TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 3 Chapter 1:

What are the history, Terrestrial status, and projected future of terrestrial wildlife habitat types and Ecosystems species in the South?

Margaret Katherine Trani (Griep) Southern Region, USDA Forest Service

■ Since presettlement, there have insect infestation, advanced age, Key Findings been significant losses of community climatic processes, and distur- biodiversity in the South (Noss and bance influence mast yields. ■ There are 132 terrestrial vertebrate others 1995). Fourteen communities ■ The ranges of many species species that are considered to be are critically endangered (greater cross both public and private of conservation concern in the South than 98-percent decline), 25 are land ownerships. The numbers of by State Natural Heritage agencies. endangered (85- to 98-percent imperiled and endangered species Of the species that warrant conser- decline), and 11 are threatened inhabiting private land indicate its vation focus, 3 percent are classed (70- to 84-percent decline). Common critical importance for conservation. factors contributing to the loss of as critically imperiled, 3 percent ■ The significance of land owner- as imperiled, and 6 percent as these communities include urban development, fire suppression, ship in the South for the provision vulnerable. Eighty-six percent of species habitat cannot be of terrestrial vertebrate species exotic species invasion, and recreational activity. overstated. Each major landowner are designated as relatively secure. has an important role to play in ■ The remaining 2 percent are either The term “fragmentation” the conservation of species and known or presumed to be extinct, references the insularization of their habitats. or have questionable status. habitat on a landscape. The change ■ Species of conservation concern in arrangement of remaining habitats are dominated by amphibians and can be accompanied by a loss of Introduction reptiles. Fifty-four amphibians, habitat area. Habitat fragmentation 40 reptiles, 20 birds, and 18 can result in the decline of interior- The South has an impressive mammals are classed as imperiled. dwelling birds; the decline of some diversity of terrestrial communities ■ Increasing population trends are large, wide-ranging species; and and species associations. These reported for wild turkey, white-tailed the loss of other specialized species. communities range from mountain deer, and black bear. Populations Habitat fragmentation affects the spruce-fir forests to tropical hardwoods, of northern bobwhite quail, gray fox, patch, connectivity, and edge and from coastal dunes to prairies. and red squirrels have declined for characteristics of a landscape. Centuries of settlement and land use several years. There have also ■ Connectivity within a landscape change have brought a number of been declines in mourning dove may facilitate movement and threats and pressures. The majority and American woodcock populations. fecundity for some species, while of the landscape has been modified Cottontail rabbit and ruffed grouse the size and shape of landscape considerably, resulting in the populations have demonstrated patches influences the integrity disappearance, degradation, and cyclical patterns. Among the of both biotic and abiotic processes. endangerment of native communities. migratory game birds, record Edge characteristics also have This chapter assesses the historical harvests of ducks and geese have important implications for and present status of terrestrial species occurred in recent years. the persistence of an array across the South. It is organized into ■ Groups of nongame birds with of terrestrial species with very six major sections: more than 50 percent of their species different habitat requirements. 1. An overview of southern historical showing significant declining trends ■ The availability of hard conditions affecting terrestrial include grassland-nesting birds and soft mast can influence vertebrate species. (70 percent), ground-nesting birds some terrestrial vertebrate 2. A review of populations, harvests, (57 percent), and shrubland-nesting species. Mast is an essential and the conservation status of species birds (53 percent). component in the diet of many occurring in the South. birds and mammals. Disease, TERRESTRIAL

4 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

3. A review of selected sensitive passenger pigeon is assigned the GX universities throughout the South communities in the region and the ranking because there is no question were contacted to obtain additional common threats to these communities. about its extinction. For a considerable information. The results from this 4. An overview of vertebrate species number of species that have not been effort were combined with additional that consume hard and soft mast. This observed in many years, however, information obtained from several section also lists several mast-producing there remains some hope of rediscovery. plant and animal field guides. A list of species that occur in the South. That, for example, is the case for mast-producing species was compiled Bachman’s warbler. These species using vegetation guides; terrestrial 5. An evaluation of the significance of were assigned the status of GH. vertebrate species that include mast public and other land for maintaining as a component of their diet were species and their habitats. Information on game and furbearer abundance was obtained from the extracted from wildlife field guides. 6. A review of the literature on Renewable Resources Planning Act fragmentation and its influence on (RPA) Wildlife Report (Flather and Results landscapes and the species supported others 1999). The RPA is a periodic by those landscapes. assessment of natural resources on Several species are included that, the Nation’s forests and rangelands. Historical Conditions at one stage or another of their lives, The RPA data on game populations The presettlement landscape of return to land to reproduce or spend originated from State agencies using the South was quite diverse: forests a part of their lives there. The focus questionnaires developed by the of different ages were interspersed is on vertebrates because information USDA Forest Service and the Natural with expansive savannas, dense on the regional biogeography of many Resources Conservation Service. cane thickets, barrens, and swamps. terrestrial invertebrate groups is Data from the RPA assessments are Disturbance was a major influence on lacking (Echternacht and Harris 1993). taken from various State and Federal the composition of southern forests, Scientific names are provided in the agencies. Population projections of creating forest openings and resetting chapter tables; therefore, common harvested animals are based on surveys succession (Lorimer 2001). Forests names will be used in the text. (Note: of experts from State wildlife agencies. were dynamic; natural succession Additional information on the status Information on rare and threatened progressed with shade-tolerant plants and habitat relationships of vertebrate communities was based on the replacing pioneer species. Periodic resources across the South is provided comprehensive reviews conducted flooding and associated sedimentation in chapters 5 and 23, which include by Grossman and others (1994), influenced the distribution and discussions of threatened and Noss and others (1995), White and composition of local areas. endangered species.) others (1998), and Walker (2001). Frequent thunderstorms provided Information on the acreage and a source of natural fires, resulting Methods and distribution of Federal land was in a landscape of mixed species Data Sources obtained from the National Parks composition. Lightning fires burned index (U.S. Department of the Interior unabated (Williams 1989). Fire 2000a), the Lands Report from the Fish frequency and intensity were dominant Data on the conservation status and Wildlife Service (U.S. Department forces (refer to chapter 25). Fire was of terrestrial vertebrate species were of Interior 2000b), and the Lands important for the persistence of many compiled from State Natural Heritage Area Report of the USDA Forest Service communities including pine forests, agencies using NatureServe (2000). (U. S. Department of Agriculture, oak-hickory forests, savannas, barrens, The Natural Heritage database is Forest Service 2000c). Agency reports and prairies (Trani and others 2001). an inventory of known occurrences also were compiled for national parks Native Americans, through use of for species of conservation concern, (U.S. Department of the Interior, Park including federally listed species. Stein fire and crop cultivation (Buckner Service 2000) and national refuges 1989, Delcourt and Delcourt 1987), and others (2000) list multiple criteria (U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish used by Natural Heritage for assessing further modified the composition and and Wildlife Service 2000), providing open character of the forest. Fires were conservation status: occurrence property descriptions and species lists. (number of distinct populations or frequently set to create openings for subpopulations); condition (viability Statewide timberland ownership crops and to drive game for harvest. of extant populations); population size; data were obtained from the Forest The effects of native inhabitation area of occupied habitat; short- and Inventory and Analysis Research on southern forests were extensive long-term population trends; known Work Unit (FIA) of the Southern (refer to chapter 24). or suspected threats; susceptibility Research Station (U.S. Department Wildlife of the presettlement South to intrinsic biological factors; and of Agriculture, Forest Service 2000a). was quite impressive. Dickson (2001) the number of protected occurrences. For each State, the acres in both describes large herds of bison and This methodology provides the basis public and private ownership elk roaming throughout the prairies for conservation status designations categories were analyzed. and savannas of the region. White- that indicate the degree of imperilment. A literature search was conducted tailed deer and wild turkey also were Species known to be extinct (GX), for information on fragmentation, numerous. Large carnivores (black or possibly extinct (GH), are recorded rare communities, historical conditions, bear, cougar, red wolf, and bobcat) independently. For example, the and species habitat relationships. were abundant, and a diversity of In addition, research stations and successional seres supported a variety TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 5 of prey populations. Other mammals The southern landscape changed The loss of bottomland forest in included mink, muskrat, river otter, dramatically with the advent of the Mississippi Alluvial Valley affected beaver, gray fox, red fox, spotted European settlers. Settlement resulted waterfowl and other species that skunk, long-tailed weasel, bats, in the extensive clearing of forest and were displaced into adjacent areas. and numerous small mammals. conversion of the land to pasture or Harvests of the passenger pigeon Birds present in today’s forests also cropland (DeGraaf and Miller 1996). and the Carolina parakeet for market were likely present during presettle- These lands were often managed with led to their demise in the early 1900s ment (Dickson 2001). Raptors such fire, which was also used to maintain (table 1.1). Market hunting, the as the Mississippi kite, bald eagle, savannas and other open areas in the domestication of land, and the harvest osprey, red-shouldered hawk, and East (Williams 1989). In particular, of mature forests without regeneration barred owl were likely occupants fire was used to create favorable led to the extirpation of some species of historic bottomland forests. The grazing conditions for domestic in various Southern States (table 1.2). Swainson’s and Bachman’s warblers animals (Healy 1985). (Note: It is possible that some species inhabited cane thickets, while the By 1819, all land was claimed east were extirpated because their range is yellow-breasted chat and indigo of the Mississippi River (Dickson on the periphery of the region. Their bunting populated young forests. 2001). Natural resources were treated loss may be related to random effects Cavity-nesting birds such as red- as if they were inexhaustible. Forests associated with low populations at headed woodpeckers, American were cut with little thought for forest the edges of their ranges.) kestrels, and great crested flycatchers regeneration, and soils were seriously During the 1930s and 1940s, were abundant in the old-growth depleted through erosion and excessive the States recognized the dire status forests of eastern Texas (Truett cropping. Wildlife species and their of wildlife populations and initiated and Lay 1984). The ivory-billed habitats were likewise exploited efforts to address the problem. woodpecker thrived in oak-gum without concern for their persistence. The Duck Stamp Act (1934), the forests, foraging on snags for insects. The decline in abundance of wildlife Pittman-Robertson Act (1937), that occurred during the last half of and the Dingle-Johnson Act (1950) Early records of reptiles and th amphibians are limited, but these the 19 century remains unparalleled apportioned funds to States for records make frequent reference in the history of the South. wildlife restoration projects, habitat to rattlesnakes and alligators (Dickson Deer populations nationwide acquisition, and research. 2001). Historic forest habitats appear plummeted to fewer than a million These efforts came too late for to have supported viable, diverse animals by 1900 (Dickson 2001). some species (table 1.1). The ivory- populations of herpetofauna (Gibbons Bison and elk disappeared from the billed woodpecker foraged in mature and Buhlman 2001). region. The wild turkey disappeared bottomland hardwoods along the Extensive inundated bottomland from several States within its range. Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Its diet forests supported habitat for millions The wood duck was drastically reduced consisted of wood-boring insect of wood ducks and mallards by indiscriminate harvest. Populations larvae occurring in dead and dying (Heitmeyer 2001). Wood ducks of large carnivores, regarded as threats trees. Overhunting and intensive commonly nested in the cavities to livestock and people, were deci- harvesting of virgin hardwood forests of abundant old-growth forests. mated, and viable populations of black between the 1880s and 1920s led Hooded mergansers, green-winged bear and cougar were relegated to the decline of this species (U.S. teal, gadwall, and American widgeon to relatively remote areas. Department of the Interior 1973). also frequented flooded bottoms.

Table 1.1—Terrestrial vertebrate species classified as presumed or possibly extinct in the South

Scientific name Common name Former areas of occurrence

Presumed extinct Conuropsis carolinensis Carolina parakeet AL, AR, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA Ectopistes migratorius Passenger pigeon AL, AR, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA Monachus tropicalis West Indian monk seal FL Possibly extinct Campephilus principalis Ivory-billed woodpecker AL, AR, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX Eurycea troglodytes Valdina farms sinkhole salamander TX Plethodon ainsworthi A plethodontid salamander MS Vermivora bachmanii Bachman’s warbler AL, MS, OK, SC, TN, VA

Source: NatureServe 2000. TERRESTRIAL

6 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Table 1.2—Vertebrate species extirpated from selected States within the South

Scientific name Common name Former areas of occurrence

Mammals Rodents Erethizon dorsatum Common porcupine NC, VA Microtus ochrogaster Prairie vole LA Carnivores Canis lupus Gray wolf AR, GA, KY, NC, OK, TN, TX, VA Canus rufus Red wolf AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, OK, TX, VA Leopardus pardalis Ocelot AR, LA Leopardus wiedii Margay TX Martes pennanti Fisher NC, TN Mustela nigripes Black-footed ferret OK Panthera onca Jaguar; otorongo LA Puma concolor Mountain lion AL Ursus arctos Grizzly or brown bear OK, TX Other mammals Bos bison American bison AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, VA Cervus elaphus Wapiti or elk AL, AR, GA, KY, LA, NC, OK, SC, TN, VA Lepus americanus Snowshoe hare NC Birds Wading birds Grus americana Whooping crane AR, FL, KY Waterfowl Cygnus buccinator Trumpeter swan KY, LA Shorebirds Bartramia longicauda Upland sandpiper TN Numenus borealis Eskimo curlew OK, SC Perching birds Corvus corax Common raven AL Other birds Anhinga anhinga Anhinga KY Centrocercus urophasianus Sage grouse KS, OK Geotrygon chrysia Key West quail-dove FL Tympanuchus cupido Greater prairie chicken AR, KY, LA, TN Tympanuchus phasianellus Sharp-tailed grouse OK, TX Zenaida aurita Zenaida dove FL Reptiles Snakes Masticophis flagellum Coachwhip KY

Source: NatureServe 2000.

Bachman’s warbler, last observed in collecting for the millinery trade may The major factor in its extermination the 1960s, once inhabited Arkansas, also have contributed to the decline. was over-hunting, principally for Kentucky, Alabama, South Carolina, The Valdina Farms salamander was blubber (to make oil) and for meat. Louisiana, and Missouri. The extensive endemic to Texas. The amphibian The seal’s inherent tameness increased clearing of bamboo and canebrake occurred in isolated, intermittent pools. its vulnerability to slaughter. habitat for agriculture along the It is now extinct due to flooding of The last four decades of the 20th Mississippi River and West Gulf Coastal its only known habitat. Populations century brought legislation that Plains bottoms degraded the wintering of the West Indian monk seal, which furthered species conservation efforts, and breeding habitat for this species originally inhabited the Florida coast, including the Wilderness Act (1964), (Ehrlich and others 1992). Excessive were decimated during the 19th century. the Endangered Species Act (1966, TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 7

1969, and 1973), the National rediscovered); G1 [critically imperiled vertebrate species are designated as Environmental Policy Act (1970), the globally because of extreme rarity relatively secure by Natural Heritage. Marine Mammal Protection Act (1971), (observations include 5 or fewer Figure 1.2 shows species ranked and the National Forest Management locations or fewer than 1,000 animals)] as presumed or possibly extinct, Act (1976). Through these and several or because some factor of its biology critically imperiled, imperiled, or other conservation efforts, conditions makes it vulnerable to extinction]; vulnerable among the four major for many species have improved across G2 [imperiled globally because of vertebrate taxa. Collectively, these the South (Dickson 2001). However, rarity (observations reflect 6 to 20 species represent animals with the loss and modification of unique locations or 1,000 to 3,000 animals)] elevated risks of extinction or forest communities continues to affect or because of other factors making of conservation concern. populations of other species. The it vulnerable to extinction]; G3 remainder of this chapter examines [vulnerable globally because of rarity The proportion of species at risk these influences, presenting the trends throughout its range (observations varies greatly among taxonomic for a diversity of southern species. include 21 to 100 locations or 3,000 groups. Forty-one percent of imperiled to 10,000 animals) or because it is species are amphibians, followed Status and Trends of found locally in a restricted area]; by reptiles (30 percent), birds (15 G4 (apparently secure globally, percent), and mammals (14 percent). Terrestrial Vertebrate With the exception of mammals, Species although the species may be rare in parts of its range, especially at the the number of species at risk within Conservation status ranks for periphery; usually more than 100 each taxonomic group is not southern species—The databases occurrences and 10,000 individuals); proportionate with their respective of the State Natural Heritage agencies and G5 (secure globally: observations richness in the region. For example, were used to derive a regional species are common and widespread). amphibian species comprise only list of global (G) conservation ranks. 14 percent of the terrestrial vertebrates The G ranks reflect a species’ rarity Figure 1.1 shows the proportion occurring in the South, yet they throughout its range. For example, of vertebrate taxa in each of the comprise 41 percent of the imperiled a species holding the G conservation conservation ranking categories. species list. Conversely, bird species ranking of G1 in Virginia also carries One hundred thirty-two species are comprise 48 percent of southern the same rank elsewhere in the Nation. considered to be of conservation terrestrial vertebrates, but only concern. Among terrestrial vertebrates, 15 percent of the imperiled species. These ranks are: GX (presumed 28 species are classified as critically extinct: intensive search has not located Refer to chapter 5 for additional imperiled, 37 species as imperiled, data on regional species richness. additional populations); GH (possibly and 67 species as vulnerable. Eighty- extinct: historically known and may be six percent of southern terrestrial

