Arctic Research of the United States, Volume 15

This document has been archived. About The journal Arctic Research of the United refereed for scientific content or merit since the States is for people and organizations interested journal is not intended as a means of reporting the in learning about U.S. Government-financed scientific research. Articles are generally invited Arctic research activities. It is published semi- and are reviewed by agency staffs and others as Journal annually (spring and fall) by the National Science appropriate. Foundation on behalf of the Interagency Arctic As indicated in the U.S. Arctic Research Plan, Research Policy Committee (IARPC) and the research is defined differently by different agencies. Arctic Research Commission (ARC). Both the It may include basic and applied research, moni- Interagency Committee and the Commission were toring efforts, and other information-gathering authorized under the Arctic Research and Policy activities. The definition of Arctic according to Act (ARPA) of 1984 (PL 98-373) and established the ARPA is “all United States and foreign terri- by Executive Order 12501 (January 28, 1985). tory north of the Arctic Circle and all United Publication of the journal has been approved by States territory north and west of the boundary the Office of Management and Budget. formed by the Porcupine, Yukon, and Kuskokwim Arctic Research contains Rivers; all contiguous seas, including the Arctic • Reports on current and planned U.S. Govern- Ocean and the Beaufort, Bering, and Chukchi ment-sponsored research in the Arctic; Seas; and the Aleutian chain.” Areas outside of • Reports of ARC and IARPC meetings; and the boundary are discussed in the journal when • Summaries of other current and planned considered relevant to the broader scope of Arctic Arctic research, including that of the State of research. Alaska, local governments, the private sector, Issues of the journal will report on Arctic and other nations. topics and activities. Included will be reports of Arctic Research is aimed at national and inter- conferences and workshops, university-based national audiences of government officials, scien- research and activities of state and local govern- tists, engineers, educators, private and public ments and public, private and resident organiza- groups, and residents of the Arctic. The emphasis tions. Unsolicited nontechnical reports on is on summary and survey articles covering U.S. research and related activities are welcome. Government-sponsored or -funded research rather Address correspondence to Editor, Arctic than on technical reports, and the articles are Research, Arctic Research and Policy Staff, intended to be comprehensible to a nontechnical Office of Polar Programs, National Science audience. Although the articles go through the Foundation, 4201 Wilson Boulevard, Arlington, normal editorial process, manuscripts are not VA 22230.

Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee Department of Agriculture Introduction 2 Department of Commerce Executive summary 3 Department of Defense 1. Introduction 4 Department of Energy 1.1 National needs, goals, and objectives 4 Department of Health and Human Services 1.2 Budgetary considerations 7 Department of the Interior 1.3 Interagency coordination 7 Department of State 1.4 International cooperation 7 1.5 Revision to the plan 10 Department of Transportation Environmental Protection Agency 2. Special focus interagency research programs 11 2.1 The Study of Environmental Arctic Change (SEARCH) 11 National Aeronautics and Space Administration 2.2 Integrated assessment for a sustainable Bering Sea 19 National Science Foundation 2.3 Arctic health 27 Smithsonian Institution 3. Agency programs 38 Office of Management and Budget 3.1 New opportunities for Arctic research 38 Office of Science and Technology Policy 3.2 Arctic Ocean and marginal seas 40 3.3 Atmosphere and climate 43 Arctic Research Commission 3.4 Land and offshore resources 45 George B. Newton, Jr., Chair 3.5 Land–atmosphere–water interactions 47 Arlington, Virginia 3.6 Engineering and technology 49 Richard K. Glenn 3.7 Social sciences 50 Barrow, Alaska 3.8 Health 53 Jacqueline M. Grebmeier Knoxville, Tennessee 4. Research support, logistics, facilities, data, and information 55 John E. Hobbie 4.1 Research support and logistics 55 Woods Hole, Massachusetts 4.2 Arctic data and information 60 Jim O. Llewellyn 5. Bibliography 63 Atlanta, Georgia Appendix A: Glossary of acronyms 64 Walter B. Parker Anchorage, Alaska Appendix B: Eighth Biennial Report of the Interagency Arctic John R. Roderick Research Policy Committee to the Congress 67 Anchorage, Alaska Appendix C: Arctic research budgets of Federal agencies 69 Rita R. Colwell, Ex Officio Arlington, Virginia Appendix D: Federal Arctic research program descriptions 72 Appendix E: Arctic Research and Policy Act, As Amended 78 Managing Editorial Committee Appendix F: Principles for the conduct of research in the Arctic 82 Charles E. Myers, National Science Foundation—Editor Appendix G: Acknowledgments 84 John Haugh, Bureau of Land Management—Associate Editor David W. Cate, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory—Consulting Editor

1 United States Arctic Research Plan Biennial Revision: 2002–2006

Introduction

The United States Arctic Research Plan was cross-cutting issues such as research support prepared by the Interagency Arctic Research and logistics, facilities, international activities, Policy Committee (IARPC). The Plan is a consen- and data and information. The Plan describes sus document that reflects the views of twelve high-priority research needs of the agencies but IARPC agencies. It responds to recommendations does not include every possible Arctic research of the U.S. Arctic Research Commission and to idea that might be suggested. The Plan also recommendations of scientists who provided responds to environmental and strategic objec- advice to the IARPC agencies. tives of U.S. Arctic policy. The Plan includes three special focus multi- The Plan is a living document. In accordance agency research programs agreed to by the with the Arctic Research and Policy Act, it is Federal agencies and includes multiagency revised every two years.

2 Executive Summary

Background dation (NSF), continues to provide the mechanism The United States has substantial economic, for developing and coordinating U.S. Arctic scientific, strategic, and environmental interests in research activities. the Arctic. As required by the Arctic Research and Policy Act of 1984 (Public Law 98-373),* a com- Revision to the Plan prehensive Arctic Research Plan is prepared by This revision to the United States Arctic the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Commit- Research Plan includes two major sections. The tee and submitted to the President, who transmits first of these presents the Special Focus Inter- it to Congress. Section 109(a) of the Act requires agency Research Programs. For this biennial a biennial revision to the Plan. This document revision of the Plan, agencies agreed that the fol- updates the Plan and elaborates on the require- lowing three programs are ready for immediate ments of Section 109(a). attention as interagency focused efforts: United States research in the Arctic and this • Study of Environmental Arctic Change biennial revision are governed by U.S. national (SEARCH) policy on the Arctic, research goals and objectives • Bering Sea Research agreed upon by the Interagency Committee, and • Arctic Health Research. guidance provided by the Arctic Research Com- The second major section is the Agency Pro- mission. grams, which represent the objectives of Federal It is in the national interest of the United States agencies, focusing on the period covered by this to support scientific and engineering research to revision (2002–2006). They are presented in sev- implement its national policy objectives, includ- en major categories, and where common activities ing: exist they are presented as collective programs: • Protecting the Arctic environment and • Arctic Ocean and Marginal Seas conserving its living resources; • Atmosphere and Climate • Promoting environmentally sustainable • Land and Offshore Resources natural resource management and economic • Land–Atmosphere–Water Interactions development in the region; • Engineering and Technology • Strengthening institutions for cooperation • Social Sciences among the eight Arctic nations; • Health. • Involving the indigenous people of the Arctic Since the passage of the Act, the Interagency in decisions that affect them; Committee, the Arctic Research Commission, and • Enhancing scientific monitoring and research the State of Alaska have addressed issues related to on local, regional, and environmental issues logistics support for Arctic research. This revision (including their assessment); and considers issues related to surface ships and ice plat- • Meeting post-Cold-War national security and forms; land-based and atmospheric facilities and defense needs. platforms; coordination; and data facilities. The Arctic Research and Policy Act requires cooperation among agencies of the U.S. Govern- Budgetary Consideration ment having missions and programs relevant to Appendix C presents a summary of each agen- the Arctic. It established the Interagency Arctic cy’s funding for the 2000–2002 period. The total Research Policy Committee to “promote Federal interagency Arctic budget estimate for FY 01 is interagency coordination of all Arctic research $240 million; for FY 02 it is $233 million. Pro- activities” [Section 108(a)(9)]. The Interagency gram descriptions may be assumed to reflect the Committee, chaired by the National Science Foun- general direction of agency programs.

* Amended on November 16, 1990 (Public Law 101- 609); See Appendix E.

3 1. Introduction

1.1 National Needs, Goals, and Objectives United States research in the Arctic and this System from the Prudhoe Bay region in Arctic biennial revision are governed by U.S. national Alaska. The Department of the Interior (USGS policy on the Arctic (announced by the U.S. and MMS) estimates that at least 36% of the Department of State), the Declaration on Estab- Nation’s future reserves (undiscovered resources) lishment of the Arctic Council (announced by the of oil and natural gas liquids lie beneath northern U.S. Department of State), research goals and Alaskan and the adjacent offshore areas. The State objectives agreed upon by the Interagency Com- of Alaska reports that northern Alaska contains mittee, and guidance provided by the Arctic known gas reserves of 30.9 trillion cubic feet (tcf), Research Commission. which is about 18% of the Nation’s gas reserve; currently plans are being discussed for a gas pipe- 1.1.1 National Needs and Problems line to transport this resource south. Additionally The national interest of the United States the Department of the Interior reports that there requires support of scientific and engineering are approximately 160 tcf of undiscovered natural research to implement its national policy objec- gas in northern Alaska and offshore, which is tives, including: approximately 30% of the Nation’s undiscovered • Protecting the Arctic environment and con- natural gas. Gas hydrate resources of Arctic Alas- serving its biological resources; ka have been estimated by the USGS to range • Assuring that natural resource management from 0 to 119,000 tcf (at 95 and 5% probabili- and economic development in the region are ties), with a mean estimate of 32,894 tcf. The environmentally sustainable; USGS estimates that 98% of these resources occur • Strengthening institutions for cooperation under Federal waters in the Beaufort Sea. among the eight Arctic nations; In addition to oil and gas, the Arctic has large • Involving the Arctic’s indigenous people in coal and peat resources. The U.S. Arctic has been decisions that affect them; estimated to contain about as much coal as the • Enhancing scientific monitoring and research remainder of the U.S. However, U.S. Arctic coal on, and assessment of, local, regional, and production will be limited until the energy needs global environmental issues on Earth and in of Alaska grow substantially or the Pacific Rim near-Earth space; and countries provide sufficient impetus for further • Meeting post-Cold-War national security and coal development. defense needs. Minerals are also important Arctic resources. U.S. Arctic research uses the northern polar The Red Dog lead–zinc–silver mine, north of the region as a natural laboratory to study processes Arctic Circle, is one of the largest zinc-producing that also occur at lower latitudes. Where appropri- mines in the world, producing 60% of the U.S. ate, this research should be coordinated with the zinc output. The Arctic shelves also contain min- efforts of state and local governments and the pri- eral deposits. At least one offshore tin mine has vate sector. The research should be carried out in a been brought into production in Russia. Dredging manner that benefits from and contributes to inter- for sand and gravel on the Arctic Ocean shelves national cooperation. Arctic research policy is sub- supports hydrocarbon development and other ject to periodic review and revision. The role of large coastal and offshore construction projects. the Arctic in meeting national needs and addressing key policy issues is further highlighted below. 1.1.3 Renewable Resources Arctic and Bering Sea waters support some of 1.1.2 Nonrenewable Resources the most productive fisheries in the world. The The U.S. imports approximately 50% of its Bering Sea supplies nearly 5% of the world’s fish- petroleum needs. About 17% of our domestic oil ery products. An estimated 4 million metric tons production comes via the Trans-Alaska Pipeline of 43 commercial species are caught every year by

4 fishing fleets from the United States, Russia, occurs on Earth. Global climate models suggest Japan, and other nations. Since the passage of the that the amount of warming may be significantly Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management greater in northern high-latitude regions than in Act in 1976, American groundfish operations in lower latitudes, but the models do not agree on Alaska have developed into an industry with an the amount of warming to be expected at high annual product value estimated at $2.2 billion. latitudes. Dutch Harbor–Unalaska, Alaska, is the leading Furthermore, there is growing evidence that the U.S. port in the quantity of commercial fish land- polar regions play a key role in the physical pro- ings. Alaska leads all states in both total volume cesses responsible for global climate fluctuations and total value of fish landings. and in some circumstances may be a prime agent Dramatic and unexplained fluctuations have of such fluctuations. For example, North Atlantic occurred in the catch of groundfish and shellfish and deep water formation may be affected by a deli- the stocks of marine mammals. There is considerable cate balancing in the amount of fresh water that is concern that the walleye pollock population will exported from the Arctic Basin and that flows “crash” as others have in the past. Managing for sus- from the East Greenland Current into the region of tainable yields requires further research. A number deep vertical convection in the North Atlantic. of other important fish and non-fish species are Heat flux through the variable ice cover of the declining in North Pacific and Bering Sea coastal Arctic Ocean may have a profound effect on the systems as well. For example, Pacific salmon runs surface heat budget and the global climate. have been at all-time lows in several major west- Arctic biological processes can also affect glo- ern Alaska watersheds over the past few years. Sea bal processes and result in positive feedback on otters in the western Aleutians have declined dramat- CO2 increase and warming. It remains unclear ically. There are concerns that walruses may be whether Arctic ecosystems are functioning as experiencing population changes because of shifts in sources or sinks for excess CO2. For example, a ice distribution. Populations of terrestrial and marine shift in vegetation from tundra to trees could have birds exhibiting significant declines include loons; significant effects on regional climate. sea ducks such as the threatened Steller’s and specta- High-latitude warming may disturb the equilib- cled eiders, and at-risk species such as black scoter, rium of Arctic ice masses and hence global sea long-tailed duck, and common eider; seabirds such levels. Such events are preserved in the geologic as red-legged kittiwakes and common murres; and record, and polar regions are a natural repository several shorebirds including bristle-thighed curlews of information about past climatic fluctuations. and buff-breasted sandpipers. Importantly, for most The Arctic ozone layer has exhibited significant of these species there is little known about their life changes—concentrations are decreasing. These are history, population dynamics, and habitat require- expected to deepen over the next decade, as atmo- ments, thus complicating the identification of factors spheric chlorine and bromine reach high levels that may be limiting their recovery to former levels because of previous releases. Their causes and of abundance. Additionally, Alaska Natives living in implications will continue to be a subject of many coastal villages near the North Pacific and research. Additional data may shed light on the Bering Sea depend on these species for subsistence. causes and effects of both catastrophic and evolu- Changes in their distribution and abundance would tionary global change. Arctic research provides a be devastating to the villages. critical component of virtually every science element The impact on the coastal economy of Alaska in the U.S. Global Change Research Program. and other northwestern U.S. states is magnified by substantial capitalization in vessels, port facilities, 1.1.5 Social and and processing plants and related income to a Environmental Issues broad sector of the economy. A sustainable, pre- Arctic populations live in close contact with their dictable fishery stock is fundamental to the viabil- environment and are highly dependent on marine ity of this sector of the U.S. economy. Research and terrestrial ecosystems. Contaminants pose a on Arctic marine ecosystems is essential for potential threat to the health of Arctic residents who understanding and managing their resources. rely on subsistence foods (fish, marine mammals, moose, and caribou). Heavy metals, organochlo- 1.1.4 Global Change rines, soot, and other pollutants accumulate at high High latitudes may experience the earliest latitudes because of atmospheric and oceanic circu- onset of global warming if a “greenhouse effect” lation patterns and subsequent concentration in food

5 chains and organic soils. The effects of environmen- ral laboratory, national defense, natural hazards, tal change, including climate changes, can have global climate and weather, energy and minerals, enormous impacts on Arctic ecosystems, on the transportation, communications, renewable response of wildlife to ecosystem productivity, and resources, contaminants, environmental protec- on the human use of wildlife. tion, health, adaptation, and Native cultures. Other issues of importance to Arctic residents More specific long-term goals have been include social and economic changes such as those developed by the Interagency Committee to fur- resulting from large-scale development and popula- ther guide the revision of the Plan: tion influx. Many of these changes are positive, such • Pursue integrated, interagency, and interna- as increased educational and employment opportuni- tional research and risk assessment programs ties, better medical care, and the use of modern for the purpose of managing Arctic risks; technology. Other changes, such as social and cul- • Continue to develop and maintain U.S. scien- tural disruption, have been a cause for concern. tific and operational capabilities to perform Research addressing the phenomena of rapid social research in the Arctic; change, human–environment interactions, and the • Promote the improvement of environmental viability of small subsistence-dependent communi- protection and mitigation technology and the ties sheds light on the complex relationships between enhancement of ecologically compatible environment, economy, culture, and society. resource use technology; Recent studies have found that concentrations • Develop an understanding of the role of the of carbon dioxide and methane in Arctic haze lay- Arctic in predicting global environmental ers are elevated with respect to background levels. changes and perform research to reveal early Concentrations of these two gases are correlated, signals of global changes in the Arctic and suggesting a common anthropogenic source (fossil determine their significance; fuel combustion) and subsequent transport into • Develop the scientific basis for responding to the Arctic. Soot carbon has been traced for thou- social changes and the health needs of Arctic sands of kilometers across the Arctic, where it people; remains suspended in a dry, stable atmosphere. • Contribute to the understanding of the rela- Ozone depletion in the polar vortex has enormous tionship between Arctic residents and their health implications to the people of the entire use of wildlife and how this relationship Northern Hemisphere. might be affected by global climate change High latitudes are also particularly susceptible and transported contaminants; to adverse conditions in the space environment, • Engage Arctic residents, scientists, and engi- which can disrupt satellite operations, communi- neers in planning and conducting the research cations, navigation, and electric power distribu- and report results to these individuals and the tion grids, leading to a variety of socioeconomic public; losses. These space environment effects, generally • Continue to document and understand the referred to as “space weather,” are often associat- role of permafrost in environmental activities; ed with transient phenomena on the sun that may • Advance knowledge of the Arctic geologic cause geomagnetic storms on Earth, which bring framework and paleoenvironments; bright, dynamic auroral displays and intense iono- • Contribute to the understanding of upper spheric currents. These induced currents can cause atmospheric and outer space phenomena, par- massive network failures in electric power distribu- ticularly their effects on space-borne and tion systems and permanent damage to multi-mil- ground-based technological systems; lion-dollar equipment in power generation plants. • Develop and maintain databases and data and information networks; and 1.1.6 U.S. Goals and Objectives • Develop and maintain a strong technological for Arctic Research base to support national security needs in the Arctic research is aimed at resolving scientific, Arctic. sociological, and technological problems concern- In addition to these goals and objectives for ing the physical and biological components of the Arctic research developed by the Interagency Arctic and the interactive processes that govern Committee, the Arctic Research Commission has the behavior of these components. The objectives provided further guidance for U.S. Arctic include addressing the needs for increased knowl- research. This revision of the Plan is consistent edge on such issues as using the Arctic as a natu- with these Commission recommendations.

6 1.2 Budgetary Considerations

The Act does not provide separate additional Table 1. Arctic research budgets by individual funding for Arctic research. Agencies are expect- Federal agencies (in millions of dollars). ed to request and justify funds for these activities FY 00 FY 01 FY 02 as part of the budget process. Table 1 presents a Agency Actual Actual Proposed summary of each agency’s Arctic research funding DOD 23.3 20.4 8.6 for the 2000–2002 period. The total interagency DOI 43.9 43.9 43.0 NSF 67.5 74.2 76.6 Arctic expenditure for FY 00 was $242 million; NASA 46.6 34.2 38.5 for FY 01 it is $240 million. Appendix C contains NOAA 29.7 30.7 32.8 a detailed listing of existing Federal agency pro- DOE 4.7 4.2 4.0 grams and budgets, divided by major subelements. DHHS 13.8 15.9 16.0 The Plan contains the detailed agency budgets SI 0.5 0.5 0.5 DOT 6.3 10.9 7.9 through FY 02. Program descriptions may be EPA 0.7 0.7 0.4 assumed to reflect the general direction of agency DA 4.8 4.9 4.9 programs. DOS 0.0 0.0 0.0 Total 241.9 240.4 233.3

1.3 Interagency Coordination The Arctic Research and Policy Act (Appendix The Act mandates coordination of U.S. Arctic E) requires cooperation among agencies of the research programs. Mechanisms for appropriate U.S. Government having missions and programs levels of coordination continue to evolve. Three relevant to the Arctic. It established the Interagen- levels of coordination and cooperation are needed cy Arctic Research Policy Committee to “promote for an effective national Arctic research program: Federal interagency coordination of all Arctic • Individual agency, and independent investiga- research activities” [Section 108(a)(9)]. The Inter- tor, research programs; agency Committee, chaired by the National Sci- • National coordination; and ence Foundation (NSF), continues to provide the • International collaboration. mechanism for guiding and coordinating U.S. Each element requires a mechanism for internal Arctic research activities. The biennial revisions program development, review, and implementa- of the U.S. Arctic Research Plan serve as guid- tion, and each needs to be linked to the other two. ance for planning by individual agencies and for The national effort is performed through the Inter- coordinating and implementing mutually benefi- agency Committee. A staff oversight group of the cial national and international research programs. Interagency Committee provides coordination, Since the last revision of the Plan, significant assisted by working groups representing specific progress in implementing recommendations has agency programs. These are reported in the subse- been made, and accomplishments continue to be quent sections. identified. These include activities of the Inter- Many interagency agreements and planning and agency Committee and the Arctic Research Com- coordinating activities already exist. Coordination mission. Additional information can be found in with global change programs is an integral part of the journal Arctic Research of the United States Arctic program development and implementation. (Volume 14, Spring/Summer 2000), published by Improved communication at all levels through NSF on behalf of the IARPC. existing newsletters and journals is encouraged.

1.4 International Cooperation

On October 13, 2000, in Barrow, Alaska, the the gavel to Finland for the 2000–2002 period. U.S. Department of State completed its two-year The Arctic Council is an eight-nation forum estab- chairmanship of the Arctic Council and handed lished in 1996 to bring together in a senior policy

7 setting the environmental conservation elements the unique health, social, cultural, and environ- of the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy mental concerns of indigenous communities, when (AEPS) and issues of common concern related to developing Arctic programs and policies. Alas- sustainable development. In addition to the eight kans will continue to be included as appropriate nations (Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Finland, on U.S. delegations to Arctic-related meetings. Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden, U.S. Inuit, Aleut, Gwich’in, and Athabaskan pop- and the United States), many of the Arctic’s indig- ulations are now represented as Permanent Partic- enous communities are recognized as Permanent ipants on the Arctic Council, the Gwich’in and Participants of the Arctic Council. Athabaskans as a result of a ministerial decision in The Arctic Council is entirely consistent with October 2000 in Barrow, Alaska. The Council the objectives articulated in the U.S. Arctic Policy now has six Permanent Participants. Statement of 1994 and offers an important vehicle The Arctic Council today includes five observ- for pursuing them. These policy objectives er nations (Germany, France, the Netherlands, include: Poland, and the United Kingdom) with Arctic • Protecting the Arctic environment and con- research and environmental interests. These serving its living resources; nations have contributed to the environmental • Promoting environmentally sustainable natu- working groups of the Council and, at the Barrow ral resource management and economic Ministerial meeting, stated that they were inter- development in the region; ested in taking a more active role in the Council’s • Strengthening institutions for cooperation work. The U.S. welcomed the offer by the United among the eight Arctic nations; Kingdom to host a preparatory meeting of the • Involving the indigenous people of the Arctic Senior Arctic Officials in London prior to the in decisions that affect them; Ministerial meeting in Barrow. • Enhancing scientific monitoring and research on local, regional, and environmental issues; 1.4.1 Environmental Protection and The U.S. expanded its international coopera- • Meeting post-Cold-War national security and tion during the U.S. Chairmanship beyond the defense needs. scope of the Arctic Environmental Protection The United States has been an Arctic nation, Strategy (AEPS). with important interests in the region, since the The United States is fully engaged in the Arctic purchase of Alaska in 1867. National security, Council Action Plan to Eliminate Pollution in the economic development, human rights, and scien- Arctic (ACAP). The Environmental Protection tific research remain cornerstones of these inter- Agency has provided leadership for an ACAP ests. At the same time the pace of change in the program to prevent production and remediate the region—particularly political and technological effects of persistent organic pollutants in the Rus- developments—continues to accelerate, creating sian Federation. The U.S. also supports imple- interdependent challenges and opportunities for mentation of other projects to eliminate dioxins policy makers in Arctic regions. and obsolete pesticides from the Arctic. U.S. Arctic policy reflects these elements of The National Science Foundation and NOAA continuity and change. It emphasizes environmen- provide crucial leadership for the Arctic Cli- tal protection, sustainable development, and the mate Impact Assessment (ACIA), in coopera- role of indigenous people, while recognizing U.S. tion with the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment national security requirements in a post-Cold-War Program, and for the Conservation of Arctic world. It also is concerned with the need for sci- Flora and Fauna (CAFF) Working Group, in entific research—particularly in understanding the cooperation with the International Arctic role of the Arctic in global environmental pro- Science Committee. The U.S. is financing a cesses—and the importance of international coop- substantial portion of the ACIA Secretariat, eration in achieving Arctic objectives. among other contributions. The Department of State works in close consul- U.S. engagement in prevention and remedia- tation with the State of Alaska, Alaskan indige- tion activities follows a decade of international nous people, and Alaskan nongovernmental orga- cooperation to monitor and assess the levels of nizations (NGOs) on Arctic issues and policy environmental pollution. Beginning in 1989 the making. Federal agencies continue to give careful eight Arctic countries first discussed the need for consideration to local Alaskan needs, including international cooperation to address environmen-

8 tal protection. In 1991 in Rovaniemi, Finland, At the Barrow Ministerial meeting in October they reached agreement on AEPS. In 1996 in 2000, Ministers endorsed and adopted the Arctic Ottawa, Canada, the Arctic Council was created to Council’s Sustainable Development Framework address issues of sustainable development in the Document, which forms a basis for continuing Arctic and to oversee and coordinate the programs cooperation on sustainable development in the established under AEPS. This nonbinding effort Arctic. The Framework Document, consistent has primarily operated through four working with the Terms of Reference and Iqaluit Minis- groups to address environmental issues relevant to terial Declaration, identifies sustainable develop- the circumpolar area: ment projects, cooperative activities, and priori- • Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program ties for the Council’s consideration. (AMAP): Assesses the health and ecological In 1998, Ministers approved several sustain- risks associated with contamination from able development project proposals. In Barrow, radioactive waste, heavy metals, persistent Ministers welcomed the work accomplished dur- organics, and other contaminants. Recom- ing the 1998–2000 period. The U.S., with leader- mends targeted monitoring to collect current ship from the Institute for Circumpolar Health data from areas of special concern. Studies at the University of Alaska Anchorage, • Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna completed its report on Arctic telemedicine. Alas- (CAFF): Studies the adequacy of habitat pro- ka’s Department of Community and Economic tection and ways to strengthen wildlife pro- Development has a network of private, nongov- tection through an international network of ernmental, and Arctic Council member states in protected areas and more effective conserva- support of its Arctic ecological and cultural tour- tion practices. ism project. Ministers at Barrow approved a • Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment project of the Arctic Investigations Program of the (PAME): Creates international guidelines for U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offshore oil and gas development in the (CDC) to establish an integrated infectious Arctic, organizes and promotes the drafting disease–International Circumpolar Surveillance of a regional action plan for control of land- (ICS) system through a network of hospital and based sources of Arctic marine pollution, public health laboratory authorities in the Arctic. and collects information on Arctic shipping activities. 1.4.3 Scientific Research • Emergency Preparedness and Response The United States continues to plan to further (EPPR): Provides a forum in which partici- international scientific research through develop- pants work to better prevent, prepare for, and ment of an increasingly integrated national Arctic respond to the threat of environmental emer- research program. During the U.S. Chairmanship gencies in the Arctic. Activities include risk the U.S. took steps to support international coop- assessment and recommendation of response eration in monitoring, assessment, and environ- measures. mental research, as well as social science research Arctic Council Ministers approved the recom- related to sustainable development. U.S. support mendation that the Senior Arctic Officials, under for the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment is a key the leadership of the Finnish Chair, review the example of promoting international collaborative allocation of environmental work among the four research in the environmental sciences and in working groups (AMAP, CAFF, PAME, EPPR) to social science related to sustainable development. remedy gaps and duplication, if any. The Interagency Arctic Research Policy Com- mittee, with advice from the U.S. Arctic Research 1.4.2 Sustainable Development Commission, coordinates Federal efforts to pro- The Arctic Council Declaration describes sus- duce an integrated national program of research, tainable development as “including economic and monitoring, assessments, and priority setting that social development, improved health conditions, most effectively uses available resources. U.S. and cultural well-being.” Further, the concept of Arctic policy recognizes that cooperation among sustainability is reflected in the description of Arctic nations, including coordination of priori- environmental protection, which refers to “the ties, can make essential contributions to research health of the Arctic ecosystems, maintenance of in the region. To this end the Framework Docu- biodiversity in the Arctic region, and conservation ment on Sustainable Development, support for the and sustainable use of natural resources.” Survey of Living Conditions in the Arctic, and the

9 AMAP assessment on the state of the Arctic envi- The findings of these projects will have relevance ronment provide an important tool in influencing not only in Russia, but in the entire Arctic region. future research priorities. U.S. financial and resource contributions to these projects ensure a strong international presence on 1.4.4 Conservation issues that ultimately affect our own Arctic inhab- The United States works both nationally and itants and ecosystems. internationally to improve efforts to conserve Arc- In addition to the broad-based cooperation tic wildlife and protect habitat, with particular within the Arctic Council, which, among other attention to polar bears, walruses, seals, caribou, things, aids in establishing a more effective envi- migratory birds, and boreal forests. ronmental regulatory infrastructure in Russia, Consistent with the Agreement on Conserva- other multilateral forums now exist to address tion of Polar Bears, the U.S. and Russia signed an specialized concerns. Through NATO, we engage agreement in October 2000 to improve conserva- the Russian military on defense-related environ- tion of their shared population of polar bears. Sev- mental issues. On a trilateral basis, with Norway, eral official studies are ongoing, including a study we focus on the cleanup and consolidation of of pollution contamination of seals around two waste generated from military activities through villages in northern Alaska. The U.S. also works the Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation to better implement existing measures, such as the (AMEC) process. Our support of the International 1916 Migratory Bird Treaty and other conserva- Atomic Energy Agency’s International Arctic Seas tion measures, to mitigate seabird bycatch by Assessment Program also has provided a conduit commercial fishing vessels. for monitoring and assessing radioactive contaminants in the seas adjacent to the Russian Arctic. 1.4.5 Cooperation with the Russian The former Soviet Union (FSU) had an exten- Federation and Other Nations sive nuclear power program with numerous sup- Via the Department of State’s Environmental porting waste management activities that involved Diplomacy Funds (EDF), the U.S. is supporting ad hoc storage of low- and intermediate-level international projects that assess pollutants in radioactive wastes by shallow land burial and in Russia for the benefit of the entire Arctic region. surface water impoundments, as well as storage of In FY 00, EDF contributed to an Arctic-Council- high-level wastes. The Mayak, Tomsk, and Kras- led project on Persistent Toxic Substances, Food noyarsk sites all lie within a few kilometers of the Security, and Indigenous Peoples of the Russian edge of the West Siberian Plain and Basin. Past Far North. The project will establish an air quality and continuing disposal of wastes at Mayak, monitoring station in the Russian Far East to Tomsk, and Krasnoyarsk to surface waters (for gather high-quality, comprehensive data on pollut- example, the Ob and Yenisey Rivers) and surface ants in the Russian Arctic. This project will also water impoundments, and by deep well injections assess local pollution sources that affect the tradi- at Tomsk and Krasnoyarsk, have the potential for tional foods of Natives in Russia. In FY 01, EDF contaminating the Arctic Ocean, the western Sibe- will help support the Swedish-led Evaluation of rian oil and gas fields, and the regional water Dioxins and Furans in the Russian Federation. resources.

1.5 Revision to the Plan

This sixth revision to the United States Arctic collective activities. Individual agency mission Research Plan includes two major sections: accomplishments were discussed in the Spring/ • Section 2. Special Focus Interagency Summer 2000 issue of Arctic Research of the Research Programs; and United States and will be updated in 2002. • Section 3. Agency Programs. Several overall themes transcend essentially all The Agency Programs represent the objectives integrated and research mission components. of Federal agencies, focusing on the period cov- Section 4 presents current activities related to ered by this revision (2002–2006). They are pre- field operational support necessary for implemen- sented in eight major categories, and where tation of the proposed interagency programs and common activities exist they are presented as research mission activities.

10 2. Special Focus Interagency Research Programs

In 1990 the Interagency Committee agreed on and new technologies; the following policy: • Strengthen interagency data and information management; The IARPC agrees that a more comprehensive approach to funding of research and baseline pro- • Draw on the strengths of the academic, indus- grams is required to ensure a long-term, viable trial, and government research communities research and development presence in the Arctic. in planning and implementing programs; This presence will ensure support of the national • Support and enhance programs to acquire needs, which include renewable and nonrenewable long-term measurements of key parameters resource development, environmental protection, and environments; and and partnerships with the private sector and residents • Enhance international research collaboration. of the Arctic. It will complement other national and The U.S. has a substantial economic, strategic, international scientific programs, such as Global and environmental stake in the Arctic. Domestic Change. To this end the IARPC agencies agree to energy reserves and the explosive growth in Ber- develop, starting in 1992, an integrated interagency ing Sea fisheries harvests are two examples of our program sufficient for meeting national needs. dependence on Arctic resources. Sound manage- Subsequently the IARPC agencies examined Arc- ment decisions for sustainable development of tic research from an interagency perspective. For Arctic resources hinge on enhanced understanding this biennial revision of the plan, agencies agreed of the environment, leading to better forecasts. In that the following three programs are ready for addition, there is a strong international commit- immediate attention as multiagency focused ment to collaborate. efforts: Benefits to the Nation from Arctic research • Study of Environmental Arctic Change include improvements in: (SEARCH) • Knowledge of fishery resources and control- • Bering Sea Research ling dynamics; • Arctic Health Research. • Models and data for assessing past climates These coordinated, multiagency programs are and global change and their effects; being designed to: • International cooperation in a strategic • Focus research activities in concert with region; national policy; • Forecasts of weather, ice, and ocean condi- • Build on individual agency efforts in recon- tions; naissance, monitoring, process studies, and • Protection of the Arctic environment; modeling; • Understanding of the causes, effects, and lim- • Facilitate research and logistics coordination its of air and water pollution; and through regionally focused programs; • Protection and understanding of cultures and • Take maximum advantage of remote sensing cultural resources.

2.1 The Study of Environmental Arctic Change (SEARCH)

The Arctic Ocean and the surrounding lands throughout the Northern Hemisphere and beyond. and seas are seemingly remote areas for most of Native subsistence hunters and others with a keen us, yet ongoing changes in this area may have sense of observation have noted substantive profound impacts not only on the people and changes in the physical environment and in the economies of the region, but also on residents behavior of wildlife.

