much in terms of playing in section eighteen, however when the theme in Example 1.1 is restated, the ophicleide plays it with the bass trombone and a solo string bass, changing the instrumentation from the first entrance.

Con Moto I. Bassoon œ œ ˙. b˙. ? b b 3 œ œ œ œ œ b˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. b b 4 Œ solo ! Ophicleide ? b 3 b bb 4 . ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. b˙ ˙. ! Susanin "˙ ? 3 œ ˙. . ˙. œ b˙. bbbb 4 Œ Œ Œ Œ n˙. я на - ша Русь, гос - тей встре -

Cello ? 3 "˙. ˙. ˙. b˙. ˙. bbbb 4 ˙. ˙. ! Double Bass ? 3 ˙ ˙. b˙. ˙. bbbb 4 ˙. ˙. ˙. . !

solo 111 f Bsn. ˙ ˙. ˙. ˙. œnœ ? b b Œ # # ˙. ˙. œbœ œ b b ˙. ˙. Œ 111 ! F oph. ? bb b "˙. ˙. Œ Œ b b˙. N˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. œ 111 Sus. ? ˙ ˙. ˙. ˙ œ "˙. ˙ "œ ˙. ˙. bbbb . ˙ ˙ œ Œ Œ ча - я, снеж - ный са - ван сте - лет. , . Им! 111 div.. . Vc. ? b˙. ˙. ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ . œ œ bbbb ...... œ œ œ . . p D.B. "˙ ˙ ? b b˙. N˙. ˙. ˙. . . ˙. ˙. . . . b bb ˙. ˙. œ œ œ p Example 1.2 Glinka’s A Life for the Tsar, Act 4, section 19, measures 104-121, low instruments 22

Act four, section nineteen uses ophicleide a bit differently than earlier sections.

Though it is used mainly as support for the trombones, he uses the ophicleide with the low strings, bassoon, and Susanin’s aria, shown in Example 1.2. Though the low voices are similar in melodic contour and support Susanin’s vocal melody, Glinka’s use of instrumental texture is quite unique. Susanin sings and the other instruments play before this moment, but the addition of the ophicleide helps support the soloist. The Protopopov edition marks the ophicleide as a solo instrument in this instance to bring attention to the part.60 Susanin is singing about the Poles’ fate with the Russian snow. The ophicleide ends with Susanin, while the other instruments continue to play; which this shows significance to the part doubling the voice when representing the terror that is occurring.

Glinka also uses a texture weaving in Example 1.2. The slurs between the instruments playing do not line up melodically when playing in rhythmic unison. This orchestration technique allows each timbre to be clearly heard through the texture.

The ophicleide is scored for the rest of scene nineteen. In scene twenty, the ophicleide part is marked ad libitum and nothing is scored for it through the remainder of the opera. The ad libitum marking suggests that the ophicleide can play the rest of the opera. Traditionally, when an instrument is scored only for a short section, musicians often played the rest of the opera on another instrument, similar to musical pit work.

There is note of trombonists doubling from Liapev, a music critic and trombone section member of the Bolshoi theatre. “Among the musicians in the trombone section at those old times (before the fire in 1853), Liapev indicates the name Vitneben…and in the

60 See Appendix A for Berlioz’s description of the ophicleide in solo passages. 23

Russian State Archive of Literature and Art, lists of orchestral musicians in 1862 also specified Vitneben as trombonist in the section, but also said that he played ophicleide since 1846.”61 In A Life for the Tsar, it is unlikely a trombonist played the ophicleide parts because the ophicleide has passages with the three trombones in other places. If the ophicleide played in other parts of the opera, there is a high probability it would have doubled the bass trombone parts, similar to several Italian operas. The doubling of the ophicleide and bass trombone adds depth to section sound and gave more options in timbre. Though sparsely scored in the opera, Glinka’s use of the ophicleide would help pave the way for the future use of the tuba.

Glinka did not compose much for ophicleide following A Life for the Tsar.

Though an ophicleide may have doubled the bass trombone in performances of his second opera, Ruslan and Lyudmila, ophicleide was not scored. However, Glinka’s encounter with Berlioz in 1844 in Paris may have influenced Glinka to write for the ophicleide.

The great French composer [Berlioz] was enthralled with Glinka’s music; he included it in his concert programs and praised it highly in the Journal des débats. Berlioz’s music greatly appealed to Glinka in turn. He therefore conceived the plan of writing orchestral music with different national characteristics, based on the example of Berlioz’s Hungarian March and his Le carnival romain. This led to two Spanish pieces, Jota aragonesa (1845) and Recuerdos de Castilla (1848).62

Berlioz was among the first composers to write for the ophicleide and the tuba, later rescoring ophicleide parts for the tuba. More importantly, as mentioned earlier, Berlioz wrote about the instruments, including the sound and orchestration techniques. Glinka

61 Levashkin, Pictures, 10. 62 Maes, 27. 24 mentions in his Memoirs, “Berlioz treated most kindly…and I called on him two or three times a week, talking frankly with him about music and especially about his own compositions, which I liked.”63 Glinka learned a bit about orchestration from Berlioz.

As he had done in the past when traveling to Italy, Glinka decided to travel to

Spain for his health and to find new artistic inspiration. While in Spain, Glinka heard

Felix Castilla, a local merchant and guitarist, perform jota aragonesa and its variations.

This led him to write his Capriccio Brilliante on the Jota Aragonesa.64 “Though Glinka deployed the piece as a sonata movement, his primary purpose was not to create an organic structure but to record musically his impressions of Spain.”65

The ophicleide is scored mainly with the trombones and doubles the bass trombone for the majority of the work, largely playing quarter notes that serve as a

Grave Horns in E œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ œ ˙ b & c Ó Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Ó Œ Œ ‰.R Ó p...... ! œ œ œ œ r Tenor Trombones nœ œ œ nœ œ œ œ nœ Ó ? b Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ œ .œ ˙ b b c Ó Œ ...... Ó Œ Œ ‰ R p ! Bass Trombone ? bb c Ó Œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Ó Œ Œ ‰. r Ó b œ. . . œ. œ. . . œ. œ œ ˙ p ! Ophicleide ? bb c Ó Œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Œ œ Œ Ó Œ Œ ‰. r Ó b œ. . . œ. œ. . . œ. œ œ ˙ p !

Example 1.3 Glinka’s La Jota Aragonesa, Introduction, measures 25-31

63 Glinka, 191. 64 Brown, 246. 65 Ibid., 247. 25

© chorale with the low brass and horns, the only music occurring at the moment. The leaps of the ophicleide and bass trombone give this part distinction by defining the present tonality, while the horns and tenor trombones who have stepwise motion. Glinka uses the unison low brass to reinforce the theme in the low strings, also in unison, shown in

Example 1.4. Glinka was aware of the technical abilities of the low brass, weaving them in and out of the string part and omitting grace notes for clarity. Glinka’s use of the

Allegro

Trbn/Oph . > . . . >œ œ . . ? b 3 œ. œ œ œ œ œ. nœ. . œ nœ nœ œ b b 4 œ œ. !

œ œ > œ œ Va, Vc, Db œ. >œ œ œ. . œ nœ. œ œ nœ. œ. ? bb 43 œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œnœ œ b >

7 . nœ. >œ œ nœ. . . Trbn/Oph ? #œ. nœ. . nœ nœ #œ #œ. nœ. bbb œ !

œ œ Va, Vc, Db . >œ œ . . ? #œ œnœ œ > œ#œ œ nœ nœ nœ nœ #œ nœ #œ œ n>œ bbb œ œ œ Example 1.4 La Jota Aragonesa low brass and strings theme, rehearsal F measures 6-16

part weaving matured following his correspondence with Berlioz. In La Jota Aragonesa, the notes in the ophicleide part are doubled in other low instruments, such as the string bass, bassoon, and bass trombone. This allowed for the part to be covered if an orchestra did not have an ophicleide player.

In the early twentieth century, Russian composers Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and

Alexander Glazunov revised and edited La Jota Aragonesa. Rimsky-Korsakov edited

26

© several composers’ works in order to make them appeal to western audiences. This edition indicates in the score that ophicleide or tuba may be used and changes the ophicleide part so it fits better on tuba. The somber end to the introduction, as displayed in Example 1.3 is scored down an octave. The revised edition is not playable on an ophicleide due to the low range. Example 1.4 is also scored down an octave, though the range is playable on an ophicleide. Lowering the ophicleide part an octave changes the sound of the low brass because it adds depth to the section sound. In the complete works of Glinka published in 1955, the editors of La Jota Aragonesa mention they included the original instruments in the autograph score instead of modernizing it. They also mention that in the publication edited by Rimsky-Korsakov and Glazunov, the part is transposed down an octave, taking in consideration performance on a tuba.66

During the time of the Soviet Union, the libretto to A Life for the Tsar was changed to remove references of the Tsar, due to the conflict with Soviet ideology. In addition, the title was changed to Ivan Susanin, to further remove references to the Tsar.

The editions of Ivan Susanin during this time did not change the ophicleide parts to tuba, nor did they change the octave in which it was written.

Glinka’s works are the foundation of Russian music. The creation of a national opera and symphonic music helped bring in a new musical era to Russian music, resulting in the appearance of numerous compositions. This new output in music would demand a larger, more sonorous instrument to help balance the low end of the orchestra, giving rise to the introduction of the tuba in Russian orchestras.

66 Mikhail Glinka., Ispanckaia uvertiura no 1: Blectiashchee na temu aragonckoi khoty. Edited by B. I. Shebalin (Moscow: Gocudarctvennoe muzikal’noe Izdatel’ctvo, 1956), 7. 27

Chapter 2: The Establishment of the Russian Conservatory and the Tuba’s Dispersion

Glinka’s A Life for the Tsar helped initiate an enormous output of music by

Russian composers. However, in the first half of the nineteenth century, opera was the predominant musical genre. There were two opera companies in St. Petersburg, one that specialized in Italian opera and the other specialized in Russian opera. With the exception of operatic activity, there was little happening musically in Russia.

At the time, music played only a modest role in the public life of the Russian capital. There were no flourishing concert societies, no large orchestras, no broad music education, no critical press, and above all no public eagerly anticipating every new composition, every new talent on the platform. The reason was simple: music was still a privilege of the aristocracy. Money could buy anything, including musical excellence. And there was no lack of money: St. Petersburg was a rich city. The nobility and the imperial family accordingly spent large sums on sumptuous musical performances. 67

Russian opera was not as popular as its Italian counterpart, and the singers were not as well trained musically because there was no formal musical training in Russia.

Symphony concerts were part of the Imperial Theatres, and would only be performed during times that operas were not, such as Lent. In 1850, the Concert Society was founded; it organized concerts during Lent, but did not perform newer music.68

Tsar Nicholas I’s reign ended in 1855 and his brother, Alexander II, who was supportive of the growth of music and national talent, replaced him. This encouraged

67 Maes, 31. 68 Ibid., 31-33. 28 piano virtuoso and composer Anton Rubinstein to return to Russia. With the help of

Grand Duchess Yelena Pavlovna, Rubinstein founded the Russian Musical Society in

1859. “Rubinstein continued to devote himself to the struggle for a proper conservatory...Once again, Yelena Pavlovna came to his aid.”69 The nobility were once again helpful in bringing music to Russia and spreading it within. This led to the opening of the St. Petersburg Conservatory in 1862. However, Rubinstein met opposition from nationalists because many of the teachers at the conservatory were from other countries.

Despite the criticism, Rubinstein created an institution in Russia to professionally train students in music.

The establishment of a conservatory led some composers such as Miliy Balakirev to oppose traditional forms. “He mistrusted all forms of academic education and was skeptical about Rubinstein’s plans for a conservatory. In order to spread his ideas and gain a following, Balakirev surrounded himself in the years from 1856 to 1863 with a group of musicians whom he proposed to train as composers in accordance with his own principles.”70 These musicians were not all professionals in the field, but rather engaged in music as a hobby. Some of these musicians included: Modest Mussorgsky; a member of the Preobrazhensky Guard, Cesar Cui; an engineer, Alexander Borodin; a chemist, and

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov; a naval cadet. This group of composers would be known by several names, including the Balakirev circle, the Mighty Five, or the Kuchka (Кучка), which roughly translates to mighty fistful.

69 Maes, 36. 70 Ibid., 38. 29

The Kuchka opposed musical academicism and the practices of Rubinstein. They believed that academic and musical training opposed nationalism.

Balakirev’s dislike of Rubinstein also had a petty personal side…Balakirev’s nationalism turned into undisguised xenophobia. As far as he was concerned, Rubinstein, of German and Jewish descent, was an alien, and the Russian Musical Society was little more than a German club, founded, according to the rumor he helped spread, for the express purpose of benefiting Germans.71

The followers of music nationalism became known as the Kuchka and the followers of

Rubinstein’s conservatory became known as the Cosmopolitans. Each side composed music differently, and differed greatly in their use of tuba.

The Introduction and Dispersion of the Tuba in Russia

Though Glinka’s La Jota Aragonesa and A Life for the Tsar are generally played on the tuba in modern performances, the pieces were originally scored for ophicleide.

Scholars have had difficulties determining which piece was the first work scored for tuba.

Several composers scored works for ophicleide and these parts were later rescored for tuba, either by the composer or publisher. It is believed the first work scored for tuba was either The Flying Dutchman or Eine Faust by German composer Richard Wagner.72 This ambiguity of the first use of tuba spreads to Russian music as well. It is difficult to pinpoint when the tuba first appeared in Russian compositions

Though it is unclear when the tuba emerged in Russia, a marching form of the tuba, the helicon, was believed to have been invented in Russia in 1845. “The form of the

71 Ibid., 39. 72 With many instruments in each genre, it is difficult to pinpoint the first work. In some instances, several composers started to score for the instrument around the same time period, further adding ambiguity. 30 helicon follows that of the Roman buccina, the bell resting on the player’s left shoulder and the main tubing passing beneath the right arm. It is generally thought to have been invented in Russia about 1845 and was patented in western Europe by Ignaz Stowasser of

Vienna in 1848.”73 The curved design of the helicon made it possible to not only play while moving, but allowed the performer a sonorous sound quality similar to a tuba. The helicon was used in military bands at the time, but there is no available information to suggest its use in Russian bands in the 1840s and 1850s. Bevan does not cite evidence why he believes the helicon was invented in Russia, though Levashkin suggests that it is possible for a “Kulibin” (inventor) to have twisted instruments in the horn choir in the style of a ram’s horn. This would create a more comfortable position while riding a horse or marching.74

Similar to the efforts of Rubinstein to extend music study in Russia, many of the early ophicleide and tuba players in Russia were from other countries, notably Germany.

Levashkin mentions Vitneben was in the trombone section of the Bolshoi opera in 1862, but also played ophicleide starting in 1846. It does not mention that Vitneben played tuba. Vitneben was likely a trombone player who was able to double on ophicleide. In records from the St. Petersburg Opera, a clearer picture of the tuba’s usage is given.

“Tubist Wilhelm Schonekerl appears in the list of orchestral musicians of the St.

Petersburg Opera for the 1890-91 season. Engaged in 1861 to play the ophicleide, he appeared in 1865 under the denomination ‘tubist’. He belonged to the generation of

73 Bevan, Tuba Family, 450. 74 Levashkin, Pictures, 7. 31 musicians who made the transition from ophicleide to tuba.”75 It can be assumed by

Schonerkerl’s switch to tuba, that the instrument was available to him and that compositions were being performed that used tuba.

It is possible that Anton Rubinstein used the tuba prior to 1865. His Symphony

No. 2, opus 42 was composed in 1851, and it is first symphony that uses tuba.

Rubinstein’s tuba parts are scored lower than the Glinka’s ophicleide parts, and sometimes doubles the bass trombone in octaves. This would suggest the use of tuba over ophicleide, because this style of writing helped add depth to the low brass sound without the weak notes present on the ophicleide. The tuba is used sparingly in Rubinstein’s work. Rubinstein’s Symphony No. 2 was revised in 1863 and 1880, with each revision adding a movement. It is possible that Rubinstein added the tuba in a later revision, but even if this were the case, it is still one of the earliest Russian works to use the tuba.

Tuba Models and Keys in Russia in the Nineteenth Century

Similar to many early Russian performers, the earliest tubas in Russia were of

European origin as well. During the nineteenth century, Cerveny tubas were among the most used. “The firm of Vaclav Cerveny was founded in 1842 in the Bohemian town of

Königgräz, now Hradec Kralove in the Czech Republic, where it still operates.”76

Cerveny tubas are described as having “massive construction, large bore and rotary valves”.77 The large bore would add to the tuba’s depth of sound, compared to the smaller

75 Ibid. 10. 76 Bevan, Tuba Family 327. 77 Ibid., 327. 32 instruments made in Germany at the time. Cerveny tubas were later described by scientist

Karl Emil von Shafgaytel as having more shades of tonal colors that a string quartet.78

This description may have been a bit exaggerated because Shafgaytel was advertising for a journal of Russian musical instruments.

Cerveny did not have a factory in Russia, but eventually established a factory in

Kiev. “Before setting up the Kiev factory in 1867, Cerveny imported instruments to

Russia in considerable numbers.”79 This further supports the conclusion that the tuba was used in Russia prior to 1865. Since orchestras were in their early stages in this time and only employed one tubist, the main use for the tuba was military bands.

Much of Russian music composed after 1860 is generally performed on contrabass tubas pitched in BB-flat and CC, with a general consensus that the parts were composed with a BB-flat tuba in mind. Recent research has shown that at one time, several keys of instruments were used. During the 1860s and early 1870s in the Russian

Army, Wilhelm Wurm’s band used several different keys of instruments. Though Wurm recommended using instruments pitched in C and F, there were a wider variety of instruments. “Now, as military bands commonly used instruments in different keys played by bad musicians (who also hardly practiced), it is not surprising that the intonation was doubtful at best.”80 The use of instruments in various keys also makes blend difficult.. However, a standardization of instruments helped created an expectation in the ensembles and improved the level of performance. “A reform of military bands

78 Levashkin, Pictures, 6. 79 Bevan, Tuba Family, 327. 80 Levashkin, Pictures, 6. 33 undertaken between 1874 and 1876 attempted to put an end to this cacophony [of various keyed instruments] by using instruments pitched only in B-flat or E-flat. It should be noted that one of the leaders of this reform was none other than Nikolai Rimsky-

Korsakov, who was then inspector of navy choirs. The maker Cerveny also participated in a significant way in the modernization of equipment of military bands.”81 Cerveny’s ability to supply the bands with tubas allowed each unit was able to buy the specific instruments that fit their need, thereby helping to homologize the section sound and improve intonation.

Russian military bands were not the first to standardize instrumentation. Shortly after Adolph Sax invented the saxhorn family in the 1840s (a family of conical bore brass instruments), bands formed in England. These bands, commonly referred to as brass bands, used set instrumentation of B-flat and E-flat saxhorns. The brass band instrumentation has changed very little since the creation of the bands.

Though bands developed a standard for the keys of tubas utilized, orchestras did not until the twentieth century. Levashkin and Bevan both suggest that an E-flat tuba was used in orchestras during the final part of the nineteenth century. However, as discussed in Chapter 3, this may not have always been the case.

Amateur musicians who played in civic bands and small chamber groups used tubas outside of military bands and orchestras in nineteenth century Russia. One of these amateur musicians was Tsar Alexander III, who ruled from 18811-1984. “ Emperor

Alexander III, a great fan of brasses, was a patron of music…he also played several wind

81 Ibid., 8. 34 instruments himself: cornet, horn and tuba…The National Museum of Theater and Music in St. Petersburg still possesses some of the Tsar’s instruments: a quartet of Cerveny cornets, four horns, as well as his tuba.” Like several of his predecessors, he helped

Russia grow artistically, and it further helped that he played brass instruments, including the tuba. No composer mentioned if they knew that Tsar Alexander III played tuba, but it could have had an influence in their writing for the instrument if they did.

Another horn maker would prove significant to the spread of tubas in the end of the nineteenth century and throughout the twentieth century. “In 1875, Julius Heinrich

Zimmerman (1851-1923) began by opening a music store in St. Petersburg and soon became one of the most important merchants and makers, with branches in Moscow,

London, Riga, and Leipzig. Although at the beginning the clientele consisted of amateur musicians, professionals were not far behind.”82 Though no catalog prices are available, it can be assumed that these instruments would have been more affordable than Cerveny tubas, as many amateurs gravitated to them. Franz Turner, low brass professor at the St.

Petersburg Conservatory from 1870-1909, praised these tubas. Having a professional player and teacher give high acclaim to the instrument helped its popularity, similar to artists who represent certain models of instruments today. Several of these original instruments have survived over time.

After the overthrow of Tsar Nicholas II in 1917, the Bolshevik party rose to power under the leadership of Lenin. Industrialization was one of his major goals.

“Instrumental manufacture in factories and workshops was affected [by the revolutions of 1917], with techniques and traditions lost. Even though the tubas

82 Ibid., 7. 35

produced by the nationalized ‘wind instrument factory of Leningrad’ (made from the old Zimmerman workshops), were clearly inspired by the old Zimmerman models. They had to be developed from scratch, so to speak, the diagrams and equipment having disappeared in the upheaval.83

The new Zimmerman tubas were mass-produced and sold throughout the world. As the government of the newly founded Soviet Union sought to remove references to tsarist

Russia and establish their own brand, these tubas were called Leningrad tubas.84 The majority of the Leningrad tubas were pitched in B-flat, and were used by professional and amateur musicians during Soviet rule. Though instrument manufacture produced an insignificant amount of money, the Leningrad name brought attention to musicians outside the Soviet Union. After the fall of the Soviet Union, the town of Leningrad was reverted back to St. Petersburg. Tubas that came from the factory were also renamed St.

Petersburg tubas. St. Petersburg tubas are still made today, though the company has been privatized. These tubas are popular in middle schools and high schools, and are still used by many professionals in Russia. Since 2005, the St. Petersburg tuba factory has shifted its focus from rotary BB-flat tubas to CC, E-flat, and F tubas with the options of piston and rotary valves.85

Rubinstein’s establishment of the St. Petersburg Conservatory helped expand the

Russian musical scene, establishing a new generation of Russian composers. Alongside the development of the conservatory, the evolution of the tuba led to composers writing for it, allowing for its dispersion in military bands, orchestras, and other chamber

83 Ibid., 9. 84 In 1914, St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. In 1924, after Lenin’s death, Petrograd was renamed Leningrad in honor of Lenin. 85 St. Petersburg Musical Wind Instrument Factory. http://www.stpetemusic.ru/ (accessed November 1, 2015). 36 ensembles. The timing of the tuba’s invention allowed it to be used in conjunction with the growth of Russian symphonic music, causing composers to write differently for it than in other countries with established musical traditions.

37

Chapter 3: The Tuba’s Usage in Romantic Era Russia

The invention of the tuba occurred at a critical point in Russian music history, and its quick dispersion allowed it to be available for composers to use in their works. By the time of Rubinstein established the St. Petersburg Conservatory in 1862, the tuba had already begun to replace the ophicleide. This is a major contrast to other countries, especially Germany, where orchestra instrumentation was standard for several decades before the invention of the ophicleide and tuba. Because no usable bass brass instrument existed before he went deaf, Beethoven did not score for tuba or ophicleide in his symphonies. This led to composers, such as Johannes Brahms, to use the tuba on a limited basis. Since Glinka scored for the ophicleide and other early composers wrote for the tuba, it became a standard instrument in Russian orchestras.

Numerous Russian composers used the tuba in many ways in the Romantic era. I will not cover every piece or composer, however the included pieces will show unique usage of the tuba’s timbre or in idiomatic writing by the composer.

The Kuchka

The Kuchka, or the Mighty Five, opposed academic music. This group consisted of Mily Balakirev, Alexander Borodin, Cesar Cui, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and

38

Modest Mussorgsky. The Kuchka were not trained academically, and they were not professional musicians or composers by trade. Though each had different goals in their music, they all attempted to link their music with extramusical ideas, such as art and literature. They used music of the people, including folk songs and nationalistic trends.

Nationalism can be defined as a feeling of importance of a particular nation, culture, or history, though can be different for each person in definition. “In their compositions, ‘the

Five’ developed themes from Russian history, folk tales, and legends, heroic bylinas, and contemporary peasant genres. They favored features of Russian national music and discovered in folk songs a source for the creation of new and original expressive means and devices. Members of the circle transcribed and studied Russian folk melodies.”86 In addition to their strong interests in Russian art and folklore, they were also interested in setting music to Middle East and Oriental themes.