Presumed/possibly extinct (GX/GH) Secure/apparently Critically imperiled (G1) secure 86% Imperiled (G2) Vulnerable (G3)

Reptiles Presumed possibly extinct 1% Mammals

Critically Amphibians imperiled 3%

Birds Imperiled 3% Other 1% 0102030405060 Vulnerable 6% Number of species

Figure 1.1—Proportion of southern terrestrial vertebrate species at risk. The Other category includes species that have not been ranked or have Figure 1.2—Number of terrestrial vertebrate species at risk questionable status (NatureServe 2000). delineated by major taxa in the South (NatureServe 2000). TERRESTRIAL

8 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Table 1.3—Amphibian species within the South with global rankings of G1, G2, and G3

Scientific name Common name Areas of occurrence

Frogs and toads G1 Bufo houstonensis Houston toad TX G2 Rana okaloosae Florida bog frog FL G3 Rana capito Gopher frog AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TN Salamanders G1 Desmognathus sp.1 Waterrock knob salamander NC Eurycea latitans Cascade caverns salamander TX Eurycea nana San Marcos salamander TX Eurycea neotenes Texas salamander TX Eurycea rathbuni Texas blind salamander TX Eurycea robusta Blanco blind salamander TX Eurycea sosorum Barton Springs salamander TX Eurycea sp. 1 Jollyville Plateau salamander TX Eurycea sp. 2 Salado Springs salamander TX Eurycea sp. 4 Buttercup Creek caves salamander TX Eurycea sp. 5 Georgetown salamander TX Eurycea sp. 6 Pedernales River spring salamander TX Eurycea sp. 7 Edwards Plateau spring salamander TX Eurycea sp. 8 Comal Springs salamander TX Eurycea tridentifera Comal Blind salamander TX Plethodon petraeus Pigeon Mountain salamander GA Plethodon shenandoah Shenandoah salamander VA Notophthalmus meridionalis Black-spotted newt TX G2 Ambystoma cingulatum Flatwoods salamander AL, FL, GA, SC Desmognathus carolinensis Carolina mountain dusky salamander NC, TN Desmognathus ocoee Ocoee salamander AL, GA, NC, SC, TN Desmognathus orestes Blue Ridge dusky salamander NC, VA Eurycea pterophila Blanco River Springs salamander TX Gyrinophilus palleucus Tennessee cave salamander AL, GA, TN Haideotriton wallacei Georgia blind salamander FL, GA Phaeognathus hubrichti Red hills salamander AL Plethodon aureolus Tellico salamander NC, TN Plethodon caddoensis Caddo Mountain salamander AR Plethodon fourchensis Fourche Mountain salamander AR Plethodon hubrichti Peaks of Otter salamander VA Plethodon ouachitae Rich Mountain salamander AR,OK Plethodon virginia Shenandoah mountain salamander VA Necturus alabamensis Black warrior waterdog AL Notophthalmus perstriatus Striped newt FL, GA Siren sp. 1 Lesser siren (Rio Grande population) TX G3 Amphiuma pholeter One-toed amphiuma AL, FL, GA, MS Aneides aeneus Green salamander AL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN, VA Desmognathus aeneus Seepage salamander AL, GA, NC, SC, TN Desmognathus apalachicolae Apalachicola dusky salamander AL, FL, GA Desmognathus brimleyorum Ouachita dusky salamander AR, OK Desmognathus imitator Imitator salamander NC, TN (continued) TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 9

Table 1.3—Amphibian species within the South with global rankings of G1, G2, and G3 (continued)

Scientific name Common name Areas of occurrence

Salamanders (cont.) G3 (cont.) Desmognathus santeetlah Santeetlah dusky salamander NC, TN Desmognathus wrighti Pigmy salamander NC, TN, VA Eurycea junaluska Junaluska salamander NC, TN Eurycea sp. 9 Sandhills salamander NC Eurycea tynerensis Oklahoma salamander AR, OK Plethodon punctatus White-spotted salamander VA Plethodon teyahalee Southern Appalachian salamander GA, NC, TN Plethodon websteri Webster’s salamander AL, GA, LA, MS, SC Plethodon welleri Weller’s salamander NC, TN, VA Necturus lewisi Neuse River waterdog NC

G1 = critically imperiled; G2 = imperiled; G3 = vulnerable. Source: NatureServe 2000.

The conservation status of individual Mammalian subtaxa with global projected population for States species are presented in tables 1.3, 1.4, rankings of concern include 5 bats, that provided population estimates 1.5, and 1.6. Several of these species are 8 rodents, 3 carnivores, and 2 others. (Flather and others 1999). discussed in further detail in chapters 5 Bats are represented by the Indiana Population and harvest trends and 23, including the factors bat, Rafinesque’s big-eared bat, for southern species: big game influencing imperilment and species southeastern myotis, and several species—Big game species are habitat relationships. Species that are other species. Additional mammals primarily large mammals taken federally listed as threatened or include the Allegheny wood rat, for sport or subsistence. Because of endangered are discussed in chapter 5. red wolf, and swift fox. State agency convention, the wild Fifty-four amphibian species Population and harvest trends turkey also is included. The species are of conservation concern (table for southern species—The regional comprising big game were the first 1.3). Salamanders dominate with 51 population and harvest trends to stimulate widespread public listings; frogs and toads have 3 listings. presented in this section, unless interest in wildlife conservation. Examples include the Houston toad, otherwise stated, originated from For this reason, historical information gopher frog, flatwoods salamander, the RPA (Flather and others 1999). about game species is extensive for Ocoee salamander, green salamander, The RPA represented the best source several States. and several species in the Plethodon, of quantitative data on regional trends Wild turkey populations have Desmognathus, and Eurycea genera. for multiple species at the time of consistently increased since 1975 Forty reptile species are imperiled this Assessment. Information was (fig. 1.3). Five States project that turkey or vulnerable (table 1.4). Reptile collected from cooperating State populations will decline over the next subgroups with global rankings of wildlife agencies. Population estimates four decades (Flather and others 1999). were summed across those States concern include turtles (19), lizards For States reporting on white-tailed (10), snakes (9), and others (2). that provided data. (The list of States that provided population estimates deer, populations have increased Oceanic and map turtles dominate approximately fourfold since 1975 this list. Other reptiles of conservation is available at the Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO.) (fig. 1.4). There is concern among concern include the alligator snapping State personnel that deer may become turtle, bog turtle, gopher tortoise, The absence of data from certain States resulted from variation in the a management problem during the glass lizard, southern hognose snake, next decade. Seven States expect deer and crocodile. distribution of species or the lack of data for certain years. The RPA included numbers to decline slightly over the Twenty avian species are of concern only States that provided estimates next 50 years (Flather and others (table 1.5). Subtaxa include 2 wading for 1975 to 1990 (in 5-year intervals) 1999). (Additional information on deer birds, 3 shorebirds, 6 perching birds, and 1993 in the trend analysis. is provided in chapters 3, 4, and 5.) and 9 others. Several of these species Projections were based on a weighted The trend in black bear numbers is include the whooping crane, piping positive for the four States reporting plover, Bachman’s sparrow, Florida average percentage change from 1993 to the year 2000 and 2045 for States (fig. 1.5). Biologists from these States scrub jay, red-cockaded woodpecker, expect bear populations to decline and lesser prairie chicken. that provided projection estimates. The average percentage change was somewhat over the next few decades Eighteen mammal species are then applied to the 1993 population (Flather and others 1999). (Note: The imperiled or vulnerable (table 1.6). estimate in order to extrapolate a total Florida and Louisiana subspecies of TERRESTRIAL

10 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Table 1.4—Reptile species within the South with global rankings of G1, G2, and G3

Scientific name Common name Areas of occurrence

Tu rtles G1 Lepidochelys kempii Kemp’s or Atlantic ridley AL, FL, GS, LA, MS, NC, TX, VA Pseudemys alabamensis Alabama redbelly turtle AL, FL, MS G2 Sternotherus depressus Flattened musk turtle AL Graptemys barbouri Barbour’s map turtle AL, FL, GA Graptemys ernsti Escambia map turtle AL, FL Graptemys flavimaculata Yellow-blotched map turtle MS Graptemys oculifera Ringed map turtle LA, MS G3 Macroclemys temminckii Alligator snapping turtle AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MO, MS, OK, TN, TX Caretta caretta Loggerhead AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX, VA Chelonia mydas Green turtle AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, SC, TX, VA Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback tinglar AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, TX, VA Kinosternon hirtipes Mexican mud turtle TX Clemmys muhlenbergii Bog turtle GA, NC, SC, TN, VA Gopherus polyphemus Gopher tortoise AL, FL, GA, LA, MS, SC Graptemys caglei Cagle’s map turtle TX Graptemys gibbonsi Pascagoula map turtle LA, MS Graptemys nigrinoda Black-knobbed map turtle AL, MS Trachemys gaigeae Big bend slider TX Lizards G2 Sceloporus arenicolus Sand dune lizard TX Neoseps reynoldsi Sand skink FL G3 Crotaphytus reticulatus Reticulate collared lizard TX Holbrookia lacerata Spot-tailed earless lizard TX Holbrookia propinqua Keeled earless lizard TX Sceloporus woodi Florida scrub lizard FL Coleonyx reticulatus Reticulated gecko TX Cnemidophorus dixoni Gray-checkered whiptail TX Ophisaurus compressus Island glass lizard FL, GA, SC Ophisaurus mimicus Mimic glass lizard AL, FL, GA, MS, NC, SC Snakes G1 Tantilla oolitica Rim Rock crowned snake FL G2 Clonophis kirtlandii Kirtland’s snake KY Heterodon simus Southern hognose snake AL, FL, GA, MS, NC, SC Nerodia harteri Brazos water snake TX Nerodia paucimaculata Concho water snake TX G3 Pituophis ruthveni Louisiana pine snake LA, TX Stilosoma exenuatum Short-tailed snake FL Tantilla atriceps Mexican blackhead snake TX Sistrurus catenatus Massasauga OK, TX Other reptiles G2 Crocodylus acutus American crocodile FL G3 Caiman crocodilus Spectacled caiman FL, GA

G1 = critically imperiled; G2 = imperiled; G3 = vulnerable. Source: NatureServe 2000. TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 11

Table 1.5—Bird species within the South with global rankings of G1, G2, and G3

Scientific name Common name Areas of occurrence

Wading birds G1 Grus Americana Whooping crane AL, GA, LA, OK, TX G3 Phoenicopterus ruber Greater flamingo FL Shorebirds G1 Numenus borealis Eskimo curlew AR, LA, NC, TX G2 Charadrius montanus Mountain plover OK, TX G3 Charadrius melodus Piping plover AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, TN, TX, VA Perching birds G2 Dendroica chrysoparia Golden-cheeked warbler TX Vireo atricapillus Black-capped vireo MS, OK, TX G3 Aimophila aestivalis Bachman’s sparrow AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA Aphelocoma coerulescens Florida scrub jay FL Pipilo alberti Albert’s towhee TX Vermivora crissalis Colima warbler TX Other birds G1 Pterodroma feae Fea’s petrel NC Pterodroma hasitata Black-capped petrel FL, GA, NC, VA G2 Amazona viridigenalis Red-crowned parrot FL, TXa G3 Columba leucocephala White-crowned pigeon FL, TX Pelecanus erythrorhynchos American white pelican AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, TN, TX Picoides borealis Red-cockaded woodpecker AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA Strix occidentalis Spotted owl TXa Thalassarche chlororhynchos Yellow-nosed albatross FL, NC Tympanuchus pallidicinctus Lesser prairie chicken OK, TX

G1 = critically imperiled; G2 = imperiled; G3 = vulnerable. a West Texas. Source: NatureServe 2000.

black bear, of conservation concern as to which species are managed Cottontail rabbit populations declined in the region, are discussed separately as small game. In this chapter, quail, slightly between 1975 and 1980 in chapter 5.) grouse, rabbits, and squirrels are (fig. 1.7), but recovered by 1990. Population and harvest trends considered small game. Few State One State projects that cottontail rabbit for southern species: small game wildlife agencies monitor small populations may decline by 2045 species—Species classified as small game populations; therefore, the (Flather and others 1999). game typically include resident trends reviewed here should be Northern bobwhite quail populations game birds and mammals that are interpreted carefully. have declined from 1975 to the present associated with upland (forest, range, The populations of gray, red, and (fig. 1.8). Among the States reporting or agricultural) habitats. There is some fox squirrels have been declining in trends in bobwhite abundance, variation among State wildlife agencies the South since 1985 (fig. 1.6). populations have declined by nearly TERRESTRIAL

12 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Table 1.6—Mammal species within the South with global rankings of G1, G2, and G3

Scientific name Common name Areas of occurrence

Bats G2 Myotis sodalis Indiana or social myotis AL, AR, KY, NC, OK, SC, TN, VA G3 Corynorhinus rafinesquii Rafinesque’s big-eared bat AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA Myotis austroriparius Southeastern myotis AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, OK, SC, TN, TX, VA Myotis grisescens Gray myotis AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, OK, SC, TN, VA Myotis leibii Eastern small-footed myotis AL, AR, GA, KY, NC, OK, SC, TN, VA Rodents G1 Dipodomys elator Texas kangaroo rat OK, TX G2 Geomys texensis Llano pocket gopher TX G3 Tamias canipes Gray-footed chipmunk TX Geomys arenarius Desert pocket gopher TX Geomys knoxjonesi Jones’ pocket gopher TX Neofiber alleni Round-tailed muskrat FL, GA Neotoma magister Allegheny woodrat AL, KY, NC, TN, VA Podomys floridanus Florida mouse FL Carnivores G1 Canus rufus Red wolf NC, SC, TN G3 Vulpes velox Swift fox OK, TX Panthera onca Jaguar; otorongo TX Other mammals G2 Trichecchus manatus Manatee FL, GA, LA, MS, NC, SC, TX, VA G3 Antilope cervicapra Blackbuck TXa

G1 = critically imperiled; G2 = imperiled; G3 = vulnerable. a Exotic. Source: NatureServe 2000.

50 percent, from 23 million birds State agency projections for most originate from annual reports published in 1975 to 12 million birds in 1993 small game species suggest minor by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Flather and others 1999). Forest changes in future population status. and the North American Waterfowl (ruffed) grouse populations show a Forest grouse are expected to remain Plan (Flather and others 1999). cyclical pattern, but appear to have stable. State biologists forecast Waterfowl trends are traditionally declined since 1985 (fig. 1.9). declines for bobwhite quail, squirrels, tracked by major flyways, which are Bobwhite quail trends from the and cottontails. the migration routes from breeding Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) are Population and harvest trends for to wintering habitat. In the South, consistent with State agency estimates southern species: migratory game the major routes are the Atlantic (Flather and others 1999). BBS data birds—Migratory game birds include and Mississippi flyways (fig. 1.10). suggest that the abundance of this waterfowl, such as ducks and geese, National duck harvests have been species has declined significantly and other migratory species, such recorded since the early 1960s. (P < 0.05) in the South. Bobwhite as mourning doves and woodcock. Over the last 25 years, 41 percent numbers have declined by 2.6 percent The long history of migratory bird of the national harvest was taken in per year from 1966 to 1996, and have management in North America has the Mississippi flyway and 15 percent declined at an even greater rate since resulted in an impressive monitoring from the Atlantic flyway. Both had large 1985 (-5.6 percent per year). system. Population and harvest trends harvests during the 1970s, followed by TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 13

2.4 25

2.0 7 20 1.6 8 5 2 15 2 1 1.2

0.8 10 Population (million) 0.4 Population (million) 5

0 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘93 ‘00 ‘45 0 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘93 ‘00 ‘45 Year Year

Figure 1.3—Population trends of wild turkey in Southern States Figure 1.6—Population trends of red, gray, and fox squirrels that provided estimates and long-term projections [based on in Southern States that provided estimates and long-term State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. projections [based on State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)].

28 10 24 7 8 9 7 20

6 16

12 4

8 2 2 1 Population (million)

2 Population (million) 4

0 0 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘93 ‘00 ‘45 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘93 ‘00 ‘45 Year Year

Figure 1.4—Population trends of deer in Southern States that Figure 1.7—Population trends of cottontail rabbits in Southern provided estimates and long-term projections [based on State States that provided estimates and long-term projections [based wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. on State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)].

25 80

20 60 15 3 2 40 1 10

20 4 5 4 4 Population (million) Population (thousand)

0 0 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘93 ‘00 ‘45 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘93 ‘00 ‘45 Year Year

Figure 1.5—Population trends of black bear in Southern States Figure 1.8—Population trends of northern bobwhite quail that provided estimates and long-term projections [based on in Southern States that provided estimates and long-term State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. projections [based on State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. TERRESTRIAL

14 Southern Forest Resource Assessment 6

5 Figure 1.9—Population trends of forest grouse in Southern States 4 that provided estimates and long- term projections [based on State wildlife agency data (Flather and 3 others 1999)].