11 “Last spring we only got six walrus because of the shortened hunting season caused by earlier retreat weather and ice moving out too quick. I talked to of shorefast ice. Walrus are finding fewer sturdy elders about the weather. A long time ago it used to ice floes to serve as haulout areas. The tree line is be real nice for weeks and even sometimes for advancing, consistent with the milder winters. months. Now we only have a day or two of good Beavers are flourishing in the milder climate, weather. And a lot of times it is real windy now. They causing increased damming of rivers that reduces don’t know what is causing that either. And the hunt- the return of salmon to spawning grounds. ers that I talked with about the ice conditions say it is getting a lot thinner. It is going out too quick. In the Arctic itself, these physical and biologi- Maybe it is because of the weather. Maybe it is cal changes have social and cultural consequences because of that global warming.” for the Native communities and lifestyle and eco- Herman Toolie, Savoonga, St Lawrence Island, 2000 nomic consequences for all Arctic residents. Because these changes in the Arctic environment “My people hunted beaver in Hay Slough for over make it difficult to predict what tomorrow may 100 years, and in one house we had 32 beaver. bring, the entire complex of changes has been Because a lot of our lakes don’t freeze as deep. We given the name “Onami,” which is derived from are having more warmer winters than usual on a the Yup’ik word for “tomorrow.” consecutive basis. What’s happening is that because The dramatic environmental changes seen in the winters are warmer, the lakes don’t freeze all the the Arctic over the past few decades will almost way down and more of the young beavers survive. certainly create daunting environmental and We now have more beaver than ever in this slough socioeconomic challenges (or, perhaps, new eco- because of warm winters that give the beaver the nomic or social opportunities?) in the Arctic most favorable conditions to survive. The beaver region itself, but can these changes affect a much then proceed to dam and tier off the sloughs so resi- larger portion of the earth? For the most part, the dent species of fish, which again provides the Indi- ans with a very viable source of food, cannot reach observed changes relate to the physical environ- their spawning ground to provide the next genera- ment and are thought to be linked to climate vari- tion of food for the Indians of the Interior.” ability or change. Whether the processes at work Paul Erhart, Fairbanks, 2000 are entirely natural or are being caused or strengthened by human activities, impacts to a Scientists are documenting concurrent large- much larger area can occur in at least two major scale changes in the Arctic,* of which these local ways: via the atmosphere and via the oceans. fluctuations are a reflection. There is strong obser- Evidence is mounting that the state of the Arc- vational evidence consistent with thinning of the tic atmosphere, as characterized by the Arctic † Arctic ice pack and a decrease over time of the Oscillation index, strongly influences seasonal maximum extent of the sea ice cover. The state of weather patterns over the U.S. The Arctic Oscilla- the Arctic atmosphere has changed over the past tion was only recently described, and our under- few decades, changing temperature and wind pat- standing of its influence on weather and climate is terns and causing ice to circulate differently in the at an early stage. In a preliminary finding the Arctic Ocean. Warm Atlantic water has intruded National Weather Service has stated that for the unusually far into the eastern Arctic Ocean. Sur- eastern third of the U.S., “the AO is the single face air temperatures throughout much of the Arc- most important factor in wintertime seasonal tem- tic are increasing, especially in winter and spring, perature variability.” They also stated that at this leading to thawing of permafrost and earlier ice time it is the most difficult factor to forecast sea- melting. Stratospheric ozone over the Arctic is sonally with skill. diminishing in the spring, leading to elevated UV While connections through the atmosphere can levels reaching the surface. influence weather and climate outside the Arctic These physical changes are leading to changes on seasonal and interannual scales, connections in the biosphere. Canadian studies demonstrated through the oceans operate over time scales of up that polar bears are malnourished because of a † The Arctic Oscillation index is defined as the first empirical orthogonal function of the Northern Hemi- * The areal extent of the “Arctic” for the Study of Envi- sphere winter sea level pressure field. The AO can be ronmental Arctic Change includes not only all areas thought of as the difference between the weighted north of the Arctic Circle, but also the entire Bering average of sea level pressure over the entire midlatitude Sea, the Labrador Sea, the far North Atlantic, the entire belt centered near 45°N and the weighted average of sea permafrost zone on land, and watersheds that drain into level over the entire Arctic basin. The AO has been in a the Arctic Ocean. strong positive state for the past decade.

12 to several decades. The global thermohaline circu- In the Arctic the increase in surface tempera- lation (THC), in concert with the Gulf Stream, ture has been quite dramatic over the past 30 carries a significant amount of heat north and east years, leading to changes in a number of environ- across the North Atlantic to northern Europe and mental parameters sensitive to temperature. The Scandinavia. Processes in the North Atlantic and temperature changes seen in the Arctic are consis- Arctic strongly influence the rate at which the tent with the output of global climate models THC transports water. It is theoretically possible forced with increasing concentrations of atmo- that increases in the flux of fresh water from the spheric carbon dioxide. Many studies have been Arctic can decrease the rate of the THC and cause reported over the past decade that argue that the a significant cooling effect in Northern Europe Arctic may be a sensitive indicator of global and Scandinavia and perhaps even trigger an change. Models show that under a representative increase in glaciation over much of the Northern global warming scenario, temperature increases Hemisphere. There is evidence that such changes will be amplified in the Arctic, and the upper Arc- have occurred in the past, perhaps even over short tic Ocean salinity will decrease because of time scales of about 10 years. The National Acad- enhanced precipitation at high latitudes. Archaeo- emy of Sciences has begun a study of “abrupt logical studies have shown that human cultures climate change” that will consider the scientific have been drastically affected by such terrestrial evidence regarding the causes and probabilities of and ocean-based changes. For example, studies such events. have demonstrated a dramatic expansion of The U.S. agencies that conduct or sponsor sci- Vikings across the North Atlantic and their settle- entific activities in the Arctic have agreed that ment of Iceland and Greenland during a warm greater attention must be given to Arctic environ- climatic period, followed by their subsequent mental processes and their potential impacts on extinction from Greenland during the early part of the biosphere, including human social and eco- the Little Ice Age. Similar human impacts have nomic well being. Many of these agencies have been documented in the archaeological records for joined together to support the Study of Environ- virtually every area of the circumpolar region and mental Arctic Change (SEARCH). The SEARCH are especially well known in Labrador and the program will consist of research, monitoring, and eastern North American Arctic. analysis activities to track and quantify environmental changes in the Arctic, distinguish causative Recent Changes factors, assess environmental and socioeconomic Even though science cannot at present provide impacts, provide an analysis of the changes that irrefutable arguments regarding the cause(s) of the may be expected in the future, and provide out- recent observed global and Arctic warming, stud- reach to policy makers and the public. ies have proven that these changes are unprecedented over at least the last 400 years, although 2.1.1 Evidence for Climate the Arctic has experienced more significant Variability and Change in the Arctic changes during the past 8000 years. The rapid The earth’s climate is not constant. There are cli- changes that have occurred in the last decades mate cycles that vary over seasonal to centennial provide the motivation for SEARCH, and it is scales, and sudden climate changes can be induced useful to review a few of these key findings. by rare events (such as meteor impacts or volcan- In the ocean the warming influence of Atlantic ism). Now there is a new worry—that human activi- water appears to have started in the late 1980s and ties may cause climate change. The primary cause of has persisted through the 1990s. Data collected this worry is the undeniable build-up of carbon diox- during several cruises in 1993–1995 indicate that ide in the atmosphere as a result of a century of the boundary between the eastern and western accelerating combustion of fossil fuels. Most worri- halocline types has shifted from over the Lomono- some is the recognition that the use of fossil fuels sov Ridge to roughly parallel to the Alpha and will continue to increase for decades to come, result- Mendeleyev Ridges. In terms of longitudinal ing in concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmo- coverage, this means that the area occupied by the sphere that may exceed the pre-industrial level by eastern, Atlantic water types is nearly 20% greater four times or more. Already, there is solid evidence than previously observed. This distribution has of significant increase of surface temperatures on a persisted well into 1999, although the Atlantic global basis and of increased storage of heat in the water temperature appears to have ceased to global oceans. increase in 1998.

13 The observed shift in ocean frontal positions is potential for a positive feedback on global change associated with changes in ice drift and atmo- through losses of CO2 to the atmosphere of up to spheric pressure patterns. The ice drift and pres- 0.7 Gt C yr–1 (about 12% of the total emission sure fields for the 1990s are shifted counterclock- from fossil fuel use). These soil emissions aug- wise 40°–60° from the 1979–1992 pattern, just as ment the anthropogenic impact. the upper ocean circulation pattern derived from the hydrographic data is shifted relative to clima- Links between the Arctic and the Global System tology. This change is consistent with the findings The Arctic is one of two primary sinks for solar that the annual mean sea level atmospheric pres- energy, which enters the earth climate system most sure over the central Arctic basin is decreasing strongly in the equatorial regions; the other sink is and has been below the 1970–1995 mean in every the Antarctic. The observed changes impact the effi- year since 1988. This change in atmospheric pres- ciency with which the Arctic can act as a heat sink. sure is part of the recent large change in atmo- First, the Arctic Ocean’s stratification and ice cover spheric circulation of the Northern Hemisphere as provide a control on the surface heat and mass bud- captured by the AO index. gets of the north polar region and thereby on the glo- There have been changes in terrestrial variables bal heat sink. If the distribution of Arctic sea ice as well. Increased air temperature has been attended were to continue its present decrease, the altered sur- by reductions in spring snow cover since the mid- face fluxes would affect both the atmosphere and the 1980s. Arctic glaciers have exhibited negative mass ocean and would likely have significant conse- balances, paralleling a global tendency. Other studies quences for regional and global climate. point to increased plant growth, northward advances Second, the export of low-salinity waters, of the tree line, increased fire frequency, and thawing whether liquid or in the form of desalinated sea and warming of permafrost. ice, has the potential to influence the overturning cell of the global ocean through control of con- Long-Term Trends vection in the subpolar gyres. For example, recent There is evidence for multi-decadal and longer suggestions that North Atlantic and Eurasian trends in several key Arctic variables. There has climate variability may be predictable on decadal been pronounced warming over northern Eurasian time scales rest in part on the variability of such and North American land areas since the early upstream forcing in the Greenland Sea. 1970s, particularly during winter and spring, partly Third, sea ice, nutrient availability, and water compensated for by cooling over northeastern North density condition Arctic marine life. Changes in America. Temperatures have also increased over the these factors may impact marine ecosystems and Arctic Ocean in spring and summer. These changes biogeochemical cycling of essential nutrients and are in general agreement with those depicted in dissolved organic matter. Changes in the terres- model anthropogenic change experiments. Recon- trial hydrologic cycle may alter soil moisture, structions based on proxy sources indicate that late- impacting plant communities and their grazers. 20th-century Arctic temperatures are the highest in If Arctic soils have shifted from a sink to a source at least the past 400 years. Statistical analysis of this of carbon dioxide and methane as indicated time series against records of known forcing mecha- earlier, this would be a strong connection between nisms suggests that the recent warming has an Arctic processes and global climate. anthropogenic component. Available observations Finally, the atmospheric circulation of the point to long-term and recently augmented reduc- Northern Hemisphere has been changing as part tions in sea ice cover. of a pole-centered pattern, termed the Arctic These physical changes coincide with a shift in Oscillation (AO). Recent modeling studies sug- the Arctic budget for biogenic carbon. Recent data gest that the AO is a fundamental mode of atmo- suggest that past carbon accumulation in Arctic spheric change that has impact well beyond the tundra has changed to a pattern of net loss, with Arctic. Other studies suggest that the positive growing season releases of up to 150 g m–2 yr–1. trend seen in recent decades may be symptomatic The Arctic has been an overall significant sink for of anthropogenic climate change. carbon over historic and recent geologic time scales, resulting in large stores of soil carbon of 2.1.2 The Human Dimension perhaps 300 gigatons. Present conditions appear There is a strong human dimension to the envi- to represent significant deviations from historic ronmental changes of recent years. These have and Holocene carbon fluxes and indicate the direct effects on the residents of the Arctic

14 because many of them live so close to the environ- ther, the recent changes in the Arctic environment ment. Moreover, the changes seem to be having seem to have a connection with changes in the farther-reaching effects that touch society in sub- fisheries of the North Atlantic, the Bering Sea, the Arctic and even temperate regions through fisher- Barents Sea, and the Yukon River. These have ies and transportation. For example, Canadian resulted in regional economic change and a redis- grain is being shipped through Churchill, on Hud- tribution of income in many areas. son Bay, for the first time because of decreased It is a mistake to think of the Arctic Ocean as ice cover in the Canadian Arctic. being pristine. The recent report of the Arctic Moni- toring and Assessment Program makes this abun- Local and Regional Effects dantly clear. One reason is the atmospheric transport The environmental changes discussed above of semivolatile organic pollutants (DDT, PCBs, etc.) affect the residents of the Arctic that subsist whol- and mercury that enter the atmosphere in lower lati- ly or in part on Arctic flora or fauna. Indeed, the tude regions and condense in the Arctic. Through hunters and fishers of the north have made many this mechanism, we find concentrations of pollutants of the observations of environmental change. such as PCBs in Arctic fauna. In addition, there is They have recounted recent declines in abundance local atmospheric pollution. The largest Arctic rivers of a variety of fish species as well as marine mam- drain some heavily industrialized zones, including mals and seabirds. They have reported changes in portions of the former Soviet Union that were used the terrestrial environment, such as drying of lakes heavily for the production and processing of radio- and wetlands, drying of summer vegetation, and nuclides. Finally, there has been direct dumping of thawing of discontinuous permafrost. Indigenous pollutants into the Arctic Ocean and toxic chemicals people are uniquely prepared to note the increased left behind after closure of former defense sites. It is variability and decreased predictability of the difficult to predict what the future holds for the physical environment. Examples of their reports transport of pollutants into the Arctic, except to say of sea ice conditions, storm patterns, sea level, that it is likely to change and that for some pollutants weather changes, snow, rain, and water tempera- such as organochlorines and mercury there is legiti- tures and their effects on plant and animal food mate concern. There is also concern that, just as the sources show remarkable connections to the rising AO enhanced the northward heat flux, it may changes cited in the scientific literature. also be responsible for an increase in the northward Changes in the physical and biotic environment flux of contaminants. These concerns have given rise have impacts beyond the local village and com- to a lack of confidence in the safety of Native foods. munity scales. Changes in the duration and extent Over the past decade, large-scale ecological of pack ice cover influence the abundance of polar changes have impacted fishery-dependent societ- bears and seals; changes in seawater temperature ies around the world. Fishing pressure has been in Baffin Bay have a profound impact on the West one driver for these changes, but often the changes Greenland and Baffin cod and halibut fisheries; have coincided with climatic variations as well. and changes in temperature and snow cover influ- Economically critical groundfish populations, for ence the population sizes of caribou, muskox, and example, exhibited steep declines or collapses off small fur-bearers that northern residents depend Norway, the Faeroe Islands, Iceland, West Green- on for food, clothing, and income. The presence land, Newfoundland, and New England during the or absence of polynias and open ice leads influ- late 1980s or early 1990s. The collapse of New- ences the availability of sea mammals to hunters, foundland’s northern cod fishery in 1991-92 and the amount of stormy weather can determine occurred in conjunction with unusual ice condi- whether hunters can reach their prey even when tions and a broadening of the cold intermediate game is present. Modern Arctic residents confirm layer of the Labrador Current during a Northwest these and many other climatic and environmental Atlantic cooling phase of the NAO. Norway’s cod changes that influence the distribution of Arctic fishery was partially recovering from its own cri- resources important to humans in the north. ses (1989) during the same years, assisted by a Northeast Atlantic warming phase. West Green- Large-Scale Effects land’s cod fishery first developed as the warm There is growing concern that the Arctic is a Irminger Current extended northwards around final destination for airborne contamination from 1920 but later declined and eventually collapsed the rest of the Northern Hemisphere. This is a (1992) as fishing increased and waters cooled. major concern of the indigenous population. Fur- Climate and ocean circulation variations direct-

15 ly affect commercial fish populations (particularly populations of the Steller sea lion and northern fur their reproduction, larvae, and food webs) through seal. These are significant current management variables such as water temperature, salinity issues. The basic science problem with resource anomalies, vertical mixing, and currents. More- management is that fisheries agencies with over, fishing itself can increase the vulnerability responsibility over stocks important for human of target populations to climatic change by alter- harvest are driven toward solving narrowly ing age structure (for example, removing most of focused, short-term problems. For productive fish- the robust and high-fertility older individuals) and eries management, we need to understand how the densities among predatory fish populations and whole system works, from climate influences to reducing the populations of food fish. Human ocean circulation to ecosystem productivity to adaptive efforts, in response to these ecological specific species that are important to humans. changes, include technological intensification, These recent changes in sea ice conditions and shifts to alternative species, economic diversifica- weather have impacted local transportation. The tion, government subsidies, and out-migration. changes may be most far reaching for their effect on Fishery-dependent communities throughout the the Northern Sea Route (NSR) along the Russian northern Atlantic have experienced population Arctic coast. The NSR has been a primary concern losses during the past decade. of Russian polar scientists for many years. Much of In the North Pacific a physical regime shift their research was done with the aim of improving took place in the mid-1970s with an intensifica- predictions of shipping conditions along their Arctic tion of the Aleutian low-pressure system. Among Ocean coast. Now several nations, notably Japan and the many changes associated with that shift were Russia (there are Alaskan interests as well), are increased Alaskan salmon catches and a change examining the new potential of the NSR for trade. from shrimp to groundfish dominance in the Gulf If the Arctic change affects navigability, this may of Alaska. Similarities have been observed among change shipping patterns between Asia and northern the effects on fisheries of ecological changes in Europe, altering the world economic significance of the Bering Sea, along the Newfoundland coast, the Arctic Ocean. Impacts are likely, as well, on the and in the Barents Sea. The groundfish stocks use of the Northwest Passage through the Canadian associated with these areas have historically con- Archipelago and on shipping into the Alaskan and tributed to relatively stable fisheries over fairly Canadian North Slope. As noted above, light ice long periods of time until recently. The cod and conditions in Hudson Bay now allow the use of pollock fisheries seem to be drawing down mature Churchill as a shipping port. age classes at rates that exceed recruitment in most years. Periodically, however, a good year 2.1.3 Science Hypotheses provides exceptional juvenile survival, which A complex suite of related atmospheric, builds the fishable stocks back up several years oceanic, and terrestrial changes have dominated later as the young fish mature. We are uncertain of the Arctic in the last several decades. Because the ecosystem changes that are causing this. Both they have made it harder for those who live in the the Barents Sea fishery and the Canadian Atlantic north to predict what the future may bring, this fisheries saw a rapid increase in the industrial complex of recent changes has been termed fishery in the 1950s and 1960s, combined with “Onami,” derived from the Yup’ik for “tomor- boundary disputes that frustrated fishery manag- row.” Onami is characterized among other things ers. It seems that when the natural fluctuations in by: productivity of the marine ecosystem are large, • A decline in central Arctic sea level atmo- “normal fishing pressure” can be enough to spheric pressure; deplete stocks beyond recovery in just a few years • Increased surface air temperatures in North- if oceanographic changes cause the good years to ern Europe, the Russian Arctic, and western become less frequent. These fisheries, which are North America, with cooling over eastern among the world’s largest, may be extremely vul- North America and Greenland; nerable to climate change. • Alterations in terrestrial precipitation and An example of the potential interaction of cli- changes in vegetation; mate and fisheries management is the recent col- • Cyclonic ocean circulation and rising coastal lapse of some western Alaska salmon stocks and sea level; the curtailment of groundfish operations in the • Increased temperature of Atlantic waters in Bering Sea because of declines in the western the Arctic;

16 • Decreased sea ice cover; and change or is the result of other factors, including • Decreased Beaufort Sea surface salinity. human activity. The key issues growing from this Learning the full scope of Onami will be an idea are that we must describe (and ultimately ongoing goal of SEARCH. However, a working attempt to predict) the ecosystem and societal definition based on present knowledge is useful. impacts of Onami, and we must distinguish For this we define Onami as the recent and ongo- between the changes associated with the large- ing, decadal (3–50 year), pan-Arctic complex of scale physical Onami phenomenon and the intertwined changes in the Arctic system. These changes caused by other human activity. Archaeo- changes encompass the physical processes listed logical and paleoenvironmental studies can assist above, as well as resultant changes in ecosystems such investigations by presenting data sets from and living resources and consequent impacts to before periods of modern human impacts. the human population. Four key working hypotheses have been developed to help guide SEARCH. 2.1.4 Objectives The first hypothesis is that Onami is related to The overarching goal of SEARCH is to under- the Arctic Oscillation. Associations between the stand Onami. This requires that we address the AO and changes in many environmental para- following objectives: meters, such as air temperature and ocean circula- • Determining if Onami has happened before; tion, have been documented. A key goal of • Determining if Onami is continuing; and SEARCH is to test this hypothesis by quantita- • Understanding the forcing mechanisms and tively assessing the interactions among the feedbacks that control Onami. atmosphere, ocean, and land. It will tell us much From this understanding the SEARCH Program about how Onami is tied to the global atmospheric will derive the ability to: system. • Assess the predictability of Onami and, to the A second hypothesis is that Onami may be a extent possible, develop a capability to pre- component of anthropogenic climate change. The dict the course of Onami; AO is a fundamental mode of atmospheric vari- • Assess and predict the impact of Onami on ability, and the increasing dominance of its posi- ecosystems and society; and tive mode may be tied to the anthropogenic com- • Provide information of societal relevance in a ponent of climate change. Thus, Onami may be timely way. tied to climate change through the AO as well as These objectives must be approached differ- through other large-scale patterns of atmospheric ently when dealing with different components of variability. Testing this hypothesis bears directly the Arctic system. For example, Onami relation- on the goal of understanding how Onami fits into ships are perhaps most readily apparent in atmo- the larger picture of global climate change. spheric and oceanographic data, such that A third hypothesis is that feedbacks among the research to understand processes and feedbacks ocean, land, ice, and atmosphere are critical to can proceed without delay. Initial assessment is Onami. These feedbacks could determine whether still needed in the biological realm, and in the the Onami, and therefore the Arctic, play critical human dimension the separation of effects of roles in global climate change. For example, a environmental change from those of society’s decrease in sea ice and snow cover forced by actions remains a challenge. higher temperatures could lead to further warming because of the reduction in albedo (the well- 2.1.5 SEARCH Organization and known ice–albedo feedback). This could in turn Interagency and International alter patterns of atmospheric circulation, further Coordination impacting Onami and snow and sea ice. A second SEARCH was conceived initially as a physical example is albedo and sensible heat flux feedback oceanography program, because recent changes in through reductions or expansion in sea ice extent the Arctic environment were most readily appar- in marginal seas. The Barents, East Siberian, and ent in the ocean and sea ice. It has rapidly become Labrador Seas are especially sensitive to such clear, however, that recent Arctic changes go well change. beyond the marine environment into the terrestrial The final hypothesis is that the physical chang- environment and the atmosphere. Consequently es of Onami have large impacts on the Arctic eco- SEARCH has been broadened into a thematic pro- systems and society. This is true whether Onami is gram extending across many scientific disciplines. tied to either natural or anthropogenic climate It has become apparent that SEARCH must

17 include a long-term observation program, an inter- National and International Coordination national dimension, and a remote-sensing compo- of SEARCH nent. Because of this breadth, SEARCH requires The organizers of the SEARCH Program are support by multiple U.S. agencies, as well as taking steps to ensure proper coordination with international collaboration. Organizational efforts Arctic science activities conducted by other have been directed, to date, at developing an groups and countries. The World Climate interagency effort for SEARCH and for making Research Program (WCRP) is the primary interna- SEARCH part of the World Climate Research tional activity for global climate research. It is the Program’s International Program on Climate Vari- parent of two activities of relevance to SEARCH: ability and Predictability (CLIVAR). CLIVAR and CLIC. The Climate Variability and Predictability IARPC and the Interagency Working Group (CLIVAR) program is a major driver for U.S. for SEARCH research on climate. “Panels” represent the main In the previous edition of the U.S. Arctic efforts within the U.S. CLIVAR program. There are Research Plan (Arctic Research of the United three CLIVAR panels: the Atlantic Panel, the Pacific States, Fall/Winter 1999), Arctic Environmental Panel, and the Pan-American Panel. The panels are Change was one of the proposed research initia- equally represented on the CLIVAR Science Steer- tives. In March 2000 the full IARPC met and, ing Committee (SSC), which is also responsible for after a discussion of the SEARCH goals, formally providing oversight of the panels. An interagency established the Interagency Working Group for team representing NSF, NOAA, DOE, and NASA SEARCH and directed that it prepare an Inter- set up the SSC. These panels enable the program to agency Research Plan for SEARCH. An initial provide a critical mass of resources, ensure coordi- interagency implementation plan was prepared in nation and communication between climate research June 2000 to cover FY 01 activities related to activities (both within the U.S. and internationally), SEARCH. In April 2001 the working group was ensure a proper program balance by identifying and given direction by the full IARPC to prepare simi- filling crucial gaps in the program, and strengthen lar implementation plans for FY 02 and FY 03. the multiagency support for high-priority climate research in the U.S. In November 1999, SEARCH SEARCH Organization was proposed to the U.S. CLIVAR Scientific Steer- in the Scientific Community ing Committee as a component of the U.S. CLIVAR The SEARCH program will obtain scientific program. The CLIVAR SSC response was positive, guidance through a Science Steering Committee and SEARCH is now recognized as a component of (SSC) supported through a Project Office struc- CLIVAR. ture. The membership of the SSC consists prima- The SEARCH SSC has been encouraged to rily of scientists from U.S. academic institutions establish close ties with other international pro- but includes representatives from government and grams, such as the Climate and Cryosphere international organizations. The present SEARCH (CLIC) program. Like CLIVAR, such programs SSC was formed to write the initial Science Plan. operate under the WCRP and have received sig- A new committee will be formed for the imple- nificant support in Europe. Other interactions are mentation phase of SEARCH and will have the developing with the Norway–U.K. joint climate responsibility for interpretation and implementa- program, activities supported by the European tion of the Science Plan in the principal investiga- Union, and activities supported by the Japanese tor community. Frontier program in the Arctic. Data archival will be a major task for SEARCH because of the heavy emphasis on long- 2.1.6 Recommendations for the term observations. Here, various data archival Future facilities with experience editing, storing, and dis- The SEARCH SSC needs to ensure that its sci- playing the wide variety of data types might be ence plan is comprehensive and has been generally used, but their data must be centrally available. It accepted by the scientific community. Further, the should be possible with the use of the World Wide SSC should develop a set of science-based priorities Web to create a distributed data bank that appears within each subset of the science plan. SEARCH to the user as a centralized site. A similar para- must move forward in all areas and not be limited to digm should work to some extent for information only the “most comfortable” areas, while leaving the dissemination. complex issues for an undefined future time.

18 2.2 Integrated Assessment for a Sustainable Bering Sea

The Bering Sea, located between the Aleutian ronmental and human pressures are too great. For Archipelago and Bering Strait, is a marginal sea example, over the last 20 plus years, Bering Sea that connects the North Pacific and Arctic Oceans. Steller sea lion populations declined 50–80% and It is the world’s third-largest semi-enclosed sea are now listed as “endangered.” Northern fur seals and includes a wide eastern shelf encompassing are listed as “depleted” under the Marine Mammal about half its total area. Protection Act. Bering Sea populations of com- The Bering Sea region supports one of the mon murres, thick-billed murres, and red and world’s richest assemblages of seabirds and black-legged kittiwakes declined up to 90%. In marine mammals and large stocks of commer- 1999 the collapse of the salmon fishery in Bristol cially valuable fish and shellfish. Its multiple hab- Bay led the State of Alaska to consider the region itats are ideal as homes to a rich variety of biolog- an economic disaster area. Natural and anthropo- ical resources, including the world’s most genic forces are likely combining to cause rapid extensive eelgrass beds; at least 450 species of changes in the physical environment and biologi- fish, crustaceans, and mollusks; 50 species of sea- cal communities of the Bering Sea region. birds; and 25 species of marine mammals. Although considered among the most productive This rich, abundant, and ecologically diverse of high-latitude seas in the world today, the Bering system has attracted and supported aboriginal cul- Sea is at risk. tures for millennia. Today, Bering Sea resources Significant changes occurring in the oceano- continue to support the economic survival, subsis- graphic and atmospheric Arctic environment, tar- tence, and cultural foundation for a majority of the geted under SEARCH (Study of Environmental 227 federally recognized tribes of Alaska. In addi- Arctic Change, see Section 2.1), are powerful tion, the U.S. Bering Sea fishery contributes over influences in the Bering Sea region. As in other half of the nation’s fishery production, with an Arctic regions, the Bering Sea is likely responding annual product value estimated at $2.2 billion. to these forces of change. The Bering Sea inte- Walleye pollock comprise much of the fish land- grated assessment will benefit from work com- ings, Bristol Bay supports the world’s largest pleted under SEARCH. At the same time, work sockeye salmon fishery, and snow crab landings completed as part of the Bering Sea integrated represent the largest crustacean fishery in the U.S. assessment will contribute to SEARCH, serving In addition to supporting commercial fisheries, the as a case study sub-ecosystem. Bering Sea also supports 80% of the U.S. seabird population, comprising 36 million birds. Many 2.2.1 Arctic Research unique and endemic species breed in the Bering Commission Charge Sea. The importance of the region is reflected in a The Arctic Research Commission, in its 2001 variety of recent agreements, adopted by the U.S., Report to Congress, targeted integrated research other nations, and international organizations, and assessment of the Bering Sea as a key designed to protect Bering Sea marine mammals, research priority. The Commission observed that birds, and fish resources. concern about the Bering Sea has engendered During the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, rapid large and intense research synthesis and planning changes in the physical and biological characteris- efforts with significant research and financial tics of the Bering Sea raised significant concern investment. These efforts share a commitment by among resource managers, Native communities, scientists from diverse disciplines and organiza- commercial interests, and conservationists, among tions to come together to define the most impor- many others. While change is a natural character- tant research needs and share research results. The istic of all ecosystems, and animal and plant com- quality of past and current research is unques- munities are adapted to natural environmental tioned. However, while significant research efforts rhythms, some natural changes or anthropogenic have produced important results, our understand- pressures can be too great or too sudden for biota ing of how and why those changes are occurring to adjust, resulting in die-offs within species and remains elusive. Based on meetings it held during shifts in community composition. Observed 1999, the Commission concluded: changes in the fish and mammal populations of • There is insufficient integration among key the Bering Sea region suggest that current envi- Bering Sea research programs.