Each member of the Kuchka had their own personal style, however several of their works were edited and finished by Rimsky-Korsakov and other composers. Rimsky-

Korsakov edited and changed works by other composers so they would be more approachable to orchestras and presentable to Western audiences. In some of Rimsky-

Korsakov’s edits, the original intent of the composers was lost, though it sometimes made it a more popular piece. Rimsky-Korsakov’s changes to the tuba were discussed in relation to Glinka in Chapter 1, where he lowered the octave of the tuba parts to give depth to the sound and reflect then current instrument usage. Though it fit better on instruments used at the time of Rimsky-Korsakov’s edition, it changed the sound of the

86 James Bakst, A History of Russian-Soviet Music (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press), 95. 39 section. Rimsky-Korsakov also changed many other works entirely, such as

Mussorgsky’s Night on the Bare Mountain.

Mily Balakirev

Mily Balakirev, often considered as the Kuchka’s leader, was born in 1836 in

Nizhni-Novgorod. He attended the Noblemens’ Institute where he studied mathematics; he also taught piano lessons in addition to his academics. “In 1855, Balakirev left Kazan

University and went to Petersburg…[and] became acquainted with Glinka, who not only hailed Balakirev, but even called him his successor.87 Balakirev’s love for folk music encouraged him to travel to distant Russian lands in order gather folk music. “Balakirev was the first Russian composer actively to go in search of folk song, on a trip along the

Volga in the summer of 1860. He worked the material he discovered into a groundbreaking collection of folk-song arrangements and into the Second Overture on

Russian Themes.”88 He later renamed this work 1000 Years and Russia. He dedicated this work to Rimsky-Korsakov.

The several rearrangements of the Second Overture on Russian Themes allowed for Balakirev to adapt it for the growing orchestras of Russia. Balakirev scores the folksong melody in the low brass, shown in Example 3.1. The first trombone part has a melodic line similar to the trumpets and horns, while the bass trombone and tuba part play with the low strings. The scoring of the constant sixteenth notes in the high strings allows this melody to project, along with the intertwined melody between the first and

87 Bakst, 100. 88 Maes, 65. 40 second trombone parts. The low string parts are marked pizzicato, showing a difference in articulation between the low brass and string parts. Though the low strings are marked

Allegro Moderato > >œ œ > > > > > > > Trombone 1 œ n>œ œ œ œ n>œ >œ œ œn>œ œ >œ >œ œ >œ ˙ œ œ ? b 43 ! Œ f >œ Trombone 2 œ. œ >œ >œ > œ œ>œ >œ > > >œ >œ >œ >œ > >œ >œ ˙ ? b 43 J œ œ œ œ œ ˙ Œ > f Bass Trombone > > > > > ? 3 œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ > > > > > > > > > > > f Tuba ? 3 Œ b 4 œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ pizz. > > œ œ œ > œ œ œ > > > > > œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Cello/ f > > > > > > > > Double Bass ? 3 œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ p ƒ Example 3.1 Balakirev’s Russia, measures 11-18 of rehearsal 3, low brass and strings

at a louder dynamic, the pizzicato marking makes them sound more distant, giving the sustain and power to the low brass. Balakirev continues the tradition that Glinka started of scoring the tuba and bass trombone separately from the tenor trombones.

Bevan suggests that the tuba used in Russian orchestras during the late nineteenth century was a three-valve E-flat tuba.89 The lowest note on a three-valve E-flat tuba is an

AA. This particular section has notes as low as an FF, which would have been unplayable on a three-valve E-flat tuba. Though this excerpt is playable on a four valve E-flat tuba, V.C./D.B.

©

89 Bevan, Tuba Family, 332. 41 the tessitura lends itself better to a BB-flat or CC tuba. This either suggests Balakirev was not aware of the tuba choices available, or that he composed for a particular style tuba.

Balakirev had a great knowledge of orchestration; he would often score the bass trombone without the tuba on difficult technical passages. One example of this is his knowledge of a needed breath by the tubist, as noted in Example 3.2. The trombones and

Allegro Moderato > > œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Tenor Trombones œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ? ## c œ œ œ œ Œ J ‰ Œ Œ

ƒ œ œ Bass Trombone ? # œ œ œ œ#œ œ # c œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ#œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ƒ Tuba ? # # c œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ w w ƒ Example 3.2 Balakirev’s Russia, measures 13-16 of rehearsal 13, low brass

tuba are the only instruments playing the eighth note passage. The double basses and bassoons join the tuba on the D whole notes, leaving just the bass trombone on the ascending eighth note passage. Balakirev’s choice to put the tuba on the whole note D may have been to help the bass trombone’s color to project easier. Another possibility was that he did not want the part doubled in the lower octave and was aware of the difficulties in the high ranges of players at the time.

Balakirev’s works were not performed for several decades after they were written.

Though he had difficulties completing large works, he encouraged his students and colleagues to write them. He composed two symphonies, the first of which includes tuba. 42

© Like his other compositions, Balakirev used the tuba and bass trombone separately from the tenor trombones, and scores them with the cello and double bass, shown in Example

3.3. He uses the low brass and strings to aid in the key change and uses the large dynamic contrast to create a dramatic musical effect.

Andante a2 œ #œ. œ œ œ. ˙. œ.œ œ Tenor Trombones œ. œ.œ J œ. œœ.#œ. œ. œ#œ ˙. ? ## 128 Ó. Œ. J J f Bass Trombone j ? ## 12 j ˙. nœ. œ œ œ j 8 w. ˙. œ. œ œ ˙. #˙. œ.œ. J œ œ œ

Tuba ? # 12 # 8 j j j j ˙. nœ. œ œ œ w. ˙. œ. œ œ ˙. #˙. œ.œ. œ œ œ Cello/ j Double Bass ? ## 12 j . ˙. nœ. œ œ œ j 8 w. ˙. œ. œ œ ˙. #˙. œ.œ J œ œ œ

6 bœ nœ Tbn. . œ œ œ. œ ? # œ J J n b . Œ. # nb bbb ‰ Ó ! ! ƒ B. Tbn. ? # n # nbb b œ. ‰ Œ. ˙. n˙. b b ˙. œ. nœ. œ. b˙. ˙. œ ƒ p " Tuba ? # n b . # nb bbb ‰ Œ . . œ. . 6 ˙. n˙. ˙. œ. nœ œ b˙ ˙. œ ƒ p " V.C./D.B ? # n # nbb b œ. j‰ ‰ Œ. ‰ ˙. n˙. b b ˙. œ. nœ. œ. b˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ ƒ p "

Example 3.3: Balakirev’s Symphony No. 1 in C, movement. 3, rehearsal 11-12, low instruments

43 © The writing for the tuba in Example 3.3 shows an extended range to an EE-flat, expanding the normal written range of the tuba. This part would have been difficult to play on an E-flat tuba because of the depth of sound and dexterity needed. Though the

EE-flat would be available using a false tone on a three valve BB-flat tuba, the amount of volume required in this section would have made this quite difficult.90 Balakirev began composing his Symphony No. 1 in the 1860s, but it was not performed and published until the 1890s. There is a high probability that Balakirev edited the tuba part to reflect the trends in the 1890s, when players began using Zimmerman style BB-flat tubas with four valves. If Balakirev’s writing was not influenced by the tuba usage at the end of the nineteenth century, then his works helped influence the use of bigger, contrabass tubas.

Alexander Borodin

Alexander Borodin was born in St. Petersburg in 1833, and learned to play piano, flute, and cello at an early age. He attended symphony concerts and also played piano duets with friends. Though he played music, he studied chemistry and worked as a chemist. Like Glinka, Borodin’s travel to Germany had a great influence on his music.91

“Borodin soon became an enthusiastic follower of the advanced musical romanticism of

Schumann, Berlioz, and Liszt…[which] made a rapprochement inevitable with the progressive trends of Russian music represented by the Kuchka…His friendship with

Balakirev helped Borodin realize his own creative abilities in music.”92

90 A false tone can be produced above BB-flat fundamental and below EE on the BB-flat tuba. These false tones do not exist in the harmonic series. 91 Bakst, 107-108. 92 Ibid., 108-109 44

Though he was a chemist, Borodin’s musical training as a child helped with his musical training. Before he visited Germany, he was influenced by the nationalism present in Glinka’s music. A Life for the Tsar had a great impact on Borodin’s musical style. “The courageous and optimistic character of Borodin’s music reflects the heroic aspects of Russian history and epic poetry. His style is distinguished by clear musical textures and a wealth of tone color.”93

The plot to Borodin’s Prince Igor is similar to Glinka’s Ruslan and Ludmilla.

“Despite the difference in plots, Ruslan, a fantastic fairy tale, and Prince Igor, a realistic historical event, the musical and dramatic conceptions of the two operas are similar.”94 It is a nationalistic opera, showing two sides: the enslaved Polovtsy, and the peasants and soldiers led by national hero Prince Igor. Instead of portraying the peasantry as weak or as enemies, he represented them as strong, cultured people.95 Borodin did not finish

Prince Igor; Rimsky-Korsakov and Glazunov finished it after his death. Prince Igor is not performed much in its operatic form; however sections from the opera, such as the

Overture and the Polovtsian Dances are performed as stand alone works.

Borodin’s low brass orchestrations are generally Germanic, where he scores the trombones and tubas as one unit (in comparison to Glinka and Balakirev who used the bass trombone and tuba separately from the tenor trombones). Similar to Balakirev, there are several times Borodin scores the bass trombone without the tuba, notably in technical passages, which may have posed difficult to tubists at the time of composition. Borodin

93 Ibid., 107. 94 Ibid., 113. 95 Ibid., 114. 45 also added the tuba on long value notes at the end of a phrase to existing textures, showing the quality of the tuba’s sonorous sound.

Borodin shows the clarity of his musical textures and the various tone colors in the opening of the section to the overture to Prince Igor. Shown in Example 3.4, the

Allegro > > j j & 42 ! ! ! ! ! ! ‰ œ œ Œ ‰ œ œ Horns J > J > > f > 2 j j & 4 ! ! ! ! ! ‰#œ œ Œ ‰#œ œ Œ J > J > n>˙ f n>œ Trombone 1 ? # 2 œ œ # 4 ! ! ! Œ ‰ J Œ ‰ J Œ ! F > > Trombone 2 ? # 2 œ ˙ ! Œ ‰ œ œ ! # 4 ! Œ ‰ J J Œ ! F Bass Trombone ? # j > # 42 ! ! Œ ‰nœ n˙ ! ! ! ! F Tuba ? # 2 j > # 4 Œ ‰ œ ˙ ! ! ! ! ! ! F Example 3.4 Borodin’s Overture to Prince Igor, measures 41-48, brass

brass have a cascading effect and are the only ones that have moving notes. Borodin starts the cascading melody with the tuba. Though the tuba only has two notes, it startis a solo voice that starts this motive in each of its appearances.

Borodin’s Second Symphony is one of his most important and performed compositions, utilizing the power and color of the sections of the orchestra. He wrote the piece between 1869-1876, which resulted in him not completing Prince Igor.

46 ©

He uses the low brass as an important figure in the musical imagery. “The first movement of the Second Symphony is an unusual construction. The main theme consists of two contrasting parts: a concise motif and a melody in the wind[s] with a different tempo…the contrast effect, inherent in the theme itself, is continued throughout the structure and amplified by the orchestration (with intensive use of the low brass).”96

Animato assai a2 œ > œ > Tenor Trombones œ œ bœ œ œ n˙ >˙ b>˙. œ œ œ bœ œ œ n˙ >˙ b>˙. œ ? ## 3 2 3 2 2 marcato assai 2 2 2 f Bass Trombone ? ## 3 œ œ 2 n˙ . 3 œ œ 2 n˙ . 2 œ œmarcatobœ assaiœ 2 ˙ b˙ œ 2 œ œ bœ œ 2 ˙ b˙ œ f > > > > > > Tuba ? ## 3 œ œ 2 n˙ . 3 œ œ 2 n˙ . 2 œ œmarcatobœ assaiœ 2 ˙ b˙ œ 2 œ œ bœ œ 2 ˙ b˙ œ f > > > > > > Cello/ œ œ bœ œ œ œ n>˙ >˙ b>˙. œ œ œ bœ œ œ œ n>˙ >˙ b>˙. œ Double Bass ? ## 3 2 3 2 2 marcato assai 2 2 2 ƒ

Example 3.5 Borodin’s Second Symphony, movement 1, measures 14-19 after C, low instruments

Borodin uses the low brass and strings as one musical unit to present this contrast effect, while the upper woodwinds and strings respond with similar melodic material in the alla breve measures. Though his scoring in this instance is not unique, some may infer that the low instruments represent musical tension and darkness. Later in the first movement, at rehearsal J, Borodin scores the theme in Example 3.5 for solo bass trombone, followed by solo second trombone, and ending a duet between the first trombone and trumpet. The tuba was not scored during this section. In other sections where this motif is presented,

96 Maes, 70. 47 © the tuba plays a long held note under the trombone melody. This further shows his keen awareness for instrumental tone and timbre.

After rehearsal K in the second movement of the Second Symphony, Borodin marks the tuba part as a solo. The writing is holding a C for 8 measures and a beat at a piano dynamic; the only instrument that plays the sustained note. The woodwinds are marked forte and the strings at mezzo-forte. It is plausible that he marked the tuba part solo to show the importance of the held note in the texture around it.

Bevan’s statement of Borodin’s works being composed with a three valve E-flat tuba in mind can be further refuted with an example in the fourth movement, where a

GG# is the lowest note in a melodic line, shown in Example 3.6.97 In this melodic line,

Allegro

Tuba ? #### 3 j 2 3 2 3 # 4 œ j j 4 œ œ 4 j jœ 4 œ œ 4 > œ œ œ œ œ > œ œ œ > œ œ > > > > > > > > 5 f ? # ## 3 2 3 2 # # 4 j j 4 œ 4 j j œ 4 œ œ œ œ œ > œ œ œ œ œ œ œ > > > > > > œ > > >

Example 3.6 Borodin’s Symphony No. 2, movement. 4, measures 1-8 after rehearsal A, tuba part

he scores the entire brass section with the harmonized melody, in rhythmic unison. The large jump before the GG# shows the flexibility of the tuba between registers while

97 This passage would be playable on an E-flat tuba with four valves 48

© playing a melodic line. If Borodin was cognizant of the ranges and notes playable on the various tubas available, he would have scored it accordingly.

Borodin’s opera and symphonies had a powerful influence on Russian composers who followed. “He carried on the traditions of Glinka, and at the same time, enriched

Russian music with an original style.”98 This original style would set the tone for future

Russian music.

Modest Mussorgsky

Modest Mussorgsky was born in 1839 in the Pskov province. Mussorgsky’s father owned land, and his mother was a music enthusiast. Modest’s mother taught him the piano. At the age of ten, he attended a military school, and upon graduation became an officer in the Preobrazhensky regiment. During his time in the military, Mussorgsky became friends with Balakirev. “Under Balakirev’s guidance, Mussorgsky studied the music of Russian and Western composers and tried to compose in various genres.”99

Mussorgsky’s dedication to advancing in his musical career caused him to quit the army and become a government clerk.

Compositionally, “Modest Mussorgsky was the champion of democratic realism in Russian music. His music, based on realistic concepts, represents and expresses the sufferings, hopes, and joys of the common people, the spiritual and psychological aspects of their daily existence and the disasters and calamities which overwhelm him.”100

98 Bakst, 123. 99 Ibid., 125. 100 Ibid., 124 49

Though Mussorgsky’s compositions represented realism, Nikolai Rimsky-

Korsakov edited many of his works to mask his intentions. In his autobiography My

Musical Life, Rimsky-Korsakov mentions in reference to Mussorgsky’s works,

Withal, in the majority of cases, these compositions showed so much talent, so much originality, offered so much that was new and alive, that their publication was a positive obligation. But publication without a skillful hand to put them in order would have had no sense save a biographico-historical one. If Mussorgsky’s compositions are destined to live unfaded for fifty years after their author’s death (when all his works will become property of any and every publisher), such an archaeologically accurate edition will always be possible, as the manuscripts went to the Public Library on leaving me. For the present, though, there was need of an edition for performances, for practical artistic purposes, for making his colossal talent known, and not for the mere studying of his personality and artistic sins.101

Rimsky-Korsakov’s changes allowed international audiences to become familiar with

Mussorgsky’s works. The arrangements and editions of Mussorgsky’s works by Rimsky-

Korsakov are the ones that are standardly performed. It is unknown how popular these works would have been performed if Rimsky-Korsakov had edited them. Rimsky-

Korsakov’s edits had a great impact on the tuba parts.

Night on Bald Mountain was composed in 1867. Its synthesis began as an opera about witches, but became a stand-alone tone poem about four stages of a witches’ sabbath (assembly of the witches, the cortege of Satan, the black mass, and the sabbath).102 Though the topic of the piece is not realistic, Mussorgsky’s musical realism includes musical correlation with visual representations. Rimsky-Korsakov wrote a new

101Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, My Musical Life Translated by Judah Joffe, Edited by Carl Van Vechten (New York: Tudor Publishing Company, 1942), 295. 102 Maes, 85. 50 performance edition of the work, which he felt helped audiences connect with the work more. His edition changed the form of the work, while keeping the overall idea.

The tuba plays an important role in Night on Bald Mountain, where in

Mussorgsky’s original orchestration, shown in Example 3.7, the second trombone, bass trombone, and tuba state the theme of the assembly of the witches. The horns and woodwinds overtake the melody, causing a shift in the orchestral timbre. Mussorgsky carefully chose the low brass in presenting this theme, because they can be inferred to

Vivace w w ˙ ˙ ˙ #w ˙. œ Tenor Trombone 2 ˙ œ ? b 4 J ‰ Œ Ó marcato f cresc. Bass Trombone w ˙ #w ˙. œ j ? b 4 w ˙ ˙ ˙ œ ‰ Œ Ó f marcato cresc. Tuba ? 4 ‰ Œ Ó b 4 w ˙ #w ˙. œ j marcato w ˙ cresc.˙ ˙ œ f Example 3.7 Mussorgsky’s Night on Bald Mountain, opening theme, measures 15-21.

represent evil witches. The ominous tone color of the low brass can give chills and shows the power of the instrument. The low brass theme is performed over an ostinato in the high brass and woodwinds, helping create a balance between the parts, showing that he 8

Tbn. was cognizant? bof the instruments sonorous capabilities.! “Mussorgsky employed orchestral sonorities to reflect the dynamics of emotional realism in dramatic situations. B. Tbn. ? b ! 51 Tuba ? b !

© For this purpose, he preferred a flexible orchestral palette with frequent changes in light and shade and in timbre.”103

3 Bassoons ? 4 w w ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ #w ˙ ˙ b 4 #w ˙ ˙ w ˙ œ œ œ w w w ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ > w ˙ œ œ œ w f> > ƒ > > > > ˙ w w> ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ #w ˙ w> ˙ œ œ œ w> Trombone 1 ? 4 b 4 3 f ƒ w> ˙ œ œ œ w> Trombone 2 ? 4 w> w> ˙ ˙ ˙ #w> ˙ ˙ b 4 ˙ 3 f ƒ 3 Bass Trombone 4 > > #w> ˙ ˙ ? b 4 w w ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ w ˙ œ œ œ w f ƒ> > 3 Tuba 4 ? b 4 w w ˙ ˙ ˙ #w ˙ ˙ > > ˙ > w ˙ œ œ œ w f ƒ> > Viola > > #w> ˙ ˙ > > B b 4 w w ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ w ˙ œ œ œ w 4 3 f ƒ 3 Cello 4 > > #w> ˙ ˙ ? b 4 w w ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ w ˙ œ œ œ w > > f ƒ 3 Double Bass 4 > > #w> ˙ ˙ ? b 4 w w ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ w ˙ œ œ œ w f ƒ> >

Example 3.8 Night on Bald Mountain, opening theme, Rimsky-Korsakov Orchestration

©

103 Bakst, 132. 52

Rimsky-Korsakov’s edition does not change the melody of the opening theme, though additional notes were added in the ostinato accompaniment parts. Rimsky-

Korsakov’s changes to the opening theme adds additional instruments, shown in Example

3.8. The addition of instruments to the theme included the bassoons, first trombone, violas, cellos, and basses. Rimsky-Korsakov added the violins to the ostinato, which did not play this part in Mussorgsky’s original version. Adding instruments also helped keep the intended balance. The addition of the low strings, bassoons, and the first trombone adds more depth to the orchestral sound and texture, and further diminishes the power of the low trombones and tuba. Though the new orchestration may have been more suitable to western audiences at the time, it also removes part of the eeriness Mussorgsky presented in the original orchestration. In addition to the changed orchestration, Rimsky-

Korsakov adds the response (whole notes tied to a half note, followed by quarter note triplets) to the instruments with the theme, instead of scoring it for the horns as

Mussorgsky did. This is also a major change to the sound of the orchestra, having one unit perform the entire melody, instead of passing it between instruments as Mussorgsky originally did.

Another example of Mussorgsky’s unique use of the tuba color is presented in the

Coronation Scene of his opera Boris Godunov. Boris Godunov was edited several times for performances, resulting in many different versions. Though based on a historical event, Mussorgsky used Pushkin’s dramatized version of the story as the basis for his opera. However, Mussorgsky added and changed material from the play. The opera tells the story of Boris Godunov, the Tsar of Russia after death of Ivan the Terrible. Ivan’s

53 son, Fyodor, was considered unfit to rule, and Boris was elected by the people. Rumors surfaced about the murder to another heir of the throne, tsarevich Dmitri Boris

Godunov.104 Grigoi, a pretender the same age as Dmitri, surfaces and claims he is the heir to the throne. In the opera, Boris Godunov dies from the guilt associated with murdering Dmitri.

Like in Night on Bald Mountain, Mussorgsky used orchestrations in Boris

Godunov to help add to the musical effect. “Mussorgsky’s meager instrumentation for the

Andantino alla marcia

b˙^ . œ b˙^ . œ b˙^ . œ & 4 ! ! b ˙. œ ‰ ! b ˙. œ ‰ ! b ˙. œ ‰ Horns in F J J J ƒ ƒ ƒp ^ ˙^ . œ ^ 4 . œ ^ j b˙. œ ^ j . œ & 4 ! ! b˙. œ ‰ ˙. œ ‰ J ‰ ˙. œ ‰ b˙. œ ‰ ƒ J ˙. œ ƒp ˙. œ ƒ J ƒ S 2 Trumpets in Bb ^ . ^ . ^ . & 4 ! ! b˙. œ ‰ ! b˙. œ ‰ ! b˙. œ ‰ J J J ƒ ƒ ƒp ˙^ . œ ˙^ . œ Trombones 1-2 ? 4 #˙. œ #˙. œ 4 ! ! ! J ‰ ! J ‰ ! f f Bass Trombone ^ j ^ j ? 4 ! ! ! ˙. œ ‰ ! ˙. œ ‰ ! f f Tuba ? 4 4 j‰ Œ j‰ Œ Ó j‰ Œ j‰ Œ j‰ Œ j‰ Œ ˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ Sp Sp Sp Sp Sp Sp Sp Tamtam 4 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ã 4 Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó Ó pizz." ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Double Bass 4 ? 4 œ Œ Ó œ Œ Ó Ó œ Œ Ó œ Œ Ó œ Œ Ó œ Œ Ó œ Œ S S S S S S S

Example 3.9 Mussorgsky’s Boris Godunov, Prologue, Scene II, measures 1-7 Bell Tones

104 This is part of the dramatized version by Pushkin. 54

Coronation Scene suggests that he did not want to portray a happy and popular event, but a forced celebration, a compulsory coronation…Mussorgsky’s orchestration is characterized by a discontinuity of orchestral timbre.”105 The opening of the Coronation

Scene begins with the depiction of bells in the brass parts. Fittingly, the tuba begins the bell tone notes, shown in Example 3.9. The double bass is the only pitch producing instrument performing with the tuba, but only has pizzicato quarter notes, allowing the tuba’s sustain to project. The tam-tam also plays with the tuba, but is does not have the bell-tone attack or definite pitch. The instruments playing the bell tones continue this musical idea for the entire opening of the scene. Though the brass represent the power and royalty of the Tsar and the physical bells, they also serve a dual purpose: the forced celebration of the people, along with the foreshadowing darkness of guilt Boris will face later in the opera for the killing of the tsarevich. Mussorgsky used tritone intervals in the trombones, showing realism in the way Mussorgsky heard the bells, including the decay.

The bells beginning with the tuba starting the the act is quite significant, along with using tuba as a solo voice reinforced by the tam-tam and the string bass. The other bell voices are doubled with other instruments. Mussorgsky could have combined the bass trombone with the tuba voice, but using the tuba alone gives an added impact.

Like in Night on Bald Mountain, Rimsky-Korsakov made significant changes to the orchestration in the Coronation Scene of Boris Godunov, shown in Example 3.10.