2

Population (million) 1 1 1 0 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘93 ‘00 ‘45 Year

Figure 1.10—Trends in duck harvest from 1965 to 1995 by administrative flyway encompassing the South (Flather and others 1999).

substantial declines through much of the 1980s, and substantial harvest Mississippi increases during the 1990s. Duck Atlantic harvests in the Mississippi flyway increased by 260 percent from 1988 to 1995, with a record 6.6 million

7 7 ducks harvested in 1995 (Flather and 6 6 others 1999). 5 5 4 4 Trends in goose abundance were 3 3 derived from surveys conducted 2 2 in migration and wintering areas. Harvest (million) 1 Harvest (million) 1 0 0 Record numbers of geese were ‘65 ‘70 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘95 ‘65 ‘70 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘95 Year Year harvested for three consecutive years starting in 1993 along the Mississippi flyway (fig. 1.11). After reaching a peak harvest of about 550,000 birds in 1983, the goose harvest in the Atlantic flyway declined to nearly 180,000 birds in 1995. Management units are traditionally used by agencies to report population trends of mourning doves and American woodcock. Both species are monitored using call-count surveys, which provide an index of population size. National trends in population Mississippi Atlantic indices for both species show evidence of declines, but the magnitude of the decline is greater for woodcock than for mourning doves. This pattern is 1200 1200 confirmed by BBS data, which indicate 1000 1000 800 800 600 600 Figure 1.11—Trends in goose harvest from 1965 400 400 to 1995 by administrative flyway encompassing 200 200 Harvest (thousand) Harvest (thousand) the South (Flather and others 1999). 0 0 ‘65 ‘70 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘95 ‘65 ‘70 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘95 Year Year TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 15

that doves declined annually at a rate of 0.3 percent compared to a 3.2 percent decline for woodcock over the 30-year period (Flather and others 1999). Mourning dove calling counts indicate declining populations during the last 10 years in the eastern and central management units (fig. 1.12). Intensive agricultural practices may be influencing the breeding populations throughout much of the bird’s range (Brady and others 1998). The acreage of agricultural land in the eastern management unit is positively related to dove populations because agricultural fields provide the forest edge habitat Central Eastern preferred by doves. Increased herbicide use and crop rotation may have 35 25 contributed to observed declines 30 20 (Martin and Sauer 1993). In the central 25 management unit, the trend toward 20 15 fewer and larger farms also may 15 10 have influenced dove populations. 10 5 Population index 5 Population index Call-count trends for woodcock 0 0 show similar declines in both the ‘65 ‘70 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘95 ‘65 ‘70 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘95 Year Year eastern and central management units (fig. 1.13). Trends since 1968 indicate Figure 1.12—Population trends in mourning dove from 1966 to 1996 that the number of woodcock heard by management unit (Flather and others 1999). have declined by 2.5 percent per year in the eastern unit and 1.6 percent per year in the central unit (Flather and others 1999). In the last decade, this rate of decline has accelerated. Woodcock select early successional hardwood forests interspersed with fields and forest openings. As with the mourning dove, the widespread decline in woodcock may be linked with habitat alteration due to forest succession and land use intensification (Straw and others 1994). Population and harvest trends for southern species: furbearer species—There are few comprehensive examinations of trends in furbearer Eastern populations nationwide. Often, the region only available data are temporal harvest trends that reflect fur prices rather Central than population status. The limited region information on population trends 4.0 4.0 makes furbearer projections uncertain. 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 The RPA used a compilation of furbearer status reports completed 2.5 2.5 for the International Association of 2.0 2.0 Fish and Wildlife Agencies during Population index 1.5 Population index 1.5 1993. A survey of State agency 1.0 1.0 ‘65 ‘70 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘95 ‘65 ‘70 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘95 biologists provided population Year Year projections to 2003 (Southwick Associates. 1993. 1993 State and Figure 1.13—Population trends in woodcock from 1968 to 1996 provincial survey of furbearers by management unit (Flather and others 1999). with emphasis on nuisance animals. Unpublished report. On file with: TERRESTRIAL

16 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Rocky Mountain Research Station, 2150 Center Avenue, Fort Collins, CO 80526). Population projections of southern furbearers are shown in figs. 1.14, 1.15, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, and 1.19. Of the 10 Southern States reporting beaver population projections, 5 expected population increases through 2003 (fig. 1.14). The beaver population is projected to decline in North Carolina, and remain stable (or increase) in the remainder of the South. The majority of raccoon populations are projected to increase or remain Decreasing Stable stable throughout the South (fig. 1.15). Increasing Exceptions occur in Alabama and North Carolina, where disease-caused declines Figure 1.14—Projected trends of beaver populations in the South are projected (Flather and others 1999). [based on State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. States Of the four States reporting on that provided estimates are shaded. muskrat populations, two expect population increases through 2003 (fig. 1.16). The remaining States (Virginia and Tennessee) project stable populations. Projections on coyote abundance are limited to Georgia and Mississippi (fig. 1.17). Both States report that coyote populations are expected to remain stable. Bobcat projections are reported only for Florida and Oklahoma (fig. 1.18). Florida biologists report stable bobcat populations, while Oklahoma biologists report that bobcat populations are increasing. Finally, the five States that Decreasing made projections for red and gray foxes Stable (Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, South Increasing Carolina, and Texas) predicted stable populations (fig. 1.19). Figure 1.15—Projected trends of raccoon populations in the South [based on State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. Population and harvest trends for States that provided estimates are shaded. southern species: nongame birds— In the United States, nongame birds are not legally taken for sport, subsistence, or profit. Nongame species comprise the majority of taxa that inhabit the South. There are few data sources on populations of nongame species. Data from the BBS were used to provide information on breeding bird trends in the South for the RPA. Details on the implementation of the BBS can be found in Droege (1990); information on statistical analyses can be found in Sauer and others (1997). The relative abundance trend for each bird species was summarized in two ways. First, the numbers of species with statistically Decreasing Stable significant increasing, decreasing, or Increasing stable trends were estimated. Second, birds were grouped according to life- Figure 1.16—Projected trends of muskrat populations in the South history characteristics including nest [based on State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. States that provided estimates are shaded. TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 17

Decreasing Stable Increasing

Figure 1.17—Projected trends of coyote populations in the South [based on State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. States that provided estimates are shaded.

Decreasing Stable Increasing

Figure 1.18—Projected trends of bobcat populations in the South [based on State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. States that provided estimates are shaded.

Decreasing Stable Increasing

Figure 1.19—Projected trends of red and gray fox populations in the South [based on State wildlife agency data (Flather and others 1999)]. States that provided estimates are shaded. TERRESTRIAL

18 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

type (cavity or open cup), nest location Increasing Decreasing Stable (ground, low, midstory, or canopy), migration status (neotropical migrant, All birds short-distance migrant, permanent Cavity Open cup resident), and breeding habitat Ground (woodland, shrubland, grassland, Midstory wetland, urban). The resulting Neotropical Short distance trends are presented in figure 1.20. Perm. resident Approximately 42.4 percent of Species group Woodland breeding bird species appear stable, Shrubland Grassland 35.2 percent have declined, and Wetland 22.4 percent have increased across Urban the South (table 1.7). It is worth noting 020406080100 that Flather and others (1999) found Proportion of species (percent) that the percentage of declining species Figure 1.20—The proportion of southern bird species with increasing, was greater in the South than in decreasing, and stable trends from 1966 to 1996. Birds have been grouped any other RPA region. Abundance by broad life-history characteristics, migration status, and breeding habitat trends among species groups (Flather and others 1999). vary considerably. Species with declining trends include 70 percent Table 1.7—Number of breeding bird species with increasing, of grassland-nesting birds, 57 percent decreasing, and stable trends from 1966 to 1996 by life history of ground-nesting birds, 53 percent characteristics for the South of shrubland-nesting birds, 49 percent of open-cup nesting birds, 46 percent Life history Total Increasing Decreasing Stable of urban-nesting birds, and 41 percent characteristic species species species species of neotropical migrants. Numbers of the majority of cavity-nesting species N------N (Percent) ------and wetland species have been stable. All species 210 47 (22.4) 74 (35.2) 89 (42.4) Figure 1.21 suggests that bird species richness is high along the Southern Nest type/location Appalachians and along the Atlantic Cavity 29 10 (34.5) 8 (27.6) 11 (37.9) Coast from northeastern North Carolina Open cup 86 18 (20.9) 42 (48.8) 26 (30.2) to the Chesapeake Bay. Because some Ground/low 54 7 (13.0) 31 (57.4) 16 (29.6) species are missed during bird count Midstory/canopy 65 20 (30.8) 20 (30.8) 25 (38.5) surveys including nocturnal species, raptors, and absent migrants, it Migration status is important to note that the bird Neotropical 76 12 (15.8) 31 (40.8) 33 (43.4) richness estimates are biased low Short distance 50 17 (34.0) 20 (40.0) 13 (26.0) (Sauer and others 1997). Permanent resident 42 9 (21.4) 16 (38.1) 17 (40.5) Raptors include hawks, falcons, Breeding habitat eagles, vultures, and owls. In contrast Woodland 58 15 (25.9) 19 (32.8) 24 (41.4) to other bird species, raptors naturally Shrubland 43 8 (18.6) 13 (53.5) 12 (27.9) exist at relatively low population Grassland 10 7 (70.0) 3 (30.0) densities and are widely dispersed Wetland/open water 46 11 (23.9) 8 (17.4) 27 (58.7) in their habitats. The natural scarcity Urban 13 2 (15.4) 6 (46.2) 5 (38.5) of raptors, their ability to move quickly, and the difficulties of detection inhibit Source: Flather and others 1999. the determination of population status (Fuller and others 1995). As a group, raptors are poorly surveyed, and quantitative data are lacking to determine their population trends. Table 1.8 presents a national summary of the status and population trends of 33 species and subspecies of southern raptors. Two species, the Figure 1.21— American kestrel and burrowing owl, Patterns of bird are declining across the United States. richness in the South Mississippi kites, osprey, bald eagles, Number of species based upon counts 11 – 34 and peregrine falcons are increasing. 35 – 41 from the Breeding Populations of 22 species are 42 – 48 Bird Survey (Flather 49 – 54 and others 1999). considered stable nationwide. 55 – 72 TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 19

Table 1.8—The national trends of raptors that occur in the South

Scientific name Common name Status/Trend/Comments

Accipiter cooperii Cooper’s hawk Stable Accipiter gentilis Northern goshawk Unknown/C2a Accipiter striatus Sharp-shinned hawk Stable/regional differences Aquila chrysaetos Golden eagle Stable Asio acadicus Northern saw-whet owl Stable Asio flammeus Short-eared owl Stable/local concern Asio otus Long-eared owl Stable/local concern Athene cunicularia Burrowing owl Declining/local concern Bubo virginianus Great horned owl Stable Buteo brachyurus Short-tailed hawk Stable/northern range limit, about <500 birds in U.S. Buteo lagopus Rough-legged hawk Stable Buteo lineatus Red-shouldered hawk Stable/local concern Buteo jamaicensis Red-tailed hawk Stable/local increases; Breeding Bird Survey data Buteo platypterus Broad-winged hawk Stable/migration count decline in 1980s Buteo regalis Ferruginous hawk Unknown/C2 Buteo swainsoni Swainson’s hawk Unknown/C3;b local concern Caracara plancus Crested caracara Unknown/northern range limit Cathartes aura Turkey vulture Stable Circus cyaneus Northern harrier Stable/nomadic, no standard survey; local concern Coragyps atratus Black vulture Stable/population estimation difficult Elanoides forficatus American swallow-tailed kite Stable/historical range Falco columbarius Merlin Stable Falco peregrinus anatum American peregrine falcon Endangered; increasing Falco sparverius American kestrel Stable/Breeding Bird Survey Data Falco sparverius paulus American kestrel, Florida Declining/C2 Haliaeetus leucocephalus Bald eagle Threatened or endangered in contiguous U.S.; increasing/status reassessment underway Ictinia mississippiensis Mississippi kite Increasing/range expansion Nyctea scandiaca Snowy owl Stable Otus asio Eastern screech-owl Stable Pandion haliaetus Osprey Increasing/good information Rostrhamus sociabilis Snail kite Endangered, stable/northern range limit Strix varia Barred owl Stable/western range expansion Tyto alba Common barn owl Stable/local concern

a Proposal to list; available data are not conclusive for threatened or endangered status. b Proven more widespread than previously believed or not subject to identifiable threat. Source: Fuller and others 1995.

The status of a raptor population The endangered snail kite breeds of nesting habitat and release of often reflects changes in the availability in central and southern Florida hand-reared eagles aided this increase. of prey species. However, changes in wetlands, the northern extent of Habitat loss remains a threat in many raptor status also can indicate subtle the range. The species declined from areas (Fuller and others 1995). environmental conditions, such as 1900 to 1960. Populations remain Ferruginous hawk populations are chemical contamination or disease. relatively stable today. stable in some areas, but declining Nesting ospreys are concentrated Bald eagle populations declined in others. Status determination along the Atlantic Coast. Most regional dramatically between 1950 and 1970. is complicated by the low density populations declined through the early Illegal shooting, habitat alteration, of nesting birds and fluctuation in 1970s. Following the nationwide ban and DDT adversely affected bird breeding associated with cycles of on DDT in 1972, osprey productivity populations. The species was classified prey abundance. improved, and population numbers as endangered in 1978. Following The peregrine falcon also suffered increased in many areas. Osprey the DDT ban, bald eagle reproduction from contamination by DDT and other numbers are stable, and in some improved, and populations began organochlorine pesticides. Peregrine areas they are increasing. increasing. The active protection TERRESTRIAL

20 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

recovery has been hastened in the East by the release of hundreds of birds bred Table 1.9—Ecosystem communities that have declined by 70 percent or in captivity; these birds survived and more in the South since European settlement produced young in the wild. Ecosystem type Geographic area Sensitive and Rare Communities Critically endangered: >98 percent loss Old-growth deciduous forests Southeast Extent of threatened Southern Appalachian spruce-fir Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia communities—Several authors have Longleaf pine forests and savannas Southeastern Coastal Plain described and identified the threatened Slash pine and rockland habitat Southern Florida and sensitive communities in the Loblolly-shortleaf pine forests West Gulf Coastal Plain South (Boyce and Martin 1993, Canebrakes Southeast Grossman and others 1994, Noss Bluegrass savannah-woodland and others 1995, White and others and prairies Kentucky 1998). The South supports a diversity Black Belt and Jackson prairies Alabama, Mississippi of communities; a high proportion Ungrazed dry prairie Florida of them are considered imperiled Wet and mesic coastal prairies Louisiana to some degree (Walker 2001). Atlantic white-cedar Virginia, North Carolina Noss and others (1995) listed Native prairies Kentucky numerous threatened and endangered Bottomland forest West Virginia communities that have experienced High-quality oak-hickory Cumberland Plateau, Tennessee losses in the South (table 1.9). The Endangered: 85-98 percent loss amount of areal loss relative to the Red spruce Central Appalachians estimated presettlement area was used Spruce-fir forest West Virginia as an indicator of vulnerability. The Upland hardwoods Coastal Plain, Tennessee 14 communities listed as critically Old-growth oak-hickory Tennessee endangered have estimated losses Cedar glades Tennessee of over 98 percent of their area Longleaf pine Texas, Louisiana since European settlement. These Longleaf pine forest, 1936-87 Florida include old-growth deciduous forest, Mississippi terrace prairie, calcareous spruce-fir forests, longleaf pine prairie, Fleming glades Louisiana savannas, bottomland forest, Live oak, live oak-hickory Louisiana and several types of prairies. Twenty- Prairie terrace-loess oak forest Louisiana five endangered communities have Mature forest, all types Louisiana experienced losses between 85 and 98 Shortleaf pine-oak-hickory Louisiana percent. These communities include Mixed hardwood-loblolly pine Louisiana Coastal Plain hardwoods, pocosins, Xeric sandhill Louisiana mountain bogs, ultramafic glades, Stream terrace-sandy wooded-savannah Louisiana and Louisiana prairies. Slash pine Florida Having experienced over 70 Gulf Coast pitcher-plant bogs Coastal Plain percent losses compared to estimated Pocosins Virginia presettlement area, 11 communities Mountain bogs North Carolina are regarded as threatened. These Appalachian bogs Blue Ridge, Tennessee include tropical hardwood hammocks, Upland wetlands Highland Rim, Tennessee sandhill woodlands, and saline prairies. Ultramafic glades Virginia In addition to the list in table 1.9, Threatened: 70-84 percent loss Noss and others (1995) reported Bottomland and riparian forest Southeast 24 communities that have lost at Xeric scrub, scrubby flatwoods, sandhills Lake Wales Ridge, Florida least 50 percent of their area. These Tropical hardwood hammock Florida Keys include pocosins (Coastal Plain), sand Saline prairie Louisiana pine (Florida), baldcypress-tupelo Upland longleaf pine Louisiana (Mississippi, Tennessee), flatwoods- Live oak-pine-magnolia Louisiana swale habitats (Florida), herbaceous Spruce pine-hardwood flatwoods Louisiana marsh (Florida), calcareous forest Xeric sandhill woodlands Louisiana Flatwood ponds Louisiana (Louisiana), scrub-shrub swamp Slash pine-pondcypress-hardwood Louisiana (Louisiana), cove hardwood forest Wet hardwood-loblolly pine Louisiana (Tennessee), and others. Boyce and Martin (1993) also Source: Noss and others 1995. Based on the published literature, Natural Heritage programs, and recognized several sensitive commu- expert opinion. nities that are under pressure from a variety of factors. Such factors included TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 21

Table 1.10—The Nature Conservancy’s summary of distributions and threats for rare communities of the South