19 • Current research does not enable managers to desired outcomes from management actions predict ecological responses to management will be defined. In this process, diverse inter- decisions implemented within the Bering Sea ests establish agreement on key ecological region. and human values of concern to provide the As the Commission noted, for example, connec- necessary framework around which to structions must be made between research efforts on dif- ture integrated assessments. ferent populations of the same species to allow for • Conceptual Synthesis: Existing data will be comparisons. Basic oceanographic data collection integrated to identify potential relationships and analyses should be integrated with studies of among forcing functions, ecosystems changes, population effects in species at higher trophic levels, sources of stress, and ecological endpoints of such as marine mammals, birds, and fish. Further, concern identified in the goals. The process is scientists must process data in such a way that pre- interactive, iterative, and interdisciplinary, dictions about changes in the Bering Sea ecosystem transforming diverse data into a set of con- can be made, particularly on the population dynam- ceptual models and predictive testable ics of higher trophic organisms. hypotheses about the influences of multiple The Commission found that data analysis is now natural and human stressors on ecological and post hoc, and management decisions are primarily human systems. The purpose is to learn more based on historical records of system behavior rather from existing data, generate multiple working than on predictions about ecological responses to hypotheses about likely causal relationships, new management decisions. Managers need the type and define essential research needs. of scientific information that will allow them to pre- • Research Plan: Based on the conceptual syn- vent negative effects and avoid crisis management. thesis and resulting conceptual models, a While there are ecological, social, and financial risks research plan will be developed that identifies associated with making incorrect predictions, predic- key questions, information gaps, and concep- tions with carefully stated confidence limits are tual links. A superimposed guiding frame- essential for effective resource management and work for integrating research and interpreting protection of the Bering Sea. results can then be used to generate an integrated interagency research plan among Fed- 2.2.2 Building an Iterative Bering eral agencies and other research organizations Sea Research Strategy that capitalizes on existing research efforts While continued research is critical to better and encourages strategic new research. elucidate the mechanisms and processes of change • Research Implementation: New research will in the Bering Sea as well as the Arctic, ensuring be initiated to evaluate predictive relation- that all essential scientific questions are well ships among natural and human influences on directed and investigated to answer key manage- key values of concern. The research will ment concerns is a challenge. To meet the needs investigate processes, trends, and effects, as for an integrated assessment in the Bering Sea, well as monitor the impacts of management Federal partners are implementing a strategic plan decisions. Information will be fed back into to clarify and connect scientific questions to man- goal setting, synthesis, and planning for re- agement needs, as well as identify key goals. evaluation of goals, refinement of conceptual Since natural ecosystems, science, and manage- models, and development of updated research ment are all dynamic systems, an iterative process plans. will be established to ensure linkages among Goal development, conceptual synthesis, needed management decisions, research, and research planning, and implementation each pro- ongoing system changes. vide feedback to all other components. As a result the strategy is inherently iterative, involving an Components of Strategic Integrated Research interplay among research findings and environ- The Bering Sea Research Strategy will include mental observations, desired management out- four key components, each of which influences comes, goal setting, and new insights that lead to the others in an iterative framework. They new research. include: • Common Vision and Goals: Based on dia- Chapter Organization logue among interested parties of the Bering To provide background about the Bering Sea, Sea, key concerns, common interests, and Section 2.2.3 describes some of the basic charac-

20 teristics of the region and the forces influencing it. environment that dictate oceanographic conditions Section 2.2.4 provides an outline of recommended of the western shelf. Ice typically covers the entire research, giving priorities for current research western shelf in winter. needs. To build a more comprehensive integrated North of approximately 62°N, changes in research strategy in the future, Section 2.2.5 topography, tidal energy, and river discharge from describes the process planned to establish unified the Yukon modify boundaries between domains. goals, conceptual syntheses, and research plan- South of St. Lawrence Island, three water masses ning to achieve strategic research of integrated exist across the shelf: Alaskan Coastal, Bering assessments. Shelf, and Anadyr. North of St. Lawrence, all three water masses are present and can be identi- 2.2.3 The Bering Sea Region fied as they flow northward through Bering Strait. The larger Bering Sea region includes the Over the western shelf, the dominant circulation waters and coastal regions of the Bering Sea situ- feature is the Anadyr Current, a coastal flow ated between Alaska and Russia. The southern extending from the Gulf of Anadyr westward past extent includes currents from the North Pacific Cape Navarin. flowing through the Aleutian Chain and waters The status of living marine resources in the flowing north through the Bering Strait to the Bering Sea ecosystem is largely confined to com- Chukchi Sea and Arctic Ocean. A large terrestrial mercially important fish and invertebrates and component is part of the region that includes birds and mammals readily observed from land or watersheds in Alaska and Russia discharging into air. Data on forage fishes are largely confined to the Bering Sea, such as the Yukon and Kusko- the Pacific herring, which is dominated by the kwim watersheds covering the majority of Alaska. Togiak stock. Knowledge of invertebrates is largely restricted to crabs. Eastern Bering Sea salmon Characteristics abundance was generally high during the 1980s In the early 1980s, scientists working under the and 1990s, although specific runs, such as chi- Processes and Resources of the Bering Sea Shelf nook and chum in western Alaska, have been (PROBES) project defined specific hydrographic poor. Several marine mammal and seabird popula- regimes for the southeastern Bering Sea: the tions have undergone major changes in abun- coastal or inner shelf domain, the middle shelf dance. Patterns of change for marine birds has domain, the outer shelf domain, the continental varied among species, locations, and decades over slope, and the transitional areas or fronts between the past 20–30 years. Changes in many bird and them. Each of these domains represents a different mammal populations are most likely related to marine habitat. prey abundance and availability. Changes in Time series data collected in Bering Strait on oceanographic conditions can affect the geo- salinity and temperature confirm that Alaskan graphic distribution and availability of species. coastal waters are relatively warm, have low salin- One of the more important anthropogenic influ- ity, and flow through the eastern channel of the ences on the Bering Sea ecosystem is commercial strait. Bering Shelf water is of higher salinity. The fishing. eastern Bering Sea consists of an oceanic and shelf regime. Within the broad (>500 km) shelf Forces of Change regime, three distinct domains exist, characterized Observations and historical analyses supported by contrasts in water column structure, currents, by NOAA and NSF over the last six years show and biota. The balance between mixing (tidal and that the Bering Sea ecosystem is influenced by wind) and buoyancy flux (freshwater discharge, hemispheric processes that many believe explain ice melt, and solar radiation) generates the recent biotic declines. Observed changes in biota domains. A system of three hydrological zones have also been linked with a long history of natu- exists over the western shelf that is somewhat ral resource exploitation that has spanned two analogous to the system of hydrological zones on centuries but that has increased dramatically with- the eastern shelf. The coastal, transition, and in the last few decades. There is rising evidence of oceanic zones are easily distinguished by their increased loading of pollutants being transported temperature–salinity characteristics and vertical to and sequestered in Arctic oceanic, atmospheric, structure. As with the eastern shelf, atmospheric and terrestrial environments and biota. Alterations processes that regulate the heat balance and result of the ocean floor from industrial fishing and in the formation of ice are primary features of the changes in terrestrial habitats caused by develop-

21 ment activities have also occurred and cannot be of pollock per year plus large landings of salmon, excluded as factors in these declines. The natural crab, and other commercial species). Biomass changes and human influences are likely altering removal of this magnitude will likely cause both the biocomplexity of the Bering Sea in ways not direct and indirect effects on many other species yet understood. Quantifying the relative impor- within the ecosystem, including predators, com- tance of natural and human-induced variations in petitors, and prey, as well as change in the propor- explaining upper-trophic-level ecosystem change tions of various species within the ecosystem. is a key management issue for the Bering Sea. The Extraction of arsenic, lead, zinc, and oil within cause of biotic fluctuations, while still unknown, the Bering Sea region may also be contributing to is likely a reflection of natural, climate-related, the loadings of contaminants now increasingly and other human-induced pressures. found within Bering Sea resources. Local sources could be combining with long-range transport of Oceanographic and Atmospheric Influences contaminants to play an important role in the The Bering Sea responds to two dominant cli- health and distribution of biological resources as mate patterns in the region: the Pacific Decadal well as humans living in the region. Oscillation (PDO) and the Arctic Oscillation (AO). The PDO has a 40- to 50-year cycle with Contaminants principal impact on the southern Bering Sea. This In 1998 the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment was reflected in lower sea surface temperatures in Program (AMAP), under the Arctic Council, pub- the North Pacific from 1925 to 1947 and from lished The AMAP Assessment Report: Arctic Pol- 1977 to 1998, with reverse conditions occurring lution Issues. The principal conclusions in this in 1899–1924 and 1948–1976. The Arctic Oscil- report were that in comparison with most other lation is associated with the spin-up of the polar areas of the world, the Arctic remains a relatively vortex and has influence from the sea surface to clean environment. However, characteristics of the stratosphere and from the Arctic to mid- the Arctic environment place Arctic ecosystems at latitudes. risk: The highly varying sea ice cover of the Bering • The Arctic is a focus for major atmospheric, Sea has a profound influence on the physical and riverine, and marine pathways, resulting in biological ocean environment. Sea ice in its most long-range transport of contaminants to and extensive years arrives in January and remains to within the Arctic, where it enters the food May, coincident with negative values of the PDO web and biomagnifies. (for example, in the early 1970s there was exten- • Low temperatures, extreme seasonal varia- sive winter ice cover before the 1977 shift in the tions in light, and lack of nutrients are some PDO and, to some extent, the AO). The late 1970s of the physical and chemical characteristics and 1980 were warmer years with reduced ice that cause environmental stress to organisms, cover. In the 1990s winter ice has again become limit productivity of Arctic ecosystems, and more common after a 1989 shift in the AO, make them potentially more vulnerable to although not to the extent observed in the early environmental contaminants. 1970s. A key Arctic change that impacts the Ber- • Several groups of people in the Arctic are ing Sea and Alaska is a shift toward higher tem- highly exposed to environmental contami- peratures in April. nants. Persistent contaminants, derived from long-range transport and local sources, accu- Resource Extraction mulate in animals that are used as traditional The Bering Sea ecosystem has been impacted foods. by significant human activity. Many believe that • The combination of long-range transport pro- the ecosystem has been damaged as a result of cesses, climatic conditions, and physical, these impacts. These beliefs are based on (1) sig- chemical and biological properties results in nificant increases in levels of human activity, the accumulation of some contaminants in especially commercial fishing, since the 1960s, traditional subsistence foods at levels higher and (2) unexpected and unexplained changes in than found outside of the Arctic. important components of the ecosystem (for example, some pinnipeds and seabirds). The Habitat Alteration removal of biomass from the Bering Sea has been Habitat is critical to all living organisms, very large (for example, more that a million tons whether fish, invertebrates, mammals, birds, or

22 primary producers. Habitat characteristics influ- human actions and environmental factors. Ques- ence survival, growth, and reproduction. Habitat tions remain, however, concerning the ecosystem encompasses the physical, chemical, and biologi- dynamics of the vast Bering Sea shelf that sup- cal environment within which an organism lives. ports this high productivity. An integrated assess- At different life stages, habitat requirements may ment for the Bering Sea must include questions differ significantly for a particular species at birth that investigate the interplay of human and natural or spawning, during early life stages, and as an processes. adult. Thus, to understanding the habitat requirements for a particular species requires a signifi- Research Recommendations cant understanding of its life history characteris- To promote integrated interpretations of data, tics. Unfortunately our understanding of the life studies in general should be collaborative and history and habitat requirements for most species multi-disciplinary and should include standard depending on Bering Sea ecosystems is limited at physical and chemical measures as well as a suite best, making it a significant challenge to under- of biological measures. Biological measures rec- stand the ramifications of activities causing habi- ommended include primary production, zooplank- tat alteration within watersheds, wetlands, coastal ton biomass and production, zooplankton grazing, regions, and the domains of the Bering Sea. grazing by larval and juvenile fishes and the abundance of forage species, and the diets of marine 2.2.4 Bering Sea Research Plan birds and mammals. Specific ongoing research Interagency integrated Bering Sea research will activities recommended include the following: be implemented in stages. Ongoing research pro- 1. Maintain long-term time series data collec- grams will continue to gather important information important for integrating and indicating eco- tion and may benefit from the research recommen- system change in the eastern Bering Sea. These dations provided below, which outline research include: topics of particular importance. Concurrent with • Four biophysical moorings maintained by the ongoing research, interagency efforts to develop National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- an integrated research strategy will begin and run tration (NOAA) to collect vital information concurrently. Both efforts will revolve around four on winds, sea ice, water column structure, questions central to ensuring future integration: currents, nutrients, and chlorophyll concen- • What array of factors (stressors or forcing trations across the eastern shelf. functions) are influencing change in the Ber- • National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) ing Sea, over what time scales and spatial data on northern fur seal pup production and characteristics? diet samples in the Pribilof Islands and Bog- • How are these factors (anthropogenic and oslof Island. natural) interacting to effect change on prior- • NMFS surveys of Steller sea lions in the ity components and processes of Bering Sea Aleutian Islands and Bering Sea. ecosystems? • U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (UFWS) sur- • What feedback mechanisms are operating veys of seabird population dynamics and diet within the Bering Sea systems that will samples from colonies around the Bering Sea impact the course of change? and Pribilof Islands. • What and where is change most likely to 2. Conduct comprehensive research on the con- occur within Bering Sea ecosystems, given nections between climate change and ecosystem alternative scenarios of natural forces and function to evaluate and predict the effects of cli- human influences? mate change on the structure and function of bio- The relative importance of natural cycles and tic communities in the eastern Bering Sea, asking human factors in explaining variability in abun- questions such as: dance in the Bering Sea is a key management • What is the influence of the timing and mag- issue. In addition to perturbations created by nitude of spring primary production on the human activities, environmental factors are characteristics and ecological relationships seldom stable and are subject to large-scale fluctu- within the biotic community? How has sum- ations. It is clear that the production of new mertime warming of waters over the shelf organic matter, which provides the basis for during the past three decades impacted or cre- exploitable fish populations and all other higher- ated a northward shift in ecosystem properties trophic-level animals, is greatly affected by both required for successful pollock production?

23 • How have changes in the timing of the spring tions made by the Bering Sea research community, bloom altered the transfer of energy from the following four categories of research are rec- phytoplankton to zooplankton, and what are ommended. the implications for the food web? • What similarities and differences in physical Monitoring properties exist between the southeastern and • Maintain and enhance time series from northeastern Bering Sea now, and how has the moored biophysical buoys and discrete ship- southeastern Bering Sea changed since the board samples across the southeast Bering region was evaluated under PROBES? Sea, Bering Strait, Aleutian North Slope cur- • How does wind stress and heating of the rent, and Unimak Pass. This includes weather, upper mixed layer during summer influence temperature, salinity, primary production, and summertime primary production? How does zooplankton sampling. this summertime production influence zoo- • Strengthen existing surveys of groundfish, plankton biomass and lipid content (food val- crabs, birds, and mammals and add informa- ue) in the upper water column? How does tion on benthos, forage fish, and predator zooplankton abundance and quality affect the species. condition of small forage fish in late summer • Archive, in a geographically registered for- and the survival of juvenile fish during the mat, all available remote sensing for sea ice, following winter? SST, and ocean color in near-real-time. 3. Conduct studies to evaluate the effect of spring and summertime cross-shelf flux in deter- Retrospective Analyses mining ecosystem function and trophic transfer of • Characterize the space/time structure of energy to apex predators. A key question to ask is: climate forcing. • What is the influence of the interannual var- • Establish baseline conditions, including vari- iation of on-shelf flow of nutrient- and ability, of key physical and biological indi- zooplankton-rich slope water on new produc- cators. tion and zooplankton populations on the outer • Survey archaeological middens and sediment shelf? cores to look at species abundance and 4. Evaluate how decreased cross-shelf flux may change. lead to decreased production in zooplankton for • Evaluate the relative impacts of anthropo- planktivorous birds, and in small fishes for pisciv- genic versus natural factors on patterns of orous birds and mammals. Hypotheses to evaluate biological change. include: • Produce a unified database for the Bering • On-shelf transport of slope water advects oce- Sea. anic copepods onto the shelf and supplies nutrients that enhance new production, which Modeling alters production and supports the zooplank- • Use downscaling techniques to relate the ton on which forage fish feed. results from global general circulation models • Increases in forage fish would in turn influ- to changes forcing the Bering Sea. ence seabird and fur seal foraging success on • Implement high-resolution physical/biologi- the Pribilof Islands by virtue of variability in cal models that include zooplankton dynam- the magnitude and pathways of on-shelf flow, ics and individual-based models for nodal and with enhanced reproductive success asso- commercially valuable species. ciated with moderate to strong on-shelf flow • Conduct statistical and explicit model build- and lower success during weak on-shelf flow. ing to investigate changes in trophic-level This enhanced reproductive success may structure in response to physical changes. result from bottom-up processes caused by • Model the effects of alternate natural resource the introduction of nutrient- and zooplankton- management strategies. rich slope waters. • On-shelf flow and tides create areas of con- Process Studies vergence at the shelf edge, where birds feed • Examine mechanisms of nutrient replenish- on small fish attracted to concentrations of ment onto the continental shelves. neuston. • Determine the role of the physical environ- In addition, based on research recommenda- ment on the critical life stages of key species.

24 • Evaluate the cause of changes in trophic identify key concerns, common interests, and interactions. desired outcomes of management actions and • Use telemetry to define marine mammal and agree on key ecological and human values of apex predator feeding areas. concern. This will provide the necessary • Evaluate experimental management strate- framework around which to structure inte- gies, including fish removals, on local prey grated assessments and help ensure scientific abundance and distribution. advances and adaptive and predictive management. 2.2.5 Strategic Research for • Conceptual synthesis: Assess and integrate Integrated Assessments available information within an interactive, While continued research is critical to better iterative, interdisciplinary process to trans- elucidate the mechanisms and processes of change form current data into a set of conceptual in the Bering Sea as well as the Arctic, ensuring models characterizing predictive testable that the essential scientific questions are well hypotheses about the influences of multiple directed and investigated to answer key manage- natural and human stressors on ecological and ment concerns is a challenge. To meet the needs human systems. For best success, the process for an integrated assessment in the Bering Sea, will generate multiple working hypotheses Federal partners are developing a strategic plan to about potential causal relationships. clarify and connect scientific questions to man- • Research planning: Based on the conceptual agement needs as well as identify key goals. synthesis, define the essential research needs Since natural ecosystems, science, and man- and a research plan designed to produce inte- agement are all dynamic systems, an iterative pro- grated research and assessments. The expect- cess will be established to ensure linkages among ed outcome is a proposed research program decisions that need to be made, new knowledge among Federal agencies and others that capi- that will be obtained, and ongoing changes that talizes on existing research efforts and will influence outcomes. The importance of this defines new research within a structured process was reflected in 1996 when the Polar framework for integrating research activity Research Board of the National Research Council and interpreting results. published a study on the Bering Sea ecosystem, • Research implementation: Initiate new which included a set of recommendations empha- research designed to test potential causal rela- sizing the vital link between science and manage- tionships among natural and human influences ment including: impacting key values of concern. New find- • Adopting a broad ecosystem perspective for ings would be used to refine the conceptual scientific research and resource management; links established during conceptual syntheses • Adopting an adaptive management approach to derive new knowledge about processes, for Bering Sea resources; effects, trends, and relationships, as well as to • Evaluating how well management and assess the influence of management decisions research institutions are able to address on ecosystem change. emerging problems; Each of these elements is iterative. Successful • Providing appropriate management solutions; implementation results in feedback among ele- and ments to create an interplay between research • Developing research programs to help policy findings and environmental observations, desired makers solve short- and long-term ecological management outcomes, goal setting, and new problems. insights that lead to new cutting edge research.

Building an Iterative Bering Sea Implementation of the Strategy Research Strategy In April 2001 the Interagency Arctic Research The Bering Sea Research Strategy will include Policy Committee authorized the establishment of four key elements. Each element will be linked to an Interagency Working Group (IWG) for the the others through clearly defined feedback loops Bering Sea. The IWG was charged to develop a within an iterative framework. They include the coordinated approach to implementing an inte- following: grated assessment for a sustainable Bering Sea. • Unifying vision and goals: Through dialogue Over the next year the IWG will organize and among parties interested in the Bering Sea, develop a plan for implementing an assessment.

25 • A common understanding of the threats to the Questions managers and scientists answer during early dialogues. Bering Sea ecosystem is essential. Given insufficient science, there must be agreement Managers answer on scientific priorities to answer fundamental • What are the ecological and human values questions about what is happening in the eco- of concern and what outcomes are desired? system. • What are the management goals and deci- As follow-up to these findings, the U.S. Envi- sions needed and how will an integrated ronmental Protection Agency (EPA) is serving as assessment help? a catalyst for organizing a Bering Sea Summit to • At what scale must it be addressed? be held in Anchorage in April 2002 through • What are the policy considerations? implementation of the Bering Sea Regional Geo- • What precedents have been set through graphic Initiative (RGI). EPA is serving as a lead previous decisions? Federal organizer based on EPA’s broad mandate • What is the context of this assessment? (protect human health and safeguard the natural • What resources are available? environment), the absence of specific resource • What level of uncertainty is acceptable? management responsibilities in the Bering Sea (a Scientists define “disinterested” Federal partner), and substantial • What are the spatial and temporal bound- experience with community-based environmental aries of the problem? protection and predictive risk assessment. EPA is • What information is already available, working in partnership with Federal and state compared to what is needed? agencies, tribes, and environmental and industry • What practicalities constrain data collec- groups, among others, to convene the Summit, tion? which is being designed to foster dialogue among • Can decisions be based on assessments of the diverse organizations, management agencies, a small area evaluated in depth or a large- and communities in the Bering Sea region. The scale assessment at lesser detail? expected outcome is a multi-party strategic vision • What are the critical ecological endpoints for protecting, investigating, and utilizing Bering and key ecosystem and receptor character- Sea resources in a sustainable way. A principal istics? goal for the Summit is to develop an implementa- • What are the likelihood and duration of tion strategy with local, regional, national, and system recovery? international components. • What is the nature of the problem now, compared to the past and the future? Conceptual Synthesis and Research Planning • What are the current state of knowledge, A Federal effort for promoting conceptual syn- the available data, and the type of analy- thesis and research planning for a Bering Sea inte- ses? grated assessment will be developed based in part • What are the constraints? on the results of the Bering Sea Summit 2002 and efforts by a newly formed Federal Bering Sea Defining a Vision and Goals Interagency Working Group, a partnership among Federal efforts to establish a vision began with Federal agencies and other interagency manage- dialogue among interested parties in the Bering ment organizations including efforts under Sea region between 1998 and 2000. Interviews SEARCH. National efforts will be linked to inter- were conducted with Federal and state officials, national activities, including work by the Arctic and commercial and environmental interests, Council and the United Nations Environmental among others. The results from these interviews Programme (UNEP) Global International Waters generated several common themes: Assessment. • Current management regimes and institutional Strategy development will progress concur- structures need to be enhanced to achieve a rently with ongoing research efforts. The outcome coordinated ecosystem-wide approach to over the next several years will be the completion management. of goal setting, conceptual synthesis, and a first- • A common vision and agreement on a desired stage integrated assessment and research plan. future condition for the Bering Sea is needed. Early conceptual synthesis will be based on The vision should be as specific as possible available information on all aspects of the system to guide managers. of concern (for example, ecosystem characteris-

26 tics, natural and anthropogenic forces influenc- known, and provide a framework for prediction. ing the ecosystem, exposure to potential stres- A research plan will be generated from a care- sors, and observed changes). This initial synthe- ful evaluation of conceptual synthesis. Planning sis will provide the basis for developing normally results in a delineation of an integrated preliminary conceptual models, which generally assessment design, data needs, and measures and lead scientists to seek other types of data and methods for conducting analyses for an integrated information not previously recognized as needed. assessment. This is directly linked to conceptual The conceptual models include written models and includes the rationale for selecting descriptions and visual representations of pre- priorities. dicted relationships among ecological values Strategy development, integrated assessments, and factors potentially influencing them. They and research planning and implementation will are valuable as learning and communication remain an iterative process that can be used, mod- tools, are easily modified in response to new ified, and used again as new understanding and information, highlight what is known and not new questions emerge for the Bering Sea.

2.3 Arctic Health

Arctic health research encompasses two major cals, originate in areas far removed from the Arc- subdivisions: environmental health and public tic but that those chemicals tend to persist and health. The former includes the topics of environ- accumulate in the Arctic environment and food mental contaminants, the effects of climate change chains, including human residents. Because of (Arctic Climate Impact Assessment), and radioac- their reliance on local fauna for subsistence and tive nuclides. The latter includes infectious diseas- preserving their cultural heritage, Alaska Natives es, occupational injuries, chronic diseases, behav- have become increasingly apprehensive about the ior, delivery of health care, capacity building, and quality of their traditional food resources and the the elimination of health disparities between the health of Arctic ecosystems. The paucity of Alaska Native and non-Native populations. scientific data on the nature and severity of environmental contamination on human health and 2.3.1 Environmental Health renewable biological resources has prompted the The occurrence of artificial radionuclides and Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee pesticides in the environment and biota has been (IARPC) to begin planning for a focused, inter- documented for over 30 years and has since agency research program emphasizing health remained a matter of scientific and public con- concerns in the U.S. Arctic, including its environ- cern. This concern was heightened considerably mental aspects. in 1990s, first by an increased awareness of the unexpectedly high levels of contamination in the Radionuclides in the Environment Arctic that led to the adoption of the Arctic Envi- and Subsistence Foods ronmental Protection Strategy in 1991 by the eight Global fallout from atmospheric testing of ther- Arctic countries, including the U.S. Soon there- monuclear devices is the principal environmental after, in 1992, there was a major disclosure of source of artificial radionuclides in the U.S. Arc- widespread dumping of nuclear reactors and tic. Even though the ground deposition of fallout wastes into the Arctic and northwest Pacific radionuclides is quite pervasive, its distribution is Ocean by the former Soviet Union. Later in the greatly influenced by patterns of mean annual pre- same year, it was reported that 15,000 pounds of cipitation. Thus, portions of southeastern Alaska soil contaminated with radioactive material, (which is not part of the U.S. Arctic) are estimated including fallout material collected from an atom to have orders-of-magnitude higher activity of the bomb test in Nevada, was buried 30 years ago radionuclide cesium-137 than, for example, the near Cape Thompson, Alaska. North Slope of Alaska. However, proportionately In recent years it has become increasingly clear high consumption of caribou, freshwater fish, ber- that many contaminants found in the Arctic, par- ries, bowhead whales, and other subsistence foods ticularly certain pesticides and industrial chemi- in the U.S. Arctic is often considered an important

27 means of radionuclide exposure to humans. that population were associated with thinning of The National Oceanic and Atmospheric eggshells. Since then, relatively high levels of Administration (NOAA) in collaboration with the these and other contaminants, such as hexachloro- Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) have cyclohexane (HCH), have been reported in liver measured activities of anthropogenic and naturally and fatty tissues of many species of fish and wild- occurring radionuclides in coastal sediments and a life, including marine mammals. Some marine number of faunal species that are used for subsis- mammals, such as the Pacific walrus, have rela- tence in the U.S. Arctic. The study, supported in tively high concentrations of potentially toxic part by the Office of Naval Research (ONR), metals in their tissues. showed that typical yearly consumption of caribou Both NOAA and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife meat by an adult resident of Barrow added a very Service (FWS) have ongoing programs to deter- small amount (0.0045 mSv) to the average effec- mine the contaminant levels and their biological tive dose equivalent of ionizing radiation. This effects in protected and threatened species under value should be viewed in relation to the average the Marine Mammals Protection Act and the radiation dose to humans from natural sources Endangered Species Act. Nearly all marine (3.0 mSv)*, such as exposure to radon and cosmic mammal tissue collected for contaminant analy- radiation, and other anthropogenic sources (0.6 ses in these programs were from animals har- mSv), such as consumer goods, medical x-rays, vested by Alaska Natives, often in consultation and air travel. Subsistence foods derived from with statewide Native organizations and coop- marine food chains accounted for a much smaller, eratives, such as the Alaska Eskimo Walrus Com- and perhaps negligible, dose. mission. This results in a broad geographic distri- It is generally concluded that human health and bution of samples and cooperative efforts with ecological risks from projected releases from subsistence hunters. Examples of contaminant- nuclear waste dump sites in the Arctic are likely to related studies on selected Arctic faunal species be inconsequential. However, a summary of ONR- are noted below. funded studies has noted the need to consider The polar bear biomonitoring program of the other known sources and potential transport path- FWS was initiated in 1995 to determine if con- ways for radionuclides in the Arctic. For example, taminant levels in polar bears from the two Alas- major Siberian rivers may potentially contribute kan population stocks were of concern. The significant amounts of radionuclides from nuclear Chukchi/Bering Seas and southern Beaufort Sea power plants and weapons factories in Russia, population stocks in Alaska are shared with Rus- amounts that could pose as much or greater risks sia and Canada, respectively. Levels of PCBs in than the materials dumped directly into the Arctic adult male polar bears from Alaska analyzed to Ocean. date are relatively low compared to the high levels found in polar bears in eastern Hudson Bay, Cana- Contaminants in Species of Subsistence, da, and Norway. Average levels of HCH in Alas- Commercial, and Aesthetic Value kan bears are among the highest reported in the The presence of persistent organic contami- Arctic. Little is known, however, about the poten- nants in Arctic wildlife has been documented for tial impacts that these relatively high HCH levels more than 30 years. For example, specimens of may have on the health of polar bears, human gyrfalcons collected from the Seward Peninsula in consumers, and the Arctic ecosystem. To date, 1970 had highly variable levels of DDE (a metab- samples have been obtained from approximately olite of DDT that is most often related to adverse 28 bears. Sampling for this project will continue biological effects in the field) and PCBs in their through FY 02, when a final report will be pre- tissues, but in some cases the levels exceeded 200 pared. Polar bears have been identified as a senti- ppm. The peregrine falcon in the Amchitka region nel species under the Arctic Monitoring and was considered a highly vulnerable species as Assessment Program (AMAP) for monitoring early as 1970, when DDE residue in members of environmental contamination in the Arctic ecosystem because of their wide distribution, position at * Sievert (Sv) is a measure of absorbed radiation dose the top of the Arctic marine food chain, and value per unit mass, often expressed as millisievert (mSv). A to Native subsistence users. 1-mSv yearly dose is often equated to an increased risk Tissue samples have also been collected for of cancer in one person out of 20,000, and a dose of 0.01 mSv is generally considered negligible in terms of long-term storage by the Alaskan Marine Mammal potential risk to individuals. Tissue Archival Project (AMMTAP) for use in

28 future analyses as analytical techniques improve across the North American Arctic; however, cer- and for assisting in the development of spatial and tain metal concentrations are substantially differ- temporal trends of contaminant levels in the Arc- ent. Hepatic total mercury concentrations are tic. AMMTAP is a cooperative interagency pro- higher and cadmium concentrations are lower in gram supported by the U.S. Geological Survey these Alaskan belugas than what has been reported (USGS), NOAA, and the National Institute of for belugas farther east in the Canadian Arctic. Standards and Technology (NIST). Standardiza- In recent years, FWS has made organochlorine tion of quality assurance and quality control pro- and heavy metals measurements in livers and kid- cedures will help reduce past limitations that have neys from 66 sea otters that were collected in hindered making meaningful comparisons among coastal waters throughout Alaska. Preliminary various data sets. The contaminant data collected results have identified several otters with low lev- from the polar bear biomonitoring program have els of PCBs, beta-BHC, pp-DDE, and dieldrin. been used for inter-laboratory comparisons, as Given a rather sparse sampling coverage, the well as for physiological studies on contaminant source of these contaminants is unclear, and the accumulation and effects on polar bears. physiological effects of contaminants on sea otters The FWS studies of organochlorine pesticides can only be speculated. and industrial chemicals, hydrocarbons, and heavy Mercury is a naturally occurring element that is metals in walrus tissues over the past two decades present in rocks and ores. It is also released into have shown only extremely low levels of organic the atmosphere by degassing of the earth’s crust contaminants in walrus blubber collected from and oceans in large amounts; an approximately coastal and offshore sites in the Bering Sea. How- equal amount is released by way of human activi- ever, these studies have documented high levels of ties, such as burning of household and industrial cadmium in the kidney and liver tissues of walrus wastes and waste discharge from certain indus- in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. In several tries. Its presence in food chains, particularly instances, cadmium concentrations in kidney large predator fish such as sharks, swordfish, and tissues were higher than the level thought to inter- large species of tuna, has been well documented. fere with organ function in some mammals. A In recent years, the presence of mercury in coastal positive correlation between cadmium and age and freshwater fish has become a matter of great was found in both liver and kidney. Similar rela- concern, prompting many states to issue fish con- tionships were found between age and concentra- sumption advisories. Although extensive data are tions of zinc (kidney) and arsenic (liver and kid- available on mercury concentration in fish tissues ney). Histopathological examination of samples in the Arctic, data from the U.S. Arctic are scant. from 170 animals collected from Gambell and Few data have recently been obtained on total Diomede indicated that the metals present in the mercury and methylmercury in the muscle and kidneys and livers did not appear to cause injury liver tissues and eggs of Pacific salmon species to the tissues. Data on heavy metal contamination from the Yukon, Kuskokwim, Nugashak, and in the walrus tissues are being synthesized for Kvichak Rivers. The higher concentration of mer- publication. Although data are few and from cury in chinook salmon could be because of its disparate sources, high levels of cadmium in longer life span in ocean waters and its higher bowhead whale kidney tissues have also been trophic level. Analysis of these data continues. It reported. is not clear whether mercury in natal streams and Concentrations of persistent organic pollutants lakes is further recycled by freshwater fauna or (POPs) in blubber, and heavy metals in liver and whether there is further bioaccumulation through kidney, have been determined for two stocks of freshwater and terrestrial food chains. Alaskan Arctic beluga whales (Beaufort Sea and Comparisons of hepatic total mercury concen- Eastern Chukchi Sea stocks) from the Bering Sea trations in beluga whales across the North Ameri- population and for beluga whales from the sub- can Arctic indicate that the highest concentrations Arctic Cook Inlet population. Generally the sub- may be found in the Beaufort Sea and Chukchi Arctic Cook Inlet animals appear to be substan- Sea stocks of the Alaska Bering Sea population tially different from the two Alaskan Arctic (averaging around 50 mg/kg ww); these levels are stocks, having lower concentrations of POPs and within the range reported for the St. Lawrence metals (except for copper). The two Alaskan Arc- Estuary population. Although levels of total mer- tic stocks have concentrations of POPs that are cury in the Cook Inlet animals have been found to similar to levels reported for beluga populations be much lower (averaging 5 mg/kg ww) than con-

29 centrations in the other Alaskan belugas, the The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease hepatic concentrations of methyl mercury are Registry (ATSDR) has initiated the Alaska Native similar among all three Alaskan groups (0.3–2 Subsistence and Dietary Contaminants Program to mg/kg ww). study contaminants in the environment, subsis- FWS has determined concentrations of organo- tence resources, and people in Alaska Native pop- chlorine pesticides, including toxaphene, in bur- ulations. Working with other Federal, tribal, state, bot collected from three National Wildlife and local governments, ATSDR will focus on Refuges in interior Alaska and the Tanana River research and public health activities necessary to near Fairbanks, Alaska. In general, there were empower Alaska subsistence diet users to make greater contaminant concentrations from sites informed dietary decisions while incorporating below Fairbanks and within the Yukon Flats Ref- traditional and western scientific information. uge than at Tetlin and Kanuti refuges. There were The primary goals and activities for this program greater concentrations of DDT and its metabolites are to: at Fairbanks, probably reflecting the historical use • Identify Alaska Native traditional subsistence of that pesticide within the city of Fairbanks and diets and characterize human exposure to at nearby military bases. Concentrations of DDT dietary contaminants; and metabolites from Fairbanks were up to two • Characterize and analyze human health risks orders of magnitude greater than in burbot from and nutritional benefits of the Alaska Native five studies in Canada. The range of PCB concen- subsistence lifestyle; trations were similar to those from four of six • Evaluate human health effects in the Alaska Canadian studies and were generally less than Native population that may be associated with laboratory-derived effects values. Toxaphene con- contaminants found to be part of the subsis- centrations were generally low. Because this was tence lifestyle; an initial assessment and sample sizes were low, • In partnership with the affected Alaska Native further studies would illuminate whether the con- communities, provide communication and centrations found at Fairbanks and Yukon Flats education to assist in culturally appropriate are of concern to fish and wildlife resources. This decisions on risks and benefits of the diet; report will be finalized in FY 01. and Personnel from the Alaska Maritime NWR col- • Develop and implement interventions that lected bald eagle carcasses from Adak Island are culturally appropriate and based on the between 1994 and 1998. Tissues were collected for defined needs of the Alaska Native popula- contaminants analysis, and data from the 1994–1996 tion. samples were reported in a technical report entitled “Contaminant residues in bald eagles (Heliaeetus Ecosystems at Risk leucocephalus) from Adak Island, Alaska” (WAES- The U.S. Arctic ecosystems are quite varied in TR-97-02). Additional funding in FY 99 allowed for their complexity and biological productivity. In analysis of the remaining samples collected after the marine environment, they include some the 1996. Data from all birds have been combined, com- world’s most productive, for example, the south- pared, and drafted into a manuscript, which will be eastern Bering Sea and Chirikov Basin ecosys- submitted to a peer-reviewed scientific journal in tems, which support important commercial fisher- FY 01. ies and an extraordinary feeding habitat for The number of red-throated loons breeding in wildlife. In contrast, oceanic waters of the Cana- Alaska declined 53% from 1977 to 1993. Aerial dian Basin have low biological productivity, population surveys in Alaska have produced although they may contain faunal assemblages rigorous trend data for red-throated loons, but that are unique, consisting of species of both the despite this, only fragmentary knowledge exists Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, or species that have about the natural history of this species. In 1998, survived through the ages (certain sponges and FWS identified red-throated loons as a “species at bryozoans). On land the U.S. Arctic is dominated risk” in Alaska and identified four specific data by wet and alpine tundra, both of which are criti- needs: demographic parameters, distribution cal to thousands of migratory birds, caribou, and among wintering areas and links to breeding other species. The spruce–poplar forests are areas, subsistence bycatch in fishing nets, and extensive and highly productive, but they occupy exposure to contaminants. This work will continue a relatively small portion of the U.S. Arctic lands. during FY 01. Irrespective of their location, all Arctic ecosys-