Rimsky-Korsakov still begins the opening with tuba, with a slightly longer note value.

However, the tuba plays with the bassoons, basses, cellos, violas, piano and harp.

105 Bakst, 134. 55

Moderato

Clarinets 1-3 in B b 4 & 4 ! ! #b˙˙.. ‰ ‰ #b˙˙.. ‰ ‰ .. ˙ .. ˙.. #˙.. #˙.. Bassoons w w w w ? 4 ˙ ‰ ˙ ‰ w w w w 4 #˙.. #˙.. p p p ^ ^ 4 ! ! #bœ. ‰ Ó ‰ Ó #bœ. ‰ Ó ‰ Ó & 4 nœ. nœ. Horns in F # œ # œ IIIF 4 ^ ^ ^ ^ & 4 ! ! bœ. ‰ Ó ‰ Ó bœ. ‰ Ó ‰ Ó œ. œ. F Tuba ? 4 ‰ ‰ ! ! ! ! ˙.. ˙.. p p Triangle 4 œ œ ã 4 ! ! Œ Ó ! Œ Ó ! p Colla bacch. Cymbals 4 ã 4 ! ! ! | Ó ! | Ó p Tamtam 4 w w ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ã 4 Ó Ó Ó Ó p 4 ˙ .. ˙ .. & 4 ! ! #bb˙˙.. ‰ ! #bb˙˙.. ‰ ! Harp .. .. S p S p F ˙ ˙ ? 4 ˙.. ‰ ˙.. ‰ ˙ Ó ˙ ˙ Ó ˙ #˙.. #˙.. #˙ #˙ #˙ #˙

? 4 ˙.. ‰ ˙.. ‰ ! ! ! ! Piano #˙.. #˙..

? 4 ˙.. ‰ ˙.. ‰ ! ! ! ! #˙.. #˙.. "pizz. " Viola B 4 Ó Ó ! ! ! ! ˙ ˙ pizz. F ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ Cello #˙ #˙ ? 4 ˙ Ó ˙ Ó ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ pizz. F F F F F p p p p Double Bass #˙ #˙ #˙ #˙ #˙ #˙ ? 4 ˙ Ó ˙ Ó Ó ˙ Ó ˙ Ó ˙ Ó ˙ F p

Example 3.10 Boris Godunov, Coronation Scene, Rimsky-Korsakov Orchestration.

56

Rimsky-Korsakov changes the lengths of notes removes the trombones and trumpets in the orchestration. The tuba does not continue the bell motive after the second measure.

Rimsky-Korsakov kept the tritone intervals between the low parts, but the change in the orchestration and removal of the sforzando markings help diminish the dissonance. In regards to the Coronation Scene, Bakst mentions “many other changes introduced by

Rimsky-Korsakov nullified the esthetic conceptions of Mussorgsky.”106 The changes in timbre and orchestration are no exception to this.

Though the Rimsky-Korsakov orchestrations of Mussorgsky’s works have been the ones traditionally performed, there has been an increase in performances of

Mussorgsky’s original orchestrations. Though the tuba parts to the Rimsky-Korsakov editions offer challenges, orchestral tubists are recommended to study both editions of the works for the orchestration changes discussed, as these help effect the mood and color of the entire selection.

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov was the youngest member associated with the Kuchka.

He was born in 1844 in Tikhvin, a province near Novgorod; his father was a retired governor. Nikolai took piano lessons at a young age and also composed in his youth.

Rimsky-Korsakov joined the Naval School in St. Petersburg. During his time at the Naval

School, he concurrently studied music and met Mily Balakirev. Rimsky-Korsakov became an officer in the navy while maintaining his friendship with Balakirev, who

106 Bakst, 132. 57 encouraged Nikolai to write a symphony. Rimsky-Korsakov was later offered to teach orchestration and composition at the St. Petersburg conservatory. In 1873, after his time at the St. Petersburg conservatory, Rimsky-Korsakov accepted an offer to supervise brass bands in the Russian Navy.107 It was during this time Rimsky-Korsakov uniformed and

Largo e maestoso a2 3 Ÿ~~~ Clarinets 1-2 in A b 2 & b 2 ˙ ˙ œ œ ˙. œ. ˙ œ œ #˙ ˙ ƒ Ÿ~~~ > > ˙ ˙ œ œ ˙. œ. ˘ Bassoons ? # 2 ˙ œ œ #˙ ˙ 2 ˙ ˙ ˙ œ œ œ ˙. œ. pesante 3 œ #˙ ˙ a2 ƒ fl ˙ ˙ œ œ ˙. œ. > Trombones 1-2 ? # 2 ˙ œ œ #˙ >˙ 2 3 ƒ 3 Bass Trombone ? # 2 ˙ ˙ œ œ ˙ œ 2 ˙ œ . . œ #˙ ˙ > > ƒ 3 Tuba ? # 2 œ ˙ œ 2 œ . . œ #˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ œ > > a2ƒ 3 Ÿ~~~~~ Violins 1-2 # 2 & 2 ˙ Œ Ó pesante˙ ˙ œ œ œ ˙. œ. ƒ œ #œ Ÿ~~~~~ > Viola # 2 ˙ B 2 ˙ ˙ œ œ œ ˙. œ. œ #˙ pesante 3 fl ˙ ƒ 3 fl Ÿ~~~ Cello ? # 2 ˙ ˙ œ œ ˙. œ. 2 pesante˙ œ œ #˙ fl ˙ ƒ 3 fl Double Bass ? # 2 2 ˙ ˙ ˙ œ œ œ ˙. œ. pesante œ #˙ ˙ ƒ fl fl Example 3.11 Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade, movement 1, measures 1-4

107 Ibid., 137-140. 58 standardized the keys of the instruments in the navy bands, and when he wrote his

Principles of Orchestration.

Rimsky-Korsakov did not use the uniqueness of the tuba’s color as much as

Mussorgsky, however, he mainly used it to double other instruments. In Scheherazade, a programmatic composition about Arabian stories, Rimsky-Korsakov uses the tuba doubled with several other instruments to state the theme, shown in Example 3.11. The unison instruments give a bold opening to the work. The tuba part is the only instrument that changes octaves in the second measure. The shift in octaves after the D would not change the overall melody nor significantly change the timbre. It shows that Rimsky-

Korsakov was aware of the range of the tuba being used. This supports Bevan’s claim that a three valve E-flat tuba may have been used. However, in the final movement of

Scheherazade, Rimsky-Korsakov scores an AA-flat at a fortississimo dynamic, only playable using the open false tone on a three valve E-Flat tuba. Rimsky-Korsakov’s knowledge of orchestration and work with the naval brass bands helped his awareness of this and would not have scored this note. This could further suggest that if an E-Flat tuba may have been used in Russian orchestras at the time he wrote Scheherazade, it would have had four valves. The low range of the E-flat tuba becomes a bit different in the lowest notes above the fundamental. Rimsky-Korsakov, having this knowledge, scored it to assist in keeping the sound more consistent and playable. The majority of

Scheherazade has passages in the middle of the staff, fitting comfortably in the range of all keyed tubas, and similar to the writing for the E-flat tuba in British style brass bands.

Since the death of Rimsky-Korsakov and the standard usage of contrabass tubas, it has

59 become a standard practice to take the part after the tied D in the second measure down an octave, so the entire excerpt is in octaves with the bass trombone.

In the fourth movement of Scheherazade, Rimsky-Korsakov showed his knowledge of the tuba’s technical ability, scoring it with the trombones, horns, and trumpets, shown in Example 3.12. This passage requires most to use double tonguing to achieve clarity.

Vivo > > 2 bœ œ bœ œ œ œ bœ œ bœ œ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ bœ ‰ & 8 J Horns in F f S 2 j ‰ & 8 #œ œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ f> > S Trumpets 1-2 in A 2 j & 8 #œ œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ #œ ‰ f> > S >œ œ œ œ œ œ >œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Tenor Trombones 1-2 ? 2 nœ œ nœ œ œ œ nœ œ nœ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ nœ bbb 8 J ‰ f S Bass Trombone ? b 2 j b b 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ f> > S Tuba ? b 2 j b b 8 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ > > f S Example 3.12 Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade, movement 4, meas. 11-17 of rehearsal S, brass

Though Rimsky-Korsakov changed many composers’ pieces, sometimes diminishing the effects of orchestration of the tuba part, he used the tuba’s color in a unique manner in his Russian Easter Overture. “The Easter Overture, based on themes

60

© from Russian orthodox liturgy, is not entirely imbued with religious sentiments.”108

However, Rimsky-Korsakov mentions that it is not just the religious meaning he was after in this work. “This legendary and heathen side of the holiday, this transition from the gloomy and mysterious evening of Passion Saturday to the unbridled pagan-religious merry-making on the morn of Easter Sunday, is what I was eager to reproduce in my overture.”109 110

Rimsky-Korsakov uses the tuba to restate the main theme, shown in Example

3.13. The tuba and bassoons are the only instruments playing, and the tuba is in a higher octave and marked solo, though is marked at a softer dynamic than the bassoons.

Rimsky-Korsakov was aware of the balance he wanted between the parts and the abilities

Andante lugubre, sepre alla breve

Bassoons 2 ? b 2 j‰ Œ j‰ Œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ psolo 2 Tuba ? 2 œ œ œ œ ˙ œ ‰ Œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ ‰ Œ b 2 J J ! 7

Bsn. 12 2 ? Œ ˙ Œ Œ ˙ Œ b œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ 7 p p 12 2 Tuba œ ˙ œ ˙ ? b Œ œ œ œ Œ Œ œ œ œ Œ ! Example 3.13 Rimsky-Korsakov’s Russian Easter Overture, measures 13-36 of rehearsal C, tuba and bassoon theme

108 Bakst, 142. 109 Rimsky-Korsakov, My Musical Life 295. 110 Rimsky-Korsakov was an atheist, allowing him to see Passion Saturday from another viewpoint. 61

© of the instruments, further demonstrating his careful orchestrational techniques. He mentions the evening of Passion Saturday as gloomy and mysterious, and this orchestration helps to set the mood.

Rimsky-Korsakov uses the majority of the low voices to show the merry-making in the next section, along with the tritone intervals to show potential mischief, along with the low brass, bassoons, and low strings in stating the finale chorale that ends the piece.

Rimsky-Korsakov wrote a concerto for trombone and band Rimsky-Korsakov also played trombone, writing this concerto for himself, and further showing his knowledge of the workings of brass instruments. Rimsky-Korsakov later returned to teach at the St. Petersburg Conservatory, despite opposition to formal music education by other members of the Kuchka. Though Rimsky-Korsakov’s did not generally use the tuba in the same manner as Borodin or Mussorgsky, he helped advance the tuba’s technical ability in the orchestra and gave it the melody in many of his pieces. He also helped the spread and dispersion of Russian symphonic music of his colleagues in the Kuchka and taught several composers in the twentieth century. Though he may have diminished the tuba’s effect in the works of his colleagues, he allowed the world to hear the compositions coming from Russia.

Tchaikovsky and the Cosmopolitans

Before Tchaikovsky, composers associated with the Cosmopolitan movement favored the study of academic forms and western music, which clashed with the ideas of the Kuchka. The music studied in the conservatory of St. Petersburg included several

62 works before the invention of the tuba and ophicleide, leading composers such as Anton

Rubinstein scarcely scoring for it. Though Western forms were studied, the conservatory introduced professional music study to Russia.

Tchaikovsky was born in 1840 and spent his childhood in Votkinsk, and later moved to St. Petersburg. He graduated from the School of Jurisprudence and took a position at the Ministry of Justice. It was during this time his advanced his musical skills and began studying music, notably Italian opera. In 1861, he attended the St. Petersburg

Conservatory.111 “Tchaikovsky was somewhat opposed to his teachers because of their musical conservatism.”112

Peter Tchaikovsky is a composer generally associated with the Cosmopolitans, as his music reflected western forms. “His [Tchaikovsky’s] musical principles were restrained and classical. He did not conceal his admiration of Western musical achievements, and, as a graduate of the Petersburg conservatory, he believed in a through training in musical theory and composition.”113 Tchaikovsky effectively combined

Russian nationalistic elements and his study of western forms in his compositions, though he was not a nationalist.

Similar to composers in the 18th century, Tchaikovsky “enjoyed an extensive system of aristocratic patronage, his most noted sponsor being Nadezhda von Meck, the rich widow of a railroad entrepreneur who set aside a considerable part of her fortune for

111 Bakst, 190-191. 112 Ibid., 191. 113 Bakst, 181. 63 the patronage of artists.”114 Tchaikovsky had other patrons, including Tsar Alexander III, who gave him a stipend to compose music.115

Western composers influenced Tchaikovsky’s style of orchestration. This can be seen when he uses instrumental groups to present a passage in rhythmic unison. An example of that can be found in his Symphony No. 1: Winter Dreams, shown in Example

3.14. Tchaikovsky uses the woodwinds in unison octaves for the majority of the excerpt; he later adds the strings as another unit playing the subdivided rhythms. In contrast, he uses the brass section scored with the double basses as another contrasting unit. In some of his other works, Tchaikovsky uses these units of instruments to represent musical expressions, such as brass instruments representing the evil forces. Tchaikovsky also uses simpler combinations of instruments in many of his works, using high, middle, and low- pitched instruments as separate units. He also frequently scores the entire orchestra in rhythmic unison.

Another characteristic of Tchaikovsky’s compositional style can be found in his

1812 Overture, a work utilizing nationalistic music composed in reference to the Russian

Army’s defeat of Napoleon in 1812. Though similar in orchestration as Example 3.14 and many of his other works, he uses the tuba as an additive voice, adding clarity and creating a new focus to the repetitive ostinato in the woodwinds and strings, shown in Example

3.15. Though the notes are doubled in other instruments, Tchaikovsky uses the color of the tuba voice as a solo entrance. The inclusion of accented notes in the woodwinds and the addition of the bass trombone color two measures after the tuba entrance further adds

114 Maes 139-140. 115 Ibid.,141. 64 clarity and color to the passage.

Allegro Moderato . . œ . . . œ . . œ . . . œ . . œ . . œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. Piccolo # 4 & 4 a2 a2ƒ . œ. œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ Flutes 1-2 # 4 & 4 a2 ƒ a2 œ Oboes 1-2 # . . œ . . œ. œ . . œ . . œ. œ . œ. œ . œ. œ œ & 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ a2 a2ƒ Clarinets 1-2 in A . . œ . . . œ . . œ . . . œ . . œ . . bb 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ & 4 a2 a2ƒ œ. œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ. Bassoon ? # ˙ 4 ƒ 4 #œ œ ˙ #œ œ ˙ ˙. œ ˙ ˙ & 4 ˙. œ #œ ˙ ˙. œ #œ ˙ ˙. œ #˙ ˙ #˙. œ. œ #˙. œ œ Horns in F ƒ 4 & 4 ˙. œ œ œ ˙ ˙. œ œ œ ˙ ˙. œ ˙ #˙ #˙. œ. œ œ #˙ #˙. œ œ œ #˙ #˙. œ ˙ ˙ ƒa2 Trumpets 1-2 in D 4 & 4 . ˙ ˙. œ œ œ ˙ ˙. œ œ œ ˙ ˙ œ ˙ ˙ ƒ œ œ ˙ ˙ Trombones 1-2 B 4 ˙. œ œ ˙˙ ˙. œ œ ˙˙ ˙˙. œœ #˙ # 4 ˙. œ œ œ ˙. œ œ œ . ˙ ƒ Bass Trombone ? # 4 œ œ ˙ œ œ ˙ ˙. œ ˙ Tuba 4 ˙. œ ˙. œ ˙ œ œ ˙ œ œ ˙ ˙. œ ˙ ˙ ƒ Timpani ? # 4 æ wæ æ wæ wæ 4 w w wæ f Bass Drum 4 œ œ œ ã 4 Œ Ó ! Œ Ó ! ! Ó Œ a2ƒ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ Violins 1-2 # œ œ œ & 4 @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ ƒ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ Violas œ œ œ B # 4 ˙ ! ! @ ˙ ! ! @ ˙ ! ! @ ˙ ! ! @ ˙ ! ! @ ˙ ! ! 4 @ @ @ @ @ @ @ ƒ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ ˙ Cellos ? # 4 @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ @ ! ! @ ƒ . . Double Basses ? # ˙ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ . ˙ 4 ˙ ˙ ˙ œ ˙ ƒ Example 3.14 Tchaikovsky Symphony No 1, movement 4, measures 57-62

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Tchaikovsky did not score any significant solos for the tuba in his works; he scored many soloistic interjections in the texture to contrast the timbre presented. One example of this is in the first movement of his Fifth Symphony. The tuba, doubled with

Allegro giusto a2 Flutes Oboes b 3 English Horn & b b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ cresc.œ œ œ œ > > > > > > ƒa2 Clarinets 1-2 in B b b 3 œ œ & 4 cresc.œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ > > > > > > ƒa2 œ œ œ Bassoons ? 3 bbb 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ƒ >cresc.> > > > > Bass Trombone > > > > > > ? b 3 ! ! ! ! œ œ œ œ œ œ b b 4 cresc. ƒ Tuba ? b 3 b b 4 ! ! œ œ œ œ cresc.œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ >cresc.> > > > a2 f ƒ > Violins 1-2 b 3 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! & b b 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ@ œ@ @ @ œ@ œ@ @ @ œ@ œ@ @ @ œ@ @ @ @œ@ @ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ cresc.œ œ œ œ ƒ Violas b 3 B b b 4 œ! œ! ! ! œ! œ! ! ! œ! œ! ! ! œ@ @ @ @ œ@ @ @ @ œ@ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œcresc.œ œ œ œ œ ƒa2 Cellos ? 3 œ! œ! ! !œ! œ! Double Basses bb 4 œ! ! ! ! œ! ! ! ! œ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! œ œ b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œcresc.œ œ œ œ ƒ œ

Example 3.15 Tchaikovsky’s 1812 Overture, measures 353-357

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Molto pu tranquillo

Oboes 1-2 # 6 & 8 bœ. œ œ œ. œ œ bœ. œ œ œ. œ œ bœ. œ œ œ. œ œ bbœœ. œœœœbœ. œnœ œ. dim.œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ bœ ƒ F Clarinets 1-2 in A bb 6 & 8 œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ bœ. dim.œ œ œ. œ œ bœ. œ œ œ. œ œ bœ. œ œ œ. œ "œ bœ. œ œ œ. œ œ ƒ F Bassoons 1-2 nœ. œ œ œ. œ œ nœ. œ œ œ. œ œ nœ. œ œ œ. œ bœ nœ. œ œ œ. œ ? # 86 b œ. œ œ œ. œ œ b œ. œ œ œ. œ œ b œ. œ œ œ. œ œ b œ. œ œ œ. œ œ dim. ƒ F 6 bœ. œ œ œ. œ œ bœ. œ œ œ. œ œ bœ. œ œ œ. œ œ bœœ. œœœœ bœ. œ œ & 8 œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ bœ œ dim. HORNS IN F ƒ F 6 & 8 œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œdim.œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ ƒ F Tuba nœ jœ j ? # 86 ! œ œ ! ! F Violin I # 6 . œ œ. bœ nœ & 8 ! ! bœ œ J J F Violin II # 6 j j & 8 bœ ‰ ‰ Œ. ! j nœ bœ. œ œ œ. bœ F Viola B # 6 bœ ‰ ‰ Œ. ! ! ! 8 J

Cello ? # 6 nœ 8 J ‰ ‰ Œ. ! ! !

Double Bass bœ nœ jœ j ? # 86 J ‰ ‰ Œ. œ œ ! ! F

Example 3.16 Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 5, movement 1, measures 267-270.

67 the string basses, has a one measure solo line before the violins take the melody, shown in Example 3.16. This four note passage has two functions: the first is to serve as a precursor to the melody of the violins; the second is to give some contrast to the dotted rhythms in the woodwinds and horns. This is also another example of using units of instruments in rhythmic unison to present an idea. Also, though a short passage, it shows

Tchaikovsky’s attention to musical detail, maximizing the timbre of the instruments

One of the most known low brass excerpts is in the finale of Tchaikovsky’s

Symphony VI: Pathetique. “Tchaikovsky’s Sixth Symphony reflects Russian sociocultural realities at the end of the nineteenth century. The symphony does not express pessimism, resignation, and despair. The content of its dramatic imagery is an assertion of the power of life over death.”116 This excerpt using the trombones and tuba, shown in example

3.17, reflects this assertion. Low brass and wind instruments in Tchaikovsky’s music often represent death. In my interpretation, the fading dynamics to almost inaudible sounds represents the fading of death. The only other instrument to play here is an optional tam-tam part, which ends on the downbeat of the fifth measure of this passage.

In other passages using tuba and the trombones, Tchaikovsky generally adds the double basses and the bassoons to the texture. This instance is unique in that it is just the low brass, further showing his use of instrumental timbre to create a musical effect. The writing in this excerpt also shows the tuba as the melodic instrument, where it is the only one to change notes on the downbeat of measure five and on beat three of measure six of this passage. Tchaikovsky used extreme dynamic notation in his music, also

116 Bakst, 182. 68 demonstrated in this excerpt. Though the low brass are generally used at higher volume dynamics, his writing displays his awareness of the low brass’s ability to play at such extreme dynamics.

Andante Poco rallentando ˙ ˙. œ ˙ n˙. Trombone 1 ‰ œ ˙ ? ## 43 Œ J J ‰ p P p p P p ! Trombone 2 ? # ˙ ˙. œ ˙ ˙. œ ˙ # 43 Œ J ‰ J ‰ p P p p P p ! Bass Trombone ? ## 3 Œ ˙ n˙ œ œ ‰ ˙ b˙ nœ œ ‰ ˙ 4 J J p P p p P p ! Tuba ? # j # 43 Œ ‰ j ‰ ˙ ˙ #œ œ ˙ n˙ #œ œ ˙ p P p p P p ! 6 quasi adagio Tbn. 1 ? # ˙. #˙ œ ˙ œ ‰ ˙ œ ˙ œ # J ‰ J J ‰ J ‰ p ! " Ø Øp Tbn. 2 j j ? # ˙. ˙ œ ‰ ˙ œ ‰ ˙ œ ‰ ˙ œ ‰ # J J p ! " Ø Øp B. Tbn. ? # j j j j # ˙. ˙ œ ‰ ˙ œ ‰ ˙ œ ‰ #˙ œ ‰ p ! " Ø Øp Tuba ? ## j ‰ j ‰ j ‰ j ‰ ˙ #œ ˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ ˙ œ ! " Øp p Ø

Example 3.17 Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 6, movement. 4, rehearsal L measures 1-10

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Tchaikovsky’s music uses the tuba in many roles and also created challenges to the performer. In his Romeo and Juliet Overture, the tubist is required to hold a B for 37 beats at a tempo of moderato assai. It is the only instrument in the orchestra that has the note value with no breaths written in. It is not sure why he scored the tuba on this note for the duration, unless this was the tone color he desired to be heard without a break in sound. In many of this other works, Tchaikovsky scored the tuba with the melody in unison with large parts of the orchestra. He generally precedes and follows the melodic passages with accompanimental figures, showing the flexibility of the tuba in both roles.

Both the Kuchka and Tchaikovsky greatly expanded the use of the tuba.

Compared to their contemporaries outside of Russia, Russian composers gave the tuba elevated roles in the orchestra melodically and used the timbre of the tuba, often paired with other instruments, showing that it is an important, compulsory member of the orchestra.

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Chapter 4: The Tuba in the Silver Age of Russia

The time period between 1890 and the revolutions in 1917 in Russia is generally referred to as the Silver Age. Artists, poets, and composers characterized the Silver Age as a move away from the realism that was present throughout the Romantic Era. “The modernism of the Silver Age was an amalgam of divergent movements: neonationalism, symbolism, primitivism…, acmeism, and futurism. These movements had a common basis in their opposition to realism.117 In addition to these movements listed, the Silver

Age also gave rise to settings of mythology and fairy tale stories. This era also gave the rise to new cultural and social ideas, which eventually gave rise to the revolutions of

1917.

Victor Ewald

Victor Ewald is a familiar name in the brass quintet repertoire.118 Though there has been some research on Ewald (mainly spearheaded by André Smith), there are lots of inconsistencies among scholars, including authorship of his music. Ewald was a civil engineer, and not much information was recorded about him as a composer, which

117 Maes, 199. 118 Ewald’s name in Russian Cyrillic is Виктор Владимирович Эвальд, transliterated as Viktor Vladimirovich Eval’d. Early German editions of his works wrote his last name as “Ewald”, as the German W is pronounced as the English V. His name in English has remained and pronounced as Ewald by mistake, and has been the standard spelling, so I will present the standard spelling in this document.