Geographic Number of area Habitat communities Threats

Southern Spruce-fir 2 Nonindigenous species, recreation, Appalachian Beech 2 air pollution, past logging, hydrological Mountains Bog, fen 7 alteration, succession. Grassy bald 1 Cliff, gorge 4 Other 1 South Florida Tropical hardwood 2 Development, nonindigenous species, Slash pine 3 hydrological alteration, fire suppression, burning, fragmentation, agriculture, recreation. Coastal Plain Barrier island 9 Development, grazing, fragmentation, Longleaf pine 3 hydrological alteration, fire suppression, Other forests 3 nonindigenous species, agriculture, past Glade, prairie 6 logging, mining, burning, recreation. Continental Forest 7 Fire suppression, agriculture, recreation, Interior Glade, prairie 3 grazing, past logging, nonindigenous species, Other 1 succession, mining, hydrological alteration. Other Outcrop 1 Recreation, grazing, agriculture, hydrological Forest 1 alteration, fire suppression. Canebrake 1

Source: Grossman and others 1994. urban growth, land use conversion, Communities covering smaller areas Profiles of selected rare water diversion, exotic species, tend to maintain smaller populations communities: old-growth forests— and pesticide runoff. Everglades, that are more vulnerable to extinction Although forests predominate in mangroves, bottomland hardwood than larger populations (Soulé 1987). the South, less than 585,790 acres forests, pocosins, mountain bogs, Communities also can lose vigor of old-growth forest exist (White and Carolina bays were classified because of change in their structure, and others 1998). The remaining as threatened. They classified longleaf function, or composition. For example, old-growth forests tend to be on pine, spruce-fir and other high- intense livestock grazing entails steeper, rockier, or mesic sites difficult elevation forests, heath balds, maritime replacement of native perennial to farm or harvest. Old-growth forest communities, rock outcrops, glades, grasses with exotic annuals. The composition varies with forest type, grasslands, and sand-pine scrub factors contributing to community but characteristics generally associated as vulnerable. imperilment that are listed in table with old-growth forests include large, Grossman and others (1994) listed 1.10 are further discussed in the old trees; accumulations of woody 57 rare communities in the South following section. debris; and multilayered canopies. (table 1.10). Community types were Profiles of selected rare Many vertebrate species occur ranked on a global scale based on the communities—This section reviews in patches of old-growth forest. number of occurrences, areal extent, some selected communities of These include the Jefferson salamander, condition, threats, and fragility. These concern. Each general community the Peaks of Otter salamander, the 57 communities had global ranks of G1 type can include multiple associations. oak toad, and the scarlet king snake (found in 1 to 5 occurrences globally) Each account includes distribution, (Wilson 1995). Public lands such as or G2 (found in 6 to 10 occurrences composition, threats, and potential the Great Smoky Mountains National globally). Twenty-one types occur management. Where available, steps Park and several national forests protect in the Coastal Plain, 5 in south Florida, toward restoration are presented. some of the largest tracts in the South. 17 in the Southern Appalachians, and The accounts were developed from With the exception of these areas, 11 in the Continental Interior. White and others (1998), Boyce old-growth remnants are often smaller Communities can decline in areal and Martin (1993), Noss and others than 250 acres. extent or have their structures (1995), and Walker (2001). The Threats to old-growth remnants impoverished or compromised. discussion of communities follows include invasions by nonindigenous White and others (1998). species, interruption of natural TERRESTRIAL

22 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

disturbance regimes, outbreaks of As the southern population centers leaved evergreen shrubs or low-growing forest pests, and timber harvest expand, continued recreational trees. They have highly organic soils (Walker 2001). pressure may further adversely affect that developed in areas of poor Management options vary by forest the spruce-fir community. drainage. This community occurs in type, but controlling nonindigenous Spruce-fir communities support upland interstream areas. Peat layers species and herbivores, and choosing several terrestrial species that are are thick, and vegetation is shrubby. benign methods to accomplish these uncommon elsewhere. Examples The bog complex provides habitat objectives are factors to consider. include the endangered subspecies for a diversity of herpetofauna. Wilson Management actions that mimic natural of northern flying squirrel, Weller’s (1995) lists 37 species of reptiles and disturbances are particularly important salamander, the endangered spruce- amphibians associated with Carolina because natural disturbance regimes fir moss spider, mountain ash, and bays, pocosins, and bogs in the South; are unlikely to be intact. Management the threatened rock gnome lichen. 41 are associated with swamp habitat. emphasis may also include the The northern saw-whet owl, black- These species include the bullfrog, provision of forested buffers around capped chickadee, and red crossbill green frog, eastern tiger salamander, existing old-growth remnants. also inhabit the community. four-toed salamander, mountain chorus Profiles of selected rare Restoration centers on enhancing frog, and snapping turtle. The bog communities: spruce-fir forests— the stocking of red spruce trees turtle, threatened in the northern The spruce-fir community is confined and increasing stand structural portion of its range, also inhabits these to the highest peaks of Virginia, complexity. Appropriate silvicultural areas. This turtle is collected illegally, as Tennessee, and North Carolina. treatments include the release of spruce are rare orchids and carnivorous plants. Red spruce communities occur at saplings from the understory and Opportunities for species to recolonize an approximate elevation of 4,500 the removal of competing stems. In are minimal, and the community is feet. In the northern limit of its range, some areas, restoration may involve permanently diminished. Fraser fir is replaced with balsam fir. conversion of open areas to forests Avian species occurring in these This community is characterized by by planting seedlings. communities include cedar waxwing, relatively high moisture levels, short Profiles of selected rare Nashville warbler, northern water- growing seasons, acidic soils, and communities: wetlands, bog thrush, purple finch, white-eyed extreme weather conditions. The complexes, pocosins—In the last vireo, and wood duck. Characteristic flora is distinctive. The community two centuries, the Nation has lost mammals include the long-tailed shrew, reproduces in small-scale patches approximately 30 percent of its marsh rice rat, mink, muskrat, river resulting from wind disturbance. wetlands. Substantial losses have otter, southern bog lemming, southern The presettlement extent of the occurred along the southern Coastal short-tailed shrew, and the star-nosed Southern Appalachian spruce-fir Plain and along the lower reaches mole. Butterflies include the Atlantis community has been estimated as of the Mississippi River. In addition, fritillary and silver-bordered fritillary. 30,000 to 35,000 acres (White and Florida has lost 46 percent (9 million No vertebrates are endemic to others 1998). These remote forests acres) of its wetlands (Stein and pocosins, but the community provides remained relatively undisturbed until others 2000). Wetland loss is of special habitat and refuge from adjacent the widespread harvests of the late concern, because these habitats provide landscape development. In North 1800s (White and others 1998). In critical waterfowl and fish habitat. Carolina, 41 species of mammals 1934, the majority of the remaining Small wetlands occur in depressions inhabit pocosin and Carolina bay spruce-fir forest went into public pro- embedded in forested areas. Soils are sites (White and others 1998). tection with the establishment of the saturated for extended periods from Conservation activities include Great Smoky Mountains National Park. rainfall and ground water seepage. protection from heavy equipment, Spruce-fir communities are threatened Among the most vulnerable areas off-road vehicles, and foot traffic; by infestations of balsam woolly are small (less than 2 acres), isolated controlling changes in site hydrology adelgids. The stresses induced by insect bogs that retain characteristic species. by providing buffers between adjacent attack are exacerbated by additional Bogs require distinct hydrological sites, filling ditches and blocking stresses of acid precipitation, which conditions to function ecologically. drains; and restricting livestock grazing. influence soil and stream chemistry. Intermittent fires and beaver activities The retention of woody debris provides Air pollution and the deposition of may contribute to the origin and valuable microhabitat for many species. heavy metals, such as lead, copper, maintenance of this complex. Adjacent land management activities zinc, nickel, and manganese, also The exact number of remaining that alter the surrounding watershed contribute to the decline of this bogs is difficult to determine but is degrade these sensitive communities. community (refer to chapter 18). most certainly fewer than 150 in the Restoration includes maintenance of They inhibit regeneration and entire South. Over half of the existing site hydrology and woody plant control. contaminate the understory. Airborne bogs occur on private land, and are Periodic prescribed burns adjusted pollution is carried with prevailing threatened by development, grazing, to maintain vegetative conditions help winds originating from industrial off-road vehicle use, agricultural to maintain the community. Species areas of southern Ohio and Indiana. practices, and hydrological alteration. reintroduction into selected sites also may be required. In addition, recreation activities Pocosins are freshwater wetlands compact soil and damage young trees. dominated by a dense cover of broad- TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 23

Profiles of selected rare communities occurred in the Piedmont, Species composition varies with site communities: bottomland and Interior Plateau, Ridge and Valley, moisture. Characteristic species include floodplain forests—The forested and Coastal Plain Provinces. little bluestem, Indian grass, and wetlands of the Coastal Plain, Lightning fires, Native American big bluestem. Composition varies Piedmont, and Continental Interior burning, grazing by elk and bison, depending upon specific soil and Provinces include bottomland and soil conditions historically geologic types. hardwood forests and deepwater maintained these areas. Today, these The size and isolation of these open alluvial swamps. Bottomland hard- communities occupy only a fraction of areas preclude support of endemic woods are located along waterways their original extent due to agricultural vertebrates. Many rare species of and in low-lying areas such as the conversion, recreation use, exotic birds, reptiles, and arthropods use Mississippi Delta region. Common tree species invasions, fire exclusion, these communities. Vertebrate species species include ash, sycamore, water and the loss of large herbivores. that have been extirpated from these tupelo, cypress, willow, cottonwood, Forbs and grasses occurring on communities include the greater elm, oaks, river birch, silver maple, prairie chicken, bison, and elk. sweetgum, black walnut, and pine. rocky or shallow soil dominate glades; Vegetative composition and structure composition varies with geology, soil Restoration centers on the control vary with flooding duration. Trees type, and soil depth (Walker 2001). of woody species from adjacent forest are vulnerable to prolonged changes The limestone glades of the Ozarks, habitats and the use of prescribed in hydrology and are characterized by dominated by perennial grasses, have burning to maintain the diversity rapid growth. Bottomland hardwoods a more open nature than glades of the of the grassland communities. The are found almost exclusively on alluvial Interior Low Plateau. Eastern redcedar retention of characteristic species soils that are associated with old woodlands are commonly associated relies upon site-specific management. riverbeds, existing streams, and with glades of various types. Threats Profiles of selected rare impoundments and their terraces. to glade communities include communities: longleaf pine and Soils are saturated year round or nearly construction, quarrying, agriculture southern pinelands—Longleaf pine so; the understory is sparse with vines (pasture), fire suppression, and historically dominated Coastal Plain and shrubby vegetation. nonindigenous species invasion. sites from southern Virginia to eastern Beneficial characteristics of this The barren and prairie communities Texas. It also occurred on sites in the community for wildlife include contain the majority of the region’s Piedmont, southern Ridge and Valley, hard mast production, cavity tree native grasslands. In the South, they and southern Blue Ridge Provinces provision, and production of abundant include the Black, Jackson, and Grand (fig. 1.22). This community once invertebrate biomass. In agricultural Prairies. In these communities, grasses covered over 40 percent of the entire landscapes, bottomland forests serve are dominant, and shrubs and trees region, but it has declined by more than as refuges for many species. Species are generally absent. The sites are 98 percent (Noss and others 1995). associated with this community include highly productive because they retain The community came under pressure wood stork, prothonotory warbler, nutrients. As a result, they support during the mid-17th century. Demand marbled salamander, and the swamp a vast array of animal and plant life. began for naval stores and then turned rabbit. The loss of bottomland hardwood forests to agricultural conversion contributed to the decline of the Carolina parakeet and the ivory- billed woodpecker (Dickson 2001). Many bottomland sites are productive and have been in agricultural production for long periods. Several cypress-oak reforestation projects in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley have been successful in areas where frequent flooding precludes agricultural development. Restoration of this community occurs primarily on public land. Profiles of selected rare communities: glades, barrens, and prairies—Scattered throughout the South are naturally treeless areas Presettlement range of longleaf pine referred to as prairies, glades, and and transitional communities barrens. Historical accounts suggest Current extent of natural longleaf that these open communities were once pine stands older than 40 years widespread (Delcourt and others 1993), but estimates of original extent are Figure 1.22—The historic and present distribution of longleaf pine uncertain. These grass-dominated in the South (White and others 1998). TERRESTRIAL

24 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

to timber needs. By the 1960s, private land. Much of what remains communities, the trees are thinly extensive areas were harvested and is largely degraded due to lack of distributed and flat-topped, and converted to commercial plantations proper management. have limbless lower trunks. of loblolly and slash pine. Fire Community composition varies with The community harbors several suppression and the introduction of soil moisture and geography. Wiregrass vertebrate species. The fox squirrel livestock further restricted the longleaf and bluestem dominate the herbaceous is a long-lived species with low community to a few isolated locations layer. This herb layer is diverse and reproductive rates. It depends on comprising about 5 million acres. includes grasses, wildflowers, and longleaf pine for late summer forage. At present, the majority occurs on carnivorous plants. In mature The decline in longleaf communities

Table 1.11—Examples of soft and hard mast-producing species in the South

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common name

Soft mast Berries Pomes Diospyros virginiana Common persimmon Amelanchier spp. Serviceberries Juniperus virginiana Eastern redcedar Crataegus spp. Hawthorn Lonicera japonica Japanese honeysuckle Pyrus malus Common apple Smilax spp. Greenbriers Drupes Vaccinium spp. Blueberries Berchemia scandens Alabama supplejack Vitis aestivalis Muscadine grape Callicarpa Americana American beautyberry Vitis rotundifolia Summer grape Celtis occidentalis Hackberry Hard mast Cornus florida Flowering dogwood Nuts Gaylussacia spp. Huckleberries Aesculus octandra Yellow buckeye Gaylussacia dumosa Dwarf huckleberry Carpinus caroliniana American hornbeam Ilex spp. Hollies Carya spp. Hickories Ilex cassine Dahoon Carya aquatica Water hickory Ilex coriacea Large gallberry Carya cordiformis Bitternut Ilex deciduas Possumhaw Carya glabra Pignut Ilex glabra Gallberry Carya ovata Shagbark Ilex myrtifolia Myrtle dahoon Carya tomentosa Mockernut Ilex opaca American holly Castanea spp. Chinkapin Ilex vomitoria Yaupon Fagus grandifolia American beech Morus rubra Red mulberry Juglans cinera Butternut Myrica cerifera Southern bayberry (white walnut) Myrcia pensylvanica Northern bayberry Juglans nigra Black walnut Nyssa aquatica Water tupelo Ostrya virginiana Eastern hophornbeam Nyssa sylvatica Black tupelo and Nyssa sylvatica Black gum Swamp tupelo Quercus spp. Oaks Persea borbonia Redbay Quercus alba White oak Prunus serotina Black cherry Quercus chapmanii Chapman oak Prunus spp. Wild cherries and Quercus michauxii Swamp chestnut oak plums Quercus prinus Chestnut oak Rhus copallina Shining sumac Quercus stellata Post oak Rhus glabra Smooth sumac Quercus virginiana Live oak Rhus radicans Common poison ivy Quercus falcate Southern red oak Rhus typhina Staghorn sumac Quercus ilicifolia Bear oak Rubus spp. Blackberries Quercus incana Bluejack oak Sabal spp. Palmetto Quercus laurifolia Laurel oak Sambucus canadensis American elder Quercus marilandica Blackjack oak Sassafras albidum Sassafras Quercus nigra Water oak Serenoa repens Saw-palmetto Quercus nuttalli Nuttall oak Viburnum spp. Viburnum Quercus phellos Willow oak Quercus pumila Running oak Quercus rubra Northern red oak