30 tems are highly cyclic (because of large seasonal acres. Lands within the National Wildlife Refuge changes in light levels, nutrient input, and temper- system in Alaska have had a varied and interesting ature) and have low species diversity. On an history. While large tracts remain in near-pristine annual or decadal cycle, they are also affected by condition, past uses of refuge lands have also weather and climatic changes, such as those included oil exploration and drilling, mining, caused by the presence, intensity, and movement establishment of runways and support facilities for of the Aleutian Low Pressure System in the north- aircraft, and use by the military for various opera- ern North Pacific Ocean. In the marine environ- tions including military installations, staging ment, the location of the ice edge, as well as con- areas, supply depots, training grounds, and his- tinental shelf-slope exchange of materials, is also toric battlefields. After these operations ceased, critically important to both the onset and suste- sites were often abandoned. At other sites, hazard- nance of primary productivity and ultimately to ous materials were spilled with no subsequent food chains culminating in fish and wildlife spe- cleanup. The total number of formerly used cies, many of which have considerable commer- defense sites (FUDS) in Alaska is 648. Most of cial, subsistence, and aesthetic value. them have undergone preliminary assessment for The structure and dynamics of the U.S. Arctic the nature of contamination and clean-up needs. A ecosystems have been studied for nearly 30 years number of sites are currently scheduled for reme- with primary funding support from a number of diation by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the Federal agencies, such as DOD/ONR, NSF, DOC/ Department of the Navy, or the Department of the NOAA, DOI/MMS and others. Programs such as Air Force. The FWS has also conducted numerous the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental studies on contamination in refuges within the Assessment Program, 1975–1992, provided a Arctic, establishing baseline conditions or investi- strong foundation for multidisciplinary scientific gating impacts on trust species. These investiga- studies of coastal and continental shelf waters tions are needed to determine significant changes around Alaska. Many concurrent and follow-up through time; the need will continue as new issues studies, such as PROBES, ISHTAR, and SHEBA are identified. funded by the National Science Foundation and EPA has been evaluating the Polar Sunrise the Fisheries–Oceanography Cooperative Investi- Effect on atmospheric mercury in Barrow, Alaska, gations (FOCI) funded by NOAA, have greatly since 1999. Research has confirmed that mercury advanced the scientific database and understand- is depleted in the atmosphere during the month ing of Arctic ecosystems. New studies and pro- following Arctic sunrise. Preliminary results sup- grams, as well as budget initiatives, will continue port the hypothesis that mercury is transformed to shed new light on ecosystem dynamics, particu- from elemental mercury in the atmosphere to reac- larly in relation to climatic changes, shelf-slope tive gaseous mercury. Mercury may then become exchange of energy and materials, and factors bioavailable in the terrestrial and aquatic environ- controlling the deposition and environmental fate ments following Arctic sunrise coincident with of contaminants. onset of the breeding season of Arctic wildlife. Both NOAA and the Minerals Management Service (MMS), U.S. Department of the Interior 2.3.2 Public Health are continuing congressionally mandated studies of the Arctic environment and resources, notably Infectious Diseases those relating to fisheries and wildlife. In the case The CDC’s National Center for Infectious Dis- of MMS, the primary purpose is assessment of eases, Arctic Investigations Program (NCID/AIP), impacts from oil and gas activities along the North together with Health Canada’s Laboratory Centres Slope of Alaska. The USGS will be conducting for Disease Control, Bureau of Infectious Dis- studies over the next five years (2001–2005) to eases, has initiated an International Circumpolar examine the impacts of climatic change and atmo- Surveillance (ICS) system linking existing public spheric transport of contaminants in the Yukon health laboratories and facilities in the Arctic to River basin. The studies will be designed to char- address emerging infectious disease problems. acterize water quality parameters, identify con- This initiative follows U.S. government inter- taminant sources, and assess the effects of con- agency recommendations established by the Com- taminants on regional biota and ecosystems. mittee on International Science Engineering and There are sixteen National Wildlife Refuges in Technology (CISET) and the CDC’s Global Alaska, encompassing approximately 92,000,000 Health Strategy. In 2002–2006 ICS participant

31 countries will include the U.S., Canada, Green- Consortium, and the Alaska Native Health Board, land/Denmark, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden with will continue studies on the epidemiology, risk planned linkage with public health laboratories in factors, and prevention strategies for occupational the Barents Sea regions of the Russian Federation. injuries in Alaskan communities. The NIOSH/ The current focus of ICS is on population-based DSR/AFS will continue to coordinate the develop- surveillance of invasive bacterial diseases caused ment of an integrated surveillance system for dis- by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus ease and injury in the Arctic, linking the existing influenzae, Neissera meningitidis, Group A & B NCID/AIP-initiated International Circumpolar Streptococcus in aboriginal and non-aboriginal Surveillance (ICS) system for infectious diseases peoples residing in Arctic regions. Outcomes will with nascent systems for injuries and birth defects, include descriptions of diseases rates, epidemio- eventually monitoring chronic diseases and malig- logic factors, bacterial agent characteristics nancies, behavioral risk factors, and a broader including antimicrobial susceptibility profiles, and spectrum of injury events. It will provide a more collaborative approaches for prevention and con- seamless picture of the current health status and trol. Extending the ICS to include other infectious trends by partnering with the Alaska Division of disease problems of Arctic countries is planned. Public Health, the Alaska Native Medical Center, Tuberculosis, particularly multi-drug-resistant and the Alaska Native Health Board’s Epidemiol- tuberculosis, is once again becoming a threat to ogy Center. human health in many Arctic communities. Tuber- The NIOSH/DSR Alaska Field Station is culosis is expected to be included in the ICS in mounting two other initiatives in Arctic research. 2002–2006. NCID/AIP will continue research Surveillance for work-related injuries has identi- focusing on the prevention and control of infec- fied the commercial fishing industry as contribut- tious disease problems in the U.S. Arctic. These ing high numbers of fatal and severe non-fatal include viral infections caused by respiratory syn- injuries. A new project will address the problems cytial virus; hepatitis A, B, and C; and diseases of vessel stability in the fishing fleet, the hazards caused by bacteria now commonly resistant to posed by machinery and fishing equipment, and antibiotics (Streptococcus pneumoniae, Staphylo- the physical design and layout of fishing vessels coccus aureus, and Helicobacter pylori). Together and will develop feasible interventions to prevent with the Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium, injuries among fishermen. Vessel stability and the NCID/AIP will conduct projects to evaluate the deck environment surrounding the deployment immunogenicity of a new 7-valent pneumococcal and retrieval systems of fishing equipment conjugate vaccine in Alaska Native children and (including the use of cranes, winches, lines, nets, study the effectiveness of the current 23-valent crab pots, and crab pot launchers) will be exam- pneumococcal vaccine in Alaska Native elders. ined from a mechanical and safety engineering Helicobacter pylori infection is commonly associ- perspective. Through effective industry focus ated with gastric ulcers. Recent studies conducted groups and application and promotion of new by CDC’s National Center for Chronic Disease technological innovations and interventions, the Prevention and Health Promotion’s Division of number of fatal and non-fatal injuries in this Nutrition and Physical Activity, the Yukon industry should decrease. Kuskokwim Delta Health Corporation, the State Alaska experienced an overall downward trend of Alaska Division of Public Health, and NCID/ in occupational fatalities since 1990 (from 78 in AIP have shown an association between Helico- 1990 to 42 in 1999, a decrease of 46%), but occu- bacter pylori infection and iron deficiency anemia pational aviation fatalities continue to be a prob- in Alaska Natives. Additional studies are needed lem. In response the U.S. Congress supported a to assess the validity of this association, as well as Federal initiative to reduce aviation-related inju- the development and evaluation of effective pre- ries and fatalities and to promote aviation safety vention and control strategies. in cooperation with the air transportation industry in Alaska. The initiative is a three-year partner- Occupational Injuries ship of four Federal agencies: the Federal Avia- The CDC’s National Institute for Occupational tion Administration (FAA), the National Transpor- Safety and Health, Division of Safety Research tation Safety Board (NTSB), the National Alaska Field Station (NIOSH/DSR/AFS), in col- Weather Service (NWS), and the National Insti- laboration with the Indian Health Service, the tute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). State of Alaska, the Alaska Native Tribal Health The goal is to reduce the number of aircraft

32 crashes and injuries in Alaska by at least 50% by (formalin fixed) tissue among colorectal can- the end of 2009. cer patients; • Familial aggregation of nasopharyngeal can- Chronic Diseases cer; and The CDC’s National Center for Environmental • Biomarkers expressed in tumor tissue of Health, Division of Environmental Hazards and Alaska Native breast cancer patients. Health Effects (NCEH/EHH), will continue stud- The Genetics of Coronary Artery Disease in ies on the relationship between exposure to envi- Alaska Natives (GOCADAN) Study is a five-year ronmental organochlorines and development of project that is focusing on a family study of 1200 breast cancer in Alaska Native women. This will individuals comprising 40 families of adults and be assessed by collecting biological samples from children over the age of 18, primarily from two women undergoing breast biopsy or surgery at the villages near Nome, Alaska. This project is a part- Alaska Native Medical Center and analyzing these nership with Norton Sound Health Corporation, a samples for endocrine-disrupting chemicals (for subcontractor to the Indian Health Service, to example, DDE, PCB, and PBB). Interviews are study the etiology of heart disease in Alaska being conducted to identify potentially confound- Natives using the protocol and many investigators ing risk factors for breast cancer (such as parity from the Strong Heart Study, an NHLBI-funded and family history) and to collect dietary infor- 12-year study of cardiovascular disease in Ameri- mation. can Indians. The study will also include a cardiol- The Alaska Native Tumor Registry (ANTR) ogy center at Cornell Medical School, a genetics was initiated in 1974 in collaboration with the center at Southwest Foundation for Biomedical National Cancer Institute (NCI), NIH, and the Research, a coagulation laboratory at the Univer- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention sity of Vermont, a central laboratory at Medlantic (CDC). From the outset of registry efforts, the Research Institute, and investigators located at the procedures and policies followed were those of University of Alaska. Examinations began in the NCI Surveillance, Epidemiology and End October 2000. A ten-centiMorgan genetic scan Results (SEER) Program. The registry takes an will be used to identify significant linkages active role in management and follow-up care of between markers and risk factors and disease. cancer patients. All patients are tracked and noti- Three projects are being reviewed or have been fied of recommended follow-up appointments. approved for funding during the coming year. The Accurate information on the unique cancer pat- Age, Gene/Environment Susceptibility (AGES) terns occurring in this population is useful for pro- study is funded from 2001 to 2008 by the National vider education and training, program planning, Institute on Aging. NIA is seeking additional studies of cancer etiology, evaluation of screening funding to expand this study to an existing cohort programs, interventions to improve patient care, of approximately 12,000 members to identify and programs for cancer prevention and risk genetic and other new risk factors for selected dis- reduction. eases and conditions including atherosclerosis and ANTR completed the “Alaska Native Cancer stroke and to characterize phenotypes for these Survival Report,” and several scientific articles diseases and conditions, in relation to genetic sus- have been published based on ANTR data. The ceptibility, gene function, and genetic/environ- registry will provide an update of cancer inci- mental contributions to disease. Improvement in dence for Alaska Natives statewide and by service the measurement of quantitative traits as pheno- unit. Discussions are underway with the Army types will result from the use of prior longitudinal Corp of Engineers and the Air Force to study con- data and more recent non-invasive imaging tech- taminants at military sites and cancer patterns. niques. These include calcium scoring of the coro- Research studies in progress include: nary arteries by computerized tomography (CT) • Serum PCB levels in breast cancer patients and hippocampal volume by magnetic resonance and controls; imaging (MRI). • Prospective study of breast cancer and orga- The second proposed project is an intervention nochlorines in serum and fat tissue in the study entitled Stroke Prevention in Alaska. The breast; intervention will focus on dietary counseling of • Helicobacter pylori and cancer and other Alaska Natives to modify and reduce fat intake, diseases of the stomach; improve weight control, and increase physical • Prevalence of colorectal cancer genes in activity. The study will include 600 adults over

33 the age of 24 from four Alaska villages, including lar, identification of possible ethnic and cultural two Siberian Yup’ik villages, one central Yup’ik differences is likely to have implications for im- village, and one Inupiaq village. Protocols for proved treatment outcomes for Native Alaskans. data collection will follow those for the Strong NIAAA-supported investigators also recently Heart Study. Data collection will include dietary looked at local policy changes in Barrow, Alaska, assessments, cardiovascular disease risk factors, and their effects on alcohol consumption. During and ultrasound carotid artery measures, as well a 33-month period, referenda passed by the citi- as extensive laboratory measures and lifestyle zens at first imposed, then withdrew, and finally surveys. re-imposed a total ban on alcohol sales. Research The third proposed project is focused on Alas- findings indicated significant decreases in emer- ka villages below the Arctic Circle. It will expand, gency room visits (including those for assaults) facilitate, and stimulate biomedical research, when alcohol was banned, increases to levels of including multiple components focused on disease the pre-ban period when the ban was lifted, and surveillance; survey systems for genetic, environ- significant declines again when the ban was re- mental, and behavioral risk factors; high-through- imposed by Barrow voters. The contrasts between put genotyping; and cultural/behavioral research. periods when the policy was in force and periods National Eye Institute (NEI) staff are engaged when it was suspended makes this a revealing in discussions with investigators in the Depart- study of the effects of public policy on drinking. ment of Ophthalmology of the Alaska Native Looking ahead, NIAAA and the National Insti- Medical Center regarding a proposed epidemio- tute of Child Health and Human Development are logical study of refractive error in Alaskan chil- preparing to collaborate in studying the role of dren, adopting a protocol used successfully in prenatal alcohol exposure in sudden infant death China, Nepal, and Chile under WHO/NEI spon- syndrome (SIDS). Recent findings suggest a sorship. The Bethel area of Alaska is under con- strong relationship between alcohol use during sideration. With the increasing significance of pregnancy and SIDS, adding to the established refractive error as a public health problem in risks of fetal alcohol syndrome and alcohol- children, a study in a Native American population related neurodevelopmental disorder. The high would be of high potential interest. incidence of both alcohol problems and SIDS in Alcoholism is a long-term, progressive disease Alaska lends itself to such research. that can lead to compromised workplace perfor- Another study is designed to understand how mance; disrupted families; long-term health com- Alaska Natives maintain or achieve sobriety, such as plications including cirrhosis, heart disease, and factors that protect individuals from alcohol depen- cognitive impairment; and injuries and death from dence and facilitate recovery. Spirituality is thought accidents or violence. Research into the causes, to be a critical element in the recovery process, prevention, and treatment of alcoholism, including and investigators will explore its role in promot- approaches that can serve the far northern envi- ing resiliency to abusive drinking behaviors. ronment in particular, is central to reducing the The National Institute on Aging (NIA) contin- consequences of excessive alcohol use. Research ues to fund the Native Elder Research Center, supported by the National Institute on Alcohol located within the Division of American Indian Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) in Alaska is and Alaska Native Programs of the Department of aimed at the nature of alcoholism in this popula- Psychiatry, School of Medicine, and University of tion, approaches to treatment, and the impact of Colorado Health Sciences Center in Denver. The public policy on drinking. The research addresses Center coordinates a research career development features particular to the Alaskan environment, program targeted at American Indian (AI) and including the sparse population in a remote land- Alaska Native (AN) investigators, focusing on scape with a significant Native American popu- aging, health, and culture. The Center augments lation. ongoing partnerships with AI/AN communities to One study is the first comprehensive clinical ensure involvement of elders, their families, and description of Native Alaskans in treatment for local systems of care in aging research. The aim alcohol dependence using a standardized assess- is to increase the pool of talented investigators ment protocol, identical to that used in NIAAA’s committed to research. multi-center Collaborative Study of the Genetics The Alaska Native maternal and newborn of Alcoholism (COGA), making comparison blood monitoring program will measure persistent across different ethnic groups possible. In particu- organic pollutants, heavy metals, and micronutri-

34 ents in the blood of women entering prenatal care tively prevented or minimized through the admin- and in the umbilical cord blood of their newborn istration of pharmacological interventions and/or infants. phototherapy. The program was developed at the request of The National Institute of Mental Health, NIH, Alaska Native communities to provide data on is expanding its portfolio of research on the pre- human tissue levels of contaminants that are trans- vention of suicide in response to the recent Sur- ported to the Arctic from lower latitudes, entering geon General’s report on suicide. Included in the food chain of subsistence species, and being these efforts are attempts to reach out to tradition- ingested by rural Alaska Natives pursuing their ally underserved populations such as Alaska traditional diet. Natives. The data will be utilized for several purposes: The National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, • It will be used to provide trend data on supports evaluation of the benefits of needle human tissue levels over time. exchange programs (NEPs) and/or pharmacy dis- • It will allow, over time, for examination of tribution of syringes by intervening with injection health outcome data, to see whether correla- drug users to reduce hepatitis B virus (HBV), tions with contaminant levels exist. hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immuno- • Combined with a subsistence dietary history deficiency virus (HIV); this research has been in each woman and micronutrient levels, the underway at the University of Alaska Anchorage data will be examined for correlation of sub- (UAA) since 1996. Data being monitored include sistence food intake with micronutrient levels results of urine testing for amphetamines, cocaine and examined for positive health outcomes in metabolites, and morphine, as well as serological women and infants. testing for HBV, HCV, and HIV. An objective is to • Communities will be able to perform their refer drug injectors recruited into the study for a own risk-benefit assessment and formulate free HBV vaccination series, with success in community-specific strategies to reduce expo- enrolling over half of the active drug users partici- sure and maintain the traditional diet. pating. The subject population includes Alaska • The data will be shared with state and Federal Natives, whites, African Americans, and Hispan- agencies with responsibilities for contaminant ics. NIDA anticipates that such efforts will con- risk assessment, and reduction of pollutant tinue in the future, with the possibility of coopera- release. tion with other countries (Canada and Russia) • The data will be shared with the other Arctic holding Arctic territory adjacent to Alaska. countries as part of the AMAP protocol. A First Independent Research Support and At present the monitoring program covers Transition (FIRST) Award (1997–2001) at the approximately 75 villages along the Arctic Ocean University of Alaska Anchorage (UAA) is identi- and Bering Sea, as well as the Yukon and Kusko- fying subgroups of women and their risk behav- kwim Rivers. The monitoring program is funded iors and potential for diseases relative to use of by the EPA, the Alaska Native Tribal Health drugs and condoms. The study uses individual Consortium, the CDC National Center for Envi- level predictors, contextual variables related to ronmental Health, and the State of Alaska. sexual decision making, psychosocial con- structs, and selected demographic variables to Behavioral Aspects develop subtypes of women and to better under- Supported by a grant from the National Sci- stand their pattern of drug-using and sexual ence Foundation, a researcher at the Food and behaviors (particularly among Alaska Native Drug Administration is investigating cognitive women) that put them at risk for sexually trans- performance related to extended residence in Ant- mitted and other blood-borne infectious diseases. arctica and seasonal mood alterations. The project Plans include expansion into full-fledged has two specific objectives. The first is to deter- research aimed at expanding knowledge of drug mine whether long-term exposure to low tempera- use, sexual risk, and infectious disease risk of tures and/or dim light, both characteristic of polar Alaska Native women. winters in high-latitude environments, are associ- In May 2000, NIDA staff co-organized the ated with significant changes in cognitive perfor- Eighth International Conference on AIDS, Cancer, mance and emotional well-being. The second and Related Problems in St. Petersburg, Russia, objective is to determine whether decrements to and co-chaired sessions devoted to drug abuse and mood and cognitive performance can be effec- AIDS epidemiology and prevention/intervention,

35 with participants from Siberia, the Russian Far ing more than 50 million page hits per year. NLM East, and the Arctic. A large symposium is is prominently featuring outreach to minority and planned for May 2001 in St. Petersburg. underserved communities so they may make maximum use of these services. For the Native Ameri- Delivery of Health Care can communities in Alaska and the Pacific North- The National Institute of Mental Health, NIH, west, these activities are centered at the Regional currently supports a number of telemedicine Medical Library in Seattle at the University of grants that are testing the delivery of mental Washington. “Tribal Connections in the Pacific health interventions through this technology. The Northwest” (www.tribalconnections.org) connects NIDA-supported extramural research initiatives American Indian/Alaska Native communities to at the UAA have benefited from UAA’s Telemedi- health resources on the Internet, including cine Project that helps to bridge the geographic MEDLINEplus. This highly successful program is expanse of Alaska in a series of “research at a connecting hospitals, clinics, libraries, and remote distance” projects using desktop video telecon- villages via the Internet and thus reducing the iso- ferencing technology. In collaboration with the lation from quality health information and health NIDA-supported research, the Telemedicine care of this vulnerable population. Related to the Project is continuing to explore the uses of Tribal Connections program is a series of tele- narrow-band telecommunications and information medicine projects in rural Alaska that collectively technology to improve the delivery of health care is serving as a testbed strategy for cost contain- to all citizens of Alaska. It is anticipated that these ment and for raising the quality of health care for efforts will be expanded to include countries with a minority population that is scattered across a Arctic territory adjoining that of the U.S. (Canada vast area. and Russia). The National Cancer Institute (NCI), NIH, through its Surveillance Research Program, Divi- Capacity Building/Health Disparities sion of Cancer Control and Population Sciences, The National Institute of Neurological Diseases supports the Network for Cancer Control and Stroke is funding a Specialized Neuroscience Research among American Indian and Alaska Research Program at the University of Alaska Native Populations. Established in 1990, this net- Fairbanks (UAF) that establishes an Alaskan work of researchers working among American Basic Neuroscience Program (ABNP) to expand, Indians and Alaska Natives developed a National facilitate, and stimulate neuroscience research, to Strategic Plan for Cancer Prevention and Control facilitate the collaborative research, and to stimu- Research in FY 92. The NCI shares support for late the active participation of Alaska Native stu- Network meetings with the Mayo Comprehensive dents. The ABNP will carry out interdisciplinary Cancer Center, Rochester, MN. With additional research to study mechanisms of neuroprotective NCI support, the Network has convened three adaptations via four specific aims: 1) develop national conferences to discuss research and train- an administrative core directly under the Pro- ing and to disseminate results. vost that will provide the most effective envi- In 1997, NCI assisted the Network and Mayo in ronment, 2) develop a research program around establishing the Native CIRCLE, a clearinghouse the theme of neuroprotective adaptations and for information and resources developed through increase collaborations with other neuroscien- research (http://www.mayo.edu/nativecircle). tists, 3) develop an emphasis on neuroscience Many useful, culturally sensitive materials, graduate education, and 4) upgrade an existing including school curricula, videos, pamphlets, and tissue culture/imaging facility to state-of-the-art survey instruments, are catalogued and made standards. The proposed research focuses on available to researchers and communities for neuroprotective adaptations associated with hi- application in areas of smoking prevention, cancer bernation and signal transduction in the control screening, and dietary change. of cell death, neuronal regeneration, circadian Ongoing efforts for the Network include col- rhythms, and thermoregulation. laborative efforts with the Indian Health Service The National Library of Medicine (NLM), NIH, and the Centers for Disease Control and Preven- has in the last two years created several Web- tion, expansion of cancer surveillance among based information services that serve the public American Indian populations, and pursuit of new directly. MEDLINEplus and ClinicalTrials.gov studies in patterns of care and cancer survivor- are two notable resources that together are receiv- ship. Members successfully competed to become

36 one of NCI’s new Special Population Networks. issues during its 1998–2000 Chairmanship of the This large, five-year project will address compre- Arctic Council. The U.S. initiated projects on hensive tribal cancer control using partnerships telemedicine and infectious disease, featured pre- between populations, tribes, multiple cancer cen- sentations by U.S. experts at Council meetings, ters, the NCI, and the American Cancer Society and hosted the May 2000 International Confer- and will also develop, assess, and implement can- ence on Arctic Development, Pollution and Bio- cer education among community members. markers of Human Health. The U.S. also contrib- The NCI supports the Native American Student uted to the Council’s Human Health Effects Research Program, a cancer control research Program in the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment training program for American Indian and Alaska Program (AMAP) and helped fund a new assess- Native graduate and post-doctoral students. Span- ment of contaminants in the food supply of Rus- ning six years, the program has provided training sian indigenous communities in the Arctic. to 53 trainees of diverse Native groups, including At the Second Ministerial Meeting of the Arc- Alaska Natives. A substantial proportion of the tic Council in Barrow, Alaska, in October 2000, trainees have been awarded NCI funds (17 of 43 Ministers welcomed and approved the report on eligible, or 40%) to carry out community-based Telemedicine in the Arctic prepared by the Insti- cancer control activities among Native groups. tute for Circumpolar Health Studies and the pro- The training program has been awarded another posal by the CDC’s Arctic Investigations Program five-year grant. The projects require implementa- to develop an International Circumpolar Surveil- tion of a research plan within an established time- lance System (ICS) for infectious diseases. table and a report utilizing analytical skills. The Arctic Investigations Program worked The Office of Intramural Research, Office of closely with Canada and Denmark/Greenland in the Director, NIH, is pursuing an initiative called setting up the ICS for Streptococcus pneumoniae. the Arctic Health Disparities Research Dissemina- As a follow-on initiative, the Office for the tion Network (AHDRDN), envisioned as a central Advancement of Telehealth at the U.S. Health point of recognizance for U.S. human health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) efforts, including research, surveillance, education will work with Sweden and Norway to organize an and training, communications, and outreach activ- international workshop to develop elements of a ities, particularly aimed at the Native populations. common methodology for evaluating the varied A starting point for the Network is the new Arctic telehealth programs in the Arctic. Health Information web site, currently under The Department of State will facilitate U.S. development by the Specialized Information participation as appropriate in all the health activ- Services Division of the National Library of ities of the Arctic Council. Canada’s program on Medicine, NIH. The AHDRDN could be pro- Children and Youth, for example, will focus on posed to the Arctic Council as a new project data collection and analysis of health indicators under its Sustainable Development Working by developing pilot projects in the four broad Group (SDWG). areas of health (socio-economic-cultural, health The U.S. Department of State will continue to services, psychosocial well-being, and biophysical promote international cooperation on health issues health). The U.S. has supported the Russian Indig- in the Arctic Council. The Arctic Council is an enous Peoples of the North (RAIPON) proposal intergovernmental forum for the eight Arctic to monitor and assess the levels of contaminants nations and six indigenous organizations repre- in the indigenous food eaten by residents of the senting Arctic communities concerned with envi- Russian Arctic. RAIPON has funding from the ronmental protection and sustainable develop- Global Environment Facility (GEF) for this ment. The U.S. raised the profile of Arctic health research project.

37 3. Agency Programs

3.1 New Opportunities for Arctic Research

3.1.1 U.S. Chairmanship of the project, or GLIMS, led by USGS); and the devel- Arctic Council opment of snow and ice cover products for polar U.S. agencies are continuing to examine how research applications using NASA’s scatterometer best to contribute data to ongoing research pro- data. grams being conducted through the Arctic Coun- NASA has entered a new data-rich era of satel- cil’s working groups and also whether there is lite observations of the Arctic, with the launch of scope for new research on issues relating to envi- the Earth Observing System suite of sensors. ronmental contaminants, pollution, human health, ICESAT will make observations of cloud and ice and biodiversity. Given the Council’s mandate surface heights, the latter being comparable with with respect to sustainable development, there is airborne laser altimeter observations of Green- also scope for renewed emphasis on research in land, one of the goals being to determine whether the social sciences. the rapid thinning of many parts of the margin of the Greenland ice sheet is continuing. The NASA 3.1.2 Remote Sensing satellites TERRA and AQUA will each provide a NASA has completed a major re-survey of the wide range of data types that will enrich our capa- Greenland ice sheet, through its Program for bility to understand Arctic processes. Two exam- Arctic Regional Climate Assessment (PARCA), ples are AMSR, which is an advanced passive resulting in the completion of a wide range of microwave sensor of high potential value for sea remote-sensing-based data sets covering the ice ice studies, and MODIS, which is a high-spectral- sheet. These are in the process of being made resolution visible and infrared imaging sensor that available, with coordination from the National will enhance our ability to observe surface albedo Snow and Ice Data Center (see Section 3.5.1 for and temperature in polar regions. details about PARCA). Data sets include surface topography derived from satellite radar and air- 3.1.3 In-situ Sensing borne laser observations, meteorological observa- NASA has supported the development of the tions from automatic weather stations, ice thick- Greenland Climate Network (GC-Net), which cur- ness from radar sounding, surface accumulation rently consists of 20 stations with a widely distrib- from ice cores, and passive-microwave-derived uted coverage over the Greenland ice sheet. Four estimates of surface melt. This combined data set stations are located on top of the ice sheet (in the represents a new benchmark for the current state 3000-m elevation range) along the north–south of the Greenland ice sheet. direction, ten stations are located along the 2000- NASA also supports the development of geo- m contour line, and four stations were positioned physical “pathfinder” data sets that will be useful in the ablation region at around 300 m in eleva- to a broad community of scientists. Following a tion. GC-Net automatic weather stations (AWSs) re-competition of NASA’s Pathfinder program, the are equipped with instruments to measure surface following projects with Arctic interests were energy and mass balance. So far the GC-NET selected. These projects include the development archive contains more than 50 station-years of of a historical synthesis (1978–2000) of snow measurements. These data have been quality con- cover data from microwave and optical instru- trolled and calibrated. ments, to be used for modeling purposes; a pilot study of Alaskan glacier extent measurements to 3.1.4 Fisheries Management quantify global warming impacts using satellite Bering Sea stocks cannot be fished indiscrimi- high-resolution optical and infrared data sets nately without irreversible changes in the popula- (the Global Land Ice Measurements from Space tion structure and yield. Agreements between the

38 Presidents of the U.S. and Russia reflect the the former Soviet Union and now Russia over the heightened consciousness regarding the rich fish- last several years, which include data from north ery, wildlife, mineral, and heritage resources of of the Arctic circle. These data are distributed the Bering Sea region. among the U.S. national data centers. A steady Representatives of the State of Alaska have stream of Russian scientists and science officials called for a study of the Bering Sea aimed at have visited the U.S., offering plans and proposals understanding the fishery dynamics and devising for collaborative work. Proposals for specific appropriate management options. The Arctic projects with Federal agencies have resulted. Research Commission has concurred with these Many agencies have taken the initiative to devel- concerns and has recommended a study of the op their own contacts and programs in Russia. Bering Sea as an ecosystem. (See Section 2.2.) Revelations about environmental contamination in The NOAA/National Marine Fisheries Service the Russian Arctic and efforts to preserve and dis- (NMFS) conducts an extensive program of eco- seminate scientific data from the former Soviet logical and stock assessment research in support Union have been the principal motivations behind of its fisheries and marine mammals conservation much of this activity. mandates. These research programs include fish- Studies of Russian, U.S., and Canadian Arctic eries oceanography to understand how environ- history continue to demonstrate the ties that have mental changes affect resource production, stock linked Arctic people, cultures, and regions for the assessments to determine resource status, and past 15,000 years. recruitment research to understand and forecast new Under the Environmental Working Group entrants to fisheries and mammal populations. (EWG) of the U.S.–Russian Joint Commission on The agency and the groundfish industry carry Economic and Technological Cooperation, the U.S. out large-scale observer programs to monitor at- and Russia have developed methods and proce- sea catch and bycatch of the fleet. This informa- dures for using national security data for environ- tion is used to set harvest levels and to allow wise mental problems of mutual interest. A key success use of the resources. of the EWG has been the creation of a series of Arctic climatology atlases using information 3.1.5 Cultural Exchange derived from both Russian and U.S. national secu- Work continues on planning for the Russia– rity data. Four CD-ROM atlases covering winter United States International Beringian Park in the and summer oceanography, ice, and meteorology Bering Straits region. This park would preserve have been released with 40-year gridded time- the unique environmental and cultural heritage histories. The oceanographic atlases have more adjacent regions of Alaska and Siberia. Current than doubled the Arctic oceanographic informa- plans call for continuing the highly successful past tion available to the world’s scientific community. efforts on research, cultural exchanges, and publication projects. 3.1.8 Oil Pollution Control Title V of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 estab- 3.1.6 Data lished the Prince William Sound Oil Spill Recov- Common to all programs is the need for consis- ery Institute (OSRI), with broad interagency tent data management among the Federal agen- participation led by NOAA and including the cies. The Arctic Data and Information Program Department of Interior, Department of Defense, describes this activity (see Section 4.2). Department of Transportation, and Environmental Protection Agency. The State of Alaska is work- 3.1.7 U.S.–Russia Collaboration ing to coordinate with OSRI’s development of an The ending of the Cold War and the opening of Arctic–sub-Arctic oil spill research plan. The plan relations with the former Soviet Union offer an has $5 million in research support from the State unprecedented opportunity to develop bilateral of Alaska and authority to receive up to $23 mil- research programs on Arctic scientific issues of lion from an account to be established in the common concern to the U.S. and Russia. Several National Pollution Fund. bilateral agreements already exist to promote cooperative efforts in the areas of environmental 3.1.9 Permafrost Degradation protection, oceans research, basic science, fisher- Renewed concern for the potential damage to ies management, and energy technology. An infrastructure and the environment due to perma- extensive amount of data has been exchanged with frost degradation has been sparked by ongoing

39 initiatives to provide access to the National Petro- greenhouse gas. The degradation process may leum Reserve in Alaska (NPR–A) for nonrenew- result in a dramatic increase in the mobility of able resource development, as well as increased contaminants locked in existing permafrost depos- DOD interest for potential National Missile its. The impact is initially localized and is highly Defense facilities in Alaska and other Arctic dependent on the nature of the contaminants and regions. the geological and hydrological conditions of the Roads, airfields, buildings, and pipelines site. The contaminants become more widespread founded on permafrost are at risk of damage when as warming proceeds, increasing the probability of the ground warms or thaws. This degradation their introduction into the food chain and large- causes frozen ground to lose its strength, with scale groundwater contamination. consequences ranging from a reduced service life The issue of permafrost degradation impacts to outright structural failure. The thawing of ice- virtually all elements of the existing infrastructure rich permafrost produces irregular settlement and and future Arctic building programs, land use, and slope instabilities that permanently alter the ter- contaminant mobility, and raises concerns regard- rain and have catastrophic consequences on the ing the exposure of other cold-regions nations to infrastructure. this threat. Although this problem has been recog- Significantly, permafrost degradation is not a nized by the engineering community, knowledge hypothesized outcome of global warming: engi- of the extent of permafrost areas at risk, predic- neers have been dealing with the effects of perma- tions of the rate of degradation and the resultant frost degradation for some time, and there are damage to specific structures, and a strategy for documented cases of the resulting damage to the dealing with progressive damage are all lacking. infrastructure. Although a link with global climate change is intuitive, factors such as microclimate, 3.1.10 Contaminant Behavior and local hydrology, glacial history, geomorphology Impact in Northern Polar Regions and materials, and increased snow depth can pro- This new program of the National Science mote, and in some cases control, degradation at Foundation has as its goal to encourage research specific sites. on the physical and biological routes, rates, and In addition to the impact to infrastructure, per- reservoirs of Arctic contaminants to develop base- mafrost warming and thawing have dramatic lines for natural systems. This research will pro- effects on vegetation, topography, and hydrologic vide a better understanding of the behavior of processes, which in turn have serious ecological contaminants among the Arctic’s atmospheric, and land use implications. Warming may increase marine, terrestrial, and estuarine systems and their the release of trapped methane and CO2 as a impacts on human populations and ecosystems.

