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Cerebrovascular Resuscitation After Polytrauma and Fluid Restriction

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Cerebrovascular Resuscitation After Polytrauma and Fluid Restriction Cerebrovascular Resuscitation after Polytrauma and Fluid Restriction Steven A Earle, MD,MarcAdeMoya,MD, Jennifer E Zuccarelli, BA, Michael D Norenberg, MD, Kenneth G Proctor, MD, PhD BACKGROUND: There are few reproducible models of blast injury, so it is difficult to evaluate new or existing therapies. We developed a clinically relevant polytrauma model to test the hypothesis that cerebrovascular resuscitation is optimized when intravenous fluid is restricted. STUDY DESIGN: Anesthetized swine (42 Ϯ 5 kg, n ϭ 35) received blasts to the head and bilateral chests with captive bolt ϭ guns, followed by hypoventilation (4 breaths/min; FiO2 0.21). After 30 minutes, resuscitation was divided into phases to simulate typical prehospital, emergency room, and ICU care. For 30 to 45 minutes, group 1, the control group (n ϭ 5), received 1L of normal saline (NS). For 45 to 120 minutes, additional NS was titrated to mean arterial pressure (MAP) Ͼ 60 mmHg. After 120 minutes, mannitol (1g/kg) and phenylephrine were administered to manage cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) Ͼ 70 mmHg, plus addi- tional NS was given to maintain central venous pressure (CVP) Ͼ 12 mmHg. In group 2 (n ϭ 5), MAP and CPP targets were the same, but the CVP target was Ͼ 8 mmHg. Group 3 (n ϭ 5) received1LofNS followed only by CPP management. Group 4 (n ϭ 5) received Hextend (Abbott Laboratories), instead of NS, to the same MAP and CPP targets as group 2. RESULTS: Polytrauma caused 13 deaths in the 35 animals. In survivors, at 30 minutes, MAP was 60 Ͼ Ͻ to 65 mmHg, heart rate was 100 beats/min, PaO2 was 50 mmHg, and lactate was Ͼ 5 mmol/L. In two experiments, no fluid or pressor was administered; the tachycardia and hypotension persisted. The first liter of intravenous fluid partially corrected these variables, and also partially corrected mixed venous O2, gastric and portal venous O2, cardiac output, renal blood flow, and urine output. Additional NS (total of 36 Ϯ 1 mL/kg/h and 17 Ϯ 6 mL/kg/h, in groups 1 and 2, respectively) correlated with increased intracranial pressure to 38 Ϯ 4 mmHg (group 1) and 26 Ϯ 4 mmHg (group 2) versus 22 Ϯ 4 mmHg in group 3 (who received 5 Ϯ 1 mL/kg/h). CPP was maintained only after mannitol and phenylephrine. By 5 hours, Ͼ Ϯ brain tissue PO2 was 20 mmHg in groups 1 and 2, but only 6 1 mmHg in group 3. In contrast, minimal Hextend (6 Ϯ 3 mL/kg/h) was needed; the corrections in MAP and CPP were immediate and sustained, intracranial pressure was lower (14 Ϯ 2 mmHg), and brain Ͼ tissue PO2 was 20 mmHg. Neuropathologic changes were consistent with traumatic brain injury, but there were no statistically significant differences between groups. CONCLUSIONS: After polytrauma and resuscitation to standard MAP and CPP targets with mannitol and pressor therapy, we concluded that intracranial hypertension was attenuated and brain oxygenation was maintained with intravenous fluid restriction; cerebrovascular resuscitation was optimized with Hextend versus NS; and longer term studies are needed to determine neuropathologic consequences. (J Am Coll Surg 2007;204:261–275. © 2007 by the American College of Surgeons) Almost every day, for as long as the wars in Iraq and fer polytrauma, maiming, or death from improvised ex- Afghanistan continue, our soldiers and marines will suf- plosive devices (IED). In fact, the majority of combat Competing Interests Declared: None. Received October 13, 2006; Revised November 16, 2006; Accepted Novem- Supported by grant N000140210339, from the Office of Naval Research. ber 16, 2006. Abstract presented at the American College of Surgeons 92nd Annual Clinical From the Dewitt-Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, Divisions of Traumaand Congress, Surgical Forum, Chicago, IL, October 2006. Surgical Critical Care (Earle, de Moya, Zuccarelli, Proctor) and the Department of Dr de Moya’s current address is: Massachusetts General Hospital, Division of Pathology (Norenberg), University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL. Trauma, Emergency Surgery, and Surgical Critical Care, 165 Cambridge St, Correspondence address: Kenneth G Proctor, PhD, Divisions ofTraumaand Surgical Suite 810, Boston, MA 02114. Critical Care, Daughtry Family Department of Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Ryder Trauma Center, 1800 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL 33136. © 2007 by the American College of Surgeons ISSN 1072-7515/07/$32.00 Published by Elsevier Inc. 261 doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2006.11.014 262 Earle et al Cerebrovascular Resuscitation after Polytrauma J Am Coll Surg tion has devastating neurologic consequences after Abbreviations and Acronyms blast-induced neurotrauma. BIS EEG ϭ bispectral electroencephalogram ϭ CPP cerebral perfusion pressure METHODS CVP ϭ central venous pressure ICP ϭ intracranial pressure Animals were housed in a facility approved by the