Source: Halls 1977. TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 25 has limited its range and reduced to interior Georgia and from the Florida are extensively eaten by wildlife. The population levels. The red-cockaded Panhandle along the Gulf of Mexico fruits tend to be low in crude protein woodpecker occurs in the open to Mississippi. Drainage, development, and high in carbohydrates; nutrient pinewoods, using fairly mature trees and harvest without regeneration content varies considerably among with minimal understory (Hamel have reduced Atlantic white-cedar species. Drupe producers in the South 1992). Trees also must have proper to 10 percent of its original extent. include wild cherries, plums, hackberry, heartwood conditions for nest cavities. Much of the original community and red mulberry (Halls 1977). This species has also declined, but was destroyed by European settlers Berries are fruits with fleshy ovaries active management has stabilized who cleared land for agriculture. that envelop one or more seeds. Most several populations. The sensitive Today, white-cedar swamps are species are eaten by wildlife. Fruits are Bachman’s sparrow breeds in dense, restricted to inaccessible freshwater usually high in carbohydrates and low grassy places where scattered pine wetlands in small, isolated stands. in crude protein. Species that produce trees and saplings are present. Road construction and the damming berries include persimmon, blueberry, Dodd (1995) reported that 74 of waterways continue to diminish and grape. amphibians and 96 reptiles occur this habitat, as does suburban en- Hard mast includes nuts and one- in the range of the longleaf pine croachment, industrial runoff, seeded fruits (or kernels). Most have community. These include the and pollution. concentrations of crude fat, and some flatwoods salamander, Red Hills Atlantic white-cedar swamps are also are relatively high in crude protein salamander, striped newt, Carolina unique communities adapted to (Halls 1977). Characteristic species gopher frog, eastern indigo snake, variable hydrological regimes, fire, include hornbeam, hickory, beech, gopher tortoise, eastern diamondback and peat soils. This community type walnut, black gum, and several rattlesnake, Florida pine snake, often represents some of the only forest species of oaks. and Florida scrub lizard. in regions of intense agricultural and Selected species that utilize mast Although the influence of longleaf urban development. Atlantic white- in their diet—Mast is an essential reduction on the herpetofaunal cedar areas provide habitat for many component in the diets of many community has not been assessed species, including black bear, deer, vertebrates in the South (Combs directly, several species may have rabbits, and other fauna. The diversity and Frederickson 1996, Doherty and been affected. The gopher tortoise, of bird species is relatively high in others 1996, Jensen 1982, Wolff 1996). a keystone species in longleaf pine Atlantic white-cedar swamps, com- Table1.12 lists several mast-consuming savanna, has declined by 80 percent pared to adjacent areas. The Hessel’s mammals, including mice, voles, over the last century (White and hairstreak is a butterfly that feeds woodrats, rabbits, raccoons, and foxes. others 1998). Amphibians breeding exclusively on Atlantic white-cedar. Several birds also consume mast in temporary ponds have been During restoration, these stands (table 1.13) including game birds particularly affected by habitat require frequent, light fires in the (doves, quail, pheasant, grouse, turkey), alteration. The flatwoods salamander dry season. Fire removes competitive waterfowl (mallards, wood ducks), has disappeared from its eastern range; vegetation and clears the seedbed woodpeckers, and songbirds (finches, gopher frogs are nearly extirpated for regeneration. thrushes, jays, and towhees). The in North Carolina, Alabama, and relationship between mast and the Mississippi; and dusky salamanders Hard and Soft Mast food habits of several game species, appear to have declined in coastal such as deer, bear, and squirrels South Carolina and peninsular Florida. Southern species that produce mast—Mast refers to specific kinds has been documented extensively Conversion of longleaf pine forests of fruits of woody species. Hard (Fridell and Litvaitis 1991, Kirkpatrick to agriculture, slash, or loblolly pine mast possesses a hard exterior, as 1989, Kurzejeski 1989, Pelton 1989, plantations and urban development in acorns, while soft mast has fleshy Wentworth and others 1989). threaten the continued existence of fruits, as in berries. Both forms of mast Selected species that utilize mast several herpetofauna species in Georgia are important in the diets of southern in their diet: white-tailed deer— and Florida (Ware and others 1993). wildlife. Many southern woody plants Hard mast is often an important Hardwood encroachment stemming produce mast (table 1.11). Mast yields component of the fall and winter from fire suppression also has contri- are unpredictable from one year to the diet of white-tailed deer. Nutrition, buted to the loss of longleaf pine next and vary according to species, reproduction, weight, and antler communities. Historically, frequent location, and weather. characteristics of individual animals low-intensity fires reduced litter Pomes are fruits that have several are influenced by acorn availability accumulation, controlled competing (Wentworth and others 1989). In woody species, and improved tough, papery-walled cavities that house seed; the cavities are surrounded poor mast years, reproduction rates herbaceous vigor (Walker 2001). may be low, and conception may Recent awareness of the importance by thick flesh. These fruits may be large like apples or small like serviceberries. be delayed. Postnatal survival also of this sensitive community has can decline following years of minimal encouraged restoration efforts. Fresh pomes have a high moisture and carbohydrate content, but are acorn production. Fawn weight also Profiles of selected rare low in crude protein (Halls 1977). can be directly related to the size communities: Atlantic white-cedar of the acorn crop. swamps—Atlantic white-cedar once A drupe is a pulpy fruit with an inner was distributed from southern Virginia ovary wall that encloses a seed. Drupes TERRESTRIAL

26 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Selected species that utilize Table 1.12—Selected mammals of the South that utilize hard mast in their diet: black bear— and soft mast in their diets The abundance and distribution of oak mast (particularly white oak) Scientific name Common name also can influence black bear natality, mortality, and dispersal. Shifts in home Castor canadensis Beaver range sometimes occur in response to Clethrionomys gapperi Southern red-backed vole fluctuations in hard mast availability. Didelphis virginiana Virginia opossum The birth and survival of young bears Glaucomys sabrinus Northern flying squirrel can be directly associated with oak Glaucomys volans Southern flying squirrel mast crops (Pelton 1989). Poor mast Mephitis mephitis Striped skunk years often result in increased bear Neotoma floridana Eastern woodrat movement, which can result in increased mortality due to vehicular Neotoma mexicana Mexican woodrat accidents and human-bear interactions. Neotoma micropus Southern plains woodrat The loss of the American chestnut Ochrotomys nuttalli Golden mouse likely had a significant influence Odocoileus virginianus White-tailed deer on the population dynamics of black Peromyscus attwateri Texas mouse bears in the Southern Appalachians Peromyscus boylii Brush mouse (Pelton 1989). In addition, the reliance Peromyscus floridanus Florida mouse on soft mast in the seasonal diet of Peromyscus gossypinus Cotton mouse black bear highlights the importance Peromyscus leucopus White-footed mouse of early successional habitats in the Peromyscus maniculatus Deer mouse provision of this food source (Trani Procyon lotor Raccoon and others 2001). Sciurus carolinensis Gray squirrel Selected species that utilize mast in Sciurus niger Fox squirrel their diet: squirrels—The availability Spermophilus variegatus Rock squirrel of hard mast also can influence squirrel populations. Poor mast crops can result Sus scrofa Wild boar in population declines, while abundant Sylvilagus palustris Marsh rabbit mast crops may result in substantial Tamiasciurus hudsonicus Red squirrel population increases (Kurzejeski 1989). Tamias striatus Eastern chipmunk Mast comprises the majority of the fall, Urocyon cinereoargenteus Gray fox winter, and spring diets of red, gray, Ursus americanus Black bear and fox squirrels. Acorns, walnuts, Vulpes vulpes Red fox and hickory nuts are major food sources for these squirrels as well as for the eastern chipmunk. Selected species that utilize mast Percent other public Percent National Forest in their diet: game birds—Hard mast 2 provides a high-energy resource for Alabama 3 5 ruffed grouse, wild turkey, bobwhite Arkansas 13 quail, and several waterfowl. These Florida 12 7 species consume acorns in proportion 4 Georgia 3 3 to their availability throughout the year; Kentucky 5 foraging for mast requires little energy 5 Louisiana 4 expenditure (Kirkpatrick 1989). Red 4 Mississippi 6 oak acorns have an elevated phenolic 5 North Carolina 6 content and are less palatable than 7 E. Oklahoma 4 white oak species. 4 South Carolina 4 7 Factors affecting mast supply Tennessee 4 2 availability—In recent years, there E. Texas 5 3 have been concerns about the decline Virginia 9 of mast-producing species (particularly 5 South 6 oaks) in the South. Chapter 16 presents 02 46 8101214 trend information from the FIA on oak State timberland area (percent) and other overstory mast-producing trees. In addition, an examination of oak decline in the South is presented Figure 1.23—National forest and other public ownership of timberland in the South (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service 2000a). in chapter 18. The factors that may have contributed to the decline, and TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 27

Table 1.13—Selected birds of the South that utilize hard and Contribution of soft mast in their diets Public Lands Extent of public lands in the Scientific name Common name South—Public land comprises approximately 11 percent of timber- Aix sponsa Wood duck land in the South (chapter 16). The Anas platyrhynchos Mallard distribution of public land between Anas strepera Gadwell States varies considerably (fig. 1.23). For example, national forests Aphelocoma coerulescens Scrub jay occupy 3 percent of the timberland Bombycilla cedrorum Cedar waxwing in Alabama and Georgia but 13 Carpodacus purpureus Purple finch percent of the timberland in Arkansas Catharus guttatus Hermit thrush (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Certhia americana Brown creeper Forest Service 2000a). Colaptes auratus Northern flicker FIA data indicate that 4 million acres Colinus virginianus Bobwhite quail of timberland are managed by States, Columba fasciata Band-tailed pigeon 1 million acres by counties and Columba flavirostris Red-billed pigeon municipalities, and 16 million acres Corvus brachyrhynchos American crow by Federal agencies (U.S. Department Cyanocitta cristata Blue jay of Agriculture, Forest Service 2000a). Cyanocitta stelleri Stellar’s jay State land is contained in State parks, Ixoreus naevius Varied thrush wildlife management areas, State for- Melanerpes carolinus Red-bellied woodpecker ests, and State natural resource areas. Melanerpes erythrocephalus Red-headed woodpecker Counties and municipalities hold land in local parks and recreation areas, Melanerpes formicivorus Acorn woodpecker many of which contribute importantly Meleagris gallopavo Wild turkey to the conservation of habitat. Mimus polyglottos Northern mockingbird The primary Federal land Parus bicolor Tufted titmouse management agencies in the South are Parus inornatus Plain titmouse the USDA Forest Service, the National Phasianus colchicus Ring-necked pheasant Park Service, and the U.S. Fish and Pheucticus ludovicianus Rose-breasted grosbeak Wildlife Service (fig. 1.24). Federal land Philohela minor American woodcock is concentrated in the Appalachian and Picoides pubescens Downy woodpecker Ozark Mountains, with less land in the Picoides villosus Hairy woodpecker Piedmont and Coastal Plain. The Forest Pipilo erythrophthalmus Rufous-sided towhee Service manages approximately 60 Quiscalus quiscula Common grackle percent of the southern Blue Ridge, Sitta carolinensis White-breasted nuthatch the eastern edge of the Appalachian Sphyrapicus varius Yellow-bellied sapsucker Mountain chain. In contrast, less than one-tenth of the mid-Atlantic Coastal Sturnus vulgaris Starling Plain is under Federal management. Toxostoma rufum Brown thrasher Tympanuchus cupido Greater prairie chicken National parks and the National Zenaidia macrocroura Mourning dove Park Service—The idea of preserving Federal land in national parks is rooted in the conservation movement of the the subsequent reduction in hard mast Chestnut blight had a dramatic late 1800s. Created in 1916, the production, are briefly mentioned here. influence on the American chestnut mission of National Park Service was Many variables, including disease, (chapter 18). Chestnut oaks, which to conserve scenic, natural, and historic insect infestation, advanced stand replaced chestnuts in many places, resources (Loomis 1993). Congress age, drought, and disturbance influence are an important source of hard mast precluded timber harvesting, mining, oak forests. Mature oaks are quite for wildlife populations. Gypsy moth and livestock grazing. susceptible to disease and drought infestations on the poor sites occupied In the 1960s, the Leopold Report conditions. As these forests age, by chestnut oaks often inhibit oak shifted this preservation philosophy tree vigor is reduced. They become regeneration. Infested trees have towards ecological management susceptible to windthrow and ice a reduced capability for stump (Loomis 1993). Parks were managed storms. Longevity varies by species sprouting, and their acorns lack to restore a more natural appearance, and site characteristics. Lack of natural the energy reserves to remain viable. and visitor development was directed disturbance is another factor. Fire Repeated defoliation kills many oaks. to areas outside the parks. Park policies suppression has resulted in an increase When this happens, yellow-poplar allowed fire as a management tool for in other species in former oak- often captures the site. maintaining the park environment. dominated areas. Recreational activities were limited TERRESTRIAL

28 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

National Forest System National Wildlife Refuges National Parks

Figure 1.24—The distribution of national forests, national parks, and national willife refuges in the South (White and others 1998). based upon soil and vegetation acres (table 1.14). These properties and national historic sites (including characteristics, concerns about water are in seven different designations, national battlefields) are established quality, and sensitivity of wildlife each of which is managed with differ- to commemorate historical events to human presence. Still, on National ent objectives. National parks contain (Loomis 1993). Park Service land there is ongoing outstanding natural features and The following area accounts describe conflict between preserving the natural generally are of a sufficient size selected National Park Service proper- environment and providing for to ensure protection from outside ties that provide valuable habitat for visitor use. influences. National preserves also a variety of species in the South. Many The Agency’s current mandate is to protect selected natural features, but areas contain impressive vertebrate perpetuate native plant communities; allow uses such as hunting or mining diversity or provide examples of manipulation of vegetation is kept if they do not impair the resources applied conservation biology. Property to a minimum. Species management of the preserve. National seashores information is summarized from objectives include the provision of protect water-related areas of natural U.S. Department of the Interior, self-regulating populations. Impacts significance that occur on the Atlantic Park Service (2000). on animal populations are avoided and Gulf coasts. National recreation areas emphasize recreational use. National parks and the National with restrictions on the removal Park Service: Buffalo National River, of individual animals. Recreational areas also may exist on national forests. National parkways AR—The Buffalo River is one of the In 2000, the National Park protect scenic resources along travel few remaining unpolluted, free-flowing Service managed 97 properties in corridors such as the Blue Ridge rivers in the South. Stretching 135 the South totaling over 5 million Parkway. National monuments miles, the Buffalo River cuts its way TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 29

through massive limestone bluffs in Table 1.14—National Park Service national parks and monuments in the South the Ozark Mountains. The Buffalo National River has three designated National Park Service property Total acres wilderness areas within its boundaries. Ninety-five thousand acres furnish Alabama habitat for 250 species of birds and National Parks a variety of animals. It also contains Horseshoe Bend National Military Park 2,040 70 mines that provide important habitat Little River Canyon National Preserve 13,633 for gray, Indiana, and Ozark big-eared Tuskegee Airman National Historic Site (Private) 87 bats. The Buffalo National River also Tuskegee Institute National Historic Site 58 is along the migration route of the National Monuments federally listed Eskimo curlew. Russell Cave National Monument 310 National parks and the National Park Service: Mammoth Cave Total 16,128 National Park, KY—This park was Arkansas established in 1941 to preserve one National Parks of the longest known cave systems Arkansas Post National Memorial 749 (336 miles) in the Nation. The park Buffalo National River 94,328 also was designated as a World Heritage Fort Smith National Historic Site 75 Site in 1981 and an International Hot Springs National Park 5,549 Biosphere Reserve in 1990. Little Rock Central HS National Historic Site 18 The park’s 52,830 acres support a Pea Ridge National Military Park 4,300 variety of plants and animals including several bat species of conservation Total 105,019 concern: southeastern bat, Rafinesque’s Florida big-eared bat, and eastern small-footed National Parks bat. There are several State-listed Big Cypress National Preserve 720,573 reptiles, including the northern coal Biscayne National Park 172,924 skink, glass lizard, and the northern pine snake. Among the 872 flowering Canaveral National Seashore 57,662 species that have been confirmed are De Soto National Memorial 27 21 listed plants. Dry Tortugas National Park 64,700 National parks and the National Everglades National Park 1,508,607 Park Service: Congaree Swamp Gulf Islands National Seashore 135,607 National Monument, SC—This Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve 46,000 monument was established to protect National Monuments the largest remaining tract of virgin Castillo de San Marcos National Monument 21 bottomland hardwood wetlands in Fort Caroline National Memorial 138 the South. The monument is an inter- Fort Matanzas National Monument 228 national biosphere reserve, a national natural landmark, a wilderness area, Total 2,706,487 and a continentally important bird area. Georgia Biodiversity is very high within the National Parks Congaree’s 22,000 acres. Amphibians Andersonville National Historic Site 495 that thrive in the deep floodplain Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area 9,206 sloughs include the marbled sala- Chickamouga and Chattanooga National Military Park 8,119 mander, the eastern newt, the southern Cumberland Island National Seashore 36,415 dusky salamander, and the greater Jimmy Carter National Historic Site 71 siren. Frogs include the southern Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park 2,884 leopard frog and the chorus frog. Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site 34 One hundred seventy-three species National Monuments of birds occur in the monument, including several of conservation Fort Frederica National Monument 241 concern. Among these are the barred Fort Pulaski National Monument 5,623 owl, pileated woodpecker, and Ocmulgee National Monument 702 Swainson’s warbler. At different seasons Total 63,790 of the year, prothonotory warblers, Mississippi kites, and herons use the continued refuge. In addition, Congaree Swamp supports important sites for the silver- haired bat, hoary bat, Brazilian TERRESTRIAL