3.2 Arctic Ocean and Marginal Seas

3.2.1 Ice Dynamics and tions, basin-scale estimates of geophysical fields Oceanography that are suitable for process studies, model param- NASA has developed the Radarsat Geophysi- eterization and validation, and climatological cal Processor System (RGPS) to produce esti- studies. From the area and thickness estimates, the mates of the motion, deformation, and seasonal RGPS can be used to compute the deformation of thickness of the Arctic Ocean ice cover from time- the ice cover and the volume stored in seasonal sequential synthetic aperture radar imagery. This ice as a result of the nonuniform motion of the ice system has provided, for the first time, accurate, cover. large-scale measurements of the spatial variability NASA has continued to investigate the large- of the area ice cover. The seasonal ice is impor- scale changes in the Arctic sea ice cover since late tant because it contains the crucial thickness range 1978, using satellite passive-microwave data from that produces the most ice growth, the most turbu- NASA’s Nimbus 7 Scanning Multichannel Micro- lent heat flux to the atmosphere, and the most salt wave Radiometer (SMMR) and the Defense Mete- flux to the ocean. The ultimate objective is to orological Satellite Program’s Special Sensor compile, from long-term, high-resolution observa- Microwave Imagers (SSMIs). The satellite data

40 allow calculation of sea ice concentrations (the throughout the region, the expected beginning of percentage of area covered by ice) and, through this anthropogenically driven process? If so, it has use of the concentrations, ice extents and length strong implications for high-latitude warming and of the sea ice season (the number of days per year a positive sea ice–albedo feedback. with ice coverage). Analysis of how the ice con- Modeling carried out at NASA’s Goddard centrations, ice extents, and length of the sea ice Institute for Space Studies (GISS) indicates that season have changed since 1978 contribute to our the change in phase of the North Atlantic Oscilla- understanding of Arctic climate variability, which tion associated with recent changes in Arctic sea is the first step in establishing its role in climate. ice primarily arises from the impact of increasing Results of the analysis for the satellite data trace gases on the zonal wind structure in the from late 1978 through the end of 1996 reveal upper troposphere/stratosphere and the corre- considerable spatial and interannual variability sponding alteration in planetary wave propaga- within the Arctic ice cover but also some clear tion. At the same time, increasing trace gases lead overall trends. Most prominently the Arctic sea to a freshening of the North Atlantic, a reduction ice extents exhibited an overall trend toward less in North Atlantic Deep Water production, and sea ice, at an average rate of 34,300 ± 3,700 cooling in the high North Atlantic, also decreasing square kilometers per year, or 2.8% per decade. the sea level pressure in this region. In this model, The largest decreases were in the Kara and Bar- future sea ice decreases result primarily from ther- ents Seas and the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan. modynamic factors associated with global warm- Increases occurred in the Bering Sea, Baffin Bay/ ing, rather than sea ice advection. Once sea ice Labrador Sea, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, decreases, the effect on the atmosphere is to pro- although only those in the Gulf of St. Lawrence mote more cyclonicity, enhancing the removal of were statistically significant. sea ice from the Arctic. The important conclusion, Greater spatial detail in the patterns of Arctic based on the GISS model analysis, is that the sea ice cover change has been revealed by map- observed change in sea ice in the Arctic appears ping trends in the length of the sea ice season. The to be arising from increasing atmospheric green- central Greenland Sea and most of the ice-covered house gases, but acting primarily through atmo- region of the eastern hemisphere all display short- spheric and oceanic dynamical changes; however, ening sea ice seasons, with the strongest trends future Arctic sea ice decreases may be more asso- being in the eastern Barents Sea, just north of far ciated with global warming than with advection western Russia. The Bering Sea, northern and changes, a result that needs to be explored with a eastern Baffin Bay, the Labrador Sea, and the Gulf coupled ocean–troposphere–middle atmosphere of St. Lawrence all experienced lengthening sea model. ice seasons instead. Overall, a much larger area The goal of NASA’s Polar Exchange at the Sea experienced a shortening in the sea ice season Surface (POLES) project is to refine knowledge than a lengthening, corresponding well with the of the Arctic climate system using satellite and overall ice extent decreases over the same period other observations and models. The POLES piece found through the same satellite data and with the of the climate system puzzle includes the heat and thinning of the ice cover found through submarine moisture balance of the polar atmosphere, the data. amounts and radiative effects of polar clouds, the To provide explanations for the observed hemi- surface heat and moisture balance, and the trans- spheric and regional trends in sea ice coverage, port of heat and moisture into the polar atmo- NASA is also funding investigations that model sphere from the midlatitudes. With a good knowl- the role of sea ice in Arctic climate. The recent edge of these variables, it is possible to determine changes of reduced Northern Hemisphere sea ice the history and forcing mechanisms of climatic coverage and thickness have raised the issues of change in Arctic sea ice cover, the freshwater bal- whether they are indeed trends or part of natural ance of the Arctic Ocean, and its interaction with variability and whether the observed trend could subpolar oceans. be the result of an anthropogenic process. One of New Arctic Ocean ice thickness data from U.S. the most robust projections of global circulation Navy submarines show a striking thinning over models in response to increasing anthropogenic the past several decades, a change that mirrors trace gases is a decrease in Northern Hemisphere decreasing ice extent seen by satellites. A sea ice sea ice. Is the decrease of 2.8% per decade over model shows similar changes and has the advan- the 40 years, and the noticeable thinning of ice tage of allowing a diagnosis of model forcing and

41 About half of the ice thinning over the past 35 • Study the influence of Arctic marine produc- years is apparently caused by a slow, continual tivity on the global cycling of biologically warming of Arctic surface temperatures. The oth- active materials, including carbon and nitro- er half of the modeled thinning is caused by a gen; and change in surface wind patterns; it is more abrupt • Understand the physical and biological pro- and appears strongly in the 1990s. cesses that affect fisheries recruitment in the The POLES program will continue under a U.S. waters of the Bering, Chukchi, and project called The Role of Polar Oceans in Beaufort Seas. Contemporary Climate Change. The focus shifts somewhat to assimilating a variety of observed 3.2.3 Marine Geology and data sets into model simulations to provide the Geophysics best possible estimate of the Arctic climate The Arctic continental margin and deep ocean record for the past 50 years. The first step is to basin constitute one of the least understood geo- determine the optimal methods for utilizing logical regions of the world, partly because much satellite-based estimates of forcing variables of the offshore area is covered with sea ice. A bet- and for assimilating satellite and ground-based ter understanding of the tectonic history, geologic measurements of ice motion and ice concentra- structure, sediment processes and distribution, and tion into our ice–ocean model. Global climate climatic and glacial history of the deeper basin models tend to use very elementary physics to will require extensive geophysical and geological represent sea ice; this can contribute to poor research and the integration of newly collected representation of all Arctic climate processes in data on an international scale. longer-term climate hindcasts and predictions. The sea ice model, with its more sophisticated Objectives ice physics, is being modularized, so that it will • Develop and perfect new techniques for be readily accessible for these GCMs. deployment of instruments in the harsh Arctic environment (for example, seismic tomogra- 3.2.2 Ocean and Coastal phy, geophysical arrays, hydraulic piston cor- Ecosystems and Living Resources ing, and scientific deep drilling); The biota of marine and coastal ecosystems are • Initiate Arctic marine geological and geo- influenced by physical processes, including sea- physical studies to provide information on sonal extremes of light and temperature. Arctic past and present climate change and the his- marine ecosystems are dominated by sea ice, tory of the ice cover, support rational devel- while coastal ecosystems are influenced by fresh- opment of natural resources, and address fun- water input and seasonal sediment loads, as well damental questions of global geologic history as by seasonal sea ice. There is a need to quantify and regional tectonic development; the resulting variability in the rates of biological • Define the geologic framework, deep struc- production of marine living resources through ture, and tectonic history and development of long-term and well-designed interdisciplinary the Bering Sea region; research. • Develop the capability for systematic and comprehensive collection of geologic data in Objectives the ice-covered offshore regions using remote • Determine the status and trends of fish, bird, sensing and other technologies, such as the and marine mammal populations and identify nuclear submarine; and their habitat requirements; • Determine modern sediment transport by sea • Monitor coastal ecosystems to detect and ice, icebergs, and other processes; character- quantify temporal changes in nutrient and ize the seafloor sediments by coring and energy exchange and their effect on biota; reflection methods; and establish a well-dated • Determine the magnitude and variation of stratigraphy. marine productivity in Arctic areas through studies of the structure, dynamics, and natural 3.2.4 Underwater Research variability of the ecosystems; Marine scientists working in the Arctic are • Consider the influence of ice and human severely limited by vessel capability and other activities on both the biotic and abiotic com- logistical problems. The development of submers- ponents of the Arctic environment; ible technology, especially remotely operated

42 vehicles (ROVs) and autonomous underwater Objectives vehicles (AUVs), may significantly improve our • Increase our understanding of the relationship ability to study and understand the physical and of finfish and shellfish to particular habitats biological processes of the polar seas. The and improve population estimates; increased U.S. policy interest in the Arctic and • Study shelf and slope ecology, particularly the biological and physical data accumulating important biological processes and the physi- about it challenge undersea technology. cal and biogeochemical processes that accom- NOAA’s National Undersea Research Pro- pany them; gram’s (NURP) West Coast and Polar (WC&P) • Study tectonic environments, such as hot spot Center, located at the University of Alaska Fair- effects, fracture zones, and propagating rifts, banks, has supported many projects in recent including the ecology and chemical character- years, including studies of beluga whale feeding istics; habitats in the Arctic and benthic response to • Study the fishery potential of seamounts, early season deposition of algae in the Chukchi where unique biological communities have Sea. During the Chukchi Sea expedition the Coast developed due to a combination of isolation, Guard Cutter Polar Sea cut a path through the bathymetry, and ocean current regime, and Arctic ice and provided openings so that an ROV search for clues to the causes of intra- and provided by WC&P could obtain seafloor sam- interannual variability of fish stocks; and ples. The underside of the ice pack was found to • Using acoustic propagation, perform physical be home to dense mats of algae that fall to the bot- oceanographic studies of biological activity tom and feed a thriving seafloor community. Bac- under the ice in the Arctic, particularly light teria were collected in a search for new drugs. and chlorophyll studies, coupled with studies Water, biota, and ice samples provided data on of the biological communities and ecosystem carbon dioxide sea–air exchange to help under- dynamics under ice and in areas covered sea- stand the global carbon cycle and climate change. sonally by ice.

3.3 Atmosphere and Climate

3.3.1 Upper Atmosphere and oil pipelines. Magnetic perturbations jeopardize Near-Earth Space Physics the accuracy of mining exploration technology. The goal of this research is to study upper Arctic ionospheric disturbances interrupt the atmospheric and near-Earth space phenomena performance of GPS navigation systems, surveil- unique to the Arctic regions. These include the lance systems, and high-frequency radiowave aurora, particle precipitation, auroral convection propagation. and currents, polar mesospheric clouds, Joule The state of the space environment near Earth heating, and geomagnetic storms and substorms. and its response to solar inputs has come to be These phenomena are intimately linked to the known as space weather. The study of Arctic phe- Arctic environment and culture, particularly as nomena represents a critical element in under- Arctic inhabitants become more dependent on standing the way the space weather system works. modern technology and the Arctic economy The Arctic region is also extremely sensitive to becomes more firmly planted in technical systems. atmospheric changes associated with global Many of these phenomena are driven by parti- warming. Ongoing research is showing that the cles and fields originating on the sun. Particles sensitivity of the Arctic upper atmosphere to from the sun impact Earth’s magnetosphere, which climate change provides an effective means to is connected to the upper atmosphere and iono- monitor long-term variations of the atmosphere. sphere through magnetic field lines that converge Warming of the atmosphere at lower altitudes in the polar regions. A large fraction of the energy occurs in conjunction with cooling of the upper entering the magnetosphere is deposited in the atmosphere, a change that is believed to be mani- polar upper atmosphere with dramatic conse- fested in the increasing occurrence rate of polar quences. Strong currents can disrupt electrical mesospheric clouds. Changes in the thermal struc- power systems and cause accelerated erosion in ture of the upper atmosphere have also produced a

43 measurable change in the height of ionospheric nous people and biological resources, and a layers. These effects are being studied intensively systematic program of intercomparison as part of the U.S. Global Change Research between observations and modeling results, Program. focused on the Arctic radiative balance, cloud processes, and their effects on local, regional, Objectives and global climate; • Observe the global-scale response of the • Understand the extent to which Arctic climate polar regions through a coordinated program variations are amplified signals derived from involving a polar network of ground-based elsewhere or are generated locally as a result optical, radio, and magnetic observatories and of the sensitivities of the regional environ- space-based measurements; ment; • Develop special research tools to address key • Understand whether, how, and with what problems, including establishing a Relocat- result Arctic climate anomalies propagate to able Atmospheric Observatory and upgrading middle and lower latitudes; the existing incoherent scatter radars, the • Quantify snow cover and ice feedback mech- array of HF radars in the Arctic, and the anisms that amplify climate change at high arrays of optical, radio, and magnetic remote latitudes, quantify high-latitude terrestrial ice sensors, and also including establishing a and snow changes, and consider their effects; coordinated rocket program, promoting the • Quantify land and sea surface–atmosphere use of special facilities, and making use of momentum and both sensible and latent heat research aircraft; exchanges, and model the role of surface– • Maintain active theoretical programs and pro- atmosphere interactions in influencing meso- mote the evolution of models to describe the scale tropospheric and stratospheric dynam- unique physics of the atmosphere and iono- ics; and sphere in Arctic regions; • Develop a “testbed site” on the North Slope • Understand solar phenomena that affect of Alaska for making atmospheric radiation Earth’s environment; measurements to improve mathematical simu- • Understand electromagnetic waves, fields, lations of cloud and radiative transfer pro- and particles in near-Earth space; and cesses in general circulation models (GCMs) • Develop an understanding and the ability to as part of the USGCRP. make long-term predictions of radio-wave propagation in and through Earth’s iono- 3.3.3 Tropospheric and sphere. Stratospheric Chemistry and 3.3.2 Climate and Weather Dynamics The outstanding characteristic of the Arctic The Upper Atmosphere Research Program climate and weather is its dramatic variability in (UARP) and the Atmospheric Chemistry Model- clouds, radiation, and surface heat exchange. ing and Analysis Program (ACMAP) are the Most projections of future climate change suggest experimental and modeling components, respec- that high-latitude regions will incur the greatest tively, of NASA’s research program to study the temperature fluctuations. Research is needed to upper atmosphere. Together, they aim at expand- clarify the impact of potential change and to ing our scientific understanding so as to permit address Arctic weather problems occurring on a both the quantitative analysis of current perturba- variety of spatial and temporal scales that range tions as well as the assessment of possible future from microscale to global. A major need is for changes in this important region of our environment. accurate regional and local weather forecasts, With respect to the Arctic, UARP and ACMAP especially to predict such hazardous weather phe- strive to understand the greater frequency of sub- nomena as Arctic lows, storm surges, icing condi- stantial stratospheric ozone loss in recent winter/ tions, and fog, which can affect human activities. spring seasons and thereby develop a prognostic ability to assess the likelihood of continuing ero- Objectives sion of ozone in the Arctic stratosphere over • Develop an Integrated Arctic Climate Studies future decades. Research studies within any one Program as part of the USGCRP, including winter are designed to explore avenues of distinct studies of climate effects on Arctic indige- T, Clx, NOy, DOx embedded in the Arctic vortex

44 that are representative of the different Arctic win- launched in the year 2000 aboard the Russian sat- ter conditions that are likely to occur during the ellite Meteor-3M (2), but the Meteor-3M (2)/ next decade or two of peak vulnerability of strato- TOMS-5 mission was terminated in April 1999. spheric ozone to destruction catalyzed by halogen Because of the timeliness requirement of ozone chemistry. Such exploration will enable us to define monitoring, NASA had to formulate a new mis- the response of the chemical system to changing sion to fly TOMS-5 in a short time. The continu- boundary conditions of T, H2O, etc., thereby pro- ous observation of the global ozone past the year jecting the longer-term response of Arctic strato- 2000 is critical for monitoring the expected recov- spheric ozone to climate change forcings. ery of ozone as levels of chlorofluorocarbons Within the next year, two additional satellite (CFCs) decrease from their current maximum as a instruments will be launched that have a primary result of the Montreal Protocol limits. Thus, it will objective of continuing trends quality data for play a critical role in tracking the annual changes both the total ozone column and the ozone profile. of ozone in the Arctic stratosphere. SAGE III is a fourth-generation instrument and a crucial element in NASA’s Earth Observing Objectives System (EOS). The first of three flights of the • Understand the chemical, physical, and trans- SAGE III instrument currently planned will be a port processes of the upper troposphere and flight aboard a Russian Meteor-3M platform in the stratosphere and their control on the dis- early 2001. SAGE III/Meteor will be in a sun- tribution of atmospheric species such as synchronous polar orbit that provides primarily ozone; high-latitude measurements via solar occultation. • Assess possible perturbations to the composi- The primary scientific objective of the three tion of the atmosphere caused by human activi- SAGE III missions is to obtain high-quality global ties and natural phenomena (with specific measurements of key components of atmospheric emphasis on trace gas geographical distribu- composition. Its mission is to enhance our under- tions, sources, and sinks and the role of trace standing of natural and human-derived atmo- gases in defining the chemical composition of spheric processes by providing accurate long-term the upper troposphere and the stratosphere); measurements of the vertical structure of aerosols, • Understand the processes affecting the distri- ozone, water vapor, and other important trace bution of radiatively active species in the gases in the upper troposphere and stratosphere. atmosphere and the importance of chemical– These measurements are vital inputs to the global radiative–dynamical feedbacks on the meteo- scientific community for improved our under- rology and climatology of the stratosphere standing of climate, climate change, and human- and troposphere; induced ozone trends. • Understand ozone production, loss, and The QuikTOMS mission (also planned for recovery in an atmosphere with increased launch in 2001) is designed to continue daily abundances of greenhouse gases; and mapping of the global distribution of the earth’s • Conduct modeling analyses and observations total column of atmospheric ozone with Total to understand the influence of Northern Ozone Mapping Spectrometer Flight Model 5 Hemisphere boreal forest fires on the Arctic (TOMS-5). TOMS-5 was scheduled to be atmosphere.

3.4 Land and Offshore Resources

3.4.1 Energy and Minerals eral development. Additional information is nec- The geologic framework of the Arctic is very essary to allow the discovery, assessment, and poorly known because of the complexities of its mapping of new and dependable sources of oil, geologic setting, its remoteness, and its relative gas, coal, and strategic minerals. These resources lack of exploration. The remote frozen environ- are important for national security and indepen- ment requires long lead times for energy and min- dence, as well as for local use and economics.

45 Objectives 3.4.3 Terrestrial and Freshwater • Continue systematic mineral appraisal activi- Species and Habitats ties and expand programs to provide periodic The Arctic supports many unique species of assessments of the undiscovered oil and gas birds, mammals, fish, and plants, which are and strategic mineral resources in the Arctic important resources to the Nation, as well as to on both broad and local scales; Alaska Natives. Some of these resources are har- • Evaluate unconventional energy resources vested commercially or for subsistence purposes (for example, heavy oil, tar sands, gas (for example, food, shelter, fuel, clothing, and hydrate, solar, and wind); tools), and others provide recreation. To assure • Identify energy and mineral resources for that biological resources are protected for future local use; generations, management agencies must have • Use new technologies to develop a more adequate data and information on the biology and modern and complete geologic database, ecology of these species, as well as information increase geologic mapping, expand modeling on environmental attributes of importance to vital efforts, and design derivative maps to address biological processes (for example, feeding and broader earth-science questions; and breeding). • Evaluate the economic, environmental, cultural, and social implications of resource Objectives extraction and transport. • Determine the history, abundance, biodiversity, and distribution of fish and wildlife popu- 3.4.2 Coastal and Shelf Processes lations and identify their habitat requirements; Erosion rates are extremely high along the • Develop new techniques and technologies for Alaskan Arctic coast, where sea ice and perma- studying and managing biological resources frost are common. Specific questions about where in the often-remote and cold-dominated to build causeways, man-made islands, and other Arctic environments, including recovery of structures can be answered only after basic pro- ecosystems damaged by wildfires and other cess information is collected, interpreted, and natural and human-induced causes; and analyzed carefully. Studies of coastal erosion and • Improve methods for detecting and determin- sediment transport in the Arctic are needed to ing the effects of human activities on the understand the long-term history of the coastal environment and identify measures to area in order to intelligently manage the coastal mitigate the declines of Arctic biological region. Study of archeological sites can provide resources and the destruction of habitats. important information on the history of coastal platforms, erosion rates, and land–shelf inter- 3.4.4 Forestry, Agriculture, actions. and Grazing Enhanced knowledge of Arctic and sub-Arctic Objectives ecosystems, their controlling processes, and pro- • Map beach, littoral, and nearshore sediment ductivity will lead to improved forest, cropland, and subsea permafrost and determine its and soil management practices for sustaining associated physical and chemical properties; renewable resource productivity. The goals are to • Define the processes controlling the forma- promote self-sufficiency and economic benefits tion and degradation of the seasonally frozen for local inhabitants. sea floor; • Implement long-term measurements of tides, Objectives winds, waves, storm surges, nearshore • Sustain a research program covering northern currents, sediment distribution patterns, and boreal forest ecosystems and their controlling archeological sites to understand coastal processes, focusing on forest landscape and erosion and sediment transport processes; stream ecosystem sustainability and long-term and productivity in the face of episodic disturbance, • Investigate the direct and indirect effects of global change, and atmosphere, landscape, ice on coastal erosion (the influence on waves forest, stream, and management interactions; and currents) and on sediment transport (con- • Conduct soil and plant science research to tact with beach sediments, keel gouging, and enhance management practices in the face of entrainment in frazil ice). development and low-temperature, perma-

46 frost, and wildfire impacts; • Conduct animal science research focused on • Prepare coordinated soil resource information integrated pest management and Holarctic (maps and databases) of the Arctic circum- ruminant parasites; and polar region and continue to coordinate this • Provide technology for enhancing the eco- effort with China, Russia, Canada, and nomic well-being and quality of life at high Finland; latitudes.

3.5 Land–Atmosphere–Water Interactions

3.5.1 Glaciology and Hydrology aboard NASA’s ICESAT, to be launched early in The Program for Arctic Regional Climate 2002. For example, in addition to understanding Assessment (PARCA) is a NASA project with the coastal thinning, a major goal of future PARCA goal of measuring and understanding the mass research will be the development of models that balance of the Greenland ice sheet. Primarily reliably hindcast temporal variability in snowfall remotely sensed data have been used in the and surface ablation over the ice sheet, using anal- project, complemented by targeted in-situ mea- yses from operational weather-forecasting models surements, primarily on ice cores and at automatic to provide ongoing maps of accumulation and weather stations (AWS). ablation rates over both polar ice sheets. This will Before PARCA, we could not determine whether best be achieved by developing appropriate capa- the ice sheet was increasing or decreasing in vol- bilities for Greenland, where the existing database ume, and mass-balance errors were equivalent to a is far richer than for Antarctica and where the thickness change of about ±10 cm/yr for the entire acquisition of new data can be both rapid and at ice sheet. Since then, repeat surveys by satellite low cost. radar altimeter (1978–1988 and 1992–1999) and NASA has also supported an assessment of the by aircraft laser altimeter (1994–1999), and vol- current state of balance of major Canadian ice ume-balance estimates from comparison of total caps. This makes use of survey work from the snow accumulation with total ice discharge, all mid-1990s, from which changes in surface topog- show that the entire region of the ice sheet above raphy can be assessed. Initial results indicate that about 2000 m in elevation has been close to in all of the ice caps for which analyses have been balance (within 1 cm/yr) for at least the past few completed show some signs of thinning, primarily decades but with smaller areas of quite rapid at the edges. Not all data from each of the ice caps change that can largely be explained by temporal have been analyzed yet, but the level of thinning variability in snow accumulation rates. Some is consistent with what has been observed in the areas, however, appear to be undergoing large more temperate regions of the Greenland ice changes, which may be ongoing adjustments to sheet. events since the last glacial maximum or they may Future NASA plans for research on the Cana- indicate changes that began only recently. In par- dian ice caps include continued analysis of eleva- ticular, most surveyed outlet glaciers are thinning tion change characteristics, an examination of the in their lower reaches, and a large area of ice sheet temperature and accumulation history of the last in the southeast has also thinned significantly over several decades using coastal and in-situ data, and the past few decades, at rates that increase to more a determination of the level of imbalance of the than 1 m/yr near the coast. Only part of this thin- ice caps as a whole. ning can be explained by increased melting associ- The effect of the northwest North American ated with recent warmer summers, indicating that glacier system covering Alaska and western Can- ice discharge velocities must also have increased. ada on sea level remains poorly know. NASA has Future PARCA research will address these been estimating the mass balance of the largest issues, focusing on near-coastal snowfall and abla- glaciers and icefields bordering the Gulf of Alaska tion and on the dynamics of thinning outlet glaciers. using SAR imagery, combined with small-aircraft This work will also help prepare for the interpreta- laser altimetry and a digital elevation model of tion of future measurements of elevation change Alaska. The study has also involved simulating by the Geoscience Laser Altimeter System (GLAS) the mass balance of these glaciers over the longest

47 time scales for which low-altitude temperature Arctic landscape; and precipitation data are available from nearby • Understand how possible climate-induced alter- coastal communities, using a precipitation– ations to permafrost systems may influence temperature–area–altitude (PTAA) mass balance carbon metabolism, turnover, and storage; and model calibrated with the altimetry results. There • Reconstruct the late Glacial and Holocene has also been a simulation of the freshwater runoff climate history in the Arctic. into the Gulf of Alaska from these glaciers and the changes in runoff through time, from early in the 3.5.3 Ecosystem Structure, 20th century to the present. The results to date Function, and Response indicate that the Seward–Malaspina glacier sys- The Arctic is expected to be especially sensi- tem alone accounted for about 0.4% of the mean tive to the effects of possible global changes and global sea-level rise (1.8 mm/yr) observed during contaminant transport and deposition on terres- this time period. The long-term goal of this trial, freshwater, marine, and atmosphere environ- project is to estimate the increases in the fresh- ments. Research is needed to improve our underwater contributions to the Alaska Coastal Current standing of the influence of climate on land and caused by negative glacier mass balances around freshwater processes and vice versa. Resource the entire Gulf of Alaska, as well as the contribu- managers and decision makers need reliable envi- tion to rising sea level caused by melting and thin- ronmental impact and health risk assessments. ning of these glaciers and icefields. Topics of particular importance include heat balance relationships, landscape alteration, 3.5.2 Permafrost, Landscape, impacts of wildfire, identification of biological and Paleoclimate indicators of change, development of a basis for Additional knowledge is needed about the tem- (and clarification of) current and recent contami- perature, distribution, thickness, and depth of per- nant levels, sources and sinks of carbon and trace mafrost throughout all geomorphic provinces of gases, and long-term trends in biological diversity. the Arctic, including the continental shelf. Modern geologic processes that are responsible for the Objectives present morphology and land surface need to be • Distinguish ecological changes due to natural better understood. causes from changes due to human activities and evaluate management techniques for the Objectives conservation and restoration of ecosystems; • Undertake a comprehensive program to • Identify and evaluate the responses of key extract paleoclimatic records from permafrost biological populations and ecological terrains and lake sediments; processes to increased CO2 and to different • Reconstruct the late Glacial and Holocene climatic conditions; monitor the changes in climate history in the Arctic via borehole ecotone boundaries, which might serve as monitoring and other technology; integrative indicators of change; and select • Improve the ability to assess and predict the biological indicators for use in a monitoring degree and rate of disturbance and recovery program designed to detect, measure, and of permafrost terrain following natural or predict the extent of change; human-induced changes; • Provide opportunities for international coop- • Improve our understanding of the effects of eration at Long-Term Ecological Research thawing of permafrost on the hydrology, eco- sites and biological observatories in the Arctic; system characteristics, and productivity of • Identify factors contributing to reductions in boreal forest ecosystems; regional and global biological diversity; • Model the response of the hydrologic and • Integrate process, community, ecosystem, and thermal regimes of the active layer and perma- landscape features into a dynamic description frost to greenhouse-gas-induced warming in the that is realistically linked to both finer and Arctic and sub-Arctic at different locations; coarser scales of resolution; • Provide information on the moisture and ther- • Determine the CO2 flux from tundra and the mal regime of the active layer and on degra- responses of vegetation to elevated levels of dation of permafrost due to climate warming; CO2; and • Develop results leading to the ability to • Determine the environmental factors control- predict future climate-induced changes to the ling methane fluxes.

48 3.6 Engineering and Technology

Engineering and technology provide one of the include assessment of potential impacts of best and possibly most direct avenues for improv- warming climate on permafrost and other ing and extending the infrastructure so critical to Arctic systems commensurate with the design quality of life in the Arctic. In addition, enhanced life of the projects; engineering capabilities and advanced technolo- • Provide the capability to conduct logistics gies can make crucial contributions to addressing operations and research support and develop- environmental quality challenges and achieving ment in the Arctic; environmentally sustainable development of natu- • Undertake assessment of the potential impact ral resources. The harsh and unique environment of weather changes associated with climate of the Arctic makes advancement in these areas warming on transportation and maintenance particularly difficult and limits the ability to sim- of lines of communications; ply borrow or evolve the engineering and technol- • Develop environmentally compatible engi- ogy advances developed for nonpolar conditions. neering technologies for the Arctic; Only concentrated, specific efforts will produce • Develop enhanced understanding of cold- the advanced technical capabilities the Arctic regions performance of new structural materi- requires. Engineering and technology develop- als and systems; ment programs that address the priority Arctic • Provide design criteria for ship operations in engineering research needs are necessary to sup- ice-infested waters; port these efforts. • Provide mapping and prediction of ice condi- Recent concerns of Arctic infrastructure dam- tions, along with GIS-based monitoring sys- age due to permafrost degradation have high- tems, for port and harbor management; lighted the inability of current engineering and • Provide engineering data and criteria for technology design criteria to address changes in water resources activities and environmental the permafrost foundation over the life cycle of impact permitting; these structures. These deficiencies impact the • Provide GIS database and mapping capability existing infrastructure in Alaska (where warming for land use, water resources, and monitoring is occurring at a faster than expected pace), and of environmental degradation; future Arctic building programs, including struc- • Ensure that the best available, safest, and tures such as roads, pipelines, buildings, airfields, pollution-free technologies are used in the and hazardous material storage tanks. These development of oil and gas in the Arctic and same concerns have been raised regarding the outer continental shelf; exposure of other cold-regions nations to this • Ensure, through technology transfer and ret- threat, particularly in the former Soviet-block rospective case studies, that future resource countries. exploration and development in the Arctic Cooperation between government agencies, take advantage of both tried and proven meth- academia, and the private sector provides an ods, as well as incorporating innovative new excellent opportunity to leverage resources and technology with minimal environmental assure that the advanced technologies developed impact; by government and academia can be practically • Provide enhanced engineering criteria and and effectively applied. Development of goals that techniques to use naturally occurring materi- meet both commercial and technological interests als, such as snow and ice, for ice road and will help assure that technologies developed will island construction, reducing costs and mini- move rapidly into the marketplace. mizing environmental impacts; • Develop methods for mining and mine clo- Objectives sure that are environmentally compatible in • Develop engineering data and criteria for Arctic environments; building, operating, and maintaining strategic • Advance the technology for recovering fossil and operational facilities and infrastructure in fuels in the Arctic, including onshore extrac- the Arctic, including the effects of permafrost tion and production methods; degradation; • Develop criteria for exploitation of frozen • Ensure that current engineering practices ground conditions to minimize environmental

49 impact (tundra snow and ice roads) and gies for contaminants and remediation of sites enhance system performance (for example, resulting from past military and resource ground-penetrating radar); development; • Prevent the discharge of oil, chemicals, and • Evaluate enhanced marine transportation for other hazardous materials into the marine resupply of coastal and Arctic villages; environment; • Develop and maintain effective surface trans- • Ensure quick, effective detection and cleanup portation and air support facilities in the of pollution discharges; Arctic; and • Provide the ability to predict and map move- • Develop mechanisms for technology transfer ment of pollutants in ice-infested waters; between government, academia, and private • Develop Arctic-appropriate cleanup technolo- industry.

3.7 Social Sciences

The historic, current, and future presence of has actively participated in these organizations. human populations in the Arctic has made the The Arctic Council also admitted two new social sciences a top priority and a valuable tool indigenous groups, the Arctic Athabaskan Council for Arctic research. How have various groups and the Gwich’in Council International, as Perma- adapted to environmental, economic, and social nent Participants. They join the Aleut International change? What predictions about future adapta- Association, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference, tions can be made on the basis of the historic and the Saami Council, and the Russian Association of prehistoric record? These are just a few examples Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), of questions that arise when considering the role bringing the number of Permanent Participants on of societies in Arctic research. In addition, Arctic the Council to six. RAIPON was elected to communities have themselves become active part- replace the Saami Council as chair of the Board ners in research projects responding to local needs of the Indigenous Peoples’ Secretariat in Novem- and concerns. ber 2000. In an effort to coordinate research plans among The program of the Arctic Council’s Sustain- Federal agencies, an Interagency Arctic Social able Development working group depends in part Sciences Task Force was established within the on the work of social science research. Research Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee is at the heart of the Survey of Living Conditions (IARPC). The Task Force prepared and imple- in the Arctic: Inuit, Saami and the Indigenous mented a Statement of Principles for the Conduct Peoples of Chukotka. The Arctic Telemedicine of Research in the Arctic, which addresses the project, the International Circumpolar Surveil- need for improved communication and increased lance project on infectious diseases in the Arctic, collaboration between Arctic researchers and and the project on Arctic Children and Youth all northern people. The principles have fostered depended, in part, on the contributions of social greater awareness of local concerns among Arctic science research. The Council anticipates that researchers and have helped to place a high value additional projects underway on timberline for- on the full participation of Arctic residents in ests, capacity building, reindeer husbandry, and research and environmental issues. ecological and cultural tourism will benefit from the contributions of social science research. International Arctic Social Science Social science research is also a significant and Health Research contributor to the environmental protection agenda International scientific organizations that have of the Arctic Council. Social science research, for recognized the importance of Arctic social sciences example, is an integral component of the new Arc- include the International Arctic Social Sciences tic Climate Impact Assessment (ACIA) and an Association (IASSA), the International Arctic Sci- element of the monitoring programs for toxic ence Committee (IASC), and the International pollutants under AMAP’s subgroup on Human Union for Circumpolar Health (IUCH). The U.S. Health.