71 further adds to the discrepancies. I will refer to the music discussed by the current titles, which, according to some sources, do not represent the order the quintets were written.

Due to the numerous ambiguities, I have elected to keep the discussion of Ewald’s works to a minimum, mainly focusing on the quintet published by Belaieff’s publishing house.

Victor Ewald was born in St. Petersburg in 1860. He began his musical study on cornet at the age of twelve, under the tutelage of trumpet virtuoso Wilhelm Wurm. He later learned horn, cello, and tuba. While studying cello under Yulyevich Davidov, he was encouraged to play music in any circumstance. “This encouragement was a good preparation for those later years in which Ewald could play cello, horn, piano, and tuba with facility and equal success.”119 After some basic study of music theory, he decided to become a civil engineer. He continued to play and compose music as an amateur musician with a great love for his art. He played cello in a string quartet founded by

Mitrofan Belaieff, a music patron who later opened a publishing house.

Belaieff’s string quartet was an important chamber music experience for Ewald.

“Of greatest interest to us here is the string quartet he [Belaieff] founded in his home-a quartet that met without fail every Friday evening for the last 16 years of Belaieff’s life, and which Ewald was the second cellist for most of those years.”120 Belaieff died in 1903, which caused the quartet to dissolve. This allowed Ewald to focus on playing in a brass quintet.

119 André Smith, “Victor Vladimirovich Ewald (1860-1935): Civil Engineer & Musician,” International Trumpet Guild Journal (February 1994), 8. 120 Ibid., 11. 72

Ewald’s Quintet No. 1 was composed in 1890 and was later published by

Belaieff’s publishing house in 1912. This work, originally scored for two cornets, alto horn in E-Flat, tenor horn or baritone in B-Flat, and tuba, was published in Ewald’s lifetime and is attributed to him.121 Upon researching Russian chamber music, André

Smith contacted Ewald’s son in law, Yevgeny Gippius. Gippius sent manuscripts to

Ewald’s second, third, and fourth brass quintets to Smith. Smith states the Quintet No. 4 is the same musical material as his first string quartet, which is also published by

Belaieff, and that it was originally composed for brass, but was too difficult for amateur brass musicians during the time of composition. Smith also states that the Quintet No. 4 was composed prior to his Quintet No. 1.122

After Smith claimed to have received the additional Ewald quintets, the Empire

Brass Quintet stated they obtained handwritten copies of the second and third quintets from hornist F.R. Werke in exchange for a medley of songs by Gershwin. However,

Smith claimed that he received the manuscripts from Gippius prior to this music trade.123

It is difficult to discuss authenticity of a composition, especially when manuscript copies were received forty years after the death of the composer and the inability to trace it to him. It is especially difficult to trace them back to the composer since they were not published. Though Smith states his confidence that those works were composed by

Ewald in terms of style, there is still little to confirm these works. Since the Quintet No. 4 is the same melodically as his first string quartet, it can not be determined that he wrote it

121 Though modern editions of the work (and performances) score the work for two trumpets, French horn, trombone, and tuba, the original instrumentation was for two cornets, a curved bell alto horn in E-flat, a curved bell baritone (tenor horn) in B-flat, and tuba. 122 Smith, Four Quintets, 6-18 passim. 123 Ibid., 20. 73 for brass first. The manuscript Smith received likely was an arrangement of the string quartet not in Ewald’s pen. Other questions raised include why Belaieff did not publish

Ewalds other quintets and if these were pieces given to Ewald to play in his quintet.

It is not known why or what occasion Ewald wrote music for brass quintet, but it can be assumed he wrote them for a brass quintet in which the composer played. In

Andre Smith’s “The History of the Four Quintets for Brass by Victor Ewald,” a picture of a brass quintet is displayed on the opening page, with Ewald playing tuba.124 The other musicians have not been identified, but it is assumed that they were amateur musicians and friends of Ewald.

Moderato

Cornet 1 b œœ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ & b b c ! ! ! ! œ œœ œ œœœœ p Cornet 2 b & b b c ! ! Ó Œ œ œœœœ. ‰ ˙. œ w œŒ ˙ p Horn in E b b œ œ. œ ˙ & b c ! ! œ œ œ ˙ ˙. Œ œ. J˙ J Ó ˙ p Tenor Horn or >œ w ˙ ˙ œ ˙ ? b ! ! ˙. œ ˙ œ Œ Baritone b bbb c p Tuba œ œ ˙. œ œ ? b œ œ œœ ˙ œ ˙ œ œŒ Ó Œ œŒ ˙ b bbb c œ œ œ ˙ p

Example 4.1 Ewald’s Quintet No. 1, movement 1, measures 1-8

124 Ibid., 5. 74

© Ewald treated each instrument in his quintet equal in terms to melodic importance throughout. He begins his Quintet No. 1 with a tuba solo, shown in Example 4.1. The opening movement has an overall dark mood to it and has many minor chords. Since the tuba often represents darkness in Russian music, starting with a tuba solo helps set an appropriate mood to the piece. In addition, since Ewald played tuba in a quintet, he was quite aware of what the tuba could do musically, and there is a probability he wrote it to feature himself and to set the tempo. Example 4.1 also shows how the other instruments have melodic fragments weaving in and out of the texture before the first cornet overtakes the melody, further showing his approach to melody in his works.

In his Quintet No. 1, Ewald uses the tuba several times to set style and tempo changes and to start melodic cascades, shown in Example 4.2. The tuba alone sets the tempo at the piu mosson section at rehearsal nine. The leading of the majority of the tempo changes in this movement could have resulted from Ewald’s tuba playing in the quintet he wrote this for, allowing him to help the ensemble set the tempo of the section.

In the Allegro vivace section of the second movement of his Quintet No. 1, Ewald scores the baritone to set the tempo, while giving the tuba and horn a duet following the trombone entrance, eventually leading to a cascading effect with the trumpets, shown in

Example 4.3. Similar to Example 4.2, Example 4.3 shows the tuba’s ability to play at low volume dynamics in longer phrases with little opportunity to breathe. Ewald showed his knowledge of playing tuba in these passages, treating it equal to the other instruments in the quintet in terms of technical ability.

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Moderato accel. 9 Piu mosso Cornet 1 b œ œn>œ œ & b b 4 nœ! œœ nœ ! œœ #œ ! œ œ ! Œ Ó accel. f Cornet 2 > bb 4 #œ nœ. Œ Ó & b 4 nœ!nœœ !œ#œ !nœœ ! œ #œ ! nœ bœ œ accel. f Horn in E b b nœ bœ œ nœœ & b 4 bœ bœœ œ bœœ œ œ œ œ Œ. Ó accel. > f nœ œ œ Tenor Horn or nœnœ #œbœ œ > . ? b 4 nœ œœnœ nœ bœ nœbœ œ nœ Œ Ó Baritone b bbb 4 accel. f Tuba > ? b 4 nœ nœ bœ œ œ bœ b bbb 4 œ #œ nœ œ bœ œ. nœ œ. . f

œ Cnt. 1 b œ nœnœ >œ b˙ ˙ & b b " " J ‰ ˙ n˙ f S Sf Sf Sf Sf Cnt. 2 . > b œ. bœ œ. j j ‰ & b b " œ nœnœ œ ˙ nœ. œ œ. œ ˙ œ. . . > > > > 4 f > f Hn. b . . . j & b " Ó Œ œ œ œ b˙ w œ. œ œ. ‰ > > > > f . . bœ œ œ. . . . >œ œ bœ Ten. Hn/ ? . nœnœ . œ œ œ œ œ >˙ > n>œ œ . nœ. J Bar. bb b œ œ ‰ jnœ œœ nœ ‰ b b > nœ. . f Tuba œ. ? b b bœ œ œ Œ Œ œ. Œ j j b b b œ . œ. œ œ jbœ. œ nœ. œ ˙ . œ. . œ. œ. > . > . > f> Example 4.2 Ewald’s Quintet No. 1, movement 1, measures 52-59

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Allegro Vivace

Cornet 1 b 5 & b b 4 ! ! ! !

Cornet 2 b 5 & b b 4 ! ! ! !

Horn in E . b bb 5 ! ! œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ & 4 #œ. œ œ. " . Tenor Horn or œ. œ ? b 5 œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. ˙ ˙ œ. ˙ œ. Baritone b bbb 4 " Tuba ? b b 5 ! ! œ œ œ œ œ. b b b 4 œ. . œ. nœ œ. œ " .

5 . . Cnt. 1 b œ œ. œ . œ. . #œ œ. œ . ˙ œ & b b ! ! ! œ œ œ œ œ J ‰ p f Cnt. 2 . > bbb ! ! œ. œ. œ œ. œ œ nœ œ. ˙ ˙. nœ. œ. ˙ œ ‰ & œ œ. J 5 p f Hn. b . . . . . > j b œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ œ. œ œ œ ˙ œ ˙ #˙. ˙ ˙ œ ‰ & #œ. œ œ. ˙ œ. f p . . > Ten. Hn/ . œ. œ . . . . œ œ œ ˙ ˙. > ? b ˙ ˙ œ ˙ œ . œ œ œ nœ œ ˙ ˙ œ ‰ Bar. b bbb œ. nœ J p f Tuba ? . . ˙ >˙. ˙ bbbb œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ b . . . nœ. œ. nœ œ œ œ. nœ. œ. ˙ œ. . f Example 4.3 Ewald’s Quintet No. 1, movement 2, measures 10-19

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It is not clear from the picture or the original published edition of which key tuba

Ewald’s quintet was composed for. The original publication gave keys for every other instrument in the quintet except for the tuba. The alternation of B-flat and E-flat instruments between voices suggests the use of an E-flat tuba, which was used in Russia during the time of composition. However, the B-Flat tuba became increasingly more popular in Russia at the time of composition. The range of the composition fits well both on E-Flat and B-Flat tubas, with a range of AA-flat1 to c, with most of the passages in the middle of this range. The picture of Ewald’s quintet shows a four rotor valve tuba in the

Zimmerman style, and it is unclear if it is an E-Flat of B-Flat tuba. There is a high probability that Ewald purposely did not specify which key tuba to perform on this, and wrote it in a range playable on all keys of the instrument, allowing it to be accessible to all performers.

The quintets associated with Ewald are some of the most performed quintets in the repertoire. Though there are many uncertainties with authorship, they remain staple works in the repertoire, treating each instrument equally in terms of melodic importance and technical abilities. They have also influenced many composers in the last several decades.

Igor Stravinsky

Igor Stravinsky was born in 1882 near St. Petersburg. His father was an opera singer, which allowed him to experience music from a young age. Igor studied law at St.

Petersburg University and took lessons in counterpoint and harmony from Fedir

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Akimenko. While attending school, he became friends with Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov’s son, Vladimir, who was a composer and violinist. This allowed Stravinsky to eventually study orchestration and composition with Rimsky-Korsakov. Rimsky-Korsakov advised

Stravinsky against attending the St. Petersburg conservatory. Stravinsky experienced music by attending the Evenings of Contemporary Music in St. Petersburg.125

Stravinsky’s study under Rimsky-Korsakov exposed him to the use of octatonic scales and the effective use of orchestration. Several of his early works received great praise in terms of his orchestrations. Though Stravinsky had several compositions written before 1909, his collaboration with Sergei Diaghilev helped advance Stravinsky’s musical career.

Diaghilev was a connoisseur of the ballet. In 1909, Diaghilev presented five ballets and produced 3 operas in Paris, and soon learned that opera was not very successful. “The Paris season of 1909 taught Diaghilev two clear lessons: first, that opera was not financially viable and that ballet did appreciably better; second, that the Parisian public manifestly had a taste for folklore and exotic spectacle.”126 This led Diaghilev to form the Ballets Russes, a ballet company that would bring Russian folklore to the

Parisians, and Stravinsky was asked to write the music.

The first work Stravinsky composed for the Ballets Russes was The Firebird, a piece based on Russian folklore. The hero, Prince Ivan, captured the Firebird in the forest of the immortal being Kastchei. Ivan spared the life of the Firebird and was given an

125 Stephen Walsh. "Igor Stravinsky," Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press, http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/52818 (accessed November 1, 2015). 126 Maes, 218. 79 enchanted feather. Kastchei eventually captured Ivan. Ivan used the feather to summon the Firebird, where she made Kastchei’s monsters dance. This eventually lured them to

M.M. 168 a2 q= Bassoons ? 3 j j j 4 ! ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ a2> > > > > II F f 3 ! ? ‰ j j ‰ Œ & 4 #œ œ œ œ #œ Horns in F a2> > > > IV. F ? & 43 ! ‰ j ‰ j ‰ j ‰ j Œ Œ #œ secco œ œ #œ ÿ ÿ Solo f Tuba ? 3 j 4 ! ! Œ ‰ œ œ > Timpani ? 3 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ " Double Bass ? 3 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ " œ bœ Bsn. > œ œ œ œ œ ? ‰ j j œ bœ œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ J ‰ œ œ œ œ œ J a2> > > > J J F f ? j j ‰ j j ‰ Œ & ‰ œ j j œ œ bœ ‰ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Horns > > > #œ œ œ œ œ œ bœ ? ‰ j ‰ j ‰ j ‰ j Œ Œ ‰ j ‰ j ‰ j ‰ j Œ Œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ Tuba ? œ b>œ œ b>œ ! Œ ‰ J ! Œ ‰ J

Timp. ? œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

D.B. ? œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ©

Example 4.4 Stravinsky’s Suite from The Firebird, movement 5, measures 3-9 80 sleep, allowing Ivan to capture the egg.

Stravinsky eventually arranged the music to The Firebird in an orchestral suite.

The tuba does not play much in the suite, though it plays an important role in a solo setting, shown in Example 4.4. This excerpt, from the “Infernal Dance of King Kastchei”, scores the tuba as a solo instrument, though it doubles the bassoons. This excerpt also shows the rhythmic energy characteristic of Stravinsky’s musical style. Though the tuba part is doubled with the bassoons, the entrance adds a change of color following the syncopated horn melody, allowing the entrance of the tuba color to stick out of the texture. The steady sixteenth notes in the timpani and double basses also helps the syncopated parts project through the texture, as well as give the accented note in the tuba more emphasis since it is on the downbeat. The solo notes in Example 4.4 are also the first entrance of the tuba in the suite, giving it a greater impact in terms of sound. My interpretation, which coincides with the plot, the tuba and other low instruments represent the evil King Kastchei and the numerous monsters forced to dance, further showing he carefully chose the tuba’s color to perform this part. Also in this movement, Stravinsky scores six notes in the tuba mute in this movement, scored in minor seconds and major second intervals with the bass trombone, further showing his complete knowledge of the tuba’s color in the orchestra.

Stravinsky further expanded his role of the tuba as a solo instrument in his second ballet, Petrushka. The ballet, set in the 1830s at the Shrovetide fair, tells a story of a magician that presented three puppets: a Ballerina, a Moor, and Petrushka. Petrushka is in love with the Ballerina, but to the dismay of Petrushka, the Ballerina is only in love with

81 the Moor. Petrushka fights with the Moor, but is overpowered. The final scene returns to the Shrovetide fair, where Petrushka has escaped back to, and is killed by the Moor.

Petrushka’s ghost appears to the magician, showing that fantasy is superior to reality.127

“Petrushka represents a ‘created world’…[which is] produced through the stylization of motifs and the interplay of colors. Musically, Stravinsky transcends the naturalism of his

Sostenuto a2 > >>> > #œ œ œ#œnœ œ œ œ- œ- œ- œ#œ œ œ#œ œnœ œ œ œ >œ œ œ œ œ œ œnœ œ œ>œ>œ>œ œ œ#œnœ œ œ œ>œ#œ Clarinets 1-2 6 & 4 ! Œ Œ ‰ ‰ 5 ƒ Clarinets 3-4 & 46 " " "

Bassoons 2-3 ? 6 4 ˙ #˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ # ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ Contrabassoon ? 6 4 ˙ #˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ #˙ ˙

Horns 2, 3, 4 6 œ b˙ b˙ œ œ b˙ & 4 œ ˙ ˙ œ œ ˙ ˙ œ œ ˙ ˙ œ œ ˙ Solob˙ œ œ b˙ ˙ œ œ ˙ b˙ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ Tuba bœ ˙ œ ˙. bœJ bœbœ >œ >œ œ^ ? 46 Œ Œ ‰ J ‰J ‰ Œ ‰ ‰J ƒ Viola # # # # # # # # # B 46 Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ œ #œ œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ Cello ? 6 # # # ## # # # # # # # # # # # # # 4 œ œ #œ #œœ œ #œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ #œ œ œ

Double Bass # # ## # # # # # # # # # ? 6 Œ #œ Œ #œ Œ œ Œ #œ Œ 4 œ ##œ œ ##œ œ œ œ ##œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Example 4.5 Stravinsky’s Petrushka (1911), Tableau 4, rehearsal 100, measures 3-8 (Continued on next page)

127 Maes, 222. 82

Example 4.5 Continued.

4 œ#œnœœ - - - p 6 œœ œnœœœ ". Œ Œ Œ Œ Cl 1-2 @ & ! Œ Œ œœœœœœœ#œœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœœ œ. œ.œ.œ.œ œœœœœœœœ Œ Œ 6 6 6 6 @ @ R!‰ Œ Œ Œ 6 $ 6 Ó Ó . !‰ Œ p Cl 3-4 Œ Œ Œ Œ r .@ .@ . .@ & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ@.œ. œ.œ.œ.œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œœœœœœœ. @œ . œœ.œ.œ.œ.œ#. œ.œ.œ.œ. @œ. .œ.œ. @ @ @ @ R ! ‰ Œ @ @ @ @ @ @ p Bsns. 2-3 ? #˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ diminuendo ˙ #˙ ˙ ˙ # ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ #˙ ˙ # ˙poco a poco˙ ˙ C. Bn. ? #˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ #˙ diminuendo ˙ #˙ poco a poco˙ ˙ 4

Hns. 2, 3, 4 & œ b˙ ˙ œ œ ˙ b˙ œ œ b˙ ˙ œ œ b˙ ˙ œ œ ˙ diminuendob˙ œ œ bpoco˙ a poco˙ œ >œ >œ >œ >œ œ >œ œ. Tuba ˙. bœ^ ˙ œbœb>œ > >œ œ œ > >>œ œ ? ‰ ‰ œ bœ œ J ‰ Œ Œ J diminuendo 4 $ Vla. # # # # # # # # # B Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ #œ œ œ œ diminuendo#œ œ #œ œ œ Vc. ? # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # #œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ diminuendo#œ œ œ #œ #œ œ œ œ œ

D.B. # # # # # # # # # # # # # # ? #œ œ Œ œ œ Œ #œ œ Œ #œ œ Œ œ ##œ œ œ œ ##œ diminuendoœ ##œ œ œ œ

ethnographic sources with the help of his colorful orchestration.”128 Petrushka shows a great increase on Stravinsky’s use of instrumental color to coincide with the plot occurring. Stravinsky increased the size of the orchestra in Petrushka; he doubled the standard number of several of woodwind instruments (using four flutes, four oboes, and four bassoons). In addition, Stravinsky used two trumpets and two cornets, using the full use of the color differences between the two instruments, allowing for more options to express the supernatural world presented in the ballet.

128 Ibid., 223. 83

The tuba has a major solo in the fourth tableau in the return to the Shrovetide fair.

In the plot of one of the scenes, a peasant plays the pipe to try to get a bear to walk on its hind legs, and though the bear is a bit resistant, he ends up doing as the piper trained him to. Stravinsky uses the timbre clarinets and the tuba as a leitmotif in this section, shown in Example 4.5. The first two clarinets, in unison in the extreme high register, represent the piper, while the tuba represents the bear. Like in The Firebird, Stravinsky uses the tuba on the offbeat to begin the entrances to help the color project through texture, especially since the low strings have the downbeats in that section. In addition to the projection of the tuba’s timbre, having the tuba enter on the off beats shows the bear’s resistance and hesitation to follow the instructions of the piper. The tritone intervals, which are part of the whole tone scale presented, further shows to the bear’s unwillingness to stand on its hind legs. The marcato accents at the end of the third measure and in the fourth measure represent the bear’s roar of displeasure. The bear begins to walk on his hind legs as the act fades to a distance. His choice of instruments was carefully chosen, helping add to the vivid imagery of the scene.

The offbeat syncopation Stravinsky uses reverses the traditional role of the tuba, which it generally provides the downbeat. In the case of Petrushka, using the tuba in the high tessitura scores the part effectively to obtain the character of this section.

Though the solo in Petrushka is the most significant part in Stravinsky’s first three ballets, his writing in The Rite of Spring further shows his use of the tuba as an independent voice from the rest of the low brass. The Rite of Spring involves a plot of a pagan ritual where a girl dances until she falls dead before the elders of her tribes, as a

84

Molto allegro I. II r r Oboe 4 & 4 ! ! ! ! ‰.#œ nœ ‰.#œ œ a2 sempre poco S

? 4 j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j Bassoons 4 # œ #œœœ œœœ œœœ œ œ # œ #œœœ œœœ œœœ œ œ # œ #œ œœ œœœ œœœ œ œ # œ #œœœ œœœ œœœ œœ # œ #œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ III F

? 4 j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j j 4 # œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ # œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ I. II II stacc. F Contrabassoon ? 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ p œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ > > 4 œ œ ˙ ˙ œ œ œ œ w & 4 œ œ ˙ ˙ Ó ! œ œ œ œ w > >œ œ ˙ ˙ >œ œ œ w Horns 4 Ó ! œ & 4 œ œ ˙ ˙ œ œ œ œ w >

j j j j 4 j j œ œ œ œ j j r r & 4 Œ œ Œ œ Œ #œ Œ nœ Œ œ Œ #œ Œ œ Œ œ ‰. œ ‰.#œ #œ œ œ # œ #nœ œ #œ œ #œ n#œ œ œ in B a2 Wagner Tuba 4 bœ & 4 b˙. œ b˙. œ b˙. bœ bœ œ œ b˙. œ a2

Tubas 1-2 #˙. nœ #˙. nœ #˙. nœ #œ #œ #œ œ #˙. nœ ? 4

Timpani ? 4 œœ œœ œœ œ œ w w w w ! ! ! ! p Bass Drum 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ã 4 Œ Œ Ó Œ Œ Ó Œ Œ Ó Œ

Tamtam 4 ‰ œ. Œ ‰ œ ã 4 ! ! ! ! J

Viola j j B 4 ! ! ! ! Œ ‰ Œ ‰ ‰ œ #œ œ ‰ œ œ œ 3 V-c. soli FDiv. stacc. Tutti Cello ? 4 ‰ ‰ 4 #œ œ #œœ œnœ #œ œ œ #œ œ #œœ œ nœœ #œ nœœ œœ #œ œ œ nœœ #œ nœœ œœ #œœ œ œ#œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ J œ œ œ œ Double Bass œ #œ #œ œ œ #œ #œ œ F ? 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ Œ œ Œ Div.œ œ F F

Example 4.6 Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, Part 1, rehearsal 67-68 (Cortege)

85 sacrifice to the god of spring. In his writing, Stravinsky uses folk songs to further epresent the pagan ritual being told. Musically in The Rite of Spring, Stravinsky uses a great amount of rhythmic syncopation, changing meter and pulse, bitonality, and use of octatonic scales throughout. In addition to expanding musical techniques, Stravinsky further expanded the orchestra from Petrushka, including adding extra woodwinds,

Wagner tubas, a bass trumpet, and using two tubas.