30 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

free-tailed bat, Rafinesque’s big- eared bat, and southeastern bat. Table 1.14—National Park Service national parks and monuments in the South (continued) Feral hogs in the park are placing this unique resource at risk. Wetland National Park Service property Total acres communities are subject to severe damage from hog rooting and Kentucky other behavior. National Parks National parks and the National Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site 337 Park Service: Great Smoky Cumberland Gap National Historic Park 20,454 Mountains National Park, NC, TN— Mammoth Cave National Park 52,830 The Great Smoky Mountains National Park is one of the largest protected Total 73,621 areas in the South (521,621 acres) and Louisiana is World-renowned for the diversity National Parks of its plant and animal resources and Cane River Creole National Historic Park 207 the integrity of the wilderness within Jean Lafitte National Historic Park and Preserve 20,020 its boundaries. Established as a national New Orleans Jazz National Historic Park 4 park in 1934, it was designated as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1976 National Monuments and a World Heritage Site in 1983. Poverty Point National Monument 911 The park protects some of the World’s Total 21,142 finest temperate deciduous forests. Mississippi Due to the fertile soil and abundant National Parks rain, this area boasts 1,650 species of Brices Cross Roads National Battlefield Site 1 flowers and trees, 50 mammal species, Gulf Islands National Seashore 135,458 and 27 salamander species. Migrating birds abound in late spring. Natchez National Historic Park 108 Natchez Trace National Scenic Trail 10,995 Existing and impending threats in the Natchez Trace Parkway 51,747 park include invasion by exotic species, air pollution, and forest diseases. Since Tupelo National Battlefield 1 fire suppression was initiated in the Vicksburg National Military Park 1,736 1930s, oak regeneration has been Total 200,046 minimal at some sites with adverse consequences for mast-utilizing species. North Carolina National Parks National parks and the National Blue Ridge Parkwaya 88,734 Park Service: Big Thicket National Cape Hatteras National Seashore 30,319 Preserve, TX—Big Thicket was the first preserve in the National Park Cape Lookout National Seashore 28,243 System to protect an area of rich Carl Sandburg Home National Historic Site 264 biological diversity. Established in Fort Raleigh National Historic Site 513 1974, it also was designated as an Guilford Courthouse National Military Park 220 International Biosphere Reserve. The Moores Creek National Battlefield 88 preserve consists of nine land units Wright Brothers National Memorial 428 and six water corridors encompassing Total 148,809 more than 97,191 acres. The Big Thicket is rich in biological resources Oklahoma and contains swamps, bayous, pine National Parks savanna, sandhills, plains, and desert. Chickasaw National Recreation Area 9,889 National parks and the National Oklahoma City National Memorial 6 Park Service: Shenandoah National Washita Battlefield National Historic Site 315 Park, VA—This park extends along the Total 10,210 Blue Ridge Mountains, encompassing over 198,000 acres. The oak-hickory South Carolina forest is inhabited by deer, black bear, National Parks bobcat, and wild turkey. Species such Charles Pinckney National Historic Site 28 as the chipmunk, groundhog, raccoon, Cowpens National Battlefield 842 skunk, opossum, and gray squirrel are Kings Mountain National Miliary Park 3,945 frequently detected. Approximately 200 species of birds have been recorded, Ninety Six National Historic Site 989 including flycatchers, thrushes, vireos, continued 35 species of warblers, and migrating a Property is in two or more States. TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 31

Table 1.14—National Park Service national Parks and monuments in the hawks. Permanent residents include South (continued) ruffed grouse, barred owl, raven, woodpeckers, and junco. The park also National Park Service property Total acres supports several salamander species and two poisonous snakes, the timber South Carolina (cont.) rattlesnake and the copperhead snake. National Monuments The hemlock woolly adelgid, an Congaree Swamp National Monument 21,867 exotic insect, currently jeopardizes Fort Sumter National Monument 195 the eastern hemlocks in the park. First Total 27,866 detected 10 years ago, the adelgid is an aphid-like insect that sucks sap from Tennessee branches of the hemlock. The tree loses National Parks strength and sheds its needles, and Andrew Johnson National Historic Site 17 often does not survive (chapter 17). Big South Fork National River and Recreation Area 125,242 National parks and the National Fort Donelson National Battlefield 552 a Park Service: Blue Ridge Parkway, Great Smoky Mountains National Park 521,621 NC, VA—The Blue Ridge Parkway Obed Wild and Scenic River 5,173 consists of 469 miles of road and Shiloh National Military Park 3,997 protects the natural features of the Stones River National Battlefield 708 Blue Ridge while connecting the Total 657,310 Shenandoah National Park with the Texas Great Smoky Mountains. The parkway National Parks encompasses 88,734 acres. Amistad National Recreation Area 58,500 The parkway supports several species Big Bend National Park 801,163 of rare plants and animals. Some Big Thicket National Preserve 97,191 of these, such as the Peaks of Otter Chamizal National Memorial 55 salamander and the Blue Ridge Fort Davis National Historic Site 474 goldenrod, do not occur in other Guadalupe Mountains National Park 86,416 southern areas. Ponds and wetlands Lake Meredith National Recreation Area 44,978 near the parkway provide essential Lyndon B. Johnson National Historic Park 1,570 habitat for amphibians, reptiles, Padre Island National Seashore 130,434 mammals, and birds. Palo Alto Battlefield National Historic Site 3,357 Many Neotropical migrant species Rio Grande Wild and Scenic River 9,600 return to the parkway each spring. San Antonio Missions National Historic Park 819 These include the scarlet tanager, veery, National Monuments wood thrush, and Kentucky warbler. Alibates Flint Quarries National Monument 1,371 The autumn hawk migration also occurs along the Blue Ridge Parkway. Total 1,235,928 Raptors recorded include the American Virginia kestrel, red-tailed hawk, sharp-shinned National Parks hawk, broad-winged hawk, golden Appomattox Court House National Historic Park 1,775 eagle, and peregrine falcon. Arlington House, The Robert E. Lee Memorial 28 National wildlife refuges and Colonial National Historic Park 9,349 the Fish and Wildlife Service— Fredericksburg National Military Park 7,787 A network of lands set aside for wildlife George Washington Memorial Parkway 7,248 began in 1903 with the designation Maggie L. Walker National Historic Site 1 of Pelican Island, FL, as the first Petersburg National Battlefield 2,659 National Wildlife Refuge. The Fish Manassas National Battlefield Park 5,212 and Wildlife Service has responsibility Prince William Forest Park 18,661 for the Refuge System. Refuge Richmond National Battlefield Park 1,078 objectives include the provision and Shenandoah National Park 198,182 enhancement of habitat, perpetuation Wolf Trap Farm Park for the Performing Arts 130 of migratory bird resources, preserva- National Monument tion of natural diversity, and restoration Booker T. Washington National Monument 224 of endangered and threatened species. George Washington Birthplace National Monument 550 Land is acquired for game refuges, Total 252,884 waterfowl production areas, and other reasons. Many refuges were created Grand total 5,519,240 under the authority of the Endangered a Property is in two or more States. Species Act, providing anchors for Source: U.S. Department of Interior 2000a. biodiversity and ecosystem-level TERRESTRIAL

32 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

conservation. These areas have been instrumental in the recovery of several Table 1.15—U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service refuges within the South species including the whooping crane, Key deer, and American crocodile. Total Total Refuge acres Refuge acres The Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929 directed the Agency to Alabama Florida (cont.) purchase areas as refuges for migratory Blowing Wind Cave 264 St. Vincent 12,490 birds. In 1934, the Duck Stamp Bon Secur 6,678 Ten Thousand Islands 35,034 program established permanent funds Choctaw 4,218 FSA Interest FLa 3,124 for the acquisition of waterfowl Eufaula 7,953 Total 975,693 habitats. The system has an outstanding Fern Cave 199 record for the successful management Grand Bay 2,496 Georgia of these species. The emphasis on Key Cave 1,060 Banks Lake 3,559 migratory birds has now expanded Watercress Darter 9 Blackbeard Island 5,618 to include colonial water birds, Wheeler 34,247 Bond Swamp 5,490 birds of prey, shorebirds, seabirds, FSA Interest ALa 743 Eufaula 3,231 and songbirds. Total 57,867 Harris Neck 2,762 Okefenokee 391,402 The earliest form of management Arkansas Piedmont 34,967 consisted of law enforcement and Bald Knob 14,760 Savannah 12,011 periodic counts of wildlife. As the Big Lake 11,036 Wassaw 10,070 system expanded, there was an evolu- Cache River 45,232 Wolf Island 5,126 tion from habitat management for a Felsenthal 64,902 FSA Interest GAa 4,778 few species to ecosystem management. Holla Bend 6,428 Total 479,014 For example, planting vegetation for Logan Cave 124 ducks evolved to planting an array Overflow 12,235 Kentucky of native grasses and forbs to rebuild Pond Creek 26,816 Clarks River 5,017 prairie diversity. Prescribed fire was Wapanocca 5,484 Ohio River Islands 410 incorporated to reduce hazardous White River 154,856 Reelfoot 2,040 fuel loads and restore vegetation FSA Interest ARa 3,459 Total 7,467 communities. Management has been Total 345,332 altered to mimic natural disturbance for Louisiana maintenance of a diversity of habitats. Florida Atchafalaya 15,255 Archie Carr 127 Bayou Cocodrie 13,169 One hundred seventy-two refuges Arthur R. Marshall 145,787 Bayou Sauvage 22,261 spread across the South encompass Caloosahatchee 40 Big Branch Marsh 12,642 approximately 4 million acres (table Cedar Keys 891 Black Bayou Lake 1,861 1.15). The greatest concentration Chassahowitzka 30,843 Bogue Chitto 29,493 of wildlife refuges is in Florida and Crocodile Lake 6,688 Breton 9,047 along the Mississippi and Atlantic Crystal River 80 Cameron Prairie 9,621 flyways. Hundreds of species of birds, Egmont Key 328 Catahoula 6,545 mammals, reptiles, and amphibians Florida Panther 26,529 D’Arbonne 17,420 are supported by the diversity of Great White Heron 192,584 Delta 48,799 habitats in the Wildlife Refuge System. Hobe Sound 980 Grande Cote 6,077 Several of these properties are discussed Island Bay 20 Handy Brake 466 in greater detail in the following J.N. Ding Darling 6,315 Lacassine 34,379 section. Information on species and Key West 208,308 Lake Ophelia 17,306 communities are summarized from Lake Wales Ridge 1,814 Mandalay 4,619 U.S. Department of the Interior, Lake Woodruff 21,559 Sabine 140,717 Fish and Wildlife Service (2000). Lower Suwannee 51,031 Shell Keys 8 National wildlife refuges and the Matlacha Pass 393 Tensas River 65,746 Merritt Island 139,174 Upper Quachita 41,063 Fish and Wildlife Service: Florida a Panther National Wildlife Refuge— National Key Deer 8,614 FSA Interest LA 14,026 This refuge supports a variety of Okefenokee 3,678 Total 510,520 Passage Key 64 habitats, including cypress forests, Mississippi Pelican Island 4,824 swamps, pine forests, hardwood Bogue Chitto 6,808 Pine Island 602 hammocks, prairies, marshes, and Dahomey 9,167 Pinellas 394 sloughs. Permanent and seasonal Grand Bay 5,120 St. Johns 6,256 wetlands cover a majority of the Hillside 18,678 St. Marks 67,122 refuge area (26,529 acres). The refuge Mathews Brake 2,419 is closed to the public to minimize continued disturbance to the Florida panther population that occurs there. TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 33

There are several listed species on Table 1.15—U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service refuges within the the refuge. Mammals include the South (continued) Florida panther and Florida black bear. Avian species include the wood stork, Total Total snail kite, bald eagle, and Florida Refuge acres Refuge acres grasshopper sparrow. The American alligator, eastern indigo snake, striped Mississippi (cont.) Tennessee mud turtle, and loggerhead sea turtle Mississippi Sandhill Crane 19,713 Chickasaw 22,376 are reptiles of conservation concern. Morgan Brake 7,372 Cross Creeks 8,861 Noxubee 46,914 Hathcie 11,556 Habitat management objectives center Panther Swamp 35,272 Lake Isom 1,846 on the provision of optimum conditions St. Catherine Creek 24,931 Lower Hatchie 9,353 for the panther. Other objectives Tallahatchie 4,839 Reelfoot 8,409 include restoration of natural diversity Yazoo 12,940 Tennessee 51,359 and implementation of environmental FSA Interest TNa 685 FSA Interest MSa 29,326 education programs promoting Florida Total 114,445 Total 223,499 panther and south Florida ecosystems. Texas National wildlife refuges and the North Carolina Anahuac 34,296 Alligator River 156,125 Fish and Wildlife Service: St. Vincent Aransas 114,397 National Wildlife Refuge, FL—This Cedar Island 14,482 Attwater Prairie Chicken 9,199 Currituck 4,317 Balcones Canyonlands 16,481 12,490-acre island refuge is a red wolf Great Dismal Swamp 24,812 Big Boggy 4,526 propagation site. Additional endangered Mackay Island 7,150 Brazoria 43,905 and threatened species that occur on St. Mattamuskeet 50,180 Buffalo Lake 7,664 Vincent Island include the bald eagle, Pea Island 5,834 Grulla 5 piping plover, wood stork, eastern Pee Dee 8,439 Hagerman 11,320 indigo snake, and loggerhead sea turtle. Pocosin Lakes 108,692 Laguna Atascosa 57,826 Little Sandy 3,802 The primary refuge objective is Roanoke River 17,977 Lower Rio Grande Valley 77,695 management and preservation of the Swanquarter 16,411 natural barrier island and associated a McFaddin 56,181 FSA Interest NC 6,175 Moody 3,517 native plant and animal communities. Total 420,594 Muleshoe 5,809 Additional management objectives San Bernard 30,267 Oklahoma include the provision of habitat Santa Ana 2,088 Deep Fork 8,387 for migratory birds and protection Texas Point 8,952 of listed species. Little River 12,029 Trinity Point 6,801 Optima 4,333 FSA Interest TXa 1,718 National wildlife refuges and Ozark Plateau 2,858 Total 496,449 the Fish and Wildlife Service: Salt Plains 32,057 Okefenokee National Wildlife Sequoyah 20,800 Virginia Refuge, GA—Established in 1936, Tishomingo 16,464 Back Bay 8,315 the Okefenokee Refuge covers 391,402 Washita 8,075 Chincoteague 13,598 acres. The swamp contains numerous Eastern Shore 1,570 Wichita Mountains 59,020 Featherstone 326 islands and lakes, along with vast areas Total 164,023 Fisherman Island 1,025 of nonforested terrain. Prairies cover approximately 60,000 acres of the Puerto Rico Great Dismal Swamp 83,944 James River 4,195 swamp. Once forested, these marsh Cabo Rojo 1,857 Mackay Island 874 expanses were created during periods Culebra 1,574 Martin 146 of severe drought when fires burned Desecheo 360 Mason Neck 2,276 vegetation and surface layers of peat. Laguna Cartagena 1,036 Nansemond 423 Total 4,827 Occoquan Bay 642 A wide variety of bird species are Plum Tree Island 3,502 supported. The prairies harbor wading South Carolina Presquile 1,329 birds, including herons, egrets, white ACE Basin 11,772 Rappahannock River 2,975 ibis, sandhill cranes, wood storks, and Cape Romain 65,225 Wallops Island 3,373 bitterns. Scrub-shrub areas support Carolina Sandhills 45,348 FSA Interest VAa 134 various warblers. Pinckney Island 4,053 Total 128,647 Santee 12,483 Refuge objectives encompass Savannah 14,839 Virgin Islands protection of the unique environmental Tybee 100 Buck Island 45 qualities of the Okefenokee ecosystem, Green Cay 14 Waccamaw 4,978 and the provision of optimum habitat Sandy Point 490 FSA Interest SCa 1,430 for a wide diversity of fish, birds, Total 549 Total 160,228 mammals, reptiles, and amphibians. Grand total 4,089,154 a Farm Service Agency. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior 2000b. TERRESTRIAL