50 Social and Health Sciences Education, Training, and Outreach NSF continues to provide support for peer- NSF and Federal agencies are committed to reviewed research projects dealing with decision, training young scientists and to developing educa- risk and management frameworks, risk and health tional components that link social scientists with perceptions, co-management of resources, and students and other members of Arctic communi- collaborative research with indigenous communities. The Smithsonian Institution conducts ties. Arctic social scientists work with Arctic com- research and education programs in the North munities in a collaborative fashion. For example, Pacific, Russia, Canada, and the North Atlantic NSF’s Arctic Social Sciences Program contributed region and provides museum and exhibit training to the establishment of the Alaska Native Science in Washington, D.C., and Anchorage, Alaska. In Commission, an organization that provides essen- the summer of 2001 a new exhibition on Alutiiq tial linkages between researchers and local com- culture of Kodiak Island will open in Alaska and munities, facilitating communication and coopera- tour for two years. Finally, the massive millenni- tion. The Arctic Social Sciences Program has um exhibition, “Vikings: the North Atlantic partnered with the Arctic Research Support and Sagas,” which opened in Washington in mid- Logistics Program to support a long-term data 2000, has traveled to New York and will tour to collection and archive project by the Calista Denver, Houston, Los Angeles, Ottawa, and Min- Elders’ Council focusing on traditional Yup’ik neapolis through 2003. In addition to catalogues knowledge and culture. for these exhibitions, a new Arctic Studies Center NSF plans to continue to emphasize the part- publication series, Contributions to Circumpolar nership approach in the Arctic through enhanced Anthropology, has been initiated and will include outreach to Arctic communities, recognizing that an English translation of a material culture atlas of cooperative community relations and education Siberia, a Native history of the Bering Strait form a central tenet of responsible research conduct. region, and archival studies of the Jesup North Pacific Expedition and works on the Yamal, Sibe- Human Dimensions of Global Change rian archaeology, and the history of Eastern Arctic The NSF supports opportunities for research archaeology. on the Human Dimensions of Global Change Programs such as NSF’s Faculty Early Career (HDGC). HDGC research focuses on the inter- Development (CAREER) program support inno- actions between human and natural systems, with vative research and teaching by junior faculty emphasis on the social and behavioral processes members. Dissertation Improvement Grants, that shape and influence those interactions. available through NSF’s Arctic Social Sciences NOAA’s Economics and Human Dimensions pro- Program, support graduate students in their Ph.D. gram supports research investigating human research projects. Research Experience for Under- responses to variations in the climate system. The graduate (REU) supplements and sites provide on- program currently focuses on the potential use and site research training to college and university constraints to the use of climate forecast informa- students. The Teachers Experiencing the Arctic tion for decision making across a range of sectors. (TEA) program links secondary school teachers Although NOAA’s Economics and Human Dimen- with Arctic scientists to form research teams and sions program does not focus on any particular bring Arctic research experiences into the second- region, the role of indigenous knowledge and how ary school classroom. it might interact with newly developed climate NSF encourages community outreach and edu- forecast information, as well as the ways in which cation through supplements to visit local commu- Native communities adapt to their regional cli- nities and schools, develop and share instructional mate, is of interest to the program. The Human materials, involve students in research projects, Dimensions of the Arctic System (HARC) initia- and disseminate research results to a large audi- tive, launched under the NSF Arctic System Sci- ence. Small Grants for Exploratory Research ence program, will focus on the dynamics of link- (SGER) can be used for exploratory or high-risk ages between human populations and the biolog- projects that require community endorsement ical and physical environment of the Arctic, at before researchers can make definite plans. scales ranging from local to global. HARC The RAPS (Resource Apprenticeship Program) research examines current and potential impacts of the Department of the Interior has provided on human activity that may be expected to occur summer jobs for Alaska Natives through the NPS, in response to global change. BLM, and FWS. Other programs, such as the

51 Cooperative Education Program and the NOAA cultural heritage. This traditional and local knowl- Sea Grant Program, also support students in Alaska. edge base can provide long-term information The BLM Heritage Education National Program about northern ecosystems and wildlife, of consid- is developing materials on archaeological and his- erable value in resource management. torical places in Alaska to support education of The fact that many agencies have similar America’s children and to foster a sense of stew- administrative and management structures and ardship of cultural heritage. The USDA Forest mandates suggests that excellent opportunities Service has participated in an increasing number exist for interagency cooperation. The Smithsonian’s of programs within the region to promote Alaska Arctic Center office in Anchorage has produced co- Archaeology Week activities (lectures and field operation with several other government agencies in trips) and other opportunities for education that a variety of research and programmatic activities. foster stewardship and the conservation of heri- The National Park Service and the Smithsonian tage resources. The Forest Service is continuing a have been working together in Anchorage for sev- comprehensive program of cultural resource pre- eral years on regional archeological assessments, sentations, subsistence awareness sessions, and and SI cooperation with NSF and NEH has result- site monitoring and protection. The Forest Service ed in several important exhibitions and publica- will continue to sponsor multicultural educational tions. A number of agencies support research on opportunities involving Native and local commu- archaeology, history, and Native culture (BIA, nities, as well as the diverse range of National BLM, USFS, NPS, SI, NSF). Finds of artifacts Forest visitors. and bones give evidence of past economies and baseline data for pollution monitoring, and histori- Resources Management cal and ethnographic descriptions tell of more Over 66% of the area of Alaska is managed by recent conditions. Coastal resources (fish, seals, Federal agencies. Cultural and natural resources walrus, whales) supported the largest human pop- are protected by law, and good management can ulations in Alaska, and changing shorelines and only be built on accurate baseline data. Although maritime conditions are reflected by these sites. cultural resources, historic and prehistoric sites, An example of one such site that is changing our artifacts, and landscapes require documentation view of human–environment interactions in the and protection, renewable resources, especially Arctic is found on Zhokov Island in the northern fish and game, are also culturally defined through Laptev Sea. This 8000-year-old site is being exca- subsistence needs. In 1989, Alaska’s subsistence vated by Smithsonian and Russian scientists. The laws were declared unconstitutional because they island seems to have been an early Holocene ther- discriminated against non-rural residents. As a mal “oasis” that supported early human life and a result, Federal land management agencies biota warmer than that of the present day, at a assumed responsibility for subsistence manage- time when much of the Arctic was still buried ment on Federal lands. The DOI Fish and Wildlife under continental ice. Service (and its Office of Subsistence Manage- ment) is the lead Federal agency in this responsi- Objectives bility. Subsistence is defined as fulfilling both • Document and analyze the origins and trans- household economic needs and cultural needs, formations of Arctic cultural systems, ethnic including social communication, food sharing, and groups, and languages; maintenance of cultural knowledge and identity. • Study and analyze traditional knowledge Management of marine resources, such as fish and systems, resource uses, and subsistence eco- most species of marine mammals, is led by the nomics; DOC National Marine Fisheries Service. • Research paleoenvironmental changes, including ancient sea levels, in concert with 3.7.1 Cultural Resources cultural historical investigations; and The Arctic is a major repository of human • Help develop explanatory models integrating experience. Archaeological remains go back some cultural systems with local, regional, and 15,000 years, providing a record of human adap- global environmental changes. tation to environmental change of unparalleled richness. The Arctic is also home to numerous Repatriation indigenous cultures, some of which are rapidly Repatriation has also become a major priority losing their traditional lifeways, languages, and for museums and research institutes since the pas-

52 sage of NAGPRA (Native American Graves Pro- control of land, resources, social institutions, and tection Act) in 1990. This act requires Federal education. All across the Arctic, including Alaska, agencies to document Native American human there are demands for greater political autonomy. remains, associated grave goods, and items of While this will add greatly to northern community “cultural patrimony.” Agencies must report their empowerment, success will ultimately depend on holdings of such materials to Native American economic viability and the balancing of develop- groups and consult about their repatriation. The ment with ecologically sound policies. Within National Park Service has a major role in these contexts, subsistence hunting and fishing is NAGPRA for coordination and guidance at the a major factor in northern socioeconomics. national level. It can be expected that repatriation One of the recent losses contributing to com- will be a major effort for at least a decade. munity instability lies in the area of historical Repatriation at the Smithsonian has resulted knowledge. While the elders remain important in in returns of most of its collections of human transmitting knowledge, much information on the remains from Alaska, and consultations are begin- past two centuries of community history lies in ning with regard to cultural objects. At the same museums and archives far from northern villages. time a new program, the Smithsonian Alaska Col- With NSF assistance, the Smithsonian has been lection Project, has been initiated by the Arctic pioneering new methods of “knowledge repatria- Studies Center. The project will involve consultation” on St. Lawrence Island, through collaboration with various groups of Alaska Natives over tive identification, publication, and local dissemi- cultural materials they would like to see brought nation of historical community records that have to the Arctic Studies Center office in Anchorage never before been available to village residents. for study, exhibition, and publication on the Internet. Objectives • Gain insight into the short-term and long-term 3.7.2 Rapid Social Change effects of rapid social change on Arctic and Community Viability cultures and societies; The impacts of technological and economic • Develop culturally relevant educational development on northern societies, both Native programs; and non-Native, have been profound. While stan- • Develop practical applications of social and dards of living have often been improved, there behavioral science to benefit Arctic residents; has been a concurrent loss of traditional cultural • Determine linkages between social and values. Chronic unemployment, family violence, behavioral science and health; and substance abuse, and societal breakdown in gen- • Determine ecological thresholds as they relate eral have reached epidemic proportions. One key to economic development and community to recovery is the facilitation of increased local viability.

3.8 Health

Health can be defined as a combination of demiology of disease, adaptations of humans to physical, psychological, social, and spiritual well- extreme environmental conditions, environmen- being. Unique cross-cultural interdependencies tal health risks, contamination, and health care due to harsh environmental conditions in the Arc- delivery in remote and isolated communities. tic highlight this definition. Consequently Arctic Health concerns in the Arctic are intimately health research must take into account complex linked to international health issues. Western human and environmental interactions. culture can impact Native people adversely by Health research in the Arctic focuses on introducing lifestyle and dietary changes and basic and applied biomedical topics (such as new infectious agents. Research designed to molecular biology and genetics), the effects of study these effects and techniques for disease pre- cultural change on Native populations, the epi- vention is urgently needed. Health research in the

53 Arctic is done, individually or collaboratively, trol activities that benefit all Arctic people; by the Centers for Disease Control and Preven- • Establish, enhance, and maintain surveillance tion, the Indian Health Service, the National systems of health events impacting Arctic Institutes of Health, and the Department of populations to allow timely and focused inter- Defense. Nonclinical research on social and ventions and the monitoring of intervention behavioral aspects of health is supported by the effectiveness; National Science Foundation’s Arctic Social • Establish, enhance, and support basic and Sciences Program. (For more information, see applied research for the purpose of improving Section 2.3.) health through biomedical and behavioral research programs; and Objectives • Establish, enhance, and maintain health • Ensure interagency communication and coor- communication systems to facilitate timely dination in health research priority setting, dissemination of basic and applied research resource management, infrastructure, and pro- information on the etiology, pathogenicity, gram development to ensure that health diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of dis- research translates into prevention and con- eases of concern to people of the Arctic.

54 4. Research Support, Logistics, Facilities, Data, and Information

4.1 Research Support and Logistics IARPC will use new resources targeted for ment with the Barrow Arctic Science Consor- Arctic logistics to enhance the leadership role of tium; and the U.S. in Arctic research. The focus on logistics • Summit, Greenland, a site for which NSF is entails: exploring joint year-round operations with • Establishment, development, and main- Denmark and other European countries. tenance of national Environmental Observa- As proposals are received for these sites, they tories; will provide the core of an Arctic network for use • Technology and instrument development; in distance learning programs, science projects, • Expansion of marine platforms and aircraft and related logistics support. By working through support capabilities; the International Arctic Science Committee • Integration of research, education, and Arctic (IASC), the U.S. hopes to link its EOs with those community interests; and of other countries (for example, Abisko, Sweden; • Further international collaboration in the sup- Svalbard, Norway; and Zackenburg, Kangerlus- port of research. suaq, Denmark/Greenland) to assure that scientists The use of the new resources will be guided by have access to the full range of Arctic environ- the Arctic Research Commission’s report Logis- ments and to promote distance learning on an tics Recommendations for an Improved U.S. Arc- international scale. tic Research Capability. The general recommen- The NOAA/CMDL Barrow Observatory, a dations of the report are: manned atmospheric baseline facility located six • Ensure access to the Arctic over the entire miles northeast of Barrow, has been in continuous year; operation since 1973. The Barrow Observatory • Increase availability and use of remote/ focuses on research relating to atmospheric con- autonomous instruments; stituents that are capable of forcing change in the • Protect the health and safety of people con- climate of the earth through modification of the ducting research in the Arctic; atmospheric radiative environment, as well as • Improve communications and collaboration those that may cause depletion of the ozone layer. between Arctic people and the research com- This facility conducts scores of continuous moni- munity; and toring activities, including hosting 21 cooperative • Seek interagency, international, and bilateral programs with universities and other government logistics arrangements. agencies. NOAA operates a three-station network Planning will be done in partnership with of solar UV measurements with sites at Barrow, Native groups and other advisory bodies and will St. Paul Island, and Nome. The Barrow Observa- respond to merit-reviewed proposals. tory has expanded its research activities over its The development of additional Environmental lifetime and expects to be monitoring climate Observatories (EOs) is a major component of the change in the Arctic through the next century. proposed plan for logistics enhancement and is Information on CMDL and the Barrow Observa- also an identifiable component of the NSF theme tory can be found at http://www.cmdl.noaa.gov. “Biocomplexity.” Candidates for Arctic Environ- In response to concerns about Arctic ozone mental Observatories include: loss and increased UV-B radiation, NSF is consid- • Toolik Lake, Alaska, an NSF LTER site ering establishing increased UV measurement where the agency has already supported projects at the same three EO sites. Also, the upgrades; atmospheric and space weather observatories at • Barrow, Alaska, Environmental Observatory, existing U.S. facilities at the Sondrestrom Radar where NSF has initiated a cooperative agree- (Greenland) and Spitsbergen may be upgraded.

55 Research applications of aerosondes (drone air- costs are charged to users, as mandated by OMB. craft) also will be examined. The Arctic Icebreaker Coordinating Committee Another major logistics issue in the Arctic is (AICC) of UNOLS, the University–National developing full access and capability to conduct Oceanic Laboratory System, coordinates science research on all aspects of the Arctic Ocean. The community and Coast Guard planning for science U.S. plans to facilitate this by funding: missions. • Research use of the new USCGC Healy; Drift stations and other ice platforms including • Tomographic arrays; and international opportunities will be utilized as • Improved sensors for the Arctic drifting buoy research needs dictate. program, moorings, and autonomous under- The NOAA National Undersea Research Pro- water vehicles. gram has extensive expertise and experience in For both marine and terrestrial research the conducting deep-diving efforts in all types of U.S. will improve basic health and safety by pro- aquatic environments. The National Undersea viding access to a pool of emergency beacons, sat- Research Center in Fairbanks, Alaska, can pro- ellite phones, and GPS receivers. There is also a vide vehicles for seafloor exploration or experi- need to better integrate traditional knowledge of ments. The center can also work through the ice Arctic residents with research to broaden our with ROVs, as was done in Antarctica. capability in the Arctic. The U.S. plans to increase the duration of measurements (especially during 4.1.2 National Ice Center the winter) by providing remotely operated instru- The National Ice Center (NIC) is a unique ments linked with individual researchers in their interagency organization with oversight from the labs, with other Environmental Observatories, and Department of Defense (DOD), Department of with distance learning centers at community col- Commerce (DOC), and Department of Transpor- leges and elementary schools involved with the tation (DOT) and responds to both Defense and Alaska Rural Systemic Initiative and the College U.S. national interests as outlined in Annex II to of Rural Alaska. the 1995 Navy–NOAA Umbrella Memorandum of Agreement (MOA). The Naval Ice Center 4.1.1 Ships and Ice Platforms (NAVICE) comprises the largest component of Vessels supporting research in ice-covered NIC and represents the Naval Meteorology and areas fall into four categories, based on their ice- Oceanography Command through the Naval going capability: Oceanographic Office. The second leg of the tri- • Icebreakers operated by the Coast Guard; ad, DOC, is represented under the National Oce- • Ice-capable and ice-strengthened vessels for anic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) research and survey purposes; Office of Satellite Data Processing and Distribu- • Manned drifting ice stations; and tion. The U.S. Coast Guard’s (USCG) Director of • NOAA’s National Undersea Research Pro- Operations Policy represents the third member of gram (NURP) capabilities and expertise with the triad, DOT. unmanned deep-diving vehicles. NIC’s mission is to provide the highest quality The Coast Guard maintains icebreaking facili- operational global, regional, and tactical-scale sea ties with due regard to national defense and for ice analyses and forecasts, tailored to meet the icebreaker support to other Federal agencies pur- requirements of U.S. national interests. It provides suant to interagency agreements. The Arctic this support to U.S. armed forces, U.S. govern- Research and Policy Act (ARPA) confirms the ment and international agencies, academic and Coast Guard’s role as manager of the Nation’s ice- scientific institutions, and civil interests. breaker fleet to serve the Nation’s interests in the Weekly global and regional-scale ice extent heavy ice regions of the Arctic. This includes and coverage products are produced in support of security, economic, and environmental interests. mission planning, vessel operations, and scientific Coast Guard icebreakers support research in these research. More frequently produced tactical-scale regions in two general ways: on dedicated science ice analyses and forecasts are tailored to customer- deployments and, as opportunities arise, in con- specified spatial and temporal requirements. Sea junction with other missions. The Coast Guard has ice features of most frequent interest to operations three icebreakers, which are available to users on include ice edge position, ice thickness, ice con- a partial-reimbursable basis. Daily fuel costs and a centration, areas of compression or heavy defor- portion of the helicopter and ship maintenance mation, and the location and orientation of open

56 water or thin-ice-covered leads and polynyas. All recently expanded to include five post-doctoral NIC ice extent and coverage products are derived fellows. The NIC Science Plan (available at http:// from a blend of remotely sensed and in-situ www.natice.noaa.gov) summarizes the activities, oceanographic and meteorological data. interests, and goals of this polar science program. NIC ice analyses are crucial to both the safety of Current areas of in-house research include navigation in ice-covered waters and as a U.S. improvements to the next generation of ice fore- contribution to international global climate and cast models, study of Antarctic hydrography, ocean observing systems. Real-time raster and digi- evaluation of passive and active microwave tal ice products are distributed via the Internet using remote sensing algorithms, refinement of data the NIC home page (http://www.natice.noaa.gov) assimilation techniques, and improvements to and over military networks comprising the long-term sea ice forecasting techniques. The sci- Defense Information Infrastructure. The NIC’s ence program also involves oversight of external climatological data atlas, developed under the activities, such as the University of Colorado’s auspices of the Environmental Working Group work to improve the MODIS sea ice algorithm (EWG) of the U.S.–Russian Binational Commis- and the Jet Propulsion Lab’s work to develop a sion on Economic and Technological Coopera- sea ice-mapping algorithm for ENVISAT. Other tion, features climatologies of sea ice chart data areas of applied research include the improve- from Russian and U.S. ice centers. It is based on ment of SSM/I-derived ice concentration prod- individual observations collected over the period ucts, implementation of 85-GHz ice motion 1950 through 1994 from U.S. and Russian satel- products, improved ice forecast models, and ice lite data, ice stations, icebreakers, and airborne ice detection using data from new satellite sensors surveys. Additionally, U.S. submarines operating like the TERRA Moderate Resolution Imaging in the Arctic over the period from 1977 through Spectrometer (MODIS), the ENVISAT dual- 1993 collected data used for a previously classi- polarized SAR, and the QuikSCAT SEAWINDS fied ice climatology. The atlas is available from scatterometer. the National Snow and Ice Data Center. NIC legacy (1972–1994) Arctic ice informa- 4.1.3 Land-Based Facilities tion is available on CD-ROM in digital geo- Under contract to NSF, the VECO Polar graphic information system (GIS) -compatible for- Resources (VPR) provides logistics support for mat from the World Data Center for Glaciology– research in Greenland. By arrangement with NSF, Boulder and the National Snow and Ice Data other agencies can also use the services of VPR. Center. Arctic ice information for 1995–1996 and The logistics support for the NSF facilities in Antarctic ice information (1972–1997) are avail- Kangerlusuaq have changed dramatically since able as of 2001. More-recent Arctic and Antarctic Greenland was granted Home Rule and since Sep- sea ice data sets (1997 to present) are in digital tember 1992, when the U.S. Air Force terminated format and available via the NIC web page. NIC operations at Sondrestrom AFB. The logistics has a program in place to finish the conversion of support, which was provided by the Air Force, is the remaining legacy Arctic and Antarctic infor- now done through arrangements negotiated with mation into ARC/INFO GIS format in the 2000– the Greenland Home Rule Government and the 2002 time frame. Danish Polar Center. The U.S. Interagency Arctic Buoy Program The VPR provides logistics support as required (USIABP), managed by NIC, collects and distrib- for NSF in Kangerlussuaq, Greenland. The New utes surface meteorological and ice drift data. A York Air National Guard ski-equipped LC-130s historical quality-controlled archive of these data operate from Kangerlussuaq principally to is available for the World Data Center–A or via Summit. the Internet (http:// iabp.apl.washington.edu) from U.S. investigators have access, on a coopera- the Applied Physics Laboratory of the University tive or reimbursable basis or both, to land-based of Washington. facilities in Canada and Nordic countries. Cooper- The NIC science program, operating with fiscal ative arrangements with the Polar Continental support from ONR, NOAA, and NASA, is aimed Shelf Project Office in Canada provide logistics at expanding the use of NIC’s products within the support in the Canadian High Arctic. Facilities in science community and providing a route for Svalbard are available through the Norwegian migration of scientific techniques (such as algo- Polar Institute, Norwegian universities, and other rithms) into the operational environment but was national programs.

57 Small seasonal camps are maintained in the Materials Laboratory is used for strength and ther- Alaskan Arctic by individual agencies or groups mal testing of many types of materials, including of agencies to support field programs. The Toolik construction, road, bridge, and composite materi- Field Station, operated by the University of Alas- als. Specialized testing machines, such as the Split ka and now being upgraded with NSF/VPR Hopkinson Pressure Bar, enable low-temperature, support, and the NSF-funded facilities operated high-strain materials evaluation to temperatures as by the Barrow Arctic Science Consortium low as –80°C. Other equipment includes thermal (BASC) at Barrow and facilities at Prudhoe Bay cycling chambers that allow for thermal cycling operated by VPR provide fixed bases for land- from –100° to 100°C and a specially fabricated based research (DOC/NOAA, DOE, DOI/FWS/ UV–radiometry system for exposing testing mate- NPS/GS, NSF). rials to controlled doses of radiation. DOC/NOAA has available hangar facilities for The 73,000-square-foot Ice Engineering Facil- two H-1N helicopters at Fort Richardson, Anchor- ity has three special-purpose research areas: a age, Alaska. These facilities have some additional large low-temperature towing tank, a 100-foot- space for field equipment, scientific instruments, long refrigerated flume for modeling rivers, and a and Arctic gear. NOAA fleet ships have previously large hydraulic-model room for studying ice worked above latitude 60°N, ice and weather per- effects on civil works facilities, primarily locks mitting. NOAA aircraft have flown Arctic and dams. The Ice Engineering Facility also research projects while basing out of Elmendorf houses a snowdrift wind tunnel. AFB, Eielson AFB, and Thule AFB. NSF, ONR, The Frost Effects Research Facility (FERF) and the New York Air National Guard have taken allows full-scale research on the impact of freeze– over the SPAWAR Arctic Logistics infrastructure thaw cycles on pavements, foundations, and utility at Thule AB. systems. This 29,000-square-foot facility contains A memorandum of understanding between the a 182- by 75-ft soil testing area that can be main- National Science Foundation and the U.S. Army tained at temperatures below 30°F and 12 large Corps of Engineers has been implemented which test cells where soil can be frozen and thawed at allows NSF-supported engineering and scientific temperatures ranging from as low as –35°F to as researchers to use USACE laboratory facilities. high as 120°F. Six to eight natural freeze–thaw Many of these state-of-the-art facilities are dedi- cycles can be simulated in a single year. The new- cated to cold-regions research and engineering est addition to the CRREL’s experimental capabil- thrusts and are described below. ity, the Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS), is housed An aggregation of unique facilities that are in this facility. The HVS can simulate the effect of nationally and internationally recognized exists at heavy vehicles on roads and pavements. the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab- At the Alaska campus in Fairbanks, CRREL oratory (CRREL). The main complex is in has a research permafrost tunnel and maintains a Hanover, New Hampshire. In addition, a perma- 133-acre permafrost research site. The CRREL frost research tunnel and additional coldrooms are facilities in Alaska include two coldrooms capable located near Fairbanks, Alaska. Industry and aca- of –30°F temperatures, a heavy equipment mainte- demia often use CRREL’s unique experimental nance shop, a woodworking shop, a soils labora- facilities. This is evidenced by the high number tory, a shock laboratory, and several Small Unit (80) of cooperative research and development Support Vehicles (SUSVs) used as research agreements that the laboratory has put in place vehicles. over the last seven years. The Technical Information Analysis Center At the Hanover campus the main laboratory (TIAC) serves DOD and the Nation as the most houses 24 low-temperature research laboratories comprehensive source of cold-regions informa- capable of achieving temperatures as low as tion in the world. The 24,000-square-foot TIAC –50°F, special-purpose ice test facilities, clean- provides a gateway to the world’s information rooms, a chemical laboratory, and two specialty and research resources for cold-regions science low-temperature materials laboratories. The Mate- and engineering. The Cold Regions Science and rial Evaluation Facility can simulate snow and Technology Information Analysis Center icing conditions and can simulate static and (CRSTIAC) serves as the Nation’s corporate cycling temperatures ranging from –50° to 120°F repository for cold-regions science and engi- and has the capability to conduct full-scale tests neering data. This center houses the CRREL on automotive vehicles. The High Performance library, which contains 30,000 books, 160,000

58 reports, 450 journals, 450 rolls of microfilm, 4.1.5 Central Coordination and 250,000 pieces of microfiche, 40 CD-ROM ref- Logistics Information Clearinghouse erence titles, and topographic maps of all 50 The Department of the Interior supports an states. The Bibliography on Cold Regions Sci- Alaska Office of Aircraft Services (OAS), which ence and Technology, comprising 53 volumes coordinates aircraft services on a reimbursable dating from 1951, is prepared for CRREL by basis. the Library of Congress and contains approxi- An electronic bulletin board, ALIAS, is being mately 250,000 citations, including cumulative developed on the Internet (http://www.arcus.org/ author and subject indexes. ALIAS/index.html) to provide information on logistics resources throughout the Arctic. 4.1.4 Atmospheric Facilities and Platforms 4.1.6 Data Facilities Because of the strategic location of the Arctic Archiving and distribution functions for data for observing space-related phenomena, an exten- required in support of Arctic research are distrib- sive infrastructure has been established over the uted among all the U.S. national data centers. past four decades to observe the Arctic upper Disciplinary data for the Arctic are held in global atmosphere and ionosphere. The Arctic is the site archives at the National Climatic Data Center of many ground-based radio, radar magnetic, and (climatology and meteorology), at the National optical observing sites. These sites and many Oceanographic Data Center (oceanography), at other smaller facilities have been an important the National Geophysical Data Center (seismol- aspect of the Arctic social structure, providing ogy, geomagnetism, marine geology and geophys- economic benefits in remote regions and educa- ics, solar and ionospheric studies, ecosystems, tional opportunities for indigenous people. topography, and paleoclimatology), and at the Among the major upper atmospheric research National Center for Atmospheric Research (upper facilities in the Arctic are the Sondrestrom Radar atmosphere and ionospheric studies). Data sets for in Greenland, the High Frequency Active Auroral a vast array of cryosphere-specific variables in the Research Program (HAARP) radar in Alaska, the Arctic (sea ice, snow cover, permafrost, etc.), are Poker Flat Rocket and Research facility near Fair- archived and distributed through the National banks, the Resolute Bay Observatory in Canada, Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) and the the Longyearbyen Optical Station in Norway, and World Data Center–A (WDC–A) for Glaciology the SuperDARN radar network with sites span- in Boulder, Colorado. These include satellite- ning the Western Hemisphere Arctic. These and derived measurements, in-situ observations, and other smaller sites are operated in collaboration ancillary information that have been supported by with international partners, including academic NASA, NOAA, and NSF. Global satellite data and research institutions in Canada, Denmark, archives for polar-orbiting satellites are held by Norway, and Japan. NOAA/NESDIS/ National Climatic Data Center NASA is establishing a Network for Detection (NCDC) in Asheville, NC. Included in these of Stratospheric Change (NDSC) program at archives are: Thule and Sondrestrom, Greenland, to provide • Global infrared and visible digital imagery long-term data on a variety of stratospheric con- from the advanced very-high-resolution stituents. radiometer (AVHRR) instruments; NASA and NSF cooperated in a program • Atmospheric temperature and moisture data called the Program for Arctic Regional Climate and derived soundings from the high- Assessment (PARCA). This involved satellite and resolution infrared radiation sounder (HIRS) airborne surveys of different regions of the ice instruments; and sheet to establish patterns of ice sheet thickening • Global passive microwave data from the and thinning, along with ground-based surveys to special sensor microwave/imager (SSM/I). establish reference data for interpreting airborne Electronic access to recent AVHRR and HIRS and satellite observations. Ground observations data is available through the NESDIS Satellite included the deployment of automatic weather sta- Active Archive (http://www.saa.noaa.gov). Global tions and the analysis of shallow snow pits and satellite data archives for the Defense Meteoro- deep ice cores. The results have, for the first time, logical Satellite Program (DMSP) Operational shown clear regional patterns in the mass balance Linescan System (OLS) data are held by the of the ice sheet. National Geophysical Data Center. The National

59 Oceanographic Data Center (NODC)/WDC–A is tools. A major data analysis project underway at the lead agency in the United Nations Intergovern- the ASF involves implementation of the Radarsat mental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) Global geophysical processor system (RGPS), which is Oceanographic Data Archaeology and Rescue designed to generate high-level products from Project (GODAR). The goal of this project is to Radarsat, including ice drift, ice deformation, and locate and rescue historical oceanographic data ice thickness histograms using a novel Lagrangian that are in jeopardy of being lost, including Arctic tracking system. oceanographic data. Without archives, Arctic data would in time be The Alaska SAR Facility (ASF) also operates a lost. Without a method to locate data in the DAAC under contract to NASA/EOSDIS. The archives, scientists would have no access to the facility receives and processes polar imagery from data required for Arctic and other research. SARs onboard Canadian (Radarsat) and European NOAA’s Environmental Services Data Directory (ERS-2) satellites. The ASF also carries out a (NESDD) is a vital windows into the U.S. national range of tasks in support of the data, including data archives, providing a means for scientists to calibration and the development of data analysis locate the data they require.

4.2 Arctic Data and Information

4.2.1 Arctic Data record needed by the polar research scientists in This year completes a decade of service to the order to track the ongoing global changes in the polar science community at the Alaska SAR Facil- earth system. ASF also plans to continue reception ity (ASF), NASA’s facility for archiving and dis- of ESA’s ERS-2 SAR data and to negotiate with tributing SAR data. ESA and NASA to participate in the reception, Some of the major projects served this year archive, and distribution segments of their future include the second joint U.S.–Canadian Applica- missions (Envisat, CryoSat, ALOS). ASF will also tions Development Research Opportunity continue to stand ready for the launch of ADEOS- (ADRO-2, see section 3.1.2); the Radarsat Geo- 2. ASF plans to expand near-real-time services to physical Processing System project (section the operational communities to support business- 3.2.1); operational support with near-real-time as-usual requirements, disaster mitigation proto- data (averaging less than three hours turnaround) cols, and the commercial applications community for the National Ice Center; and the NOAA Coast for aid in effective and responsible policy deci- Watch and Alaska Demonstration projects. Sub- sions at the state and local level. ASF is also Arctic research projects supported include the working to produce a public CD-ROM with an Alaskan Volcano Observatory and the Boreal For- ERS-1 SAR mosaic of Alaska. est Mapping Mission. In addition to these The National Snow and Ice Data Center projects, ASF supports other projects, which (NSIDC) Distributed Active Archive Center together represent an estimated user community of (DAAC) provides access to cryospheric data for 1400 individual PIs and co-PIs. both northern and southern hemispheres, with the ASF has facilitated research and applications present emphasis on the Arctic. NSIDC is char- development through involvement with the sci- tered and partially funded by NOAA, through the ence community, participating in workshops, Cooperative Institute for Research in Environ- attending conferences, and producing and distrib- mental Sciences (CIRES), to provide snow and uting new products. This year ASF hosted a visit- ice data services. The Center is under contract to ing scientist, continued participation in NASA’s NASA’s Earth Observation System Data and ESIP Federation, and participated in IGARSS, Information System (EOSDIS) project as a AGU, and other meetings. DAAC, providing snow and ice data and informa- With the recently signed U.S.–Canadian IMOU tion services. The DAAC processes, archives, extending the relationship between NASA and and distributes sea ice and snow cover data from CSA to acquire and exploit Radarsat data, ASF visible, infrared, and passive microwave sensors, plans to increase the user community by a mini- in particular from the special sensor microwave mum of 5% and provide continuity of the data imager (SSM/I), the moderate resolution imaging

60 spectrometer (MODIS), and advanced very high ice products from the moderate resolution imaging resolution radiometer (AVHRR) sensors and spectroradiometer (MODIS) instrument aboard related in-situ data. The DAAC’s passive micro- the NASA TERRA satellite. MODIS snow cover wave data sets include a 20-plus-year time series extent, sea ice extent, and sea ice surface tempera- of sea ice extent and concentration for both polar ture products are available in orbital and gridded regions. formats. These products extend the existing 30- The EOS TERRA satellite was launched in late year record of passive-microwave-derived snow 1999, and snow products from the MODIS instru- and sea ice products at greatly improved spatial ment were released to the general scientific com- and spectral resolution. Other DAAC products are munity in mid-October 2000. Sea ice products the Near Real Time SSM/I EASE-Grid Daily from the MODIS instrument are expected to be Global Ice Concentration and Snow Extent, and released in early 2001. In addition to the MODIS global brightness temperatures from the Defense snow and ice products from the TERRA and Meteorological Satellite Program’s special sensor AQUA satellites (to be launched in mid-2001), microwave imager. In addition to work with data the DAAC will ingest and distribute all passive sets, NSIDC compiles the DAAC Yearbook, a col- microwave products from the advanced micro- lection of articles on applications of DAAC data, wave scanning radiometer on AQUA. Altimetry written for the general public. and aerosol data sets from the Geoscience Laser As part of a larger joint NOAA/NASA pro- Altimeter System (GLAS) instrument on ICESat gram, NSIDC works closely with NOAA’s will also be distributed by the NSIDC DAAC. NESDIS Long Term Archive team to develop a ICESat is scheduled for launch in late 2001. prototype long-term archive of snow and ice data, Non-EOS satellite data include the Near Real metadata, and products from EOS satellites. This Time Ice and Snow in EASE grid (NISE) daily effort will determine the resource requirements for product, gridded passive microwave brightness a level of service to the user community that is temperatures and sea ice data on CD-ROM, comparable to the current level of service pro- AVHRR polar subsets at 1.25- and 5-km grids, vided by NSIDC for EOS cryospheric data and by and other in-situ data. Information on all the National Geophysical Data Center for Defense NSIDC DAAC data sets may be found at http:// Meteorological Satellite Program data and www.nsidc.org/. products. The National Snow and Ice Data Center The Arctic System Science (ARCSS) Data (NSIDC) was chartered by NOAA’s National Coordination Center (ADCC) at NSIDC will pro- Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information vide ARCSS data and information to the scientific Service (NESDIS) in 1982 to provide a focus for community well into the 21st century. The ADCC cryospheric data management activities. NSIDC is the permanent archive and access point for data operates under a cooperative agreement between collected by investigators in the National Science NOAA and the University of Colorado’s Coopera- Foundation’s ARCSS program and serves as a cat- tive Institute for Research in Environmental Sci- alyst for ARCSS integration through data and ences. Within NOAA, NSIDC is affiliated with information management. Of note is ADCC’s work the NESDIS National Geophysical Data Center. to develop an automated system for climate model NSIDC is also the home of the World Data Center output data requests. ADCC averages well over for Glaciology, Boulder. At present the majority 600 megabytes of data and information down- of funding for NSIDC data management activities loaded per month. These data sets are mostly in- comes from NASA for operating a Distributed situ and small data groupings rather than NSIDC’s Active Archive Center (DAAC) for cryospheric more typical large, multisensor collections. data collected by the Earth Observing System Funding from the Environmental Services Data (EOS) program. and Information Management program has The NSIDC DAAC provides access to EOS resulted in the publication of over 30 snow, gla- satellite data, as well as ancillary in-situ measure- cier, and sea ice data sets that had been in danger ments, baseline data, model results, and algo- of loss. Many of these are from the former Soviet rithms relating to cryospheric and polar processes. Union. NSIDC’s participation in the joint U.S.– These activities are evolving from existing prac- Russian Environmental Working Group’s Arctic tices at NSIDC DAAC to permit a smooth imple- Climatology Subgroup to produce Arctic Atlases mentation of the EOS Core System Version 2 and on CD-ROMs has strengthened connection to data beyond. NSIDC archives and distributes snow and repositories in Russia.