Like in Petrushka, Stravinsky uses the tuba’s voice as a timbral leitmotif in The

Rite of Spring. Shown in Example 4.6, the two tubas paired with the Wagner tubas

M.M. = 126

Bassoons ? 5 r 4 2 r 4 5 r r 4 16 œbb#œœ! œœ! 16 " 16 !bb#œœ 16 " 16 !bb#œœ! œœ! 16 " Ï Contrabassoon ? 5 r r r 4 r 2 r 4 r 5 r r r 4 r 16 œ ! œ ! œ 16 œ ! ‰ 16 œ ! 16 œ ! ‰ 16 œ ! œ ! œ 16 œ ! ‰ > > marcato> > > > > > > > Ïœ f Ï f Trombones 1-3 bœ . . . ? 5 œ œ 4 2 œ 4 5 œ œ 4 16 œ œ ! œ ! 16 " 16 ! œ 16 " 16 ! œ ! œ ! 16 " sempreR R R R S Tuba 1 r r r ? 5 #œ ! œ ! 164 " 162 ! #œ 164 " 165 #œ ! œ ! 164 " 16 œ œ

Tuba 2 ? 5 ! 4 2 ! 4 5 ! 4 16 r ! 16 r! ‰ 16 r 16 r! ‰ 16 r ! 16 r! ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ sempreœ ben marcato> œ > œ œ #œ > Cello ? 5 œ 4 2 4 5 4 16 œ ! ‰ ! 16 œ#œœ#œ 16 " 16 œ#œœ#œ 16 " 16 œ#œœ#œ R œ œ œ Sffz f Double Bass œ r r œ r ? 5 ! œ 4 œ ! ‰ 2 r ! 4 œ ! ‰ 5 ! œ 4 œ ! ‰ 16 œ sempreœ 16 marcato 16 œ 16 16 œ œ 16

Example 4.7 Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring, Part II, rehearsal 186, measures 1-6

86

© (played by French horn players), represent the procession of the wisest elder using an melody based on the octatonic scale, while the bassoons and low strings represent the never ending dance that is occurring. The tubas and Wagner tubas continue to repeat the cortege theme in this section, until there is a tutti rest for the orchestra at the end, which signifies a sudden halt to the dancing. Instead of purely representing evil, I believe

Stravinsky uses the tubas to represent the wise, and in a way, represent tradition. Using both tubas and the Wagner tubas allows this melody to project through the thick orchestral texture. Stravinsky also uses both tuba parts as independent voices, shown in

Example 4.7. The first tuba part is with the trombones and bassoons, while the second tuba is with scored with the double basses, though has shorter note values.129 Example

4.7 also shows the changing meters and syncopated rhythms, characteristic of

Stravinsky’s writing. The premiere of The Rite of Spring caused a small riot after its premiere in Paris. The music was extremely modern, likely influenced from his ethnographic research and his time at the Evenings of Contemporary Music in his youth.

The high tessitura of Stravinsky’s three ballets suggests the use of a French tuba in C, pitched around the same range of the euphonium. The piece was premiered by the

Ballets Russes in Paris, where the tubist used a French tuba in C. There have been suggestions made by students of Bill Bell that Stravinsky intended his music to be performed on a BB-flat tuba, relating to his use of instruments performing in high tessituras, such as the bassoon solo which begins The Rite of Spring. This is a rumor buried in oral tradition and is not confirmed.

129 Another of Stravinsky’s stylistic characteristics is scoring instruments playing at the same times but using varying lengths of sustain. 87

After moving to America, Stravinsky faced copyright issues with his music. To have his music performed, Stravinsky made small edits to the pieces, sometimes changing the octaves, time signatures, or other dynamics without changing the entire piece. Example 4.8 shows the differences in the tuba part from the peasant and bear solo in both Petrushka editions. Though melody is similar, the changing of accents and dynamics can have an impact on the interpretation of the soloist.

Solo œ. œ œ œ œ 1911 bœ ˙ œ ˙. bœ œ œ bœbœ >œ >œ œ^ ? 46 Œ Œ ‰ J ‰ J ‰ J Œ ‰ ‰ J ƒ . > > > b>œ. œ >œ b˙. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ bœbœ >œ >œ >œ 1947 ? 23 Œ Œ ‰ ‰ J ‰ J Œ ‰ ‰ J ƒ 4 > > > > > . ˙. bœ^ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ bœ b>œ > >œ œ œ œ œ b>œ > >œ œ œ ? ‰ ‰ œ œ J ‰ Œ Œ J diminuendo ! > > > > . . > œ œ œ œ œ bœ > > œ œ œ œ b>œ œ ? ˙ ‰ bœ ˙ ‰ bœ œ œ œ œ œ J ‰ Ó J diminuendo ! 7 Example 4.8. Differences in the tuba parts from two of Stravinsky’s Petrushka editions. ? " "

?After Stravinsky emigrated" from his homeland, he had a shift" in his compositional style, writing many works in the neo-classical style and in serialism. Though he left 9 Russia, his works composed there became popular throughout the world. Stravinsky’s use ? " " of the tuba in solo roles would also help influence future Russian composers.

? " " 88

©

Chapter 5: The Soviet Union’s Impact on the Tuba

In March of 1917 (new system),130 a major change in Russia occurred when workers protested in the capital of St. Petersburg, eventually leading to the abdication of

Tsar Nicholas II. Kerensky set up a provisional government, but in November of 1917

(new system), the Bolshevik party, under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin, overthrew

Kerensky’s provisional government. This eventually led to a civil war in the newly formed Soviet Union. The new government eventually imposed censorship on media, art, and music. Many people left after the revolutions of 1917, including composers such as

Stravinsky and Tcherepnin.

The new government nationalized many elements of music. Bureaucratization gradually took control of musical life. The first step was the nationalization of theatres. Next it was the turn of the court orchestras in Moscow and Petrograd, private music schools, music publishers, instrument makers, libraries, archives, and concert societies. Control of the musical repertoire was vested in a special committee, the Glavrepertkom…Petrograd (St. Petersburg) and Moscow were given new theatres. 131

Vladimir Lenin died in 1924, and during his leadership, the Soviet Union was plagued with economic turmoil and war. Joseph Stalin replaced Lenin as the leader of the Soviet

Union, where he employed greater censorship on art and media, though he continued the industrial growth of the Soviet Union.

130 The new system refers to the calendar system adopted after the revolutions 131 Maes, 241. 89

A new artistic movement, Socialist Realism, occurred after the overthrow of the

Tsarist regime, and had a great effect on the music composed during time period. The compositions of Shostakovich and Prokofiev are characteristically representative of the first several decades of the Soviet Union The tuba’s importance is shown in their numerous works. Covering every usage of the tuba in the compositions of Shostakovich and Prokofiev would be an extended work in itself, so I a handful of the unique usages of the tuba in selected compositions of the composers.

Sergei Prokofiev

Sergei Prokofiev was born in 1891 in Sontsovka, a village currently in Ukraine.

His father was a wealthy land owner and his mother was a pianist. Prokofiev began composing at the age of five. At the age of nine, his family visited Moscow and heard opera performances. Prokofiev later moved to Moscow where he studied theory and harmony. He did not like the study of theory and harmony, but instead enjoyed the study of composition with Gliére. In 1904, he enrolled in the St. Petersburg Conservatory. “His teachers were Lyadov in harmony, Rimsky-Korsakov in orchestration, and Esipova in piano.”132

After the 1917 revolutions, Prokofiev traveled to Japan, the United States, and eventually settled in Paris. Though he moved abroad, he respected the traditions of

Russian music. “His music reveals influences of Glinka and composers of the ‘Powerful

132 Bakst, 298. 90

Kuchka,’ especially in representations of Russian nature and Russian life.”133 Bakst also mentions that Prokofiev’s themes are often played in unison by solo instruments or orchestral groups, similar to the scoring of Peter Tchaikovsky. Also, he mentions that

Prokofiev favored the low registers of instruments.134 Though aware of censorship,

Prokofiev returned to Russia in 1935, where he composed some of his best-known works.

Many musicians are familiar of the generous use of the tuba in Prokofiev’s compositions. Cellist Mstislav Rostropovich wrote what Prokofiev said about his use of the tuba. “One of his [Prokofiev’s] favorite instruments was the tuba. ‘How wonderful it is,’ he used to say, ‘when the tuba softly plays a low note! I have the impression that there is a beetle sitting on a note, and I listen to the note, then pick up the beetle, and move it onto another note.’”135 This vivid description of his use of the tuba reveals one reason he used it so much in his orchestrations. The reference to the beetle shows the flexibility of the tuba in regards to scoring, and how it can fit into many different settings.

Prokofiev’s study of orchestration with Rimsky-Korsakov revealed the technical abilities of the tuba to him, especially present in Scheherazade. Prokofiev combined these technical abilities with scoring in the low range to make the tuba more of a solo voice in his compositions. Unlike many prior orchestral composers, Prokofiev used the tuba as a separate voice from the trombone section. For example, in his Violin Concerto No. 1,

Prokofiev does not use trombones, but uses the tuba as an independent voice.

133 Bakst, 297. 134 Ibid., 303. 135 Mstislav Rostropovich, “Foreword” in A Schnittke Reader, edited by Alexander Ivashkin, translated by John Goodliffe. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002), viii. 91

Prokofiev scored his works for a B-Flat contrabass tuba. When Prokofiev returned to Russia, tubists in Russian orchestras were using four valve Zimmerman Style tubas made by the wind instrument factory in Leningrad. The standardization of instruments allowed Prokofiev to freely write without low range constrictions.

Prokofiev wrote a tuba solo in his film Lieutenant Kije, which he later made into an orchestral suite. The storyline revolves a non-existent lieutenant who appears in military documents by error. “For the music, Prokofiev relied on his own satirical idiom.

He also paid careful attention to the period style: all the songs in the film are based on the eighteenth-century urban song.”136 He also used the cornet in the major solos at the beginning of the movements. The cornet sound, which generally associated with the military, evokes that imagery more so than the trumpet.

The tuba solo is in the burial scene, shown in Example 5.1 restates the theme presented by the solo double bass in the romance movement. The tuba’s statement gives a somber feeling to the funeral setting. The tuba has a lyrical melody, scored over rhythmic notes in the woodwinds. Prokofiev could have scored the solo in the double bass, similar to the second movement. This scoring shows the tuba’s timbre was preferred in this passage to add to the musical imagery he presented.

Similar to Lieutenant Kije, Prokofiev scored the tuba in the final departing scene in his ballet Romeo and Juliet. In 1934, Prokofiev was commissioned by Radlov to write this piece for the Mariinsky Theatre. The Mariinsky theatre had changed its name to the

Kirov Theater by orders from the Soviet regime. This change gave Prokofiev issues in

136 Maes, 324. 92 composing the ballet, so he wrote the music, putting it into two suites, prior to the final

Poco meno mosso h = 64 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Flute 1 # # ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! # # 4 ‰.R J ‰ & 4 leggiero p œ œ œ œ Flute 2 # # œ œ! !œ !œ œ!œ œ!œ œ # # 4 ‰.R œ‰ ‰. œ œ‰ ‰. œ œ!R œ‰ ‰. œ œ‰ ‰!œ J ‰ & 4 leggieroJ R J R J J R J R p Clarinets # œ œ ## # 4 . rœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ j‰ & 4 ‰ œ œ!œ œ!œ œ!œ !œ œ!œ œ!œ œ!œ !œ œ!œ œ!œ œ!œ œ!œ œ!œ œ!œ œ p leggiero Bassoon ? # # # # 4 Œ Œ Œ Œ ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. solo ten. Tuba ˙ - ? #### 4 ˙ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ ˙ 4 espress. œ ˙ F pizz. œ Violin I # ## œ œ & # 4 Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ p Violin II # ## & # 4 Ó Ó Ó Ó ˙- ˙- ˙- ˙- F Viola # # B # # 4 Ó Ó Ó Ó ˙- ˙- ˙- ˙- F Cello ? # # # # 4 Ó Ó Ó Ó ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ F Double Bass ? # # # # 4 ˙ Ó Ó ˙ Ó Ó ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ F © Example 5.1 Prokofiev’s Lieutenant Kije Suite, movement 5, rehearsal 59 measures 1-4

93

composition of the ballet.137 In the second suite, Prokofiev scored the tuba in many roles, including the feuding between the Montagues and Capulets, the elegance of Friar

Lawrence, and as part of the funeral procession. Though the other movements have significant writing for the tuba, it is used in a solo passage with the double basses, shown in Example 5.2. The low volume ostinatos in the woodwinds and strings allow the somber melody of tuba and basses to project emotions representing the departing of the

Andante

Flute # œ œ œ œ #œ œ & 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. . . œ. œ. . . œ œ. . . œ. œ. . . œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ "molto stacc. Clarinet in B # b & 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ #œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ " ...... Bassoon # 4 j‰ Ó j & 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ Ó ! " ten. 3 Tuba ? # j 4 Ó j j œ #œ œ nœ #œ nœ œ œ œ. - œ ˙ten.. œ#œ œ . œ. œ - œ #œ- ˙ o#œ œ o o Harp œ F o o o o œ œ #œo œo ? # o o œo o o œo œ o o œo œ o o œo œ o o œo œ o o œo o o œo o o o o o o 4 œ œ Ó œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ pizz.

Violin # & 4 ! œpizz.œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ " Viola B # 4 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ " pizz. Cello ? # 4 ! ! ! ! œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ espress. œ " Double Bass I #œ. œ œ. - ? ˙ ? # 4 Ó J & œ #œ œ nœ #œ nœ œ œ 4 J œ. 3 - œ ˙. œ#œ œ - J œ- - #œ- espress.p F - #œ œ nœ - Double Bass II - œ #œ nœ œ œ - œ#œ ? # 4 Ó j œ œ. J œ- œ ˙. œ #œ- 4 #œ. œ œ. J 3 ˙ p F

Example 5.2 Prokofiev’s Romeo and Juliet Suite No 2, movement 5, rehearsal 49 measures 4-8 (C score)

137 Ibid., 325-326. 94 two lovers. Prokofiev’s use of the tuba and double basses in this solo role has a dual purpose. Not only does the solo line represent Romeo’s love, but it also foreshadows the tragedy to come. This effective use of instrumentals to signify the plot is not original, as many Russian composers used the tuba in a similar fashion. It does, however, further expand the use of the tuba to represent love and tragedy.

Compositionally, the writing in Example 5.2 represents is an example of many of

Prokofiev’s stylistic scorings. Though they have a similar melody, the tuba and double basses have different articulations and slurs. Similar to his Symphony No. 5, the differing slurs not lining up with the other melodic instruments allows for a continuous musical line not interrupted by bowings or breathing. Prokofiev’s knowledge of orchestration allowed him to effectively write melodic passages for lower instruments.

In Romeo and Juliet Suite No. 2, Prokofiev scores a tuba solo in the final measures of the piece. Though it does not appear significant from the tuba part alone, it is quite important in the texture, presented in Example 5.3. Some interpretations show that the tuba represents the slow beating of Romeo’s heart after he drank the poison, which is continued in the background in the lower divisi of the double basses and the bass clarinet as the piece comes to an end. The accent on the first beat also helps the tuba get response on the start of the note at the piano dynamic.

In addition to ballet music, Prokofiev wrote several film scores, later making orchestral suites from the music. In 1936, after his return to Russia, Prokofiev worked with film producer Sergei Eisenstein on Alexander Nevsky, representing the struggle of

Russia in the thirteenth century. “Alexander Nevsky is marked by extreme dramatic

95

Solo Adagio w w w w Piccolo & 4 ! ! # Bass Clarinet ? bb 4 ! ! Solo œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ ˙ œ ˙ ˙ w p> Contrabassoon ? 4 4 bw œ bœ bœ nœ ! ! ! ! p> " w> ? 4 w ! ! ! ! ! Horns p ? 4 bw> 4 bw ! ! ! ! ! p Bass Trombone ? 4 ! ! ! ! ! w Solo> p Tuba ? 4 Œ Ó ! ! ! ! bœ œ œ œ œ. œ œ p> Cymbal +˙ ã 4 Ó ! ! ! ! ! " Bass Drum œ œ œ œ œ œ ã 4 ! ! ! ! ! " w w w w Violin I w w w w & 4 ! ! " Violin II w w w w & 4 ! ! " Viola B 4 ! ! w w w w 4 w w w w Con sord." Cello ? 4 ! ! w w w w 4 w w w w " Double Bass I ? 4 ! ! w w w w pizz." Double Bass II ? 4 ! ! œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ Œ œ Ó œ Œ ! p

Example 5.3 Prokofiev’s Romeo and Juliet Suite No. 2, movement 7, rehearsal 67, measures 3-8 (C score)

96 contrasts. All the film and musical material is designed to impress the spectator with the unequivocal polarization of Good and Evil. The Russians are shown as sensitive beings, as, individuals…The Teutons, by contrast, are depicted as devoid of all human qualities.”138 The tuba represents many of these qualities in the music. The opening of the movie begins with a depiction of Russia in a wasteland, many skeletons on the ground.

The tuba begins the movie and the suite with a solo line supported by the woodwinds and

Molto andante ten. ten. ten. ten. ten. ten. >œ.. œ œ œ >œ.. œ œ œ >œ.. œ œ œ ˙ Oboe 1 b 3 Clarinets 1-2 & b b 4 Œ

Bassoons 1-2 ften. ten. ften. ten. ten.f ten. f Contra Bassoon ? b 3 Bass Clarinet b b 4 Œ œ.. œ œ œ œ.. œ œ œ œ.. œ œ œ ˙ f> f> f> f> Tuba ? 3 bbb 4 ‰ ‰ ‰ Œ œ œ œ œ. - f œ. - f œ. - ˙ f >˙ œ- >˙ œ- >˙ œ- f>˙> Violin I b & b b 43 æ æ æ æ Œ f f f f >œ >œ >œ Violin II > b 3 æ æ æ ˙ & b b 4 Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ æ f f f Cello ? b 3 Œ b b 4 æ æ æ æ ˙ œ- ˙ œ- ˙ œ- ˙ f> f> f> f> Double Bass ? 3 bbb 4 œæ Œ Œ œæ Œ Œ œæ Œ Œ œæ Œ Œ f> f> f> f>

Example 5.4 Prokofiev’s Alexander Nevsky movement 1, measures 1-4 (c score)

138 Maes 327-328. 97

© strings, shown in Example 5.4. The tuba part is the only one that has silence entrances on beat three. This also shows Prokofiev’s knowledge of the tubist’s need for a breath, and also allows the voice to project in the texture. Prokofiev uses the tuba to help depict the destruction caused by the Teutonic invaders. In the second movement, “Song about

Alexander Nevsky.” In addition to the solo-like passages, he scores the tuba with the basses in the chorus, as shown in Example 5.5. The basses are singing praise about the land of Russia, and the tuba is supporting them melodically. Similar to his other works, the slurs are different among the instruments, giving the articulation to the basses and the resonance to the tuba. In two early instances in the movie, the sound of the tuba represents the land, in movement one, the destruction, but in the second movement, the glory of theScore land. Instead of the tuba representing destruction as a timbral leitmotif, it

Piu mosso

Contrabassoon ? b 2 ! j ‰ Œ Œ Œ b 4 ˙ œ œ ˙ œ p p Ó Ó p bb 2 ! & 4 œ œ. ˙˙ ˙ Horns J œ œ ‰ ˙ ˙ J p . ? œ œ. ˙ bb 42 ! œ œ œ œ. ˙ ˙ ˙ J J ˙ p p Tuba ? 2 bb 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ ˙ œ espress. ˙ p p Basses ? œ œ œ œ œ bb 42 œ œ œ ˙ ˙ ˙ за ве - ли - ку - ю зем - лю рус - ску - ю P Double Bass ? 2 j bb 4 ! ! ‰ j œ ‰ Œ ˙æ œ œ- ˙æ 7 p p Example 5.5 Prokofiev’s Alexander Nevsky, movement 2, rehearsal 9, measures 1-6 (c- C. Bn. ? score) bb !

7 98 Hn. 1 b & b !

Hn. 2 ? bb !

Tuba ? bb !

7 B ? bb !

7

D.B. ? bb ! © represents the land, the foundation of the people and civilization in a sense.

Alexander Nevsky has many exposed tuba parts, and he uses tuba as a solo voice in several other sections of the cantata. One of the noted solos is in the fifth movement,

“The Battle on Ice,” shown in Example 5.6. The ostinato in the woodwinds, strings, and

Allegro moderato q = 112 p ‰ Œ Ó Ó Clarinets 1-2 # ## 4 Ó & # 4 .j ...... œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ " ...... J Bass Clarinet j ? ## 4 œ œ œ œ œ ‰. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ 4 . #œ. . œ. . œ. . œ. . . #œ. . œ. . œ. . #œ. . œ. . œ. . œ. #œ . #œ. . œ. . œ. . œ. " p Tenor Sax j >˙.. ? ## 4 ! ! ! œ œ œ œ œ I. P >II. Bassoons ? # # 4 Ó Œ # # 4 œ Œ Ó œ ˙. œ ˙ ˙ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ P > ...... Horn 2 # j >˙.. ? ## # 4 ! ! ! œ œ œ œ œ > Solo 3 P Tuba ? # # 4 Ó Œ # # 4 w w œ #œ #œ ˙. œ ˙ ˙ P > Snare Drum 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ©œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ã 4 > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > > # Viola # # ...... B # # 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ " #œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ Cello # ? ## # 4 œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ œ. œ " ...... Double Bass ? #### 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 4 . #œ. . œ. . œ. . œ. . #œ. . œ. . œ. . œ. . #œ. . œ. . œ. . œ. . #œ. . œ. . œ. . œ. . #œ. . œ. . œ. . œ. "

Example 5.6 Prokofiev’s Alexander Nevsky, movement 5, rehearsal 35 measures 1-5 (c score)

snare drum represent the marching of the Teutonic army, while the tuba and bassoon melody represents the soldiers themselves ready to attack. Prokofiev notates the tuba as the solo instrument, showing he wanted its color to predominate over the bassoon. In

99 addition, the tuba is the only instrument to have the triplet figure, further showing he wished for it to be the predominate voice.

Alexander Nevsky is a great example of the beetle reference Prokofiev mentioned to Rostropovich; its ability to play in any situation, representing both good and evil.

Alexander Nevsky’s dramatic use of the tuba further reveals Prokofiev’s favor to the instrument, and that it is the backbone to the low instruments in his compositions.

Another notable use of the tuba in Prokofiev’s film works occurs in the Eisenstein film, Ivan the Terrible. Instead of being viewed in a negative image as was done in tsarist

Russia, Ivan was described as a hero who fought against Russia’s enemies, both internal and external. Many parts of this film also aligned with Soviet ideology, especially with the new view of Ivan.139 140 Like many of his larger works, Prokofiev also made an orchestral suite from music in the movie. Stylistic of Prokofiev, Ivan the Terrible uses the tuba as a predominant voice throughout the work. In the final movements of each of the sections, Prokofiev scores for two tubas. In the finale of part one, “The Siege of Kazan,”

Prokofiev uses a tuba duet to perform the main melody and accompaniment, shown in

Example 5.7. In some interpretations, the second tuba represents the marching of the soldiers, and is doubled with the double basses performing the same line with tremolos.

The scoring of the orchestra allows the two tubas to be the predominant voices in the texture, representing the marching of the armies and the carrying of cannons. Though the

139 Maes, 329-330. 140 The new changed image of Ivan could be considered partly as Soviet realism. The film was historical in nature, portrayed the good things of him, aligning with those views. The second part of the film was condemned for its betrayal of ignorance of historical facts. 100 other instruments are playing along with the tubas, it is likely he included them to also help cover the tubas when they have to breathe, to keep a consistent sound to the melody.