34 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

National wildlife refuges and the via prescribed burning, vegetation National forests are found in 13 Fish and Wildlife Service: Tensas manipulation, and noxious Southern States, Puerto Rico, and the River National Wildlife Refuge, LA— weed control. Virgin Islands (table 1.16). Over 15 This refuge lies in the upper basin National wildlife refuges and the million acres in the South are managed of the Tensas River in northeastern Fish and Wildlife Service: White by the Forest Service. National forest Louisiana. It includes the site of the River National Wildlife Refuge, AR— ownership ranges from 27,831 acres last documented sighting of the ivory- Established in 1935, the White River in Puerto Rico to 2,586,074 acres in billed woodpecker. The refuge supports Refuge contains the largest contiguous Arkansas. In addition to Arkansas, 65,746 acres of woodlands, croplands, block of bottomland hardwood forest the greatest concentrations of national reforested agricultural fields, and open under a single ownership in the South. forest are in Virginia (1,660,428 acres), water. The area also is home to the Mississippi (1,158,967 acres), and threatened Louisiana black bear. White River supports one of the Florida (1,152,824 acres). Hundreds largest concentrations of wintering of animals and plants are supported Management objectives include water mallard ducks in the Mississippi management for waterfowl, wading by the diversity of habitats in the flyway on its 154,856 acres. Numerous National Forest System. birds, and shorebirds. Cooperative species of wading birds, shorebirds, farming provides habitat for migratory geese, neotropical migrants, and National forests and the Forest birds and bear. Deer are managed raptors (including the bald eagle) Service: roadless areas—Roadless via public hunting. also inhabit the area. areas comprise nearly 1 million acres of the southern national forests (table National wildlife refuges and the Refuge objectives center on the Fish and Wildlife Service: Alligator 1.17). Substantial acreages with this provision of optimum habitat for designation are in Virginia (394,000 River National Wildlife Refuge, migratory bird and resident species, NC—This 156,125-acre refuge was acres) and North Carolina (172,000 and support for a diversity of species acres). Roadless areas have a range established to preserve a unique common to the White River bottoms. wetland habitat type, the pocosin, of habitat types and successional and its associated terrestrial species. National forests and the Forest seres. Habitat tends to be contiguous, Diversity of habitat types includes Service—The USDA Forest Service was providing refuge from human bogs, freshwater and brackish marshes, established in 1905 to provide quality disturbance that can disrupt species hardwood swamps, and Atlantic white- water and timber for the Nation. In movement and reproduction. cedar swamps. Plant species include the subsequent years, the Forest Service These areas possess ecological pitcher plants, sun dews, low-bush embodied the concept of multiple characteristics that are rare in cranberries, bays, pond pine, red uses. Multiple uses refer to resource developed landscapes, such as maple, and a wide variety of herbaceous management that benefits a variety large, relatively undisturbed blocks and shrub species common to of purposes while ensuring the of habitat (U.S. Department of the South. productivity and quality of the Agriculture, Forest Service 2000b). environment. Benefits include the Refuge objectives center on the Invasion of exotic species, erosion, provision of water, forage, wildlife, sedimentation, and disruption of water preservation of the unique wetland wood, and recreation. and the provision of habitat for the flow are often less likely in roadless red wolf, red-cockaded woodpecker, The Weeks Act authorized purchase than in roaded areas. Species richness American alligator, black bear, of lands for the National Forest System, may be improved in roadless areas that waterfowl, and migratory birds. especially deforested land, which would are large enough to offer a mosaic of be reforested for watershed protection. habitat patches in various successional National wildlife refuges and The Clark-McNary Act (1924) further stages following disturbance. the Fish and Wildlife Service: allowed the Agency to purchase private Mississippi Sandhill Crane National National forests and the Forest land that was potentially valuable for Service: wilderness areas— Wildlife Refuge, MS—This refuge timberland production. occupies 19,713 acres of pine-savanna Wilderness areas cover 698,513 acres habitat interspersed with cypress, Acquisitions under the Weeks and in the South (table 1.18). Arkansas rivers, and marsh on the Coastal Plain Clark-McNary Acts further added (116,937 acres), Georgia (114,789 of Mississippi. Water bodies such area to the National Forest System. acres), and North Carolina (103,226 as Perigal Bayou, Old Fort Bayou, The mission of the Forest Service acres) have the largest amounts and Bluff Creek flow through various centers on four primary objectives: (1) of wilderness in the South (U.S. units of the refuge. Approximately protection and management of natural Department of Agriculture, Forest 100 endangered sandhill cranes inhabit resources on National Forest System Service 2000c). The Wilderness Act the refuge. land; (2) research on forests and forest requires that these areas retain their primeval character without permanent Refuge objectives center on the resource utilization; (3) assistance to State and local governments, forest developments or human habitation. provision of habitat for the sandhill Roads, timber harvesting, and cranes and protection of the diverse industry, and private landowners for land management; and (4) international motorized access are prohibited, but savanna communities used by cranes. hunting and fishing are permitted. Crane management includes population assistance for the management of forest monitoring, captive bird release, resources (Loomis 1993). The Forest One objective of managing wilderness predator control, and law enforcement. Service has recently issued policies is to preserve naturally functioning Habitat restoration is accomplished for preservation of old growth and ecosystems. Relatively large blocks maintenance of biological diversity. of undisturbed habitat are rare in TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 35

Table 1.16—National forest location and acreage in the South

Gross NFS Other Location acreage acreage acreage

Alabama Conecuh NF 171,177 83,858 87,319 Talladega NF 740,334 389,328 351,006 Tuskegee NF 15,628 11,252 4,376 William B. Bankhead NF 348,917 180,548 168,369 Talladega PU 11,706 0 11,706 Pea River LUP 40 40 0 State total 1,287,802 665,026 662,776 Arkansas Ouachita NFa 2,004,231 1,423,459 580,772 Ozark NF 1,496,999 1,136,709 360,290 St. Francis NF 29,729 21,201 8,528 Ouachita PU 1,442 1,442 0 Ozark PU 7,115 3,263 3,852 State total 3,539,516 2,586,074 953,442 Florida Apalachicola NF 632,890 565,543 67,347 Chotawhatchee NF 1,152 1,152 0 Ocala NF 430,441 383,573 46,868 Oscala NF 190,932 158,255 32,677 Nekoosa PU 674 223 451 Pinhook PU 171,182 40,025 131,157 Tates Hell-New River 6,863 4,053 2,810 State total 1,434,134 1,152,824 281,310 Georgia Chattahoochee NF 1,515,885 749,352 766,533 Oconee NF 260,883 115,231 145,652 Chattahoochee PU 69,302 195 69,107 Ocmulgee PU 10,000 250 9,750 Yonah PU 46 46 0 Forestry Sci. Lab. EA 4 4 0 State total 1,856,120 865,078 991,042 Kentucky Daniel Boone NF 1,360,692 547,686 813,006 Jefferson NFa 54,614 961 53,653 Land between the Lakes 170,310 170,310 0 Redbird PU 686,399 145,099 541,300 State total 2,272,015 864,056 1,407,959 Louisiana Kisatchie NF 1,022,373 603,230 419,143 Bayou Beouf PU 2,264 980 1,284 State total 1,024,637 604,210 420,427 Mississippi Bienville NF 382,821 178,542 204,279 De Soto NF 796,072 506,028 290,044 Delta NF 118,150 60,015 58,135 Holly Springs NF 519,943 155,661 364,282 Lyndon B. Johnson NGL 115,438 20,309 95,129 continued TERRESTRIAL

36 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

Table 1.16—National forest location and acreage in the South (continued)

Gross NFS Other Location acreage acreage acreage

Mississippi (cont.) Homochitto NF 373,497 191,505 181,992 Holly Springs NF 119,155 66,874 52,281 De Soto PU 240 240 0 Homochitto PU 67 67 0 Forest Hydro. Lab. EA 15 15 0 Forestry Sci. Lab. EA (state college) 7 7 0 Forestry Sci. Lab. EA (Gulfport) 10 10 0 Southern Hardwoods Lab EA 3 3 0 State total 2,309,980 1,158,967 1,151,013 North Carolina Cherokee NFa 327 327 0 Croatan NF 308,234 159,886 148,348 Nantahala NF 1,349,000 527,709 821,291 Pisgah NF 1,076,511 505,420 571,091 Uwharrie NF 219,757 50,189 169,568 Nantahala PU 17,027 737 16,290 Yadkin PU 194,496 0 194,496 Forestry Sci. Lab. EA 27 27 0 State total 3,165,379 1,244,295 1,921,084 Oklahoma Ouachita NFa 723,552 350,845 372,707 Black Kettle NGL 32,537 30,710 1,827 Rita Blanca NGL 15,816 15,576 240 State total 771,905 397,131 374,774 Puerto Rico Caribbean NF 55,665 27,831 27,834 State total 55,665 27,831 27,834 South Carolina Francis Marion NF 414,699 252,288 162,411 Sumter NF 960,805 360,868 599,937 Silviculture Watershed Lab EA 15 15 0 State total 1,375,519 613,171 762,348 Tennessee Cherokee NFa 1,204,520 634,198 570,322 Cherokee PU 7,712 325 7,387 Land between the Lakes 63,852 63,852 0 State total 1,276,084 698,375 577,709 Texas Angelina NF 402,231 153,180 249,051 Davy Crockett NF 394,200 160,652 233,548 Sabine NF 442,705 160,656 282,049 Sam Houston NF 491,800 162,996 328,804 Black Kettle NGL 576 576 0 Caddo NGL 68,661 17,873 50,788 Lyndon B. Johnson NGL 115,438 20,309 95,129 continued TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 37

Table 1.16—National forest location and acreage in the South (continued)

Gross NFS Other Location acreage acreage acreage

Texas (cont.) McClellan Creek NGL 1,449 1,449 0 Rita Blanca NGL 77,413 77,413 0 State total 1,994,473 755,104 1,239,369 Virginia George Washington NFa 1,635,565 960,133 675,432 Jefferson NFa 1,586,343 700,268 886,075 Jefferson PU 1,145 0 1,145 Kimberling Creek PU 271 27 244 State total 3,223,324 1,660,428 1,562,896

Grand total 28,882,907 15,644,482 13,287,425

PU = purchase unit; LUP = land utilization project; EA = experimental area; NGL = national grassland. a Property is in two or more States. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture 2000a.

Table 1.17—Summary of Table 1.18—Wilderness areas in the South inventoried roadless areas in the South NFS Other Total State acreage acreage acreage Total State acreage Alabama 32,167 80 32,247 Arkansas 116,578 359 116,937 Alabama 13,000 Florida 74,495 4 74,499 Arkansas 95,000 Georgia 114,537 252 114,789 Florida 50,000 Kentucky 16,779 658 17,437 Georgia 63,000 Louisiana 8,679 0 8,679 Kentucky 3,000 Mississippi 6,046 0 6,046 Louisiana 7,000 North Carolina 102,634 592 103,226 Mississippi 3,000 Oklahoma 14,543 1,425 15,968 North Carolina 172,000 South Carolina 16,671 0 16,671 Oklahoma 13,000 Tennessee 66,349 40 66,389 South Carolina 8,000 Texas 38,483 0 38,483 Tennessee 85,000 Virginia 87,064 78 87,142 Texas 4,000 Virginia 394,000 Total 695,025 3,488 698,513

Total 910,000 Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture 2000a.

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture 2000c. those landscapes. Two additional area. A landscape may cover hundreds the South. These are of particular chapters of the Assessment examine of square miles or a much smaller area. importance to mammals that have large fragmentation in the South. Chapter 6 The definition depends on the context home ranges. Importantly, wilderness presents an analysis of southern of its use and is shaped by the scale contributes to understanding locations using remotely sensed at which ecological processes are wildlife in an unmanaged setting. imagery. In addition, chapter 3 discussed (Trani 2002). examines the influence of roads and Fragmentation may occur when a Implications of Habitat power lines on habitat fragmentation. forested landscape is subdivided into Fragmentation on The definition of fragmentation— patches. Fragmentation may also occur The term “fragmentation” is often when numerous openings for such Vertebrate Species used to refer to the insularization of things as fields, roads, and power lines This section reviews the literature on habitat on a landscape. The change interrupt a continuous forest canopy. habitat fragmentation and the resulting in arrangement of existing habitats is It also can refer to discontinuities of influence on the species that inhabit often accompanied by a loss of habitat vegetation in the landscape. Wetland TERRESTRIAL

38 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

habitat can become fragmented when Roads may contribute to forest with habitat patch size. Fahrig and portions are drained for urban fragmentation when their placement Merriam (1985) also reported that development, while prairie habitat divides large landscapes into smaller certain mammals were more common can become fragmented by agricultural patches and interior forest habitat is in large forest tracts than in smaller, development. The resulting landscape converted into edge habitat. As road isolated patches. Populations of white- pattern alters habitat connectivity density increases, the populations footed mice and chipmunks in small and edge characteristics, influencing of some species may become isolated forest patches declined to a point that a variety of species. (chapter 3). Roads located along local extirpations occurred. Factors that contribute to landscape the periphery of a landscape have the Rosenberg and Raphael (1986) fragmentation—Landscape fragmen- least influence on the resulting pattern reported that gray foxes, ringtail cats, tation may result from natural processes (Trani 1996). The influence of roads and northern flying squirrels were such as hurricanes, wildfires, and on habitat fragmentation varies with sensitive to forest fragmentation. Picton floods. Landscape fragmentation may road width and degree of permanence. (1979) found that the presence of large also occur in association with land A six-lane interstate highway has a mammals was correlated with the size use conversion for urban development, greater effect on landscape pattern of the mountain ranges where each agricultural use, and timber harvesting. than does a 20-foot forest road. Some species occurs. Mammal population The ecological consequences of natural roads, such as unimproved dirt roads, can increase when minimum habitat or human-caused fragmentation differ may be temporary, while others are size requirements are met. The depending on the pattern imposed paved and permanent. insularity of populations increases by these factors. Influence of landscape fragmen- with continued landscape fragmen- Landscape modification has occurred tation upon terrestrial species— tation while larger, undeveloped areas for thousands of years. Native inhab- Harris (1988) cited fragmentation as protected these species from extinction. itants modified landscapes by burning the most serious threat to biological Roads may or may not act as barriers and clearing forested areas. The first diversity in the Nation. Area-sensitive to the movement of species between European settlers divided vast forests species requiring large tracts of habitat habitat patches. Extensive networks of into farmlands and settlements. This may decline or be extirpated locally. roads have negative impacts on black trend continues today. Much of the The movement of species between bears, white-tailed deer, and Florida southern landscape is under intensive patches may be inhibited. Population panthers (chapter 3). These negative management and is becoming an persistence may be linked to the impacts stem from loss of habitat, increasingly complex mosaic of number, size, and degree of isolation increased hunter accessibility, and forest, urban, and agricultural areas. of forest patches (Robbins and vehicular mortality. others 1989). Timber harvesting may fragment Long-term population declines have the landscape, depending on the Influence of landscape fragmen- been observed for neotropical migrants number, size, and arrangement of tation upon terrestrial species— inhabiting small forest patches. harvest units (Trani 1996). Higher The influence of fragmentation on Breeding bird censuses for isolated levels of fragmentation occur when the landscape can be associated with forest patches indicate general small, numerous harvest units are three related factors: (1) patchiness, reductions in abundance and diversity dispersed over the landscape than (2) edge, and (3) connectivity. of species over the past several years when units are clustered. A dispersed Influence of landscape fragmen- (Lynch and Whitcomb 1977). Critical harvest scheme increases spatial tation upon terrestrial species: information for the conservation of heterogeneity, patchiness, and forest patchiness—Changes in patch size bird species includes understanding of edge length. However, the changes have been recognized as a major the relationship between reproductive in pattern resulting from timber component of fragmentation. Species success and habitat size and quality. harvest are often temporary because richness may decline as patch area is The dependence of many breeding the harvested area regenerates and reduced (Ambuel and Temple 1983, songbirds on large blocks of forest is reverts to forest. The rate of succession Askins and others 1990, Lynch and well established (Robbins and others depends on the composition of the Whigham 1984). Small remnant 1989, Whitcomb and others 1981). residual stand, browsing by herbivores, patches of forest surrounded by open Species sensitive to patch size tend subsequent management activities, areas constitute unfavorable habitat to be highly migratory, are forest- weather, and other disturbances for many species; these remnants interior specialists, build open nests, (Wigley and Roberts 1994). also have increased susceptibility to and/or nest on the ground (Whitcomb It is important to note that a forested windthrow disturbance and other and others 1981). The worm-eating landscape supporting a mosaic of processes. Robinson and Wilcove warbler, the hooded warbler, and the different seral stages is not ecologically (1994) suggested that fragmented black-and-white warbler are generally the same as a landscape containing landscapes become population sinks absent in patches less than 50 acres isolated forested patches surrounded by that are only sustained by immigration (Hamel 1992). Other species that agricultural or urban areas. Each seral from nearby forest tracts that are are sensitive to patch size include the stage provides habitat that varies in large enough to produce a surplus swallow-tailed kite, broad-winged suitability for a particular species as it of individuals. hawk, barred owl, pileated woodpecker, moves through the forested landscape. Matthiae and Stearns (1981) found and black-billed cuckoo (Hamel that the density of red squirrel, gray 1992). While many species avoid squirrel, raccoon, and red fox increased TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 39 small patches, widespread permanent winter wren, and veery (Hamel 1992). and several environmental stressors residents and short-distance migrants Edge can negatively affect these species, (Gilpin 1987, Quinn and Hastings tend to predominate in small patches particularly in patches with large 1987). If corridors spread the risk (Askins and others 1990). perimeter-to-area ratios (Noss 1983). of environmental stress among Habitat isolation has been associated An increase in density of forest-edge isolated populations, persistence with population declines in large snakes and farmland species along edges may time may actually be longer in due to increasing networks of roads exclude certain interior and long- fragmented landscapes (Fahrig (Gibbons and Buhlmann 2001). These distance migrant species. Competition and Paloheimo 1988). networks divide forested habitat into by the edge-adapted starling exerts Another view suggests that species smaller and smaller parcels. Likewise, a direct negative impact on many persistence is lower in fragmented amphibian mortality is intensified forest species (Harris 1988). This habitats than in contiguous habitats when a heavily traveled road separates competition may influence bird (Tilman and others 1994). These individuals from the forest they live community composition more than studies suggest that corridors are in and the wetland they require area-dependent changes in habitat valuable as a conservation tool. for breeding. (Ambuel and Temple 1983). This point of view is discussed next. Influence of landscape fragmen- Species that occur in edge habitats Heany and Patterson (1986) tation upon terrestrial species: are subject to high rates of mortality presented an extensive review of edge—An edge is the place where from predators attracted to these the regional patterns of mammal two different plant communities, habitats. The raccoon, least weasel, distribution as affected by habitat successional stages, or land uses come and striped skunk often hunt for connectivity. Pelton (1986) described together. Fragmentation can increase small mammals along edges. Ground how the loss of connectivity restricts the amount of edge habitat in a nests receive predation pressure where the distribution of black bears. When landscape. Inherent edges are caused mammals and reptiles are the dominant disturbance causes local extirpation, by changes in soil type or topography, predators (Chasko and Gates 1982). populations may be reestablished whereas induced edges are those Predation reduces the recruitment of through the dispersal of individuals created by disturbance. Induced edges the Kentucky warbler, scarlet tanager, from source populations. Jackson can be created by land uses, including wood thrush, yellow-throated vireo, (1987) reported corridors aided red- cultivation, fertilization, and harvest, and ovenbird (Temple and Cary 1988). cockaded woodpeckers in colonizing and by environmental disturbances Increases in edge density contribute existing habitat. Forest birds can often such as fires, blowdowns, and floods. to the escalation of nest predation use small tracts of forest connected The creation of forest edge influences and parasitism to levels that can to large tracts by wooded corridors seedling establishment and vegetative bring reproductive success below (Robbins 1979). Forest-interior composition. For some species, these replacement rates. birds and small mammals (Merriam effects persist hundreds of yards into Nest parasitism by cowbird species 1990) persist in forest fragments the forest interior (Chen and others may be an important factor in the connected by woodland corridors 1992). For example, the edge habitat decline of some breeding birds. Brood that ease colonization. may serve as an access point, attracting parasites lay their eggs in the nests of Species that are able to move cowbirds into the interior of a forested other species, reducing the reproductive between connected habitat patches landscape (Askins 1994). success of their hosts. The brown- operate demographically as a Many species occur in edge habitat, headed cowbird may have contributed metapopulation. Corridors may particularly those that use one habitat to the population declines of the permit the survival of extinction-prone for food and another for cover. Game Acadian flycatcher, veery, American populations through the immigration birds, such as the American woodcock redstart, and Louisiana waterthrush of individuals. Corridors also may and northern bobwhite quail, occur in (Brittingham and Temple 1983). facilitate movement of an individual edge habitats. Many species in urban Influence of landscape fragmen- within its home range. Such movement and agricultural landscapes are edge- tation upon terrestrial species: may be particularly important for adapted. Many woodland passerines connectivity—Connectivity, the degree species whose home range area favor edge habitat (Yahner and of continuity of a landscape, is also requirements exceed the average Scott 1988), which may provide affected by fragmentation. Connectivity patch size. For example, Rosenburg enhanced forage and/or improved may facilitate dispersal and improve and others (1997) reported that habitat conditions. habitat quality by connecting patches migratory amphibians, such as red- spotted newts, may require corridors In contrast, excessive edge may of habitat. It has been suggested that the population dynamics of species among seasonally used habitats. The lead to reduced populations of species loss of connectivity may cause local dependent on large blocks of forest are affected by the spatial pattern of fragmentation (Haddad and others extirpation. Many amphibian and interior (Robbins and others 1989). reptile species cannot move through Species that use continuous mature 2000, Hanski 1991). There is disagreement, however, on the value relatively large, deforested areas forest may be replaced by generalist to reach other suitable forest habitat. species. Southern breeding birds that of corridors for the conservation of biological diversity. One view is that Where declines of herpetofaunal nest only in the interior of forests populations occur, population sizes include the sharp-shinned hawk, populations linked by corridors are Cooper’s hawk, hairy woodpecker, vulnerable to the spread of disease TERRESTRIAL