61 The User Services staff responds to inquiries and Coordination Plan. The plan, which lays a made to NSIDC and its subsidiary data centers. path for the coordination of the cryospheric ele- Examples include students requesting informa- ments of existing projects of the WCRP, was tion for school projects and reports, media and adopted in March 2000, and a joint Arctic Climate textbook publishers requesting photographs and System (ACSYS) –CliC Science Steering Group interviews, and science researchers requiring was established. The CliC project addresses inter- information about data holdings, processing, actions among all land and oceanic components of formats, and science algorithms. Educational the cryosphere (snow cover, glaciers, ice sheets, and research users represent more than half of permafrost and seasonally frozen ground, fresh- all users, with the remainder split among gov- water ice, and sea ice) and the climate system, as ernment, commercial, and the general public. well as the role of the cryosphere as a climatic The rising number of requests for information indicator for monitoring. Significant questions from the general public has led NSIDC to concern the contribution of glacier melt to sea develop educational “theme pages” on subjects level rise, the effects of changes in snow and ice such as glaciers and snow. cover on water resources, and the impacts of cli- Investigators associated with NSIDC bring a mate change on polar sea ice and on frozen polar scientist’s perspective to data management. ground. The text of the CliC plan is available at Work is being conducted under approximately 30 http://www.npolar.no/acsys/CLIC/clic_may.pdf. grants at any time, and topics range from studying variation in the timing and extent of snowmelt on 4.2.2 Arctic Information the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets with pas- Arctic and Antarctic Regions is available for sive microwave data to documenting Inuit knowl- Windows, DOS, and Internet use from NISC. edge of climate change. NSIDC also seeks to syn- Comprehensive polar coverage on this CD offers thesize and interpret research for the general over 800,000 records compiled by the major polar public. For example, “State of the Cryosphere” regions research organizations in the U.S., Cana- web pages present aspects of snow cover, sea ice, da, and the U.K. glaciers, and sea level changes as they relate to A Polar web site, a collaborative project of the climate change. Polar Libraries Colloquy and others, provides a NSIDC served as co-chair of a World Climate guide to Internet resources. The address is http:// Research Programme (WCRP) Task Group to www.urova.fi:80/home/arktinen/polarweb/ develop a Climate and Cryosphere (CliC) Science polarweb.htm.

62 5. Bibliography

Aagaard, K., D. Darby, K. Falkner, G. Flato, J. National Research Council (1989) Arctic Social Grebmeier, C. Measures, and J. Walsh (1999) Science: An Agenda for Action. National Acad- Marine Science in the Arctic: A Strategy. Arc- emy Press, Washington, D.C. tic Research Consortium of the United States. NOAA, NASA, and USGS (1998) Science at the Alaska Federation of Natives (1989) The AFN Extremes: Improved Capabilities for Exploring Report on the Status of Alaska Natives: A Call Earth and Space. Report for the Arctic and for Action. Anchorage, Alaska. Antarctic Access (AAA) Undersea Workshop, Arctic Research Commission (1999) Goals and 15–17 April 1998. Priorities to Guide United States Arctic Office of Naval Research (1996) Arctic Nuclear Research. Arlington, VA. Waste Assessment Program Summary, FY Arctic Research Commission (1997) Logistics 1995. ONR 322-96-16. Recommendations for an Improved U.S. Arctic Office of Naval Research (1997) Radionuclides in Research Capability. Available from the Arctic the Arctic Seas from the Former Soviet Union: Research Consortium of the United States Potential Health and Ecological Risks. ONR, (ARCUS), 600 University Avenue, Suite 1, Arlington, VA. Fairbanks, AK 99710. Pfirman, S., K. Crane, and K. Kane (1996) The Arctic Research Consortium of the United States Arctic at Risk, A Circumpolar Atlas of Envi- (1991) Arctic System Science: Land/Atmo- ronmental Concerns. New York: Environmen- sphere/Ice Interactions—A Plan for Action. tal Defense Fund. Boulder, Colorado. Thomas, C.P. et al. (1991) Alaska Oil and Gas: Carlson, R., J. Zarling, and L. Link (1989) Cold Energy Wealth or Vanishing Opportunity? regions engineering research—Strategic plan. Report DOE/ID/01570-H1, Department of En- Journal of Cold Regions Engineering, vol. 3, ergy, Washington, D.C. no. 4.

63 Appendix A: Glossary of Acronyms

ABNP Alaskan Basic Neuroscience BLM Bureau of Land Management Program BRD Biological Resources Division ACAP Arctic Council Action Plan to Elim- (USGS) inate Pollution in the Arctic CAFF Conservation of Arctic Flora and ACIA Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Fauna ACMAP Atmospheric Chemistry Modeling CAREER Faculty Early Career Development and Analysis Program program (NSF) ACSYS Arctic Climate System Study CDC Centers for Disease Control and ADCC ARCSS Data Coordination Center Prevention ADEOS Advanced Earth Observation System CFC Chloroflourocarbon ADRO Applications Development Research CIRES Cooperative Institute for Research in Opportunity Environmental Sciences AEDD Arctic Environmental Data Directory CISET Committee on International Science AEPS Arctic Environmental Protection Engineering and Technology Strategy CLIC Climate and Cryosphere program AFB Air Force Base CLIVAR Climate Variability and Predict- AFSC Alaska Fisheries Science Center ability program AGES Age, Gene/Environment Susceptibil- CMDL Climate Monitoring and Diagnostic ity study Laboratory (NOAA) AHDRN Arctic Health Disparities Research COGA Collaborative Study of the Genetics Dissemination Network of Alcoholism AICC Arctic Icebreaker Coordination CRREL Cold Regions Research and Engi- Committee neering Laboratory AIP Arctic Investigations Program CRSTIAC Cold Regions Science and Technolo- AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment gy Information Analysis Center Program CT Computerized tomography AMEC Arctic Military Environmental DAAC Distributed Active Archive Center Cooperation DHHS Department of Health and Human AMMTAP Alaska Marine Mammal Tissue Services Archival Project DMSP Defense Meteorological Satellite AMSR Advanced microwave radiometer Program sensor DOC Department of Commerce ANTR Alaska Native Tumor Registry DOD Department of Defense AO Arctic Oscillation DOE Department of Energy ARC Arctic Research Commission DOI Department of the Interior ARCSS Arctic System Science DOS Department of State ARCUS Arctic Research Consortium of the DOT Department of Transportation United States EDF Environmental Diplomacy Funds ARM Atmospheric Radiation Measure- EO Environmental Observatory ment program (DOE) EOS Earth Observing System ARPA Arctic Research and Policy Act EOSDIS Earth Observation System Data and ASF Alaska SAR Facility Information System ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and EPA Environmental Protection Agency Disease Registry EPPR Emergency Prevention, Preparedness AUV Autonomous underwater vehicles and Response AVHRR Advanced very high resolution ERS European Remote-sensing Satellite radiometer EWG Environmental Working Group AWS Automatic weather station FAA Federal Aviation Administration BASC Barrow Arctic Science Consortium FERF Frost Effects Research Facility

64 FOCI Fisheries–Oceanography Coopera- MMS Minerals Management Service tive Investigations MOA Memorandum of agreement FSU Former Soviet Union MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging FUDS Formerly used defense sites Spectroradiometer FWS Fish and Wildlife Service MRI Magnetic resonance imaging FY Fiscal year NAGPRA Native American Graves Protection GCM General circulation model Act GC-Net Greenland Climate Network NASA National Aeronautics and Space GEF Global Environment Facility Administration GIS Geographic information system NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization GISS Goddard Institute for Space Studies NAVICE Naval Ice Center GLAS Geoscience laser altimeter system NCCOS National Centers for Coastal Ocean GLIMS Global Land Ice Measurements from Science Space NCDC National Climate Data Center GOCADAN Genetics of Coronary Artery Disease NCEH National Center for Environmental in Alaska Natives study Health GODAR Global Oceanographic Data Archaeol- NCI National Cancer Institute ogy and Rescue Project NCID National Center for Infectious GPS Global positioning system Diseases HAARP High Frequency Active Auroral NDSC Network for Detection of Strato- Research Program spheric Change HARC Human Dimensions of the Arctic NEI National Eye Institute System (NSF) NEP Needle exchange program HBV Hepatitis B virus NESDD NOAA’s Environmental Services HCH Hexachlorocyclohexane Data Directory HCV Hepatitis C virus NESDIS National Environmental Satellite HDGC Human Dimensions of Global Data and Information Service Change program NEWNET Neighborhood Environmental Watch HF High frequency Network HIRS High-resolution infrared radiation NGDC National Geophysical Data Center sounder NGO Non-governmental organization HIV Human immunodeficiency virus NIA National Institute on Aging HRSA Health Resources Services Adminis- NIAAA National Institute on Alcohol Abuse tration and Alcoholism HVS Heavy vehicle simulator NIC National Ice Center IARPC Interagency Arctic Research Policy NIDA National Institute on Drug Abuse Committee NIH National Institutes of Health IASC International Arctic Science NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Committee Safety and Health IASSA International Arctic Social Sciences NISC National Information Services Association Corporation ICS International Circumpolar Surveil- NISE Near Real Time Ice and Snow in lance EASE grid IOC Intergovernmental Oceanographic NIST National Institute of Standards and Commission Technology IPA Intergovernmental Personnel Act NLM National Library of Medicine IUCH International Union for Circumpolar NMFS National Marine Fisheries Service Health NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric IWG Interagency Working Group Administration JCCEM Joint Coordinating Committee for NODC National Oceanographic Data Center Environmental Management NPR–A National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska LANL Los Alamos National Laboratory NPS National Park Service LTER Long-Term Ecological Research NSF National Science Foundation MAB Man and the Biosphere NSIDC National Snow and Ice Data Center

65 NSR Northern Sea Route SEER Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End NTS Nevada Test Site Results program (NCI) NTSB National Transportation Safety SGER Small Grants for Exploratory Board Research (NSF) NURP National Undersea Research SHEBA Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Program (NOAA) Ocean program NWR National Wildlife Refuge SI Smithsonian Institution NWS National Weather Service (NOAA) SIDS Sudden infant death syndrome OAS Office of Aircraft Services SMMR Scanning multichannel microwave OLS Operational linescan system radiometer OMAO Office of Marine and Aviation SPAWAR Space and Naval Warfare Systems Operations (NOAA) Command OMB Office of Management and Budget SSC Scientific steering committee ONR Office of Naval Research SSM/I Special sensor microwave/imager OPP Office of Polar Programs (NSF) SUSV Small unit support vehicle OSRI Oil Spill Recovery Institute TEA Teachers Experiencing the Arctic PAME Protection of the Arctic Marine program (NSF) Environment THC Thermhaline circulation PARCA Program for Arctic Regional Climate TIAC Technical Information Analysis Assessment Center PCB Polychlorinated biphenyls UAA University of Alaska Anchorage PDO Pacific Decadal Oscillation UAF University of Alaska Fairbanks PMEL Pacific Marine Environmental UNEP United Nations Environmental Laboratory (NOAA) Program POLES Polar Exchange at the Sea Surface UNOLS University National Oceanographic POP Persistent organic pollutants Laboratory System PROBES Processes and Resources of the USACE United States Army Corps of Bering Sea Shelf Engineers RAIPON Russian Indigenous Peoples of the USCG United States Coast Guard North USDA United States Department of RAPS Resource Apprenticeship Program Agriculture (DOI) USFS United States Forest Service REU Research Experience for Under- USGCRP United States Global Change graduates program Research Program RGI Regional Geographic Initiative USGS United States Geological Survey (EPA) USIABP United States Interagency Arctic RGPS Radarsat Geophysical Processor Buoy Program System UV Ultraviolet ROV Remotely operated vehicle VPR VECO Polar Resources SAR Synthetic aperture radar WC&P West Coast and Polar Center SBI Western Arctic Shelf Basin (NOAA) Interaction program (NSF) WCRP World Climate Research Program SDWG Sustainable Development Working WDC World Data Center Group WHO World Health Organization SEARCH Study of Environmental Arctic Change

66 Appendix B: Eighth Biennial Report of the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee to the Congress

February 1, 1998, to January 31, 2000

Background sion on policy and program matters described Section 108(b) of Public Law 98-373, as in Section 108(a)(3), was represented at amended by Public Law 101-609, the Arctic meetings of the Commission, and responded Research and Policy Act, directs the Interagency to Commission reports and Recommendations Arctic Research Policy Committee (IARPC) to (Appendix A). submit to Congress, through the President, a bien- • Continued the processes of interagency coop- nial report containing a statement of the activities eration required under Section 108(a)(6), (7), and accomplishments of the IARPC. The IARPC (8), and (9). was authorized by the Act and was established by • Provided input to an integrated budget analy- Executive Order 12501, dated January 28, 1985. sis for Arctic research, which estimated Section 108(b)(2) of Public Law 98-373, as $185.7 million in Federal support for FY 98 amended by Public Law 101-609, directs the and $221.5 million in FY 99. IARPC to submit to Congress, through the Presi- • Arranged for public participation in the dent, as part of its biennial report, a statement development of the fifth biennial revision to “detailing with particularity the recommendations the U.S. Arctic Research Plan as required in of the Arctic Research Commission with respect Section 108(a)(10). to Federal interagency activities in Arctic research • Continued to maintain the Arctic Environ- and the disposition and responses to those recom- mental Data Directory (AEDD), which now mendations.” In response to this requirement, the contains information on over 400 Arctic data IARPC has examined all recommendations of the sets. AEDD is available on the World Wide Arctic Research Commission since February Web. 1998. The required statement appears in Appen- • Continued the activities of an Interagency dix A. Social Sciences Task Force. Of special concern is research on the health of indigenous Activities and peoples and research on the Arctic as a Accomplishments unique environment for studying human envi- During the period February 1, 1998, to January ronmental adaptation and sociocultural 31, 2000, the IARPC has: change. • Prepared and published the fifth biennial revi- • Continued to support an Alaska regional sion to the United States Arctic Research office of the Smithsonian’s Arctic Studies Plan, as required by Section 108(a)(4) of the Center in cooperation with the Anchorage Act. The Plan was sent to the President on Historical Museum to facilitate education and July 7, 1999. cultural access programs for Alaska residents. • Published and distributed four issues of the • Supported continued U.S. participation in the journal Arctic Research of the United States. non-governmental International Arctic Sci- These issues reviewed all Federal agency ence Committee, via the National Research Arctic research accomplishments for FY 96 Council. and 97 and included summaries of the IARPC • Participated in the continuing National Secu- and Arctic Research Commission meetings rity Council/U.S. Department of State imple- and activities. The Fall/Winter 1999 issue mentation of U.S. policy for the Arctic. U.S. contained the full text of the sixth biennial policy for the Arctic now includes an expand- revision of the U.S. Arctic Research Plan. ed focus on science and environmental • Consulted with the Arctic Research Commis- protection and on the valued input of Arctic

67 residents in research and environmental man- Assessment of Risks to Environments and agement issues. People in the Arctic, and Marine Science in • Participated in policy formulation for the the Arctic. These initiatives are designed to ongoing development of the Arctic Council. augment individual agency mission-related This Council incorporates a set of principles programs and expertise and to promote the and objectives for the protection of the Arctic resolution of key unanswered questions in environment and for promoting sustainable Arctic research and environmental protection. development. IARPC supports the contri- The initiatives are intended to help guide butions being made to projects under the internal agency research planning and priority Council’s Arctic Monitoring and Assessment setting. It is expected that funding for the ini- Program (AMAP) by a number of Federal tiatives will be included in agency budget and State of Alaska agencies. IARPC’s Arctic submissions, as the objectives and potential Monitoring Working Group serves as a U.S. value are of high relevance to the mission and focal point for AMAP. responsibilities of IARPC agencies. • Approved four coordinated Federal agency • Convened formal meetings of the Committee research initiatives on Arctic Environmental and its working groups, staff committees, and Change, Arctic Monitoring and Assessment, task forces to accomplish the above.

68 Appendix C: Arctic Research Budgets of Federal Agencies

Budget (dollars in thousands) FY 00 FY 01 FY 02 Dept/Bureau Program name actual planned proposed DOD Arctic Engineering 2,583 2,670 2,750 DOD Permafrost/Frozen Ground 350 350 430 DOD Snow and Ice Hydrology 1,385 1,455 1,485 DOD Oceanography 3,000 3,000 3,030 DOD Lower Atmosphere 140 100 100 DOD Upper Atmosphere 0 0 0 DOD High-Freq Active Auroral Prog 15,000 12,000 0 DOD Medical and Human Engr 901 850 863 DOD TOTAL 23,359 20,425 8,658

DOI/MMS Technology Assessment/Research 3,200 3,200 3,200 DOI/MMS Environmental Studies 3,800 3,800 3,800

DOI/USGS Energy and Minerals 3,500 3,500 3,500 DOI/USGS Natural Hazards 3,500 3,500 3,500 DOI/USGS Global Change 1,000 1,000 1,000 DOI/USGS Marine and Coastal Geology 250 250 250 DOI/USGS Geomagnetism 250 250 250 DOI/USGS Ice and Climate 250 250 250 DOI/USGS Hydrology 130 130 130 DOI/USGS Mapping 750 750 750

DOI/USGS/BRD Marine Mammals 1,660 1,660 1,660 DOI/USGS/BRD Migratory Birds 2,390 2,390 2,390 DOI/USGS/BRD Fisheries Research 360 360 360 DOI/USGS/BRD Cooperative Research 330 330 330 DOI/USGS/BRD Terrestrial Ecology 1,130 1,130 1,130 DOI/USGS/BRD Park Research 1,140 1,140 1,140

DOI/BLM Natural Ecology 2,900 2,900 2,000 DOI/BLM Minerals Research 115 115 115 DOI/BLM Cultural Resources 200 200 200 DOI/BLM Pipeline Monitoring 550 550 550 DOI/BLM Fire Control 380 380 380 DOI/BLM Mining Administration 300 300 350

DOI/NPS Cultural Resources 1,400 1,400 1,400 DOI/NPS Natural Ecology 2,486 2,486 2,486

DOI/BIA Cultural Resources 600 600 600 DOI/BIA Subsistence Studies 1,250 1,250 1,250

69 Budget (dollars in thousands) FY 00 FY 01 FY 02 Dept/Bureau Program name actual planned proposed DOI/FWS Migratory Birds 3,884 3,884 3,884 DOI/FWS Fisheries 4,068 4,068 4,068 DOI/FWS Marine Mammals 1,768 1,768 1,768 DOI/FWS Conservation of Flora and Fauna (CAFF) 200 200 200 DOI/FWS U.S. Russia Environmental Agreement 150 150 150 DOI TOTAL 43,891 43,891 43,041

NSF/OPP Arctic Natural Science 9,988 11,187 11,589 NSF/OPP Arctic System Science Prog 14,351 15,930 16,503 NSF/OPP Arctic Social Sciences Prog 1,459 1,619 1,684 NSF/OPP Arctic Education research 225 250 260 NSF/OPP Arctic Research Support 151 168 174 NSF/OPP Arctic Data/Info/Coord 88 98 102 NSF/OPP Arctic Research Commission 700 1,000 1,028 NSF/OPP Arctic Logistics/Instrumentation 23,230 25,785 26,765 NSF/OPP Sub-total OPP 50,192 56,036 58,105 NSF Other NSF Science Programs 17,295 18,160 18,523 NSF TOTAL 67,487 74,196 76,628

NASA Polar Ice Interactions 4,000 4,000 4,000 NASA Ecology 2,371 619 535 NASA Solid Earth Science 1,300 2,000 5,000 NASA Arctic Ozone 12,700 6,440 6,500 NASA Clouds and Radiation 1,500 750 750 NASA Sub-orbital Science 3,300 900 2,500 NASA Iono/Thermo/Mesospheric 1,502 1,500 1,500 NASA Magnetospheric SR&T 400 292 200 NASA Geospace Sciences 2,065 2,100 2,100 NASA FAST Auroral Snapshot 1,500 1,500 1,300 NASA Solar Terrestrial Theory 400 400 400 NASA Arctic Data Systems 13,908 12,100 12,600 NASA Research Balloon Program 750 750 0 NASA Sounding Rocket Program 950 800 1,100 NASA TOTAL 46,646 34,151 38,485

DOC/NOAA Atmos Trace Constituents 40 250 800 DOC/NOAA Fisheries Assessment/Management 18,100 16,600 18,900 DOC/NOAA Marine Mammal Assessment 2,600 3,900 3,900 DOC/NOAA Ocean Assessment 15 30 15 DOC/NOAA Stratospheric Ozone 205 250 250 DOC/NOAA Satellites/Data Management 418 325 325 DOC/NOAA Remote Sensing 465 456 300 DOC/NOAA Aircraft/Vessels 1,946 1,976 2,053 DOC/NOAA Climate and Global Change 268 90 90 DOC/NOAA Weather Research 40 125 125 DOC/NOAA Western Arctic/Bering Sea Ecosystem 2,997 3,845 2,782 DOC/NOAA Barrow Observatory 790 1,200 1,600 DOC/NOAA Undersea Research 205 30 0 DOC/NOAA Arctic Research Initiative 1,650 1,650 1,650 DOC/NOAA TOTAL 29,739 30,727 32,790

70 Budget (dollars in thousands) FY 00 FY 01 FY 02 Dept/Bureau Program name actual planned proposed DOE/SC Nat Inst Global Env Change 186 186 186 DOE/SC Atmos Radiation/Planning 3,200 3,200 3,200 DOE/FE Alaska Hydrate Characterization 70 N.A. N.A. DOE/FE Hydrate Test Well Participation 339 N.A. N.A. DOE/EE Wind Activities in Alaska 380 270 75 DOE/EM JCCEM/Arctic Transport Studies 550 570 570 DOE TOTAL 4,725 4,226 4,031

DHHS National Institutes of Health 9,844 10,702 11,164 DHHS Centers for Disease Control/Prevent. 3,990 5,151 4,787 DHHS TOTAL 13,834 15,853 15,951

SMITHSONIAN Anthropology 400 400 400 SMITHSONIAN Arctic Biology 50 50 50 SMITHSONIAN TOTAL 450 450 450

DOT/USCG Test and Evaluation 3,750 500 0 DOT/USCG Arctic Science Support 2,530 10,330 7,870 DOT/USCG Extramural Science Support 30 30 30 DOT Total 6,310 10,860 7,900

EPA Research and Development 365 360 200 EPA Regional Activities 250 220 100 EPA International Activities 93 75 100 EPA TOTAL 708 655 400

USDA/FS Forest Service - Environment 700 700 700 USDA/CSRE&ES Cooperative State Res - Environ 725 725 725 USDA/CSRE&ES Cooperative State Res - Food/Saf 793 964 964 USDA/NRCS Natural Resources Cons Svc S - Global 560 560 560 USDA/ARS Agricultural Research Service 2,000 2,000 2,000 USDA TOTAL 4,778 4,949 4,949

STATE MAB: Arctic Directorate 20 20 20 STATE TOTAL 202020

GRAND TOTALS 241,947 240,403 233,303

71 Appendix D: Federal Arctic Research Program Descriptions

Department of Defense U.S. Geological Survey • Arctic Engineering: The study and develop- • Energy and Minerals: Research to assess the ment of technologies for construction and distribution, quantity, and quality of energy and maintenance of facilities and equipment in mineral resources with an increasing emphasis Arctic environments. on characterizing the environmental impact of • Permafrost/Frozen Ground: The study of the resource occurrence and use. This informa- formation, structure, characteristics, and tion assists the Nation in managing its land, dynamics of permafrost and frozen ground. formulating environmental policies, and en- • Snow and Ice Hydrology: The study of the suring stable and safe supplies of resources. snowpack and river, lake, and sea ice, their • Natural Hazards: Research to forecast and formation, structure, and dynamics. delineate hazards from earthquakes, volca- • Oceanography: The study of Arctic Ocean fea- noes, landslides, and related phenomena. tures and processes including sea ice dynamics. Losses from future natural hazard events can • Lower Atmosphere: The study of Arctic be significantly reduced through studies of weather with an emphasis on heat budget. past and potential events applied to disaster • Upper Atmosphere: The study of physical pro- mitigation and response planning. cesses in the thermosphere, ionosphere and • Global Change: Research to investigate the im- magnetosphere. Studies also include applied pact that potential global change, such as global research to investigate, predict, and assess the warming, would have on our planet. This is part impacts from the thermosphere, ionosphere, of the U.S. Global Change research program, and magnetosphere to communication, navi- which provides the scientific basis for develop- gation, surveillance, and satellite systems. ing policy relating to natural and human- • High-Frequency Active Auroral Research Pro- induced changes in the global earth system. gram (HAARP): The use of radiowave energy • Marine and Coastal: Research to address issues to study basic physical response and composi- of national, regional, and local concern that tion of the ionosphere and upper atmosphere. involve marine and coastal geology. These • Medical and Human Engineering: The study issues involve natural hazards, natural resourc- of human response to cold climates and meth- es, and environmental quality and restoration; ods to mitigate those effects. they span the full continuum from coastal wetlands and seashores to the deep ocean. Department of the Interior • Geomagnetism: Research to measure, map, and model the earth’s magnetic field within various Minerals Management Service time scales and to publish and disseminate this • Technology Assessment and Research Pro- information for use in navigation and orienta- gram: Research to support Minerals Manage- tion by Federal, state, local, and international ment Service offshore operations. Studies groups. Eleven magnetic observatories are address operational needs for permitting of operated, and repeat magnetic field surveys drilling and production operations, safety and are performed to determine how and how fast pollution inspections, enforcement action, the earth’s magnetic field is changing. accident investigations, and well control • Ice and Climate: Research to understand the training requirements. causes, characteristics, and effects of changes • Environmental Studies Program: Research to in glacier conditions over annual to decadal provide information needed for prediction, time scales, as well as of changes in snow assessment, and management of impacts from conditions in mountainous areas over monthly offshore natural gas and oil and mineral to seasonal time scales. development activities on human, marine, and • Hydrology: Research to monitor and assess the coastal environments of Alaska. sensitivity of surface water and wetland hydrol-

72 ogy to variations and changes in climate. mining on public lands in Arctic Alaska. The • Mapping: Program to develop geologic and goal is to assure compliance with the approved environmental maps of Arctic Alaska. plan of operations and minimize the impact of mining on the riparian wetland resource. U.S. Geological Survey–Biological Resources Division National Park Service • Marine Mammals: Research on marine • Cultural Resources: Research and investigation mammals to provide information needed for of cultural resources as they pertain to historic USGS to fulfill its stewardship responsibilities places in National Parks. The Shared Beringian under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Heritage Program promotes international coop- • Migratory Birds: Research on migratory birds eration in multidisciplinary studies of Beringia. to provide basic biological information • Natural Ecology: Research to monitor and needed for responsible implementation of the understand natural resources in National Parks. Migratory Bird Treaty Act. • Fisheries: Research related to land manage- Bureau of Indian Affairs ment responsibilities on National Wildlife • Cultural: Research and investigation of Refuges and National Parks or focusing on learned and shared behaviors as they pertain treaty issues involving the U.S. and Canada. to historic places and cemetery sites applied • Cooperative Research: Research addressing for under the provisions of the Alaska Native issues relating to short-term or site-specific Claims Settlement Act (P.L. 92-203). resource management issues. • Subsistence: Research on the customary and tra- • Terrestrial Ecology: Research related to land ditional uses of fish, game, and plant resources. management, emphasizing potential effects of resource development on National Wildlife National Science Foundation Refuges. • Arctic Natural Sciences: Research in atmo- • Park Research: Research related to land spheric, space, ocean, biological, earth management, emphasizing issues specific to sciences, and glaciology that is primarily National Parks. investigator-initiated; this is basic research that is concerned with processes and phenom- Bureau of Land Management ena in the entire Arctic region, including • Natural Ecology: Inventorying and monitor- Alaska, Canada, Greenland, Svalbard, Russia, ing of the quantity and status of waters, soils, the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas, and the vegetation, fish and wildlife populations, and upper atmosphere and near space. habitats in Arctic Alaska. This is a major • Arctic System Science (ARCSS): An inter- effort to support lands and resources manage- disciplinary program that examines the interac- ment in this unique area. tions within and between the climatic, geologic, • Cultural Resources: Studies of man’s prehis- biologic, and socioeconomic subsystems of the toric activities in the Arctic. Recent findings Arctic. ARCSS is a regional component within in northern Alaska have helped in understand- the U.S. Global Change Research Program. ing man’s migration into North America. • Arctic Social Science: A multidisciplinary • Pipeline Monitoring: Program to ascertain and interdisciplinary program focused on that permittees are in compliance with the issues of human–environment interactions, agreement and grant right-of-way for the rapid social change, and community viability. Trans-Alaska Pipeline in Arctic Alaska. • Arctic Science Support: Support for Intergov- There is constant monitoring of pipeline ernmental Personnel Act (IPA) personnel integrity and the status of the natural resources assigned to the Arctic Sciences Section of the in and adjacent to the right-of-way. Office of Polar Programs (OPP), and scien- • Fire Control: Studies of fuels, ignition, burning, tific meeting, panel, and publication support. fire spreading, and methods of control of wild • Arctic Data and Information, and Advisory fires in the Arctic. A network of remote auto- and Coordination: Support for a program of matic weather stations has been established. The Arctic data and information research and primary purpose of this network is to help un- advisory services, including support for the derstand the influence of weather on wildfires. Interagency Arctic Research Policy Commit- • Mining Administration: Monitoring of placer tee, and conferences, workshops, and studies

73 to further develop and implement Arctic National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) in research planning and policy. Boulder, Colorado, and one at the Alaska SAR • Arctic Research Commission: Support for the Facility (ASF) in Fairbanks, Alaska. The ASF is Commission staff and members. Funding for the responsible for acquiring, processing, archiving, Arctic Research Commission is included in the and distributing synthetic aperture radar (SAR) NSF budget for administrative convenience. data from several non-U.S. spacecraft, and the • Other Sciences: Research supported in divi- NSIDC handles most other satellite data over sions and programs outside the OPP in atmo- the high latitudes. In addition, NASA supports spheric, ocean, biological, earth sciences, and the development of several high-latitude “Path- glaciology that is primarily investigator- finder” data sets, comprising higher-level infor- initiated basic research. mation derived from various satellite data. • Engineering: Engineering research that is • Clouds and Radiation: NASA supports compre- related to the Arctic. hensive studies of the impact of Arctic clouds • Education: Education research that is related and aerosols on the the Arctic radiation balance to the Arctic. and its impact on the global radiative balance. Studies supported include modeling and analy- National Aeronautics and sis of satellite cloud and aerosol data obtained Space Administration over the polar regions. In addition, NASA sup- • Cryosphere: This program is focused on the ports missions to the Arctic (e.g. FIRE-ACE) Arctic ice cover and its interactions with the that include ground, ship, and airborne sensors oceans and atmosphere. The long-range goals coordinated with satellite observations to are to significantly improve our ability to rep- study the processes that contribute to the evo- resent high-latitude processes in models of lution of cloud and aerosol distributions. global climate and climate change and to • Geospace Physics: NASA provides support understand the current and likely impact of for a vigorous program of experimental and changes in ice mass on sea level. theoretical studies of geospace phenomena • Ecology: This program is focused on the func- originating in or affecting Arctic regions, tion of high-latitude terrestrial ecosystems and including the mesosphere, thermosphere, ion- their interactions with the atmosphere and osphere, and magnetosphere. It includes these hydrosphere, with particular emphasis on car- programs listed in the NASA budget table: bon cycling and land–atmosphere interactions. Sun-Earth Connection Theory Program, Fast • Solid Earth and Natural Hazards Science: This Auroral SnapshoT Explorer spacecraft, program is focused on improving our under- Geospace Low Cost Access to Space (sub- standing of the earth’s gravity field, oscillations orbital) program, and the Geospace Sciences in the length of day and tilting of the axis of Supporting Research and Technology program. rotation, geodesy to determine the rate of past- glacial rebound of the lithosphere for ice mass Department of Commerce and structuralstudies, the earth’s magnetic field to determine crustal structure, and topography National Oceanic and and topographic change of the Arctic and Atmospheric Administration Antarctic regions. The program also contrib- • Atmospheric Trace Constituents: Continuous utes to other polar studies by providing a and discreet measurements of atmospheric frame of reference with which to monitor trace constituents (for example, greenhouse changes such as the volume of the ice sheets. gases) that are important to understanding • Arctic Ozone Studies: This program is sup- global change. porting a number of tasks related to chemical • Marine Fisheries Assessment: Assessment by and dynamical processes in the Arctic strato- the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) sphere, with the aim of measuring and under- of U.S. living marine resources in Arctic waters. standing changes in Arctic stratospheric • Marine Fisheries Research: NOAA’s Pacific ozone in an atmosphere with increasing abun- Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) and dances of greenhouse gases. Alaska Fisheries Science Center (AFSC) con- • Arctic Data Systems: NASA provides support duct the Fisheries Oceanography Coordinated for two Distributed Active Archive Systems Investigations (FOCI) program in the Bering (DAACs) for high-latitude data: one at the Sea and North Pacific. FOCI is concerned with

74 understanding and predicting the impacts of Office of Marine and Aviation Operations interannual variability and decade-scale climate (OMAO) to conduct the research and obser- change on commercially valuable fish species. vations associated with NOAA’s Arctic • Marine Mammal Assessment: Long-term research program. research by NMFS’s National Marine Mam- • Climate and Global Change: Studies that are mal Laboratory on the population biology and assessing Arctic processes as forcing func- ecology of Arctic marine mammals. NMFS tions of climate and global change and as also participates in the Marine Mammal “barometers” of global change. NOAA’s Arc- Health and Stranding Response Program, tic Research Office chairs the Interagency which oversees the Arctic Marine Mammal Working Group on the Study of Environmen- Tissue Archival Program (AMMTAP) in col- tal Arctic Change (SEARCH). laboration with Department of Interior (FWS, • Arctic Ice: The National Ice Center, jointly BRD, and MMS) and the National Institute of operated by NOAA, the U.S. Navy, and the Standards and Technology (NIST). The U.S. Coast Guard, provides analyses and AMMTAP collects, analyzes, and archives forecasts of ice conditions in all seas of the tissues for contaminants and health indices to polar regions, the Great Lakes, and Chesa- provide a database on contaminants and health peake Bay. The National Snow and Ice Data in marine mammal populations in the Arctic. Center (NSIDC), affiliated with NOAA’s • Coastal Hazards: Activities directed towards National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC), developing a better understanding of the archives many new and rescued ice data sets. effects of tsunami propagation and run-up. • Arctic Weather: Research primarily address- • Ocean Assessment: A wide range of pro- ing two forecast problems: detection of the grams and activities directed toward NOAA’s Arctic front and the effect of the Arctic front environmental stewardship responsibilities, on local weather. including environmental monitoring and • Boreal Forest Fires and the Arctic: Modeling, assessment, technology transfer, and educa- research, and observations to understand the tion and outreach. Ocean assessment includes influence of Northern Hemisphere boreal for- the National Status and Trends Program, the est fires on atmospheric chemistry in the Arc- Coastal Ocean Program, and other pertinent tic, especially focusing on the production of activities of the recently formed National surface-level ozone and other pollutants and Centers for Coastal Ocean Science (NCCOS), the atmospheric and climate effects of the National Ocean Service. input of soot. • Stratospheric Ozone: A program that is devel- • Arctic Research Initiative: Program supporting oping an understanding of the dynamics and research, monitoring, and assessment projects to chemistry of the potential for Arctic ozone study natural variability and anthropogenic depletion, as part of activities directed to influences on Western Arctic/Bering Sea eco- understanding the global depletion of strato- systems. These activities are a U.S. contribution spheric ozone. to the Arctic Council’s Arctic Monitoring and • Satellites/Data Management: Research Assessment Program. Projects supported by this addressing NOAA’s responsibilities for col- program are expected to lead to better under- lecting, archiving, processing, and dissemi- standing of Arctic contaminants and their path- nating environmental data and providing ways, the effects of climate change including specialized data analyses and interpretations. increased ultraviolet radiation, and the com- • Remote Sensing: A substantial program (jointly bined effects of stresses from climate change with NSF and DOE) for developing, testing, and various contaminants. and using ground-based remote sensors for Arc- tic meteorological research. The emphasis is on Department of Energy prototypes for future operational systems that • Climate-Related Atmospheric Radiation can operate in the Arctic with minimal attention. Research: Continued operation of an Atmo- The scientific issues include boundary layer tur- spheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) bulence and structure, cloud macro- and micro- research (“testbed”) site on the North Slope physical properties, and cloud-radiative cou- of Alaska to improve mathematical simula- pling relevant to Arctic climate. tions of cloud and radiative transfer processes • Aircraft/Vessels: Platform support from the in general circulation models (GCMs).