Moderato pesante q = 108 Bass Clarinet b & b 46 œ œ j j j b˙ nœ bœ - b˙ nœ bœ - ˙. # œ ˙. ˙. # œ ˙. ˙. # œ ˙. > - - œ- > - - œ- f> > > > > > Contrabassoon ? b b 6 Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ b b 4 ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ > > > > > > > > > > f Tuba 1 ? 6 - - œ- - - œ- bb b 4 j j j b˙ nœ bœ œ b˙ nœ bœ œ b ˙. n œ ˙. ˙. n œ ˙. ˙. n œ ˙. > - > - f> > > > > > Tuba 2 ? 6 bbbb 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ bœ nœ bœ œ pesanteœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ > > > > > > > > > > Bass Drum f œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ã 46 > > > > > > > > > > f Cello ? b 6 b bb 4 Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ ˙æ Œ b˙æ Œ Œ b˙æ Œ ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ > > ˙æ > ˙æ f> > > > > > > Double Bass ? bb b 46 æ œæ æ œæ æ œæ æ œæ æ œæ æ œæ æ nœ æ bœ æ nœ æ bœ b œæ œ œæ œ œæ œ œæ œ œæ œ œæ œ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ f > > > > > > > > > > 6

B. Cl. b j & b œ œ œ œ bœ b˙. j b˙ nœ bœ - b˙ nœ bœ - nœ œ ˙. # œ ˙. ˙. - - œ- - - œ- > œ > œ > > > > > > C. Bn. ? b b Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ b b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ > > > > > > > > > > Tuba 1 j - - ? œ - - œ - - œ > œ > bœ b b b˙. j b˙ nœ bœ b˙ nœ bœ nœ œ b b ˙. n œ ˙. ˙. œ- œ- œ œ > > > > > > Tuba 2 ? bbbb nœ bœ œ œ nœ bœ nœ bœ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ > > > > > > > > > > B. Dr. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ã > > > > > > > > > >

Vc. ? b b Œ b˙æ Œ Œ Œ Œ b˙æ Œ Œ b˙æ Œ Œ Œ æ b b ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ ˙æ n˙æ ˙ > > > > > > > > > > D.B. ? bb b æ nœ æ bœ æ œæ æ œæ æ nœ æ bœ æ nœ æ bœ æ nœ œæ œ b œæ œ æ œæ œ æ œæ œ œæ œ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ œæ nœ æ œæ æ > > > > >© > > > > > Example 5.7 Prokofiev’s Ivan the Terrible, movement 12, measures 1-16 (continued on next page) 101

Example 5.7 continued

11 B Cl. b b & b œ œ r œ œ r Œ Œ Œ Œ ! ! j ˙ nœ œ bœ œ.. nœ œ bœ œ.. œ ˙. b˙. bœ œ œ œ bœ.. œ œ œ œ bœ.. > > nœ > nœ > B. Cl. b j b N œ Œ Œ Œ ! ! ! ! Ó Œ & #˙. j > a œ ˙. > C. Bn. ? bb b Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ b˙ Œ Œ b˙ Œ Œ Œ b ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙ > ˙ > ˙ ˙ 11 > > > > > > > > > > Horns 1-2 bœ œ r bœ œ r Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ & j ˙ œ œ bœ œ.. œ œ bœ œ.. œ b˙. b˙. > > > > > ˙ ˙ ƒ > > Horns 3-4 Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ & j ˙ bœ r bœ r œ b˙. b˙. > bœ œ œ bœ "œ.. œ œ œ bœ "œ.. > > > > ˙ ˙ ƒ > > Tbn. ? b b ! ! ! ! Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ Œ b b ˙ ˙ > >

Tuba 1 j ------? N œ > r r bœ œ œ œ bœ œ œ œ b b n˙. Œ Œ Œ . Œ Œ Œ .. Œ Œ Œ Œ .. j b b ˙ nœ œ nœ œ ˙ ˙. N œ ˙. > > > ƒ > > Tuba 2 ? b b bb bœ bœ bœ œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ bœ "œ bœ "œ œ œ 11 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ > > > > > > > > > > > > S.Dr. X X X X ã . . . . Œ Œ Œ ! ! æ æ æ æ F B. Dr. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ã > > > > > > > > > > > >

11 Vla. > > > B b b Œ Œ Œ æ Œ ˙ Œ æ Œ ˙ Œ æ Œ ˙ Œ Ó. Œ b b ˙æ b˙æ ˙ æ ˙ æ ˙ æ b˙æ ˙æ. b˙æ > > > > > > Vc. > > > ? b b Œ Œ Œ æ Œ ˙ Œ æ Œ ˙ Œ æ Œ ˙ Œ Œ Œ b b ˙æ b˙æ ˙ æ ˙ æ ˙ æ b˙æ ˙æ. ˙æ b˙æ > > > > > > > > D.B. ? b b æ œ æ œ æbœ æ œ æbœ æ œ æbœ æ"œ œ æbœ æ"œ œ æ æ b b œæ œ œæ œ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ œæ œ æ bœ æ œæ œ æ bœ æ œæ œæ œ œæ œæ œ > æ > æ > > > > > > æ > > æ > >

Prokofiev also added instruments as the movement progresses, to show the intensity of the battle that is about to occur. The apex of this section is in measure fourteen, where the first tuba part at a fortissimo dynamic has g-flat quarter notes. In this

102 instance, the tuba is the only one with this part, showing it as the most important instrument in this section, and setting a more aggressive tone in the register scored.

The rest of the scoring prior only uses one tuba. Prokofiev saved the use of both tubas to further intensify this scene. It is also probable that both tubists would alternate playing the other movements, to help both players have the chops and stamina to effectively play this passage.

Like his ballets and film scores, Prokofiev abundantly used the tuba in his symphonies. In addition to using the tuba as a melodic instrument, Prokofiev used notes as low as a CC# in several of his symphonies, showing his knowledge of the tuba’s abiity to play in the low range. The Fifth Symphony was a major success, as it was filled with optimism, hope, and life. The abundant scoring of the tuba in The Fifth Symphony has made this work a favorite among tubists.

Prokofiev’s Sixth Symphony uses the tuba in a unique way. Prokofiev began this symphony in 1945, at the close of World War II. Maes mentions this work is a bit of a contrast in comparison of the Fifth Symphony, which was filled with the themes of hope and optimism, which was written towards the end of World War II. However, his Sixth

Symphony “finds the warm lyricism of Romeo and Juliet as well as melancholy themes and sharply orchestrated sound blocks. Only in the concluding vivace does Prokofiev find the way back to the optimism of the Fifth Symphony.”141

Example 5.8 shows an example of Prokofiev’s unique orchestration in the first movement of his Sixth Symphony. This melody is presented over an ostinato in the

141 Maes, 332. 103

English Horn 4 Ó œ.#œ œ. ˙. & 4 œ j œ. œ .œ œ œ#œ#œ#œ #œœ#œ.#œ #œ lugubreœ b œ. œ #œ - - F œ œ - Tuba ? 4 4 Ó j œ #œ œ. ˙. œ œ. œ œ œ œ#œ#œ#œ . #œœ#œ.#œ #œ lugubreœ b œ. œ #œ.- - F œ œ - Violin ! " - 4 Ó œ.#œ œ. ˙. & 4 œ j œ. œ .œ œ œ#œ#œ-#œ. #œ-œ-#œ.#œ #œ lugubreœ bœ . œ œ œ - #œ - - - F - - - Viola "- - . œ #œ œ. -- ˙. 4 !œ j œ. œ- œ- œ œ#œ#œ#œ . #œœ#œ.#œ- #œ B 4 Ó œ bœ. œ œ œ #œ. lugubre - - F 6

ExampleE. Hn. 5.8 Prokofiev’s Symphony No. 6, movement 1, rehearsal 19, measures 1-5, melody. &(c score). # #

6 pianoTuba and? woodwinds. The scoring# of the tuba in this section is unique# compared to his earlier symphonies6 and works for ballet and theatre, scoring it with the low strings or as a Vln. solo voice.& The use of the tuba# instead of bassoon or double bass adds# a tonal juxtaposition to the orchestration, allowing the tuba’s color to be the dominant one. Like Vla. B # # many of his other works, Prokofiev uses different articulations to present a continuous melodic line. Another example of his tuba writing in the Sixth Symphony is the tuba solo in the third movement. The third movement can be described as a cheerful dance-like melody in the style of Glinka or Mozart, but the repetitive fanfares also revisit past

142 traumas. The tuba solo, shown in Example 5.9© shows juxtaposition between the spirited dance-like styles in the strings with the darkness in the tuba solo. Though the part seems secondary and accompanimental in nature, Prokofiev’s marking of solo with the

142 Simon Morrison, The People’s Artist: Prokofiev’s Soviet Years (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 291. 104

Vivace a2 Flute 1 Oboe 1 bb 2 ! ! nn ˙ ˙ ˙ œ. j ˙ ˙ ˙ Clarinet 1 & b 4 n œ- Solo P (Solo) Tuba ? b 2 j‰ j n b b 4 œ ‰ j‰ j‰ n n j‰ Œ Œ ‰ j ˙ ˙ ! Œ ‰ j ˙ . œ. nœ œ œ #œ. #œ. " . . . P > P > Violins 1-2 b b b 2 ! ! nnn ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ & 4 ‰ œœ‰ œ ‰ œœ‰ œ ‰ œœ‰ œ ‰ œœ‰ œ ‰ œœ‰ œ ‰ œœ‰ œ ‰ œœ‰ œ

Viola b 2 n B b b 4 ! ! n n ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ " Cello ? b 2 n Double Bass b b 4 ! ! n n œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ " 10 œ- ˙ >œ œ œ œ ˙ ˙ œ. bœ Fl. 1 œ. ˙ ˙ ˙ J Ob .1 & J Cl. 1 10 Tuba j . > ? ! Œ ‰ œ ˙ ˙ ! Œ ‰ œ #˙ ˙ ˙ . > J 10 P P Œ Vln. ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ j & ‰ œ ‰ œ œœ œ œœ œ œœ œ ##œœ œ ##œœ œ ##œœ œ ##œœ œ ##œœ ‰ œ‰ œ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ ‰ J Œ Vla. j B ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ Œ ‰ Vc. ? j Db. œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ J bœ . . Example 5.9 Prokofiev’s Sixth Symphony, movement 3, 2 measures before rehearsal 71- rehearsal 72 (c score).

first two measures being played without accompaniment, shows the performer the importance of the musical line.

It is not known why Sergei Prokofiev scored significantly for tuba in the majority of his works besides his favor of the instrument. Recording technology did not record lower frequencies well during the time of these compositions were written, so doubling 105 the tuba with the other low instruments has been offered as a suggestion. However, he would not have scored several solo lines for the tuba with the limitations of recording technology at the time. By the time Prokofiev was composing several of these works, the orchestras employed conservatory trained tubists. Prokofiev’s enjoyment of the tuba sound and flexibility of scoring for it combined with talented performers produced a medium for Prokofiev to write effectively for the instrument.

After many years of illness, Prokofiev died on March 5, 1953, the same day as

Stalin. His death was left unnoticed for several days due to the focus on Stalin’s passing.

Though his death was unnoticed and somewhat unappreciated during his lifetime,

Prokofiev’s music remains among the standard orchestral and solo repertoire.

Dmitri Shostakovich

Dmitri Shostakovich was born in St. Petersburg in 1906. His father was a chemical engineer and his mother was trained as a pianist from the St. Petersburg

Conservatory. Dmitri, like many other Russian composers, studied piano with his mother and later went to the St. Petersburg Conservatory in 1919.

Shostakovich’s music is often associated with censorship and Soviet realism.

Volkov’s Testimonies portrays him as a dissident of the Soviet Union and of Stalin. Maes suggests that this view is what made Shostakovich’s works popular outside of Russia, though it may not be an accurate view.143 “Volkov’s portrait of Shostakovich was exactly what the Western music market needed: that of a lifelong dissident, who behind

143143 Simon Volkov’s Testimonies is a topic debated among musicologists in concerns to authenticity and the view presented by the author. . 106 the official façade of his music had been making ironic comments about the Soviet regime the whole time.”144 The basis of some of these claims of Shostakovich’s resistance to the Soviet Union were mainly derived from his operas, notably The Lady

Macbeth of the Mtsensk District, not from his instrumental music. “The belief that we can have a complete grasp of a composer’s intentions is an illusion.”145 Discussing perceived extra-musical elements in Shostakovich’s instrumental music are derived from the opinions of the listener, not from historic fact. Though elements of satire and parody may be present, they were hidden from Stalin and other official listeners in his instrumental music.

Shostakovich composed fifteen symphonies, fourteen of which include tuba. Like with the discussion on Prokofiev, only works that use the tuba in a non-traditional or unique manner will be discussed. Much of Shostakovich’s orchestrations score the tuba with the trombones and low strings, similar to many Germanic-style compositions, though his Fourth Symphony included two tubas.146 His Ninth Symphony, composed in

1945, following the victory of the Red Army in World War II, shows not only some artistic freedom but also hints at satire.

“In the Ninth Symphony, Shostakovich broke openly with the paradigm of heroic classicism…Like no other work, the Ninth is a plea for artistic freedom. At a time when the audience was expecting a ‘genuine Ninth” in celebration of the heroic victory [in World War II], complete with final chorus a la Beethoven, Shostakovich came up with a deliberately lighthearted work. He defended his choice as a return to normal life after the exceptional circumstances of the war. 147

144 Maes, 347. 145 Ibid., 350. 146 His Fourth Symphony was withdrawn from public performance after Stalin’s disdain from Lady Macbeth of the Mtsenk District. 147 Maes, 357. 107

Shostakovich did not deliver the expected symphony with chorus. “Cast once more in five-movement form, its scherzando-like surface is constantly betrayed by slithers into darkness and a desperate sense of panic and despair.”148 I believe

Shostakovich uses the low brass in movement four, shown in Example 5.10 to show darkness and despair. Shostakovich uses the low brass chorale in a similar manner as

Largo

Trumpet in B b 2 ! ! ! ! ! ! j ‰ Œ & 4 ˙ ˙ œ > " œ œ.. œ œ. œ œ œ œ. œ œ n˙ ƒ Trombones1-2 ? b 2 œ œ.. œ œ n˙ ˙ ˙ œ b bbb 4 J ‰ Œ ƒ " Bass Trombone ? b 2 . œ œ. œ n˙ j b bbb 4 œ œ.. œ œ œ.. œ œ œ œ œ œ n˙ ˙ ˙ œ ‰ Œ ƒ " Tuba ? b b 2 ‰ Œ b b b 4 . j œ œ.. œ œ œ.. œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ n˙ n˙ ˙ ˙ œ ƒ col bacch. di Timp " Cymbals 2 ˙ ã 4 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! fDiv. Viola b 2 B b bbb 4 ! ! ! ! ! ! ˙ ˙ ˙ p Div. Double Bass ? b 2 n˙ ˙ ˙ b bbb 4 ! ! ! ! ! ! n˙ ˙ ˙ p

Example 5.10 Shostakovich’s Ninth Symphony, movement 4, measures 1-9.

Tchaikovsky in his Sixth Symphony, however he uses the instruments at a high volume dynamic. Beginning the movement with the low brass is something unique and sets the tone to the entire movement, which contrasts in style from the rest of the piece. These statements are followed by a bassoon cadenza, further adding to the darkness and sense of despair.

148 Eric Roseberry, “Personal Integrity and Public Service: the Voice of the Symphonist,” in A Cambridge Companion to Shostakovich, ed. Pauline Fairclough and David Fanning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 26. 108

The Ninth Symphony was the last symphony composed by Shostakovich during

Stalin’s rule. Following the Ninth Symphony, Shostakovich composed his First Violin

Concerto,which he wrote for David Oistrakh. Though it was composed during

Zhdanovshchina, a period after World War II against Western formalism in music, it was premiered after the death of Stalin in 1955.149 Prokofiev and other artists had faced issues with Zhdanovshchina, which is suggested why Shostakovich did not have his Violin

Concerto performed for several years.

The orchestration in his First Violin Concerto is different than his symphonies.

“In all Shostakovich’s string concertos the orchestral line-up has unorthodox features, usually displayed in a (carefully considered) reduction in the numbers of brass. In the

First Violin Concerto he calls only for four horns and the tuba, the latter instrument lending much of the ‘symphonic sense’ of weight to certain tuttis, and otherwise functioning as a bass to the horns.”150 Shostakovich omitted the trumpets and trombones from the orchestration to help the balance of the orchestra with the soloist, but, like

Prokofiev, he saw the flexibility of the tuba.

The third movement, “Passacaglia,” shows the ability of the tubist to play a melodic line softly, while still accompanying the soloist. A passacaglia generally consists of a repetitive melodic idea with several variations added on top. The tuba states the passacaglia theme several times in its role as the bass instrument in conjunction with the bassoons, contrabassoon, low strings, and the horns. Example 5.11 shows a unique

150 Malcolm MacDonald, “‘I Took a Simple Little Theme and Developed It’: Shostakovich’s String Concertos and Sonatas,” in A Cambridge Companion to Shostakovich, ed. Pauline Fairclough and David Fanning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), 123. 109 orchestration of the tuba and the first bassoon with the statement of the passacaglia statement. Similar to Prokofiev, Shostakovich scores the tuba in the low tessitura at a

Clarinet in B 1-2 b b b 3 œnœbœ ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙ œ & 4 ˙. ˙ #œ ˙. ˙ ˙. ˙. ˙cresc. ˙. dim. Œ f p Clarinet in B 3 b bb 3 & 4 nœbœ cresc. ˙ œ œ ˙dim.. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. f p Bassoon 1 ? b 3 ˙ ˙ œ œ Œ œ b bb 4 œ œ œ Œ bœ œ œ Œ ˙ œ ˙ œ œ œ p Tuba ? b b 3 Œ Œ Œ b b 4 ˙ ˙ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ p œ bœ sul. G œ Solo Violin b b & b b 43 ! j j œ j œ œ œœœœ œ œ .œ œ .œ œ. œœ œ cresc. œ œ œ moltoœ espress.œ œ œ œ œ œ p

9

B Cl. 1-2 b b œ & b œ œ œ ˙. ˙. b˙. œœ #œ ˙. bœ œ dim. ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙. œ œ œ ˙˙. ˙. F p B Cl. 3 b b & b œ œdim.œ ˙. ˙. b˙. ˙. ˙ nœ ˙. œ œ ˙. F p #œ Bsn. 1 ? b b ˙ Œ Œ œ ˙ Œ ˙ Œ b b œ bœ œ bœ œ ˙ œ œ œ nœ ˙ œ œ œ 9 Tuba ? bbbb Œ Œ Œ Œ ˙ ˙ œ ˙ ˙ 9 œ bœ œ bœ œ œ œ œ nœ ˙ œ œ œ Vln. b " # # & b bb Œ Œ Œ Œ ˙ œ j j œœœœœdim.œ œœœ œœ œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ.œ œ F œ œ œ œ œ œ.œ - - p

Example 5.12 Shostakovich’s First Violin Concerto, movement 3, rehearsal 76-77. 110

piano dynamic. Other low instruments could have been scored in this passage, including the contrabassoon and the string bass. Shostakovich’s use of tuba here not only shows the color he is after in the orchestration, but also the ability of the tuba to play the low tessitura passage at the marked dynamic, while maintaining response and not overpowering the soloist.

One of the most remarkable usages of the tuba in Russian orchestral music can be found in Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 13: Babi Yar. Shostakovich used Jewish themes throughout several of his compositions, which can be seen by some as resistance to the anti-Semitism of many Soviet leaders.151

The link between the Jewish theme and protests against the regime was most pronounced in the Thirteenth Symphony, called Babi Yar…The symphony contains five poems by Yevgeniy Yevtushenko…The theme of the suffering of the Jewish people is complemented in the Thirteenth Symphony with Yevtushenko’s verses about other Soviet abuses…‘Fears’ evokes the terror under Stalin…Yevtushenko wrote the poem ‘Fears’ at the composer’s request”152

Shostakovich wrote his Symphony No. 13 during the period of Khrushchev’s rule referred to as ‘the thaw’, where several of Stalin’s crimes against Russia were revealed.

Yevtushenko’s work was criticized because his writing seemed to put the suffering of the

Jews above that of the Russian people. Since the texts were included in Shostakovich’s

Symphony No. 13, he had issues finding conductors and singers to perform the parts.

“When performed at a public concert with symphonic backing, however, critical texts

151 Maes, 364. 152 Ibid., 366. 111

Largo q = 84 Solo Tuba ? 4 4 ! ! Ó #˙ ˙ Œ bœ œ Œ j‰Œ Ó ˙ ˙. œ œ œ b˙ w œ " nœ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~~~ Ÿ~~~~ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~~~~ Timpani ? 4 4 #w #w #w #w #w #w #w #w #w " Tamtam 4 ˙ w ˙ w ã 4 Ó ! ! ! ! ! Ó p Bass Drum 4 w p w ã 4 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! " P Cello " P Double Bass ? 4 4 bw w w w w w w w w @ 10 Tuba ? ! ! ! 43 ! 4 ! ! 23 10 Ÿ~~~ Ÿ~~~~ Ÿ~~ Timp. ? j‰ Œ ! 3 ! 4 ! Ó 3 10 #w #˙ œ 4 4 #˙ 2 B. Dr. œ œ œ œ œ 3 " ã Ó Œ Ó Œ Œ 4 ! 4 ! ! 23 10 p Vc. ? j j 3 4 3 Db. œ œ œ œ œ œ jœ j 4 j 4 bœ œ œ 2 . #œ œ #œ. œ #œ œ . œ . œ bœ œbœ. œ bœ œ œ œ œ #œ#œ ˙ p @ 16 Solo Tuba ? 3 4 j j 2 ! 4 Ó #˙ ˙ Ó œ Ó œ ˙ ˙. œ #œ ‹œ #œ. ˙ œ #œ #œ. ˙ 16 " Ÿ~~~~~ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~~~ Ÿ~~ Ÿ~~~ Timp. ? 3 4 16 2 #w. 4 #w #w #w #w #w #w #w T.T. 3 w. 4 16ã 2 4 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! B. Dr. 3 p wŸ~~ ã 2 Ó 4 ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 16 p Vc. ? 3 4 Db. 2 w. 4 w w w w w w w

Example 5.12 Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 13: Babi Yar, movement 4, measures 1-23.

112 have a greater public impact than when they are simply read at home. No wonder, then, that the authorities were doubly concerned.”153

Shostakovich begins the fourth movement, “Fears” with a tuba solo, shown in

Example 5.12. Since Yevtushenko’s poem “Fears” was written at the request of

Shostakovich, there is a high likelihood he already had musical ideas for this movement.

In my interpretation, Shostakovich’s choice of tuba represents the fears and the oppressions of the past at the beginning is critical to setting the feel of the opening.

“There are indeed some wonderfully trenchant climaxes…but the predominant impression is one of highly selective scoring, much of it very finely pointed and, in the best sense, idiosyncratic. Some of the instrumental colorings are in themselves decisive imaginative strokes: for example, the solo tuba at the beginning of the fourth movement.”154

Melodically, Shostakovich created an image of the poem in the tuba solo. There is an A-flat drone in the low strings, and the tuba enters on D, a tritone apart. In addition to the tritone in harmony, the melody is also based on the octatonic scale and presents eleven tones, which don’t repeat in the phrase. The solo ends on a tritone interval, further showing his use of the octatonic scale, which was banned in the Soviet Union during the time of composition. The scoring of the low instruments makes the opening profoundly dark. The ending of the second statement solo ends on a G, in unison with the low strings.

The text to Yevtushenko’s “Fears” mentions that though new fears are dawning, they are

153 Ibid., 367. 154 Hugh Ottaway. Shostakovich Symphonies. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1978, 60. 113 dying out.155 The timpani continues rolling through a G# in contrast to the G present in the tuba and low string. In my interpretation, this shows that the fears are present, but are dying off.

The sung texts to Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 13 resulted in its lack of performance in the Soviet Union and abroad. The lack of performances and the large chorus required for the performance has left this work unknown to many. The tuba solo has not appeared on any major American orchestral audition lists in the last decade, nor do tubists commonly study the work.

Shostakovich continued to include tuba in his works towards the end of his life, notably his Symphony No. 15. Though the pinnacle for his writing for tuba was in his

Symphony No. 13, his scoring of the trombones and tuba has made his music among favorites for many low brass musicians. Though it may never be known if his instrumental music had hidden political contexts, Shostakovich’s music is some of the most studied and performed in the repertoire.

Alexander Tcherepnin

Alexander Tcherepnin was born in 1899. His father, Nikolai, was a conductor and composer and a student of Rimsky-Korsakov. Tcherepnin’s father also assisted with the

Ballets Russes. Nikolai’s musical influence allowed young Alexander to meet composers such as Stravinsky, Prokofiev, and Rimsky-Korsakov. After the revolutions of 1917,

155 Yevgeny Yevtushenko, “Fears,” PoemHunter.com. http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/fears-11/ (Accessed November 1, 2015).

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Tcherepnin moved to Paris. After traveling to Asia he eventually resided in the United

States. Though he did not live in Russia the majority of his life, he is still classified among Russian composers. “Alexander Tcherepnin clearly belongs to the Russian tradition, though he also considered himself an ‘Eurasian’ composer…His originality also finds expression in the emphasis on percussion, under-used instruments, rhythmic transformations, and unusual scales.”156

Tcherepnin’s Andante is one of the works for under used instruments. It is scored for tuba or trombone, though the score states tuba as the primary instrument. At the time of composition, the solo works for tuba available were scarce. It was written in the memory of his father. The date of the piece leaves some ambiguity. The Belaieff publishing house published Andante in 1950. The website of the Tcherepnin Society shows the piece for tuba or bass trombone and written in 1939.157 His father passed away in 1945, which suggests Andante was composed between his father’s death and the publication of 1950. It can also be suggested he composed this work in 1939 but later dedicated it to his father. The opus number, 64, suggests the composition was written in

1939.

Andante begins lyrical in style, showing the tuba’s ability to play at soft dynamics, shown in Example 5.13. The rhythmic transformation of the theme, a characteristic of his style present in this work, is shown in Example 5.14. The

156 Svetlana Savenko, et. Al. “Tcherepnin,” Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.ohio- state.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/45587pg2 (accessed November 1, 2015). 157 Lily Chou. “Alexander Tcherepnin: A Generic Catalog of Works,” The Tcherepnin Society, http://www.tcherepnin.com/alex/comps_alex.htm (accessed November 1, 2015).

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transformation uses a hemiola in the melody to add musical tension, especially present

after the key change.

Andante requires a large range of the tuba, from B-flat to a d’. The use of the

tuba’s high range, as shown in Example 5.15, can cause accuracy issues to the performer.