Amer- IED ϭ improvised explosive device ican Association of Laboratory Animal Care, with veter- ϭ IVF intravenous fluid inarians available at all times. All procedures were per- MAP ϭ mean arterial pressure NS ϭ normal saline formed according to National Institutes of Health TBI ϭ traumatic brain injury Guidelines for Use of Laboratory Animals and were preap- proved by our Institutional Animal Care and Use Com- mittee. Animals were anesthetized in all surgical inter- casualties are now caused by IEDs.1 The recent upsurge ventions, and all efforts were made to minimize the in urban terrorist bombings2-6 suggests that blast injury number of animals involved and to alleviate their pain will become a disturbing reality at both military and and distress. civilian trauma centers in the 21st century.7 General instrumentation There are few reproducible animal models of blast Farm-raised crossbred fasted swine of both genders injury.8 Most existing models for resuscitation research (42 Ϯ 2 kg, n ϭ 35) were sedated with an intramuscu- are inadequate because there is minimal (if any) soft lar injection of 30 mg/kg ketamine and 3.5 mg/kg tissue injury; trauma is usually equated with hemor- xylazine. The animals underwent orotracheal intubation rhagic shock, and resuscitation is based on blood volume and mechanical ventilation (Impact Portable Adult Ven- loss in a controlled laboratory setting. In contrast, blast tilator Model 754, Impact Systems), with tidal vol- victims can have multiple soft-tissue injuries, with or umes ϭ 10 mL/kg and 8 to 16 breaths/min to maintain without active hemorrhage, and resuscitation is directed PaCO ϭ 40 Ϯ 5 mmHg. The FiO was 0.4 except 9,10 2 2 at restoring blood pressure rather than blood volume. where otherwise noted. Anesthesia was initiated with Associated compartment syndromes can confound com- continuous intravenous infusions of 10 mg/kg/h ket- pensatory responses. With no valid models, it is difficult amine, 0.5 mg/kg/h xylazine, and 50 g/kg/h fentanyl. to evaluate new or existing therapies, and it is virtually Pulse oximetry (Nellcor Pulse Oximeter) was continu- impossible to develop specific evidence-based guidelines ously monitored. for treatment. With the animal in the supine position, catheters Recent data from Walter Reed Army Hospital suggest were placed in the femoral artery for continuous ar- that occult traumatic brain injury (TBI) is common in terial blood pressure monitoring (Zoll Hemodynamic many soldiers exposed to blast, even when there are no Monitor) and in the external jugular vein for IVF obvious external signs or loss of consciousness.10-12 Blast administration. Additional catheters were placed in overpressure might also produce lung injuries that re- the urinary bladder to measure urine output, in the semble pulmonary contusion.9,10 The resultant hypox- pulmonary artery to measure mixed venous pulmo- emia can potentiate secondary damage after TBI.13,14 nary artery oxygen saturation, pulmonary artery pres- One goal of this study was to develop a clinically relevant sures, and cardiac output, and in the portal vein to model of blast-induced polytrauma. measure oxygen saturation (Abbott Critical Care Sys- The other major goal of this study was to test the tems, Abbott Laboratories). Gastric tissue oxygen sat- hypothesis that resuscitation after polytrauma is opti- uration was measured by suturing a surface probe mized with IV fluid (IVF) restriction. Cerebrovascular (InSpectra Tissue Spectrometer, Hutchinson Tech- resuscitation in a combat environment can be com- nologies Inc) to the outer surface of the anterior gas- plicated by a lack of basic monitoring capability, lim- tric wall. Laser Doppler blood flow probes were su- ited resources, and prolonged evacuation.15-17 On one tured to the inferior pole of the kidney and to the hand, the ability to achieve adequate resuscitation outer surface of the anterior wall of the stomach to with minimal IVF offers considerable logistic advan- measure microcirculatory blood flow (BPM 402, tages for the military. On the other hand, IVF restric- Vasamedics). Vol. 204, No. 2, February 2007 Earle et al Cerebrovascular Resuscitation after Polytrauma 263 The animal was then rotated into the prone posi- that would mimic the apnea that might accompany TBI tion for the remainder of the experiment. Brain tissue in real life. PO2 and intracranial pressure (ICP) were continu- ously monitored through an intraparenchymal oxy- Resuscitation and treatment groups gen electrode and fiber optic pressure transducer The remainder of the experiment was divided into (LICOX MCB Oxygen Monitor, Integra Neuro- phases that were intended to simulate the types of sciences) that was placed through a small left frontal medical care that would occur in the prehospital craniotomy. In addition, leads were placed so that a phase or during emergency medical transport (30 to bispectral electroencephalogram (BIS EEG) was contin- 45 minutes postinjury; 0 to 15 minutes of first aid), uously recorded (Model A-1050 monitor, Aspect Med- emergency room (ER, 45 to 120 minutes postinjury; ical Systems).
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