75 • Environmental Measurements of Radioactivity Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in the Atmosphere: Continuous measurements • A research program designed to evaluate of long-term levels and trends of anthro- infectious disease prevention and control pogenic and natural radionuclides in the Arc- strategies in the Arctic and sub-Arctic, with a tic atmosphere. Sites include Alaska, Green- special focus on diseases of high incidence land, and northernmost Canada and Norway. and concern among the indigenous peoples of • Neighborhood Environmental Watch Network the circumpolar region. (NEWNET): Continued operation of an Alas- • An occupational injury research program kan network (Fairbanks, Kotzebue, Nome, focusing on the Nation’s geographic area with Point Hope, and Seward) of public-accessible the highest risk of occupational-related injury. environmental gamma-radioactivity monitoring • Research on human exposure to environmen- stations and data storage/processing systems, tal persistent organic pollutants in the Arctic. based on concepts developed by the DOE for the Community Monitoring Program at the Ne- Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry vada Test Site (NTS) Nuclear Testing Facility. • A research program to identify and reduce • Joint Coordinating Committee for Environmen- risks from exposure to environmental contam- tal Management (JCCEM) Contaminant Trans- inants while maintaining the benefits of the port Studies: Continuing assessment of the subsistence lifestyle. hydro-geologic framework and radioactivity contamination status of the West Siberian Basin Smithsonian Institution from past and ongoing releases of commercial • Anthropology: Research and interpretation of and defense-related nuclear and hazardous Arctic cultures and natural history. Training of waste disposal operations at the former Soviet Arctic residents and Natives in museum studies, Union Mayak, Tomsk, and Krasnoyarsk sites. collections care, conservation, and cultural • North Slope of Alaska Methane Hydrate heritage programs. Studies of the origin and his- Resource Assessment: DOE continues to assist tory of northern cultures and their interactions the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in an with their environment and with European cul- assessment of the recoverability and produc- tures are central features of this research. tion characteristics of permafrost-associated • Arctic Biology: Basic research on biological methane hydrates and related free-gas accu- and evolutionary studies in botany, zoology, mulations in the Prudhoe Bay–Kuparuk River and other natural history fields. Interactions area of the North Slope of Alaska. of Arctic flora and fauna with human cultures • Wind Electricity Generation Activities in are emphasized. Alaska: To better understand the role that wind energy can play, the DOE’s Wind Ener- Department of Transportation gy Program continues to be engaged in collaborative efforts with Alaskan organizations U.S. Coast Guard at the state and local levels to explore ways in • Arctic Science/Logistics Support: The costs which wind can make a greater contribution of providing and maintaining polar icebreak- in the production of electric power. Efforts ers for use in the Arctic. are particularly focused on smaller rural com- • Test and Evaluation: The cost of tests munities, where the cost of diesel-generated designed to evaluate polar icebreakers in the electricity is very high. Current Alaskan loca- performance of Arctic missions. (Previously, tions include Kotzebue, Wales, Nome, Night- unreimbursed Arctic science mission costs mute, Nunapitchuk, Selawik, and Unalakleet. were included in this category.) • Extramural Science Support: Funding pro- Department of Health and vided to other agencies for Arctic science Human Services studies, research, or vessel availability studies.

National Institutes of Health Environmental Protection Agency • Basic and applied research that relates prima- • Research and Development: Intramural and rily in the areas of rheumatic diseases, cancer, extramural basic and applied research founded drug and alcohol abuse, and coronary heart on the risk assessment and risk management disease that affect Arctic residents. paradigm. EPA research interests in the Arctic

76 include water quality, watershed cumulative Natural Resources Conservation Service effects, air quality, land use, bioremediation and • Research in support of the National Coopera- the combined impact of contaminants, climate tive Soil Survey program addressing perma- change, and resource use on freshwater and frost, soil cryogenic processes, soil reduction marine ecosystems. Research efforts address and oxidation properties, temperature, water issues of long-range transport and transforma- status and gas flux in wetlands, reindeer and tion of contaminants to the Arctic and the status caribou grazing needs, and vegetation trends. and trends of contaminants such as persistent • Research on vegetation, landform, and carbon organic pollutants and heavy metals within the sequestration relationships in support of the Arctic environment. Research and Development Global Change Research Program. is working closely in partnership with Region • Research in support of the snow survey program. 10 on forwarding an integrated assessment of Snowfall measurement techniques are being human health and ecological risks in subsistence studied to support the snow survey, which is communities with the Bering Sea watershed. used to predict snowmelt, water availability, • Regional Activities: Activities of EPA’s Region river breakup timing, and wildlife movements. 10 (Pacific Northwest and Alaska office) are conducted in partnership with tribes, the state, Agricultural Research Service and local communities to resolve key issues in • Research on plant sciences emphasizing germ- rural sanitation, clean drinking water, clean- plasm preservation to protect native and Rus- up of formerly used defense sites, regulation sian plant species with emphasis on medicinal of local industry, and other issues key to pro- value and utility for erosion control. tecting human health and the unique Arctic • Research in animal sciences to investigate and sub-Arctic environments. Alaska fisheries byproduct use (especially for feed stocks), integrated pest management for Department of Agriculture grasshopper control in Alaska’s central basin, and the biosystematics of Holarctic ruminant Forest Service parasites to assess pathogen distribution in • Research directed toward improving the food resources of northern communities. understanding, use, and management of Alas- ka’s natural resources, especially the northern Department of State boreal forest. Research centers on the dynam- • Coordination of U.S. involvement in the Arctic ics of mixed stands and the cumulative effects Council and its working groups, including the of management activities on hydrology, soils, Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program; vegetation, wildlife, carbon reserves, insects, Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna, of and fire in boreal ecosystems. which the U.S. is the vice-chair; Emergency Pre- • Important portions of the boreal ecosystems vention, Preparedness, and Response; Protection research are conducted at the Bonanza Creek of the Arctic Marine Environment, which the Long-Term Ecological Research Site near U.S. chairs; Sustainable Development; and the Fairbanks, AK. Arctic Council Action Plan to Eliminate Pollu- tion of the Arctic. Cooperative State Research, Education • Chairmanship of regular meetings of the and Extension Service interagency Arctic Policy Group and overall • Research in plant sciences emphasizing prop- responsibility for the coordination and formu- agating and cultivating Alaskan native plants lation of U.S. policy in the Arctic. and domestic crops. • Direction of Environmental Diplomacy Funds • Research in animal sciences investigating gene- (EDF) to international pollution assessment tic parameters for growth and reproduction of projects. The State Department has contributed pink salmon and the chemical composition, nu- to the project on Persistent Toxic Substances, tritional value, and utilization of animal feeds. Food Security, and Indigenous Peoples of the • Research in natural resources and forestry Russian Far North. The project will monitor both addressing forest floor organic matter reserves, air quality in the Russian Arctic and toxics in the ecosystem sustainability, soil classification, traditional foods of Natives in Russia. State EDF wildlife habitat, quantification of timber produc- support is also planned for the Evaluation of tivity, and disturbance revegetation in wetlands. Dioxins and Furans in the Russian Federation.

77 Appendix E: Arctic Research and Policy Act, As Amended

PUBLIC LAW 98-373 - July 31,1984; amended as (9) the United States has important security, economic, PUBLIC LAW 101-609 - November 16, 1990 and environmental interests in developing and maintaining a fleet of icebreaking vessels capable of operating An Act effectively in the heavy ice regions of the Arctic; (10) most Arctic-rim countries, particularly the Soviet To provide for a comprehensive national policy dealing Union, possess Arctic technologies far more advanced with national research needs and objectives in the than those currently available in the United States; Arctic, for a National Critical Materials Council, for (11) Federal Arctic research is fragmented and uncoor- development of a continuing and comprehensive dinated at the present time, leading to the neglect of cer- national materials policy, for programs necessary to tain areas of research and to unnecessary duplication of carry out that policy, including Federal programs of effort in other areas of research; advanced materials research and technology, and for (12) improved logistical coordination and support for innovation in basic materials industries, and for Arctic research and better dissemination of research data other purposes. and information is necessary to increase the efficiency and utility of national Arctic research efforts; Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of (13) a comprehensive national policy and program plan the United States of America in Congress assembled: to organize and fund currently neglected scientific research with respect to the Arctic is necessary to fulfill TITLE 1-ARCTIC RESEARCH AND POLICY national objectives in Arctic research; SHORT TITLE (14) the Federal Government, in cooperation with State and local governments, should focus its efforts on the SEC. 101. This title may be cited as the “Arctic Research collection and characterization of basic data related to and Policy Act of 1984, as amended”. biological, materials, geophysical, social, and behavioral phenomena in the Arctic; FINDINGS AND PURPOSES (15) research into the long-range health, environmental, SEC. 102.(a) The Congress finds and declares that— and social effects of development in the Arctic is neces- (1) the Arctic, onshore and offshore, contains vital energy sary to mitigate the adverse consequences of that devel- resources that can reduce the Nation’s dependence on for- opment to the land and its residents; eign oil and improve the national balance of payments; (16) Arctic research expands knowledge of the Arctic, (2) as the Nation’s only common border with the Soviet which can enhance the lives of Arctic residents, increase Union, the Arctic is critical to national defense; opportunities for international cooperation among Arc- (3) the renewable resources of the Arctic, specifically tic-rim countries, and facilitate the formulation of na- fish and other seafood, represent one of the Nation’s tional policy for the Arctic; and greatest commercial assets; (17) the Alaskan Arctic provides an essential habitat for (4) Arctic conditions directly affect global weather pat- marine mammals, migratory waterfowl, and other forms terns and must be understood in order to promote better of wildlife which are important to the Nation and which agricultural management throughout the United States; are essential to Arctic residents. (5) industrial pollution not originating in the Arctic re- (b) The purposes of this title are— gion collects in the polar air mass, has the potential to (1) to establish national policy, priorities, and goals and disrupt global weather patterns, and must be controlled to provide a Federal program plan for basic and applied through international cooperation and consultation; scientific research with respect to the Arctic, including (6) the Arctic is a natural laboratory for research into natural resources and materials, physical, biological and human health and adaptation, physical and psychologi- health sciences, and social and behavioral sciences; cal, to climates of extreme cold and isolation and may (2) to establish an Arctic Research Commission to pro- provide information crucial for future defense needs; mote Arctic research and to recommend Arctic research (7) atmospheric conditions peculiar to the Arctic make policy, the Arctic a unique testing ground for research into high (3) to designate the National Science Foundation as the latitude communications, which is likely to be crucial lead agency responsible for implementing Arctic research for future defense needs; policy, and (8) Arctic marine technology is critical to cost-effective (4) to establish an Interagency Arctic Research Policy recovery, and transportation of energy resources and to Committee to develop a national Arctic research policy the national defense; and a five year plan to implement that policy.

78 ARCTIC RESEARCH COMMISSION considered an employee of the United States for any purpose. SEC. 103. (a) The President shall establish an Arctic (2) The Commission shall meet at the call of its Chair- Research Commission (hereinafter referred to as the man or a majority of its members. “Commission”). (3) Each Federal agency referred to in section 107(b) (b)(1) The Commission shall be composed of seven may designate a representative to participate as an ob- members appointed by the President, with the Director of server with the Commission. These representatives shall the National Science Foundation serving as a nonvoting, report to and advise the Commission on the activities ex officio member. The members appointed by the Presi- relating to Arctic research of their agencies. dent shall include— (4) The Commission shall conduct at least one public (A) four members appointed from among individ- meeting in the State of Alaska annually. uals from academic or other research institutions with expertise in areas of research relating to the DUTIES OF THE COMMISSION Arctic, including the physical, biological, health, environmental, social and behavioral sciences; SEC. 104. (a) The Commission shall— (B) one member appointed from among indigenous (1) develop and recommend an integrated national Arc- residents of the Arctic who are representative of tic research policy; the needs and interests of Arctic residents and who (2) in cooperation with the Interagency Arctic Research live in areas directly affected by Arctic resource Policy Committee established under section 107, assist development; and in establishing a national Arctic research program plan (C) two members appointed from among individu- to implement the Arctic research policy; als familiar with the Arctic and representative of (3) facilitate cooperation between the Federal Govern- the needs and interests of private industry under- ment and State and local governments with respect to taking resource development in the Arctic. Arctic research; (2) The President shall designate one of the appointed (4) review Federal research programs in the Arctic and members of the Commission to be chairperson of the recommend improvements in coordination among pro- Commission. grams; (c)(1) Except as provided in paragraph (2) of this sub- (5) recommend methods to improve logistical planning section, the term of office of each member of the Com- and support for Arctic research as may be appropriate mission appointed under subsection (b)(1) shall be four and in accordance with the findings and purposes of this years. title; (2) Of the members of the Commission originally ap- (6) recommend methods for improving efficient sharing pointed under subsection (b)(1)— and dissemination of data and information on the Arctic (A) one shall be appointed for a term of two years; among interested public and private institutions; (B) two shall be appointed for a term of three years; (7) offer other recommendations and advice to the In- and teragency Committee established under section 107 as (C) two shall be appointed for a term of four years. it may find appropriate; (3) Any vacancy occurring in the membership of the (8) cooperate with the Governor of the State of Alaska Commission shall be filled, after notice of the vacancy and with agencies and organizations of that State which is published in the Federal Register, in the manner pro- the Governor may designate with respect to the formu- vided by the preceding provisions of this section, for the lation of Arctic research policy; remainder of the unexpired term. (9) recommend to the Interagency Committee the means (4) A member may serve after the expiration of the for developing international scientific cooperation in the member’s term of office until the President appoints a Arctic; and successor. (10) not later than January 31,1991, and every 2 years (5) A member may serve consecutive terms beyond the thereafter, publish a statement of goals and objectives member’s original appointment. with respect to Arctic research to guide the Interagency (d)(1) Members of the Commission may be allowed Committee established under section 107 in the perfor- travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsistence, mance of its duties. as authorized by section 5703 of title 5, United States Code. (b) Not later than January 31 of each year, the Commis- A member of the Commission not presently employed for sion shall submit to the President and to the Congress a compensation shall be compensated at a rate equal to the report describing the activities and accomplishments of daily equivalent of the rate for GS-18 of the General the Commission during the immediately preceding fiscal Schedule under section 5332 of title 5, United States Code, year. for each day the member is engaged in the actual performance of his duties as a member of the Commission, COOPERATION WITH THE COMMISSION not to exceed 90 days of service each year. Except for the purposes of chapter 81 of title 5 (relating to compensation SEC. 105. (a)(1) The Commission may acquire from the for work injuries) and chapter 171 of title 28 (relating to head of any Federal agency unclassified data, reports, and tort claims), a member of the Commission shall not be other nonproprietary information with respect to Arctic

79 research in the possession of the agency which the Com- (2) The Interagency Committee shall be composed of mission considers useful in the discharge of its duties. representatives of the following Federal agencies or (2) Each agency shall cooperate with the Commission offices: and furnish all data, reports, and other information re- (A) the National Science Foundation; quested by the Commission to the extent permitted by (B) the Department of Commerce; law; except that no agency need furnish any informa- (C) the Department of Defense; tion which it is permitted to withhold under section (D) the Department of Energy; 522 of title 5, United States Code. (E) the Department of the Interior; (b) With the consent of the appropriate agency head, (F) the Department of State; the Commission may utilize the facilities and services of (G) the Department of Transportation; any Federal agency to the extent that the facilities and (H) the Department of Health and Human Services; services are needed for the establishment and develop- (I) the National Aeronautics and Space Administra- ment of an Arctic research policy, upon reimbursement to tion; be agreed upon by the Commission and the agency head (J) the Environmental Protection Agency; and and taking every feasible step to avoid duplication of effort. (K) any other agency or office deemed appropriate. (c) All Federal agencies shall consult with the Com- (3) The representative of the National Science Founda- mission before undertaking major Federal actions relat- tion shall serve as the Chairperson of the Interagency ing to Arctic research. Committee.

ADMINISTRATION OF THE COMMISSION DUTIES OF THE INTERAGENCY COMMITTEE SEC. 106. The Commission may— SEC. 108. (a) The Interagency Committee shall— (1) in accordance with the civil service laws and sub- (1) survey Arctic research conducted by Federal, State, chapter III of chapter 53 of title 5, United States Code, and local agencies, universities, and other public and appoint and fix the compensation of an Executive Di- private institutions to help determine priorities for fu- rector and necessary additional staff personnel, but not ture Arctic research, including natural resources and to exceed a total of seven compensated personnel; materials, physical and biological sciences, and social (2) procure temporary and intermittent services as au- and behavioral sciences; thorized by section 3109 of title 5, United States Code; (2) work with the Commission to develop and establish (3) enter into contracts and procure supplies, services an integrated national Arctic research policy that will and personal property; guide Federal agencies in developing and implementing (4) enter into agreements with the General Services their research programs in the Arctic; Administration for the procurement of necessary finan- (3) consult with the Commission on— cial and administrative services, for which payment shall (A) the development of the national Arctic research be made by reimbursement from funds of the Commis- policy and the 5-year plan implementing the policy; sion in amounts to be agreed upon by the Commission (B) Arctic research programs of Federal agencies; and the Administrator of the General Services Adminis- (C) recommendations of the Commission on future tration; and Arctic research; and (5) appoint, and accept without compensation the ser- (D) guidelines for Federal agencies for awarding vices of, scientists and engineering specialists to be ad- and administering Arctic research grants; visors to the Commission. Each advisor may be allowed (4) develop a 5-year plan to implement the national pol- travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsis- icy, as provided in section 109; tence, as authorized by section 5703 of title 5, United (5) provide the necessary coordination, data, and assis- States Code. Except for the purposes of chapter 81 of tance for the preparation of a single integrated, coher- title 5 (relating to compensation for work injuries) and ent, and multiagency budget request for Arctic research chapter 171 of title 28 (relating to tort claims) of the as provided for in section 110; United States Code, an advisor appointed under this (6) facilitate cooperation between the Federal Govern- paragraph shall not be considered an employee of the ment and State and local governments in Arctic research, United States for any purpose. and recommend the undertaking of neglected areas of research in accordance with the findings and purposes LEAD AGENCY AND INTERAGENCY ARCTIC of this title; RESEARCH POLICY COMMITTEE (7) coordinate and promote cooperative Arctic scientif- SEC. 107. (a) The National Science Foundation is des- ic research programs with other nations, subject to the ignated as the lead agency responsible for implementing foreign policy guidance of the Secretary of State; Arctic research policy, and the Director of the National (8) cooperate with the Governor of the State of Alaska Science Foundation shall insure that the requirements of in fulfilling its responsibilities under this title; section 108 are fulfilled. (9) promote Federal interagency coordination of all Arc- (b)(1) The President shall establish an Interagency Arc- tic research activities, including- tic Research Policy Committee (hereinafter referred to as (A) logistical planning and coordination; and the “Interagency Committee”). (B) the sharing of data and information associated

80 with Arctic research, subject to section 552 of title COORDINATION AND REVIEW OF BUDGET 5, United States Code; and REQUESTS (10) provide public notice of its meetings and an opportunity for the public to participate in the development SEC. 110. (a) The Office of Science and Technology Pol- and implementation of national Arctic research policy. icy shall— (b) Not later than January 31, 1986, and biennially there- (1) review all agency and department budget requests after, the Interagency Committee shall submit to the Con- related to the Arctic transmitted pursuant to section gress through the President, a brief, concise report con- 108(a)(5), in accordance with the national Arctic research taining- policy and the 5-year program under section 108(a)(2) (1) a statement of the activities and accomplishments of and section 109, respectively; and the Interagency Committee since its last report; and (2) consult closely with the Interagency Committee and (2) a statement detailing with particularity the recom- the Commission to guide the Office of Technology Pol- mendations of the Commission with respect to Federal icy’s efforts. interagency activities in Arctic research and the disposi- (b)(1) The Office of Management and Budget shall con- tion and responses to those recommendations. sider all Federal agency requests for research related to the Arctic as one integrated, coherent, and multiagency 5-YEAR ARCTIC RESEARCH PLAN request, which shall be reviewed by the Office of Man- agement and Budget prior to submission of the President’s SEC. 109. (a) The Interagency Committee, in consulta- annual budget request for its adherence to the Plan. The tion with the Commission, the Governor of the State of Commission shall, after submission of the President’s Alaska, the residents of the Arctic, the private sector, and annual budget request, review the request and report to public interest groups, shall prepare a comprehensive 5- Congress on adherence to the Plan. year program plan (hereinafter referred to as the “Plan”) (2) The Office of Management and Budget shall seek for the overall Federal effort in Arctic research. The Plan to facilitate planning for the design, procurement, shall be prepared and submitted to the President for trans- maintenance, deployment and operations of icebreakers mittal to the Congress within one year after the enactment needed to provide a platform for Arctic research by of this Act and shall be revised biennially thereafter. allocating all funds necessary to support icebreaking (b) The Plan shall contain but need not be limited to the operations, except for recurring incremental costs following elements: associated with specific projects, to the Coast Guard. (1) an assessment of national needs and problems regarding the Arctic and the research necessary to address AUTHORIZATION OF APPROPRIATIONS; those needs or problems; NEW SPENDING AUTHORITY (2) a statement of the goals and objectives of the Inter- agency Committee for national Arctic research; SEC. 111. (a) There are authorized to be appropriated such (3) a detailed listing of all existing Federal programs sums as may be necessary for carrying out this title. relating to Arctic research, including the existing goals, (b) Any new spending authority (within the meaning funding levels for each of the 5 following fiscal years, of section 401 of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974) and the funds currently being expended to conduct the which is provided under this title shall be effective for programs; any fiscal year only to such extent or in such amounts as (4) recommendations for necessary program changes and may be provided in appropriation Acts. other proposals to meet the requirements of the policy and goals as set forth by the Commission and in the Plan DEFINITION as currently in effect; and (5) a description of the actions taken by the Interagency SEC. 112. As used in this title, the term “Arctic” means Committee to coordinate the budget review process in all United States and foreign territory north of the Arctic order to ensure interagency coordination and coopera- Circle and all United States territory north and west of the tion in (A) carrying out Federal Arctic research programs, boundary formed by the Porcupine, Yukon, and Kuskok- and (B) eliminating unnecessary duplication of effort wim Rivers; all contiguous seas, including the Arctic among these programs. Ocean and the Beaufort, Bering and Chukchi Seas; and the Aleutian chain.

81 Appendix F: Principles for the Conduct of Research in the Arctic

Introduction pied by them. Research directly involving All researchers working in the North have an northern people or communities should not ethical responsibility toward the people of the proceed without their clear and informed North, their cultures, and the environment. The consent. When informing the community following principles have been formulated to pro- and/or obtaining informed consent, the vide guidance for researchers in the physical, bio- researcher should identify— logical, behavioral, health, economic, political, a. all sponsors and sources of financial and social sciences and in the humanities. These support; principles are to be observed when carrying out or b. the person in charge and all investigators sponsoring research in Arctic and northern regions involved in the research, as well as any or when applying the results of this research. anticipated need for consultants, guides, This statement addresses the need to promote or interpreters; mutual respect and communication between scien- c. the purposes, goals, and time frame of tists and northern residents. Cooperation is needed the research; at all stages of research planning and implementa- d. data-gathering techniques (tape and tion in projects that directly affect northern people. video recordings, photographs, physio- Cooperation will contribute to a better under- logical measurements, and so on) and the standing of the potential benefits of Arctic research uses to which they will be put; and for northern residents and will contribute to the e. foreseeable positive and negative impli- development of northern science through tradi- cations and impacts of the research. tional knowledge and experience. 2. The duty of researchers to inform communi- These “Principles for the Conduct of Research ties continues after approval has been in the Arctic” were prepared by the Interagency obtained. Ongoing projects should be Social Science Task Force in response to a recom- explained in terms understandable to the mendation by the Polar Research Board of the local community. National Academy of Sciences and at the direc- 3. Researchers should consult with and, where tion of the Interagency Arctic Research Policy applicable, include northern communities in Committee. This statement is not intended to replace project planning and implementation. Rea- other existing Federal, State, or professional sonable opportunities should be provided guidelines, but rather to emphasize their relevance for the communities to express their inter- for the whole scientific community. Examples of ests and to participate in the research. similar guidelines used by professional organiza- 4. Research results should be explained in tions and agencies in the United States and in nontechnical terms and, where feasible, other countries are listed in the publications. should be communicated by means of study materials that can be used by local teachers Implementation or displays that can be shown in local com- All scientific investigations in the Arctic should munity centers or museums. be assessed in terms of potential human impact 5. Copies of research reports, data descrip- and interest. Social science research, particularly tions, and other relevant materials should be studies of human subjects, requires special consid- provided to the local community. Special eration, as do studies of resources of economic, efforts must be made to communicate results cultural, and social value to Native people. In all that are responsive to local concerns. instances, it is the responsibility of the principal 6. Subject to the requirements for anonymity, investigator on each project to implement the fol- publications should always refer to the lowing recommendations: informed consent of participants and give 1. The researcher should inform appropriate credit to those contributing to the research community authorities of planned research project. on lands, waters, or territories used or occu- 7. The researcher must respect local cultural

82 traditions, languages, and values. The 13. Sacred sites, cultural materials, and cultural researcher should, where practicable, incor- property cannot be disturbed or removed porate the following elements in the without community and/or individual con- research design: sent and in accordance with Federal and a. Use of local and traditional knowledge State laws and regulations. and experience. In implementing these principles, researchers b. Use of the languages of the local people. may find additional guidance in the publications c. Translation of research results, particu- listed below. In addition, a number of Alaska larly those of local concern, into the Native and municipal organizations can be con- languages of the people affected by the tacted for general information, obtaining informed research. consent, and matters relating to research proposals 8. When possible, research projects should and coordination with Native and local interests. anticipate and provide meaningful experi- A separate list is available from NSF’s Office of ence and training for young people. Polar Programs. 9. In cases where individuals or groups provide information of a confidential nature, Publications their anonymity must be guaranteed in both Arctic Social Science: An Agenda for Action. the original use of data and in its deposition National Academy of Sciences, Washington, for future use. D.C., 1989. 10. Research on humans should only be under- Draft Principles for an Arctic Policy. Inuit Cir- taken in a manner that respects their privacy cumpolar Conference, Kotzebue, 1986. and dignity: Ethics. Social Sciences and Humanities Research a. Research subjects must remain anony- Council of Canada, Ottawa, 1977. mous unless they have agreed to be iden- Nordic Statement of Principles and Priorities in tified. If anonymity cannot be guaran- Arctic Research. Center for Arctic Cultural teed, the subjects must be informed of Research, Umea, Sweden, 1989. the possible consequences of becoming Policy on Research Ethics. Alaska Department of involved in the research. Fish and Game, Juneau, 1984. b. In cases where individuals or groups pro- Principles of Professional Responsibility. Council vide information of a confidential or per- of the American Anthropological Association, sonal nature, this confidentiality must be Washington, D.C., 1971, rev. 1989. guaranteed in both the original use of The Ethical Principles for the Conduct of data and in its deposition for future use. Research in the North. The Canadian Universi- c. The rights of children must be respected. ties for Northern Studies, Ottawa, 1982. All research involving children must be The National Arctic Health Science Policy. Amer- fully justified in terms of goals and ican Public Health Association, Washington, objectives and never undertaken without D.C., 1984. the consent of the children and their par- Protocol for Centers for Disease Control/Indian ents or legal guardians. Health Service Serum Bank. Prepared by Arc- d. Participation of subjects, including the tic Investigations Program (CDC) and Alaska use of photography in research, should Area Native Health Service, 1990. (Available always be based on informed consent. through Alaska Area Native Health Service, e. The use and disposition of human tissue 255 Gambell Street, Anchorage, AK 99501.) samples should always be based on the Indian Health Manual. Indian Health Service, informed consent of the subjects or next U.S. Public Health Service, Rockville, Mary- of kin. land, 1987. 11. The researcher is accountable for all project Human Experimentation. Code of Ethics of the decisions that affect the community, includ- World Medical Association (Declaration of ing decisions made by subordinates. Helsinki). Published in British Medical Jour- 12. All relevant Federal, State, and local regula- nal, 2:177, 1964. tions and policies pertaining to cultural, Protection of Human Subjects. Code of Federal environmental, and health protection must Regulations 45 CFR 46, 1974, rev. 1983. be strictly observed.

83 Appendix G: Acknowledgments

The following acknowledges the principal indi- vine, U.S. Geological Survey; John Calder and viduals responsible for this revision of the U. S. Tom Murray, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Arctic Research Plan. Administration; Merrill Heit, Department of The principal Federal agency contributors to Energy; Waleed Abdalati, National Aeronautics this revision of the U.S. Arctic Research Plan and Space Administration; Suzanne Marcy, Envi- were Charles E. Myers, Head, Interagency Arctic ronmental Protection Agency; Jon Berkson and Staff, Office of Polar Programs, National Science Cdr. George Dupree, U.S. Coast Guard; Philip S. Foundation; Sarah Brandel and Hale VanKough- Chen, Jr., National Institutes of Health, and Alan nett, Department of State; CAPT Frank Garcia, Parkinson, Centers for Disease Control and Jr., Steven King, and David Cate, Department of Prevention, Department of Health and Human Defense; Richard Cline, U.S. Forest Service; Wil- Services; and John Haugh, Bureau of Land Man- liam Fitzhugh, Smithsonian Institution; James De- agement, Department of the Interior.

84 Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee Staff The following individuals are the principal staff representatives for the Interagency Arctic Research Policy Committee. Additional staff support is provided by the Federal agencies for specific activities through working groups, as necessary.

Richard Cline James Devine U.S. Forest Service U.S. Geological Survey Department of Agriculture Department of Interior Washington, DC 20090 Reston, Virginia 22092 dcline/[email protected] [email protected] John Calder Waleed Abdalati National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Aeronautics and Space Administration Department of Commerce Washington, DC 20546 Silver Spring, Maryland 20910 [email protected] [email protected] Charles E. Myers Captain Frank W. Garcia, Jr. National Science Foundation Department of Defense Arlington, Virginia 22230 Washington, DC 20301 [email protected] [email protected] William Fitzhugh Merrill Heit Smithsonian Institution Department of Energy Washington, DC 20560 Washington, DC 20545 [email protected] [email protected] Sarah K. Brandel Suzanne K.M. Marcy Department of State U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, DC 20520 Anchorage, AK 99513 [email protected] [email protected] Commander Joseph Bodenstedt Philip S. Chen, Jr. U.S. Coast Guard National Institutes of Health Department of Transportation Department of Health and Human Services Washington, DC 20593 Bethesda, Maryland 20892 [email protected] [email protected]