Entering on a d’ at a pianissimo dynamic and controlling the pitch in the staccato notes

can pose a difficulty, especially when performing on a BB-flat tuba. The trombone

version is scored an octave higher for the entire piece, with the exception of this moment

Andante

Tuba ? 4 bb 4 Ó Œ ˙. ˙. œ bœ œ œ b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ. œ p - j ! ! œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ ? b 4 w œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ œ b b 4 œ œ œ œ & ‰ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ Piano ‰ œ œ p œ œ œ œ ? b 4 ‰ œ œ œœ œ œ ‰ œ œ œœ œ œ Œ œ b b 4 œ œ œ & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 5 Example 5.13 Tcherepnin’s Andante, measures 12-15 Tuba ? bbb " " 5 bbb " " & espress. 3 Pno. Tuba ? 4 - j j b bb b 4 Ó Œ œbœ bb b b œ œ œ œ œ jœ œ œ œ œœœ œ jœ œ b b b b " b b cresc. œ- - cresc. " œ - & p ˙- œ ˙- œ > > > bbbb 4 bbbb b w ˙ w ˙ & b 4 œ œ ˙ b w w ˙ w w ˙ Piano œ œ w w w w f œ œ œ œ © œ œ œ œ ? b b 4 œ b b b Œ œ ‰ œnœ œ œ œnœ œ b b b 4 œ œ œ œ b b b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Example 5.14 Tcherepnin’s Andante, measures 61-65

6 Tuba ? 116 bb b b ! b b 6 b b & b b bb ! Pno.

? b b bbbb ! ©

œ œ œ. . . . . Tuba œ œ. œ œ. œ. . œ œ. œ œ. œ. . œ. ? 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ cresc. poco a poco ! p 5 Example 5.15 Tcherepnin’s Andante, measures 37-40, tuba part Tuba ? " " "

8 Though there is probability that this could be an error on the publisher, the influences Tuba ? " " " Tcherepnin had with Stravinsky at a young age could have led him to discover the

abilities11 of the tuba in the high range. His time spent in Paris could have exposed him to Tuba the tuba? in c, whose" fundamental pitch is an octave" above that of a CC tuba."

It is not known if Tcherepnin had a specific tubist in mind when composing this 14 Tubapiece.? Belaieff later "published several Russian works" for tuba and included" scoring for bass trombone. In the proposed year of the composition, Tcherepnin had traveled to

17 China, but lived in Paris, however he moved to Chicago in 1949, the year before Andante Tuba ? " " " was published. In 1951, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra performed Tcherepnin’s

Second20 Symphony. Though there is no research suggesting it, there is a small likelihood Tuba that ?the influence of" Arnold Jacobs, the principal" tubist of the Chicago Symphony" from

1944-1989 could have led to the publication of the work. 23 Tuba ? The formation" of the Soviet Union had a" great impact on culture, development," and modernization of the former Russian Empire. Though there were restrictions and

censorship placed on music, Russian composers© continued effectively score for the tuba

in their music, causing the growth of professional tuba study in Russia.

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Chapter 6: The Russian School of Tuba

The rise of the Bolsheviks caused many to emigrate from Russia. Though many composers and musicians left, the conservatories still continued to educate high quality musicians and composers. Several of these musicians and composers became influential teachers and pedagogues. The majority of the information about the tuba performers and teachers in Russia has been made available through Alexei Levashkin, retired tuba performer in Moscow. Due to the closed-door policy of the Soviet Union, this information was not previously available. Levashkin personally knew several of the prominent tubists in Russia and serves as an effective primary source for this information.

Tubists Before Blazhevich

As mentioned in Chapter 2, many of the earliest tubists in Russian orchestras were

German. Vitneben was a trombonist in the Bolshoi Theatre, but also played ophicleide in the orchestra. In St. Petersburg, Wilhelm Schonekerl was hired to play ophicleide in

1861, but was listed as a tubist in 1865. In the Ballet Orchestra of St. Petersburg,

Wilhelm Hoppe performed from 1884-1894, and he was followed by Karl Tormann who was the tubist from 1894-1907. In the Bolshoi Theatre from 1890-1891, Hermann Topfer played tuba and also performed on the double bass. Albin Valenius took the place of

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Topfer. There is not much information available on these tubists, though it confirms the monopoly of German musicians who were employed by Russian orchestras.158

The teacher of trombone and tuba at the St. Petersburg Conservatory from 1870 to

1909 was Franz Turner, who immigrated to Russia to teach. He was mentioned for his praise of the Zimmerman tubas, and was instrumental in their dispersion, as mentioned in

Chapter 2. In 1886, he became one of the earliest teachers to write a method for brass, titled The Complete School for Brass Instruments. Though it mentions bass tubas in F and

E-flat and contrabass tuba in BB-flat, it was written with the euphonium in mind.159 The

Moscow Conservatory employed Christopher Bork to teach trombone, tuba and percussion between 1875 and 1916.160 Like Turner, he was not a native Russian. It was not uncommon for the same teacher to teach all low brass instruments in conservatories, however, the addition of percussion to Bork’s duties show the higher degree of specification of the St. Petersburg Conservatory at the time.

“The creation of an orchestra class in the cappella of the Imperial Court of St.

Petersburg finally provided the training for a new generation of Russian musicians and continued to reduce dependence on foreign musicians.”161 The first of these tubists was

Vladimir Zintchenko. Zintchenko studied at the St. Petersburg Conservatory, and later was principal tubist of the Imperial Court Orchestra from 1905-1938. Meanwhile in

Moscow, the Bolshoi hired Alexandre Kretov and Fiodor Nikiforov in 1910; the latter performed until 1919. Kretov was born in Poland, but he studied with Christopher Bork

158 Levashkin, Pictures, 10-11. 159 Ibid., 8. 160 Ibid., 11. 161 Ibid., 12. 119 at the Moscow Conservatory. Kretov also played with the Zimine Opera in Moscow prior to joining the Bolshoi. 162 It is not uncommon for Russian orchestras to employ multiple tubists, since the orchestral musicians are expected to perform opera and symphonic music concurrently.163

Vassili Vasiliev replaced Nikiforov. Vasiliev is a familiar name to many tubists because of his 24 Melodious Etudes for Tuba. Though some of the etudes are slurred and lyrical, he includes playing in several musical styles. His Melodious Etudes allow the tubist to develop their musicianship free from extreme technical demands. Vasiliev’s writing also shows the flexibility of the tuba, as shown in Example 6.1. This flexibility in register is needed for an effective performance of The Rite of Spring. Vasiliev also includes a theme and variations style etude as the final etude.

Moderato j ^ Tuba œ œ^ j œ¨ œ œ^ ? b 2 j n œ j œ j ‰ Œ j J œ b bbb 4 j œ j œ œ j œ œ j œ œ œ œ œ > œ ƒ pesante 7 ^ ¨ ^ ^ ? b b œ. #œ . œ #œ nœ nœ b b b jbœ J œbœ #œ #œ œ nœ nœ œ subiton œ #œ nœ bœ œ stacc. œ > p > >

Example13 6.1 Vasiliev’s 24 Melodius Etudes for Tuba, Etude 12, measures 13-25 ? b b bbb ! ! ! Vasiliev’s etude book was not the first method written for tuba in Russia, but it 16 fulfilled? a needb for tuba specific! repertoire to study! in the music conservatories.! It is not b bbb

162 Ibid.,19 13. 163 Currently, the Mariinsky Opera Orchestra employs five tubists! ? bb b ! 120 ! ! b b

22 ? b b b b b ! ! !

25 ? b b b b b ! !

© noted the extent of Vasiliev’s teaching or if these etudes were written for a specific purpose. However, Vasiliev gave an insight to the study of tuba in Russia revealed though Blazhevich’s Textbook for Tuba in B-Flat.

Vladislav Blazhevich, consulted Vasiliev (his teacher) to add helpful information his students who played tuba. Vasiliev gave a brief history of the tuba and mentions the use of the contrabass tuba with four valves, but also the use of helicons in military bands.

The most important roll [sic] of the contrabass tuba in orchestras today is to supply a thick timbre in the lower register. This makes it possible for the composer to blend the tuba with the trombones. Often the composer uses the contrabass tuba for basic notes in the chords. When the tuba plays, it adds a new orchestral color—new sound effects not known before. Often the contrabass tuba plays an independent part from all other instruments. This happens most often in the music of Wagner, Strauss, Stravinsky, and Mahler.164

The addition of the tuba color, like in Tchaikovsky’s 1812 Overture (Example

3.15) is representative of this effect. It also shows that composers such as Prokofiev and

Shostakovich were apparent of this effect and scored effectively. Vasiliev mentioned

Germanic composers because their music was still performed and studied in Russia. This text was written prior to Prokofiev writing Alexander Nevsky and other works that featured the tuba as an independent part.

Vasiliev mentions the importance of the fourth valve and using the correct fingerings. He even includes fingering suggestions for the solo in Wagner’s Eine Faust

Overture. In addition to correct fingerings, he mentions moving tuning slides for lower notes in slow passages. He gives pedagogical advice for the high range, the importance of practicing intervals, and also mentions the range of tubas pitched in CC and F is also as

164 Vassili Vasiliev, quoted in Vladislav Blazhevich Textbook for Tuba in B-Flat, Translated by Elkhonon Yoffe. Reprint. (Troy: MI; Encore Music Publishers, 1990), vii. 121 wide as the BB-flat tuba. Vasiliev further discussed the importance of developing controlled breathing along with purchasing the highest quality instrument to help with conserving the lungs of the player. He also mentioned the importance of a great attack to the notes to avoid sounding like an amateur. In regards to equipment, he states, “the mouthpiece should not be too big. It should, however, be bigger than that of the trombone both in diameter, depth, and aperture.”165

This view into the study and performance of tuba in Russia gives valuable insight to the study of tuba in Russia. He does not mention the specific sound or concepts to get that. His statement on mouthpiece usage can give a further insight. To state the mouthpiece should be bigger than one of a trombone suggests some players were using small mouthpieces. A mouthpiece can change the timbre of the instrument, and the use of a small mouthpiece can give the tuba a different sound quality. A smaller mouthpiece would also give the performer more control of their air and help efficiency.

Vasiliev’s two sons also played tuba with their father in the Bolshoi. His influence in Blazhevich’s Textbook for Tuba in B-Flat has had a great impact on the study of tuba in Russia.

Vladislav Blazhevich.

Vladislav Blazhevich, born in 1881, is a familiar name among low brass musicians because of the numerous etude books and concertos he composed. In 1893, he attended the 3rd Artillery Brigade in Smolensk, where he received an education in music.

165 Ibid., vii. 122

He became a civilian musician in Moscow and performed with the Grenadier Regiment.

He then entered the National Conservatory of Music in Moscow and studied trombone with Christopher Bork. Following graduation, he joined the Bolshoi Opera Orchestra. In

1920, he was invited to teach trombone and tuba at the National Conservatory in

Moscow, a position he held until his death in 1942.166

At the time of his appointment to the National Conservatory, the amount of pedagogicalresources available for study was scarce, and solo literature was equally limited. Blazhevich’s earlier works were geared towards trombones, which he wrote five methods for: The School for Slide Trombone, Etudes for Trombone, Concert Duets for

Two Trombones, School for the Development of Legato Playing, and Sequences: Twenty-

Six Melodic Studies in Varied Rhythms and Clefs for Trombone. These methods have a similar layout, presenting several etudes in the majority of key signatures. Most are tonal and follow expected harmonic progressions. These works have been edited over the years, such as editing the School for Slide Trombone as an exercise for clef study.167

Blazhevich provided a wide variety of exercises to help develop several aspects of trombone playing. His School for Slide Trombone has one hundred twelve studies with piano accompaniment in various key signatures.168 The School for Slide Trombone was arranged for tuba by Blazhevich, however he reduced the studies to 70. Though most are the same, some have been rearranged to fit the tuba better, shown in Example 6.2.

166 Ibid., 13-14. 167 James Sparrow, “The Brass Repertory of Vladislav Mikhailovich Blazhevich” (DMA Thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1999), 7. 168 Ibid., 16 123

Moderato School for œ œ œ œ . œ ˙. Slide Trombone ? # 7 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ 47 4 œ œ œ

70 Studies for Tuba ? # 7 j 12 4 œ œ œ œ j œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙

5 Tbn. œ œ œ ? # œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Tuba ? # œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ#œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ

Example 6.2 Etude Differences between Blazhevich’s School for Slide Trombone and 70 Studies for 8Tuba, measures 1-7. Tbn. ? # ! ! The majority of the other changes between the tuba and trombone editions include the Tuba changing of? octaves# or articulation,! showing Blazhevich’s evolving view! of the music and scoring specifically for tuba. 10 Tbn.Following? # the composition! of his 70 Studies !for Tuba, Blazhevich wrote! his Textbook for Tuba. He wrote seventy etudes in two parts: the first part contains Tuba ? # introductory exercises and scales! , while the second part! contains forty advanced! etudes.

He begins the book discussing how to practice to strengthen the embouchure with a focus on the attack of notes in all ranges and dynamics. “After the mentioned samples you must

© learn the fourth sample which is to develop the attack. The attack is sometimes wrongly called ‘the hit of the tongue.’169 The Textbook for Tuba in B-Flat further gives insight to the style of teaching in Russia. The 70 Studies for Tuba has become a standard book of

169 Blazhevich Textbook, vi. 124 study for tubists across the world. The Textbook for Tuba in B-Flat was not mass published like its counterpart. Encore Music Publishers obtained a copy from Abe

Torchinsky, former principal tubist for the Philadelphia orchestra. Since the book was not well known, it was not widely purchased. Due to changes in copyright agreements and the GATT treaty, it is no longer available in the United States. Though it was not readily available outside of Russia, it fulfilled a long time need for etudes designed for a tubist.

Blazhevich wrote thirteen concertos for trombone. Sparrow mentions that the

Concerto No. 11 was intended for tuba, though this has since been disproven. “In spite of some misconceptions present in the United States, Concerto No. 11 was written for the trombone and not for the tuba, as some research suggests. The common practice for tubists in Russia to transpose and play Blazhevich’s concertos down an octave inherently caused to draw this conclusion, as a solo part handwritten down an octave was reviewed.”170 Kharlamov states that though there were no specific solo literature for tuba at the time of composition, tubists arranged works intended for other instruments so they were playable on tuba.

Blazhevich taught at the National Conservatory of Music until 1942. His works for low brass have influenced brass players of many generations. His influence through his teaching has had an impact on numerous players, and is a cornerstone of the Russian

School of Tuba.

170 Andrey Kharlamov, “Blazhevich: The History of Selected Works,” Jay Friedman. http://www.jayfriedman.net/articles/blazhevich_-_the_history_of_selected_works (accessed November 1, 2015). 125

The Formation of the Russian Tuba School and Alexei Lebedev

Vladimir Matchekho was the tubist for the USSR National Orchestra, a position he held from 1943 to 1985. He followed Antonov and Pozdniakov in the position (no information available on these tubists). Matcheko was originally trained on tenor horn and baritone in the Proletarian Division Band in Moscow, but later studied tuba at the

Gnessin Academy of Music. He studied with Nikitine, a trombonist for the Bolshoi opera orchestra, Blazhevich, and Chtcherbinine (a student of Blazhevich). Matchekho was an active performer and has been considered during his lifetime as the anthology of the tuba in Russia.171

Alexei Lebedev was born in 1924. He originally studied piano at a young age. He fought in World War II and was injured. His experiences in the military helped fascinate his interest in wind bands. He began to study tuba, and his injuries led to a discharge, which allowed him to attend the National Conservatory of Music in Moscow, where he studied with Chtcherbinine. Lebedev graduated in 1949, and his successes there led the

National Conservatory to create its own seperate tuba class, and Lebedev was asked to teach it. The following year, Lebedev won the tuba position with the Bolshoi orchestra, a position he held until 1966. Lebedev taught at the National Conservatory until his death in 1993, teaching numerous successful students.172

In addition to his teaching, Lebedev is known and respected for his solo compositions. He composed two concertos for tuba, and his Concert Allegro while still a student at the National Conservatory of Music. This piece is best known as Concerto in

171 Levashkin, 5. 172 Ibid., 17-18 126

One Movement in the United States, and was arranged edited by Allen Ostrander.

Allegro non troppo

Tuba ? 4 œ œ. j œ œ j 4 œ œ #œ œ nœ. œ P 4 & 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Piano œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ #œ bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ p ? 4 4 œ Œ œ Œ œ Œ œ Œ œ œ œ œ

3 bœ Tuba ? œ œ œ œ bœ- œ- nœ œ j œ œ bœ #œ œ 3 p bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ bœ ‰ & œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ b œ œ œ œ nœ œ Pno. bœ œ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ # œ œ j ? Œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ œ ˙ œ bœ œ. #œ œ ˙ bœ œ.

Example 6.3 Lebedev’s Concerto No. 1, measures 6-9.

Ostrander changed several things in the concerto including deleting measures, changing rhythms, phrase markings, and note so it would be playable on bass trombone. The examples that will be discussed are from Lebedev’s revised 1980 edition.173 His Concerto

No. 1 is lyrical in nature, shown in Example 6.3.© Lebedev used the lyrical approach to the

173 This edition has been said to be the original edition of the work with an added orchestral accompaniment. 127 tuba, similar to the writing style of Prokofiev. Though the overall style is lyrical, the technical sections give a glimpse of abilities of Lebedev during the composition of this work. Example 6.4 shows the dexterity required of the tubist. Ostrander’s edition changes the sixteenth note triplets to two sixteenth notes, making it easier to play on the bass trombone. Since Lebedev originally wrote this as a student, it is suggested that he wrote it

Allegro 3 3 Tuba ? 4 œ ! œ ! œ œ œ #œ œ #œ œ ‰ œ œ 4 œ œ œ œ J œ œ œ. œ œ. ƒ > . . > > œ. . > > ˙ j œ œ ˙ œ. œ 4 ‰ œ #œ œ œ œ ‰ œ ˙ œ. œ & 4 œ #œ œ œ œ œ ˙ œ. Piano œ. œ ƒ J œ œ œ œ > ? 4 ‰ œ #œ œ œ œ˙ œ Œ ˙. #œ œ ˙ ˙. ˙. 3 3 3 ˙ 3 3 3 Tuba > > > > > > . œ. œ ? ‰ œ#œ œ ‰ œ œ œ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ. œ Œ Ó œ . œ . œ . 3 . œ œ œ . . 3 œ. . œ. . œ. . . . . 3 ˙ j ˙ j . ˙ œ. œ ˙ œ. œ œ ˙ œ. ˙ œ. #œ ˙. & ˙ œ. œ ˙ œ. œ #œ ˙ Pno. œ. œ œ. œ dim. ˙. > J > J ? Œ ˙. Œ ˙. œ #˙ œ ˙. ˙. œ #˙ œ ˙. ˙.

Example 6.4 Lebedev’s Concerto No. 1, measures© 53-57.

for his own performance at the conservatory. Since Lebedev was asked to teach tuba following his graduation, his talent and abilities had to have impressed the faculty at the conservatory. Since very few works for tuba were written at this time, Lebedev wrote one that showed off his playing abilities and to be able to teach to future students. Some passagse requires the tubist to use a technique called triple tonguing, something that was

128 not generally expected from tubists at the time of composition. The cadenza opening, shown in Example 6.5, shows the range of which Lebedev was capable of playing. The

Blazhevich Textbook for Tuba in B-Flat mentions high range excerpts such as

Mendelssohn’s Midsummers Night Dream Overture being difficult due to the entrances on the note e’. Lebedev shows the expected control by scoring the cadenza to that note.

Lebedev also showed his knowledge of his instrument in the Presto section by making

Cadenza œ U Tuba U œ œ ^ ^ j j œ œ. œ ? 4 j jœ œ ‰ œ#œ#œ œ#œ#œ J 4 œ œ. œ œ œ œ œ œ#œ. œ ƒ œ 5 œ œ œ œ œ. œ œ ? nœ œ œ œ œ œ. œ #œ #œ . œ J J nœ J Presto 8 œ bœ ? nœ œ œ ‰ #œ#œ œ œ #œ #œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ bœ œ œ œ œ ƒ

Example 6.5 Lebedev’s Concerto No. 1 Cadenza.

10 using just the fingerings 2 and open on the BB-flat tuba. ? ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Lebedev’s Concert Allegro is composed in a similar style as the Concerto No. 1:

20 lyrical in style with some technical passages, along with the same roughly the same ? ! ! ! range, but there is no cadenza. He also composed Three Pieces for Unaccompanied Tuba, published23 in 1975. His Concerto No. 1 and Concert Allegro were both composed prior to the Concerto? for Bass! Tuba by English composer! Ralph Vaughan-Williams.! The

26 129 ? ! ! !

© Vaughan-William Concerto for Bass Tuba, written in 1954, was long considered the first concerto for tuba, however Lebedev’s works were written several years prior.

Lebedev’s Concerto No. 2 was published in 1997 after his death. Though it has lyrical sections, it is more rhythmic and pesante in nature, includes mixed meter passages, and an extended range of consisting of a BB-flat to a f’, presented in the final measure of the work. This piece, though somewhat different in style, is more difficult in terms of phrasing and overall technique. This shows the advancement of tuba technique under the influence of Lebedev.

The three major works of Lebedev published by Hofmeister are all scored with the ability to be performed on the bass trombone. There is no record that Lebedev also scoredthese for bass trombone. It is a probability that Ostrander’s edition led Hofmeister to also include the instrument for marketing purposes. Since the bass trombone does not have an enormous repertoire, the ability to play Lebedev’s music is considered effective marketing for the piece. The two concerti are also scored for tuba and orchestra. In the

United States, performances of the work with orchestra are uncommon. It is not known if

Lebedev originally scored his Concerto No. 1 for orchestra, or if he did as part of the

1980 edition.

Lebedev also wrote other small works for tuba that are infrequently performed due to their limited outside of the Soviet Union. There are some works, including a book of thirty etudes for tuba composed in 1981,which are authored by an I. Lebedev. There is no first name given to know if it is a typo, or refers to another composer with the last name Lebedev who composed works for tuba. The works of I. Lebedev are associated

130 with the Tchaikovsky Conservatory in the dedications.174 Many of these etudes focus on accuracy of large intervals and technique development. The range of these etudes is large, with some etudes having a low range of a BB-flat to notes above the staff. Hofmeister also publishes a set of moderately easy etudes by Alexei Lebedev. Though it is possible that Alexei wrote two sets of etudes, more information is needed on the works titled I.

Lebedev.

Alexei Lebedev’s tenure at the P. I. Tchaikovsky Conservatory of Music

(National Conservatory in Moscow) produced over fifty tuba students and an ample amount of work for the tuba. Lebedev helped pave the way for tuba study in the conservatories of Russia.

Other Tubists in the Russian School of Tuba

Nikolai Kouivanen was a student of Zintchenko, and performed in the Leningrad

Philharmonic and taught at the St. Petersburg Conservatory from 1938-1970. Valentin

Galouzine replaced Kouivanen tuba at the St. Petersburg Conservatory of Music (now named the Rimsky-Korsakov St. Petersburg Conservatory) from 1974 to 2004. Levashkin speaks highly of the remarkable traditions of tuba playing at that school. Following

Galouzine was his student Valentin Avvakumov, a winner of international competitions and currently principal tubist in the St. Petersburg Philharmonic Orchestra.175

174 Alexei Lebedev taught at the Tchaikovsky Conservatory, which gives reason to associate these works with him. 175 Levashkin, Pictures, 16. 131

The Gnessin Academy of Music did not have a tuba professor till 1973. Tuba students were taught by Boris Grigoriev. Grigoriev was a trombonist, but wrote a book of fifty etudes for tuba. This book was later published by Robert King and included seventy- eight studies, including transposed etudes for other instruments. Encore Music released a new edition of the original fifty etudes. Grigoriev’s etudes are not as technically challenging as the ones of Blazhevich, but are good for students wishing to develop the technique and skills required for the more advanced books. Grigoriev trained many tubists, including Levashkin. Grigoriev’s student, Vladimir Dossadin succeeded him at

Gnessin in 1973. The current tuba instructors at Gnessin are Alexander Kazachenkov (a student of Lebedev) and Musin Talgatovich.176

Following the passing of Alexei Lebedev, Yuri Larin became professor at the

Moscow Tchaikovsky Conservatory of Music. Larin was a student of Lebedev. There have been many names mentioned of tubists in Russia, however little information is known on them, nor their teaching styles or much biographical information. One of my goals is to provide information in future publications about many of these performers and teachers as I conduct further research in the area.