40 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

will not be rebuilt quickly in a support them. Vertebrate species displace, or enhance species popu- fragmented landscape (Gibbons and their associated habitats are lations and habitats. Isolated habitat and Buhlmann 2001). influenced by urban development, patches may reduce the number fire suppression, agricultural practices, of species present simply because Discussion and forest pest and exotic species outbreaks, smaller habitats support fewer species and recreation activity. Other species (MacArthur and Wilson 1967). Conclusions are rare due to restrictive or specialized Preservation of species composition habitat conditions (chapter 2). and integrity in these areas cannot be Status and Trends The future of a majority of these expected. Corridors may increase the sensitive species and communities movement of habitat-restricted species, of Terrestrial Vertebrate thereby improving overall habitat Species in the South depends on active resto- ration and management. Restoration quality (Haddad and Baum 1999, Natural Heritage classifies 86 complements species conservation by Rosenburg and others 1998). percent of southern vertebrate species maintaining habitat composition, Understanding how spatial patterns as secure or apparently secure. The structure, and function. Activities alter species habitat may provide populations of these species appear that mimic natural disturbance are resource managers with a basis for to be resilient; some species such particularly important. Prescribed making land use decisions. Species as white-tailed deer and beaver have burning can enhance herbaceous respond to patterns in various ways, rebounded despite incredible odds. diversity and control structural using certain areas for feeding and Population trends are positive for characteristics. Other treatments are reproduction, and avoiding other areas several big game, small game, and useful for suppressing woody growth entirely. By altering the distribution and waterfowl species. In addition, the and enhancing the vigor of other availability of spatial resources, changes long-term population projections species. These management techniques in landscape pattern influence many for several furbearer species appear are described further in chapter 4. of the components important for the stable or increasing. persistence of species (Merriam 1990). In contrast, declines in the Hard and Soft Mast The South’s growing human populations of northern bobwhite For many species, mast is an essential population raises the possibility quail, ruffed grouse, and woodcock food source. Thus, provision of hard of a substantial impact on species warrant further management focus. and soft mast is important for the and their habitats in the next several The decline in breeding populations management of terrestrial species decades (chapter 6). In the midst of grassland and shrubland nesting inhabiting southern forests. of expanding populations, the provision birds also is a concern in the region. Many silvicultural techniques of biological diversity has become The numerous species with G1, G2, enhance mast production (chapter 4). a critical conservation issue. or G3 conservation ranks suggest Management of stocking density that these vertebrates are sensitive can encourage reproduction of The Influence of Land to changes in their environment. mast-producing species and limit Ownership Patterns Identifying the factors that contribute interspecific competition. Artificial The population increases projected to the declines of these species may be regeneration has been successful useful for predicting future conditions. for the South may continually increase for several species, including northern demands on natural ecosystems, Several of these factors, as well as their red oak, white oak, and black cherry. associated conservation measures, species, and their habitats during Genetic selection for acorn production st are examined in chapter 5. the 21 century (Boyce and Martin and seedling growth also has the 1993). This prospect presents a Significant losses of community potential to be successful. These challenge to forest resource manage- biodiversity have occurred throughout treatments can play an important ment. Biodiversity often declines the region. Several communities have role in southern forest areas that as economic development proceeds. been classified as critically endangered, may experience mast decline. Natural habitats for native species endangered, or threatened. An addi- are replaced by industrial and urban tional 24 communities have been The Implications of development, while other habitats identified as having a 50-percent loss Habitat Fragmentation are modified or degraded. The future of presettlement area. It is critical may also bring increased concern for to halt further losses of these Extensive literature suggests that landscape patterns affect the abundance conservation of endangered species communities and to raise public and habitats and the reservation of awareness through education. and persistence of terrestrial species. The fragmentation of the landscape, lands for aesthetic and recreation There appears to be a commonality and the consequences of that values (Boyce and Martin 1993). of threats to sensitive species and fragmentation on ecosystems and These changes highlight the communities of the South. Many population dynamics, are concerns important role that public lands species and communities experienced shared across the region. will have in the conservation of species declines associated with human and their habitats. The Forest Service, disturbance and settlement patterns. Natural processes and human activities may influence habitat loss Fish and Wildlife Service, and National The growth of human populations Park Service manage millions of acres in the South will continue to pressure and isolation. Changes in patchiness, edge, and connectivity may eliminate, in the South. Other agencies, such as species and the communities that the U.S. Department of Defense and TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 41 the Tennessee Valley Authority, also The area of public land is being Industry land also offers opportunities manage critical habitat areas. There supplemented by acquisition efforts to provide wildlife habitat. Given the are numerous Federal policies that by private conservation organizations. incentive of green certification dictate the management and The Nature Conservancy, the Trust programs and the scale of their conservation of natural resources. for Public Lands, and Ducks Unlimited operations, many large corporations Without these public lands, many acquire land for conservation purposes. are taking positive actions to protect species would be in trouble. For They either manage it or transfer sensitive biological resources on their example, over 53 percent of the species it to public agencies. The Nature property (Stein and others 2000). with viability concerns in the Ozark Conservancy has created its own Industry land supports breeding bird and Ouachita Highlands are known system of conservation properties species, game species, and other species to occur only on national forests (U.S. in the South. In contrast, the Trust (Wigley and others 2000). Individual Department of Agriculture, Forest for Public Lands acquires land for companies work with government Service 1999). The Peaks of Otter ultimate ownership and management agencies to identify threatened and salamander is an example of an by public resource agencies. Many endangered species on their land. imperiled species that occurs solely of the trust’s land transactions have The Special Sites program within on Federal land—in this case, the been from forest industry lands that the Sustainable Forestry Initiative George Washington and Jefferson were important biologically. manages ecological sites to maintain National Forests and the Blue Ridge The magnitude of private ownership wetlands, longleaf pine, and other Parkway. The Federal land in the also presents a significant challenge unique communities (Weyerhaeuser Florida Panhandle and the central for southern forests. Individual land- and Price 2001). Appalachian Mountains supports owners are changing the characteristics Forest industry has also donated concentrations of imperiled and of future forest resources. For example, thousands of acres to State agencies listed species (Stein and others 2000). the absence of management on private and the Nature Conservancy (Owen National wildlife refuges play a key land may result in declines in early and Helssenbuttel 1989). Donations role in the protection of listed species successional habitat in many areas include the Beryl Anthony Wildlife such as the red wolf and the Florida (Trani and others 2001). The small Management Area in Arkansas (7,000 panther, and in the provision of tracts typical of present land use acres), Great Dismal Swamp National key areas of habitat for waterfowl, patterns often provide little opportunity Wildlife Refuge in Virginia (60,000 migratory birds, and many other for forest management and natural acres), and several wildlife manage- species. National parks are important disturbance sufficient to create early ment areas. for the preservation and management successional forest. A myriad of species of old growth, spruce-fir, and other may be influenced by this condition. The significance of many types rare and sensitive communities of both of landowners in the South in The Forest Service and other partners providing wildlife habitat cannot plants and animals. National forests have initiated active reforestation are key in the provision of wilderness be overstated. Each major landowner programs with the private sector as part has an important role to play in areas, large blocks of forest interior, of the Lower Mississippi Valley Joint and a diversity of habitats. the conservation of species and Venture. Land clearing and alteration their habitats. Other public lands are also important of hydrology have resulted in environ- for the conservation of species and their mental degradation throughout the habitats. State agencies own significant valley. This step towards changing Needs for Additional areas designated as parks, wildlife private land use practices may lead Research management areas, forests, or natural to restoration of the bottomland resource areas. While the purposes hardwood system, the provision of Data are needed on the distribution, of such areas vary, the conservation quality habitat, economic opportunities population dynamics, and habitat of biological diversity is often one for landowners, and a reliable wood requirements of many southern species. objective for these properties. In supply to meet society’s needs. Basic life history and management Florida, State agencies are carrying The significant numbers of imperiled information is lacking for several out aggressive land acquisition and endangered species inhabiting threatened and endangered species. programs for conserving biodiversity, private land indicate the critical For some nongame birds and game using shared Federal excise tax importance of this land for conservation species, standardized inventories lend revenues as a funding source. City and (Stein and others 2000). For this themselves to regional assessments. county governments also own a variety reason, a variety of strategies designed For most species, however, there is a of land in parks and recreation areas to encourage conservation on private dearth of monitoring information from that support species and their habitats. areas have been implemented by which to evaluate regional conditions. Many imperiled and endangered government agencies. Incentive Centers of amphibian and reptile species are found on public land, programs have been created to diversity should be identified in and this land represents a relatively encourage reforestation of private sensitive communities. Long-term small percentage of forest land in the land. Recognizing the significance monitoring of amphibian and reptile South. It seems clear, therefore that of private land to the imperiled species populations is needed to establish public land is vital for maintaining of the region is essential. Often, wildlife population trends. Further study imperiled and endangered species conservation may be more important also is warranted to assess the impact (Stein and others 2000). than timber production on this land. TERRESTRIAL

42 Southern Forest Resource Assessment

the expected climate changes may and figures from the RPA. David Brady, S.J.; Flather, C.H.; Church, have on amphibians and other Meriwether, USDA Forest Service, K.E. 1998. Range-wide declines sensitive species. Sheila Colwell, National Park Service, of northern bobwhite (Colinus Further research is desirable into and Roger Boykin, U.S. Fish and virginianus): land use patterns management techniques that mimic Wildlife Service, provided information and population trends. Gibier natural disturbance for the creation of on land ownership within their Faune Sauvage. 15: 413–431. landscape patterns that are consistent respective agencies. M. J. Mac, Brittingham, M.C.; Temple, S.A. with the evolutionary history of species. U.S. Geological Survey, and Peter 1983. Have cowbirds caused forest Applied research is needed to identify White, University of North Carolina, songbirds to decline? BioScience. the best approaches, including burning, supplied the maps showing Federal 33: 31–35. for restoring degraded communities land ownership and distribution of longleaf pine in the South. Buckner, E. 1989. Evolution of forest and maintaining sensitive communities. types in the Southeast. In: Waldrop, Finally, methods should be developed In addition, many other organizations T.A., ed. Pine-hardwood mixture: to quantify and forecast influences and individuals supplied information a symposium on management of human developments on southern and ideas for this chapter, including and ecology of the type. Gen. Tech. biodiversity. We must identify verte- Brant Miller, Ben Wigley, Lisa Stocker, Rep. SE–58. Asheville, NC: U.S. brate species that may be influenced National Council of the Paper Industry Department of Agriculture, Forest by future habitat fragmentation, and for Air and Stream Improvement, Service, Southeastern Forest examine how fragmentation attributes Southern Environmental Law Experiment Station: 17–33. Center, and Larry Walker. change over time. Chasko, G.G.; Gates, J.E. 1982. I would also like to thank the Avian habitat suitability along Acknowledgments question managers and participants a transmission-line corridor in (general public, industry, agencies, an oak-hickory forest region. and organizations) for sharing Wildlife Monograph. 82: 1–41. My appreciation is extended to John their ideas and concerns during Greis and David Wear for their Assessment meetings. Chen, J.; Franklin, J.F.; Spies, T.A. encouragement and support during 1992. Vegetative response to edge Finally, my appreciation is offered environments in old-growth Douglas- the Assessment process. John Pye to several USDA Forest Service graciously handled the Internet fir forests. Ecological Applications. individuals who assisted with the 2: 387–396. conversion of the document. Internet searches, and the production Appreciation is extended to Tom of tables and figures. These included Combs, D.L.; Fredrickson, L.H. Darden and his staff in the Southern Pal Mattox, Mike Donahue, Christine 1996. Foods used by male mallards Regional Office for their ongoing Gabbard, Brenda Ayers, Kay Spangler, wintering in southeastern Missouri. support and assistance. An earlier and Ron Underwood. Journal of Wildlife Management. draft benefited from insightful com- 60: 603–610. ments by Dennis Krusac and George DeGraaf, R.M.; Miller, R.I. 1996. Bukenhofer, USDA Forest Service, Literature Cited Conservation of faunal diversity and six anonymous scientific reviewers. in forested landscapes. London: Their comments strengthened and Ambuel, B.; Temple, S.A. 1983. Chapman and Hall. 633 p. improved the final manuscript. Area-dependent changes in the bird communities and vegetation Delcourt, P.A.; Delcourt, H.R. 1987. Gratitude also is given to Chuck Long-term forest dynamics of Hunter, U.S. Fish and Wildlife of southern Wisconsin forests. Ecology. 64(5): 1057–1068. the temperature zone. New York: Service, for supplying the physio- Springer-Verlag. 439 p. Askins, R.A. 1994. Open corridors in graphic region map and drafts of his Delcourt, P.A.; Delcourt, H.R.; Morse, upcoming publications. Paris Griep, a heavily forested landscape: impact on shrubland and forest-interior D.F.; Morse, P.A. 1993. History, USDA Forest Service, contacted State evolution, and organization of agency biologists for information on the birds. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 22: 339–347. vegetation and human culture. current status and habitat concerns for In: Martin, W.H.; Boyce, S.G.; black bear. Joe Johnston and Kenneth Askins, R.A.; Lynch, J.F.; Greenberg, Echternacht, A.C., eds. Biodiversity Graham, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, R. 1990. Population declines in of the Southeastern United States: supplied recovery plans and other migratory birds in Eastern North lowland terrestrial communities. information on listed species. The America. Current Ornithology. New York: John Wiley: 47–79. Southern Forest History Association 7: 1–57. assisted with literature searches relating Dickson, J.G. 2001. Early history. to historical species and conditions. Boyce, S.G.; Martin, W.H. 1993. The In: Dickson, J., ed. Wildlife of future of the terrestrial communities the southern forests: habitat and Special thanks to James Dickson, of the Southeastern United States. In: management. Blaine, WA: Hancock Louisiana State University, for supply- Martin, W.H; Boyce, S.G.; House Publishing: 20–30. ing chapters of his upcoming textbook Echternacht, A.C., eds. Biodiversity of on southern wildlife. Credit also is the Southeastern United States: given to Curt Flather, Rocky Mountain upland terrestrial communities. New Research Station, for the use of maps York: John Wiley: 339–366. TERRESTRIAL

Chapter 1: Terrestrial Ecosystems 43

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The southern forest resource assessment provides a comprehensive analysis of the history, status, and likely future of forests in the Southern United States. Twenty-three chapters address questions regarding social/ economic systems, terrestrial ecosystems, water and aquatic ecosystems, forest health, and timber management; 2 additional chapters provide a background on history and fire. Each chapter surveys pertinent literature and data, assesses conditions, identifies research needs, and examines the implications for southern forests and the benefits that they provide.

Keywords: Conservation, forest sustainability, integrated assessment.

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