Outside of Moscow and St. Petersburg, there were other major centers of musical study in the Soviet Union, such as Kiev and Lvov. There was no history available at the time of this writing, also giving options for further research.

176 Gnessin Academy of Music, “Brass Department,” Gnessin Academy of Music, http://www.gnesin- academy.ru/node/10379 (accessed November 1, 2015). 132

Chapter 7: Contemporary Trends for the Tuba in Russia

Much of the information regarding the study of tuba in Russia was not previously available due to restrictions empowered by the leaders of the Soviet Union. In the 1980s, glasnost and perestroika opened the doors for research. The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 ended socialist rule in Russia, which opened trade and travel opportunities.

However, at the time of this writing, there is a still lack of research on the tuba in Russia.

Through the use of the Internet, Youtube, and social media, other doors have been opened to the performance and study of tuba in Russia.

The teaching at the conservatories in Russia has produced a high level of talent, leading to prominent composers writing solos for the instrument. In addition to original music being written by Russian composers, students at the conservatories study and perform works by American and German composers.

Though there are jobs in Russia for tubists, most are orchestral. Though some tubists play solos, Levashkin states that performing tuba solos is in formative stages and not recognized on the professional level.177 Levashkin also mentions that

Until recently (1997), the principal instruments used by our tuba players were made in the St. Petersburg music instrument factory. In recent years, instruments from a variety of international firms such as Mirafone, King, Hirsbrunner, B&S and others. As a result of tradition and financial difficulties, we have used only BB-flat tubas for instruction and performance. Previously in sacred orchestras, E-

177 Levashkin and Umiarov, “Something of the Life of the Tuba in Russia,” in T.U.B.A. 24 (Summer 1997): 40. 133

flat tubas were often used but these are rarely used now. I know of one symphony that uses an F tuba, and they use it only in specific instances for parts such as “Bydlo.178

Since Levashkin’s 1997 article, more performers are using German style F tubas, mainly for solo repertoire. The influxes of F tubas also are a result of increased trade after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and several players studying in German conservatories.

Pavel Umiarov, a professional tubist in Russia and winner of several solo competitions, mentions that though solos for tuba are not as widely popular, some musicians know of the musical potential of them. Umiarov also mentions that when he competed in Markneukirchen competition, he was faced criticism from other tubists about his performance on the BB-flat tuba. He also states that in terms of solo playing, he performs transcriptions of sonatas by Baroque composers, Blazhevich’s trombone concertos, transcriptions of Rachmaninov’s cello concertos, Strukov’s Concerto for Tuba, contemporary works for tuba by European and American composers, and arrangements of opera arias.179 His wide range of repertoire shows his talent as a soloist, though his primary focus is orchestral performing.

Valeri Strukov180

Valeri Strukov was born in Belarus in 1937. Shortly after his birth, he moved to

Moscow, and studied at the Gnessin Academy of Music under Gutman and Khachaturian.

He also worked on numerous film productions and was an actor in Russia and

178 Ibid., 40. 179 Ibid., 40-41. 180 His name is spelled as Valery Strukow in German spelling, where his works are published. 134

Germany.181 As a composer, he wrote for several unique instrument combinations: a tuba quartet; a duo concerto for bass trombone, tuba, and string orchestra; a Scherzo for piccolo trumpet, tuba, and piano; a tuba concerto; and several shorter pieces for tuba and piano.

Strukov’s Concerto for Tuba and Orchestra was composed in 1980 and requires the tubist to have a great control of their range, including notes ranging from DD–a’. In addition to the range requirements, the tubist is required to have a high level of technical proficiency. An example of this can be seen in Example 7.1, showing the control needed in the high range while playing a technically difficult passage. The second movement

Allegro moderato >œ œ > > bœ bœ œ œ œ œ œ >œ œ > > œ œ Tuba bœ bœ œ œ bœ œ > > œ œ nœ œ ? 4 Ó œ bœ bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ 4 œ œ bœ bœ f 4 Œ Ó ? & 4 œ bœ œ œ #œ nœ Piano bœ œ œ bœ bœ œ œ œ œ F ? 4 w b˙ 4 w #˙ b ˙ bw ˙ b˙

3 > > bœ bœ œ œ nœ œ œ #>œ œ > nœ bœ nœ œ œ >œ œ >œ bœ œ n>œ nœ œ >œ œ œ Tuba bœbœ œ œ œ ? Ó œ bœbœ œ œ œ œ bœ bœ 3 ...... ? œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. œ. bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Pno.

? w w w bw

Example 7.1 Strukov’s Concerto for Tuba, movement 1, measures 23-26 (piano reduction) ©

181 “Valery Strukow, ” http://valery-strukow.de/ (accessed November 1, 2015). 135 is lyrical in nature, and the third movement of his concerto requires similar technical virtuosity and high range.

It is not known why he wrote several works for tuba in a solo and chamber setting. His music, though challenging, shows the flexibility of tuba as a solo instrument.

Strukov mentions it is written for a CC or F tuba, but gives several alternate passages and marks passages with the option of performing down an octave if played on a BB-flat tuba. Though the passage is high in the tessitura for a CC tuba, the piece fits well on F tuba. It is not mentioned why he wrote it for the CC tuba, since the predominant contrabass tuba in Russia and Germany was the BB-flat tuba at the time of composition.

This also shows his knowledge of the workings of the instruments and the difficulties of performing in the extreme high range on a BB-flat tuba, however some of the intervals between the optional parts have places that a major second apart.

Sofia Gubaidulina

Sofia Gubaidulina is one of the most prominent Russian composers in the latter half of the twentieth century. She was born in 1931 and studied in the Kazan

Conservatory. After graduating from the Kazan Conservatory, she attended the Moscow

Conservatory. She has worked in experimental electronic music, and currently lives in

Germany. Her works are influenced from philosophy, religion, and poetry. She uses texts from other languages and cultures and often uses extended techniques in her music.182

182 Valentina Kholopova, “Sofiya Asgatovna Gubaydulina,” in Grove Music Online. Oxford Mic Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.ohio- state.edu/subscriber/article_citations/grove/music/11911 (accessed November 3, 2015). 136

Her Lamento, scored for tuba and piano, was written in 1977 for a music anthology published in Moscow. She intended it as a study piece and not meant for performance. As more tubists discovered this work, she had the work published in

1991.183 184 A large amount of this work is scored without the piano, though some of the sections where the pianist is tacet, they are instructed to hold the pedal down, creating a unique sound due to the tuba’s resonance. She also uses a technique, shown in Example

7.2, where the tubist performs repeated notes in a written rhythmic accelerando and ritardando. Though a lyrical theme is presented, I believe her piece represents a deep philosophical representing of lamenting. The piece is united by the lamenting theme shown in Example 7.3. In addition to the sadness this theme presents, other parts

76 poco accel. q= Tuba ? 3 œ #œ #œ œ n˙ b˙ nœ ˙. ˙. 4 œ œ œ bœ bœ nœ f ƒ 8 Tempo I . ? œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ >œ bœ 2 bœ bœ œ J ‰ Œ Œ Œ 3 4espress. ß ƒ accel. 12 3 3 ? bœ bœ bœ bœ 43 3 dim. bœ bœ œ bœ bœ bœ bœ bœ P Example 7.2 Gubaidulina’s Lamento rehearsal 15-measure 6 of rehearsal 16 16 183 Stephanie Frye, “Compositions for Tuba by Women Composers: A CD Recording and Commissioned Works”? (doctoral! dissertation,! ! University! of Wisconsin,! ! 2013),! 15-16. ! ! ! ! ! 184 This information in Stephanie Frye’s dissertation was confirmed by Hans-Ulrich Duffek, director of Sikorski Musikverlage about the history of the piece. Her discussion about its lack of an extramusical was not included28 in e-mails. 137 ? ! ! ! ! !

©

represent agitation, fear, confusion, anger, and uneasiness, feelings that are often occur

concurrently with lamenting.

Tuba ? 3 Œ Œ 4 ˙. ˙. ˙ œ œ b˙ œ ˙ œ p F 6 œ 3 ! Œ Œ œ ˙. ˙. ˙. Œ œ & 4 œ ˙. ˙. ˙. œbœœ 5 bœ Piano p œ bœ œ œ bœ F F ? 43 Œ Œ Œ Œ I œ ˙. ˙. ˙. ˙ ˙ . ˙ b˙ œ ˙ ˙. ˙.

Example 7.3 Gubaidulina’s Lamento, rehearsal 4-5

7 Gubaidulina has scored the tuba in several of her larger orchestral works, but uses

Tuba it in sections? ! with the! trombones! in !most occasions.! !Though! she never! meant! Lamento! for

performance,7 her scoring of the tuba for this solo shows not only the color she wishes to

get for& the emotions,! ! but also! shows! the flexibility! of! the tuba’s! sound! to express! a wide! Pno. array of emotions. ? ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

Alexander Arutiunian

Alexander Arutiunian was born in Armenia in 1920 and studied composition at

the Komitas Conservatory in Yerevan, and received further studies at the Moscow

Conservatory of Music. Armenia was under the rule of the Soviet Union for the majority

138© of Arutiunian’s life. He composed music to show the melodic style of Armenia and the rhythmic energy presented in the traditional music there. His music shows many elements of the Classical and Romantic periods, including use of melodic sequences.185

Arutiunian is best known for his Trumpet Concerto and his Armenian Scenes for brass quintet. In addition to these works he wrote a Concerto for Tuba and Orchestra in

1992. The Concerto for Tuba was commissioned by the Yamaha Corporation and

Editions BIM, and is dedicated to tuba soloist Roger Bobo. The melodic style of the piece includes many modal and chromatic melodies, representative of Armenian melodies. In addition to that, the rhythmic energy presented in musical sequences and technical passages are representative of his style. In Example 7.4, the chromaticism shown helps give an Armenian feel to the piece. The range of B-flat to g’, with most of the passages in higher tessituras, suggest the use of F tuba, though the BB-flat tuba is the predominate tuba in Armenia. Roger Bobo, the dedicatee of the piece, performed a large amount of solo literature on F tuba, so his influence on this had an influence on Arutiunian’s compositional style.

185 Svetlana Sarkisyan. "Aleksandr Grigori Arutiunian." Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. Oxford University Press, 2015,http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.proxy.lib.ohio- state.edu/subscriber/article/grove/music/12490 (accessed November 1, 2015).

139

Allegro ma non troppo q = 142 œ œ Tuba 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ? bb 4 œ œ œ œ œ œ J ‰ Œ Ó F P . . . . . b 4 j j j #œ. œ. nœ œ #œœ œœ nœ & b 4 Œ œ ‰ œ ‰ œ ‰ ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ Piano œ. œ. œ. j P ? b 4 Œ œ œ ‰ œ b 4 ‰ œ ‰ & ‰ #œ œ nœ œ #œœ œœ nœ œ. œ. . œ. œ......

3 œ >œ Tuba #œ nœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ ? bb ‰ #œ nœ œ œ œ J ‰ Œ Ó ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ 3 f F . . j b #>œ . œ. nœ. œ. bœ œ œ. & b œ ‰ Œ Ó ‰ œ œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Œ Ó J œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Pno. > f f P...... œ œ nœ œ bœ œ œ >œ bb j‰ Œ Ó ? ‰ J ‰ Œ Ó & #œ >

6 > bœ Tuba œ œbœbœ œ œ œ œ œ bœ bœ œ œ œ œ œ œ ? bb J ‰ Œ Ó œ J ‰ Œ J ‰ Œ

6 . . . . b bœ. œ. nœ. œ. bœ œ œ. b>œ œ. œ. œ. bb>œ œ œ œ. & b ‰b œ œ œ œ œ œ œ b œ ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ œ bœ ‰ Œ ‰ œ œ œ Pno. J J F bœ. œ. nœ. œ. bœ. œ. œ. b>œ œ. œ. œ. bb>œ œ. œ. œ. ? œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ bb ‰ J ‰ Œ ‰ J ‰ Œ ‰

Example 7.4 Arutiunian’s Concerto for Tuba movement 3, measures 9-16 (piano reduction)

140

Other Contemporary Uses of the Tuba

In addition to the growing amount of solo repertoire written by Russian composers, there is a growth of other mediums of music using the tuba in Russia.

Students Gnessin Academy of Music has formed a professional brass quintet186. Many tubists such as Norwegian soloist Øystein Baadsvik and professional brass quintets, have performed in Russia. In 2011, a tuba workshop in Russia occurred featuring many professional performers from Russia.

In addition to the classical options, other tubists are finding alternative ways to perform on the tuba. Stas Cheremushkin, for example, plays Dixieland style music in various venues. There are also several amateur tubists that play in a wide variety of ensembles.

186 Levashkin and Umiarov, 40-41. 141

Conclusions

Russia has had an important impact on the development and use of the tuba in a variety of settings, such as significant solos in orchestral literature, brass quintets, and solo works composed for tuba. Though composers from other countries and regions have scored significant parts for the tuba and ophicleide, Russian composers have used the color of the tuba separate from that of the trombones.

The relatively late invention of the tuba and addition to the orchestra coincided with the development of the Russian symphony and opera. The late orchestral development in Russia combined the relative seclusion of Russia for many years from the other parts of Europe, created an environment to use the tuba as a unique instrument. The use of several keys of tubas, along with the suggested use of the E-flat tuba in the late nineteenth century, posed limitations on compositions for the tuba, as notes in

Scheherazade. Composers were also cognizant of the abilities and limitations of the tuba, in addition to the technical capabilities and scored accordingly

The overthrow of Tsarist Russia by the Bolsheviks led to an increased amount of production and standardization of instruments. This standardization of instrument production and the gravitation towards larger instruments allowed composers to

142 effectively score for the instrument, and also showed a great increase in the use of the low range, especially notated in the works of Prokofiev.

Standardizations of instrument production and the growth of the conservatories of

Russia led to several important pedagogical works, many of which are still used today throughout the world. In addition to the pedagogical works, the need of repertoire to be performed on recitals led to some of the earliest solo works for tuba.

With restrictions imposed by the Soviet Union, the amount of information available on the use of tuba was not available. Through the efforts of Alexei Levashkin, information to the history of tuba performance and pedagogy in Russia was made available. Though Levashkin’s work provided valuable information, there are still lots of information to gather on the history of the tuba in Russia. Globalization and the increased ease of communication have allowed more of this information to be shared and further research on the topic.

143

Works Consulted

Books, Articles, and Dissertations

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Berlioz, Hector. Grande traité d’instrumentation et orchestration moderns, op.10, 1843. Translated Mary Cowden Clark. 1843/1854. Reprint. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Bevan, Clifford. The Tuba Family. 2nd. ed. Winchester: Piccolo Press, 2000.

Bevan, Clifford. “Cimbasso Research and Performance Practice: An Update.” On Perspectives in Brass Scholarship: Proceedings of the International Historic Brass Symposium, Amherst, 1995, ed. Stewart Carter, 289-299. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press 1995.

Brandon, Steven.. “The Tuba: Its Use in Selected Orchestral Compositions of Stravinsky, Prokofiev, and Shostakovich.” DMA Dissertation, The Catholic University of America, 1974.

Brown, David. Mikhail Glinka: A Biographical and Critical Study. London: Oxford University Press, 1974.

Chumov, Leonid. “History of Russian Brass Ensembles.” International Trumpet Guild Journal 19:1 (September, 1994), 23-42.

Couch, Roy L. “Comparison and Contrast of Performance Practice of the Tuba in Igor Stravinsky’s The Rite of Spring, Dmitri Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 5, and

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Sergei Prokofiev’s Symphony No. 5 in B Flat Major, Op. 100.” DMA Dissertation, The University of North Texas, 2006.

Fairclough, Pauline and David Fanning, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Shostakovich. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.

Frye, Stephanie. “Compositions for Tuba by Women Composers: A CD Recording and Commissioned Works.” DMA Dissertation., University of Wisconsin, 2013.

Glinka, Mikhail Ivanovich. Memoirs. Translated by Richard B. Mudge. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963.

Herbert, Trevor and John Wallace, eds. The Cambridge Companion to Brass Instruments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1997.

Levashkin, Alexei. Pictures from Tuba History in Russia. Revised edition. Unpublished, 2014. Used with Permission. (Originally titled A Short History of the Tuba in Russia, in the 1999 Brass Bulletin).

Levashkin, Alexei and Pavel Umiarov. “Something of the Life of the Tuba in Russia.” T.U.B.A. 24 (Summer 1997): 40-41.

Maes, Francis. A History of Russian Music from Kamarinskaya to Babi Yar. Translated by Arnold J. Pomerans and Erica Pomerans. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006.

Mason, J. Kent. The Tuba Handbook. Toronto: Sonante Publications, 1977.

Montagu-Nathan, M. Glinka. New York: Duffield, 1917.

Morrison, Simon. The People’s Artist: Prokofiev’s Soviet Years. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2009.

Ottaway, Hugh. Shostakovich Symphonies. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1978.

Phillips, Harvey and William Winkle. The Art of Tuba and Euphonium. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard Music, 1992.

Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai. My Musical Life. Translated by Judah Joffe, Edited by Carl van Vechten. London: Faber and Faber, 1942.

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Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai. Principles of Orchestration, With Musical Examples Drawn from His Own Works. Translated by Edward Agate, Edited by Maximilian Steinberg. New York: Dover Publications, 1964.

Rostropovich, Mstislav. “Foreword” in A Schnittke Reader, edited by Alexander Ivashkin, translated by John Goodliffe, vii-x. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2002.

Smith, André. “Brass in Early Russia: From the Beginnings to the Birth of Victor Ewald, 1860.,” International Trumpet Guild Journal (December 1993): 5-20.

Smith, André. “The History of the Four Quintets by Victor Ewald. International Trumpet Guild Journal (May 1994): 5-33.

Smith, André. “Victor Vladimirovich Ewald (1860-1935): Civil Engineer & Musician,” International Trumpet Guild Journal (February 1994): 5-23.

Sparrow, James. “The Brass Repertory of Vladislav Mikhailovich Blazhevich.” DMA thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1999.

Stauffer, Donald. A Treatise on the Tuba. Birmingham: Stauffer Press, 1989.

Sulimova, Natalia. The Horn Orchestra of Russia. Pamplet. Moscow: The Horn Orchestra of Russia, 2009.

Tarr, Edward H. East Meets West: The Russian Trumpet Tradition from the Time of Peter the Great to the October Revolution, with a Lexicon of Trumpeters Active in Russia from the Seventeenth Century to the Twentieth. Hillsdale, NY: Pendragon Press, 2003.

Volkov, Solomon, ed. Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitri Shostakovich. Translated by Antonina Bouis. New York: Limelight Editions, 1995.

Scores

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Balakirev, Mily. Russia: Symphonic Poem. Moscow: Muzyka, [n.d.].

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Blazhevich, Vladislav. 70 Studies for BB Flat Tuba. Edited by Robert King in two volumes. North Easton, MA: Robert King Publishers, [n.d.].

Blazhevich, Vladislav. Textbook for Tuba in B-Flat. Translated by Elkhonon Yoffe. 1939. Reprint, Troy, MI.: Encore Music Publishers, 1990.

Blazhevich, Vladislav. School for Trombone. Moscow: Muzgiz, 1925.

Borodin, Alexander. Overture to the Opera Prince Igor. Completed and edited by Alexander Glazunov. London: Ernst Eulenburg, Ltd., [n.d.].

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Ewald, Victor. Quintet in B-flat minor, op. 5. Leipzig: Belaieff, 1912.

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Glinka, Mikhail. Ispanckaia uvertiura no 1: Blectiashchee na temu aragonckoi khoty. Edited by B. I. Shebalin. Moscow: Gocudarctvennoe muzikal’noe Izdatel’ctvo, 1956.

Glinka, Mikhail. Ivan Susanin. Edited by VL. Protoprov. Moscow: Izdatel’ctvo muzyka, 1965.

Grigoriev, Boris. 78 Studies for Tuba, edited by Robert King. North Easton, MA: Robert King Music, 1983.

Gubaidulina, Sofia. Lamento for Tuba and Piano. Hamburg: Musikverlag Hans Sikorski, 1991.

Lebedev, Alexei. Concerto in One Movement, edited by Allen Ostrander. New York: Edition Musicus, 1960.

Lebedev, Alexei. Concert Allegro for Tuba and Piano. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister Musikverlag, 1997.

Lebedev, Alexei. Concerto No. 1 for Tuba or Bass Trombone, revised version. Leipzig: Friedrich Hofmeister Musikverlag, 1995.

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Appendix A: Writings About the Ophicleide and Tuba in Orchestration Treatises

Berlioz’s A Treatise Upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration187 188

The Bass Ophicleide:

Ophicleides are the altos and basses of the bugle. The bass ophicleide offers great resources for maintaining the low part of masses of harmony; and it is also the most used. It is written on the F clef; and its compass is three octaves and one note. In the hands of a skillful artist, the major and minor shakes are possible on this part of its scale; as proved by M. Caussinus in the excellent work which he has just published. Formally the low F# [F# on the range indicator] could only be done in an incomplete way with the lips; this note essentially lacked correctness and steadiness; but M. Caussinus added to the instrument a key which rendered it as good as others. Passages of a certain rapidity, diatonic, and even chromatic, are practicable in the upper three octaves of the ophicleide; but are excessively difficult below, where they moreover produce no other than a detestable effect. Staccato passages are much less easy, nay, almost impossible, in a quick movement. There are bass ophicleides in two keys, in C and in B-flat; and there are some even made at present in A-flat. These latter will be of great utility, on account of the extreme depth of their lower notes, which form a unison with the three-string double- basses. The ophicleide in B-flat has already rendered eminent service in this respect. They are each of them written, transposing, like all transposing instruments…It is a pity that the ophicleide in A-flat should be so little adopted. The quality of these low sounds is rude; but it does wonders—in certain cases— beneath masses of brass instruments. The very high notes have a wild character, of which perhaps sufficient advantages has not been made. The medium—especially when the player is not very skillful,—too much recalls the sound of the cathedral serpent or cornet à bouquin. I think it should rarely be allowed to be heard much displayed. There is nothing more coarse—I might almost say, more monstrous,--or less fit to harmonize with the rest of the orchestra, than those passages, more or less rapid, written in the form of

187 Hector Berlioz. Grande Traité d’instrumentation et orchestrations moderns, op. 10, 1843. Translated by Mary Cowden Clark. (1843/1854; repr., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 174-176.Used with Permission. 188 The scales and musical notation incipits, along with paragraphs discussing the incipits, will be omitted. 151 solos for the ophicleide medium in some modern operas. It is as if a bull, escaped from its stall, had come to play off its vagaries in the middle of a drawing room.

The Bass-Tuba (the Double-Bass of Harmony)

It is a species of bombardon, the mechanism of which has been improved by M. Wibrecht (sic), master of the King of Prussia’s military bands.189 The bass-tuba,—much used at present in the North of Germany, particularly at Berlin—possesses an immense advantage over all the other low wind instruments. Its quality of tone, incomparably more noble than that of ophicleides, bombardons, and serpents, has something of the vibration of the timbre of trombones. It has less agility than the ophicleide; but its sonority is more powerful than theirs, and its low compass is the largest existing in the orchestra. Its tube gives—like that of a bombardon—the notes of the chord of F; nevertheless, Adolphe Sax now makes bass-tubas in E-flat. Notwithstanding this difference they are all treated, in Germany, as non-transposing instruments. The bass-tuba has five cylinders, and its compass is four octaves. For some years past these instruments have been used in France, where they are written for, like horns and trumpets, as transposing instruments. The bass-tuba can produce some few notes higher and even lower than above, by the aid of the cylinder mechanism. Those which are extremely high are very dangerous; while those extremely low are scarcely to be heard; the C, the B-flat, and the A, which I have just marked in the scale, are only to be distinguished by doubling them in the octave above with another bass-tuba, which both be imparts to them and acquires them from additional sonority. It must be well understood that this instrument is not better adapted than the bombardon to shakes and rapid passages. It can play certain measured melodies. An idea can hardly be formed of the effect produced in grand military harmonies by a mass of bass-tubas. It has at once something of the trombone and of the organ.

Rimsky-Korsakov’s Principles of Orchestration190

Tuba: Thick and rough in quality, less characteristic than the trombone, but valuable for the strength and beauty of its low notes. Like the double bass and double bassoon, the tuba is eminently useful for doubling, an octave lower, the bass of the group to which it belongs. Thanks to its valves, the tuba is fairly flexible.

189 A bombardon is a type of valved instrument that plays in the bass register. Before the invention of the bass-tuba, valved bass instruments were called bombardons. 190 Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. Principles of Orchestration, With Musical Examples Drawn from His Own Works. Translated by Edward Agate, Edited by Maximilian Steinberg. (New York: Dover Publications, 1964), 24. 152

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