DOCSLIB.ORG

2013 Lecture 10 Copy

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
2013 Lecture 10 Copy Lecture 10 Gene Regulation I: Promoters and Control Circuits SPs: Figs 12-27, 28, 29, 32, 40, 44 Vocabulary:operon/regulatory gene/repressor/inducer/ co-repressor/derepression/positive vs. negative control/ cis vs. trans acting factors/deletion mutant/enhancer Operon Structure Fig 12-28 Lactose metabolism in E. coli Lactose= disaccharide of galactose + glucose Lactose (inducer) β-galactosidase expressed lactose glucose + galactose Inducible Operon: The Lac operon If Lac present, repressor inactivated Fig 12-29 Operon induced, mRNA transcribed This is ‘Induction’ Translation of mRNA yields 3 enzymes that convert: Lactose Glucose + Galactose What happens when lactose supply is reduced? Binding of lactose to repressor is transient, so as [lactose] falls, repressor becomes active Repressor now able to bind to the operator Repression occurs: transcription blocked Repressible Operon: TRP Operon Used to make the amino acid tryptophan Default is ON, unless TRP is present • If TRP present, repression occurs • TRP acts as corepressor Fig 12-29 Repressed state: no TRP production As TRP used, [TRP] falls Thus no co-repressor present & repressor no longer functions Derepression (reactivation) occurs mRNA processed and translation yields 5 enzymes that convert precursors to tryptophan Cis vs. Trans: ‘Cis-acting promoter sequence to which a trans-acting transcription factor binds Trans: (trans-acting/ e.g. a transcription factor) promoter Coding region Cis: “on the same strand”; e.g. DNA sequence that serves as a binding site for a TF. Positive vs. negative control: depends on the active form of the trans-acting factor (e.g. repressor), and its effect upon binding to its target cis-acting sequence. Bacterial Biochemical Logic for LAC=GLU + GAL 1. If glucose is available, why expend energy to make enzymes to catabolize lactose? 2. If lactose is absent, why expend energy to make enzymes to catabolize it? Both positive and negative control involved. Positive control: if glucose level is low, cAMP level is high; cAMP binds to CRP, and the complex activates the lac operon. Four situations: sugar availability and positive/negative control Allolactose: an isomer of lactose, is the actual inducer Brooker Fig 12.11 There are four LAC operon and two TRP operon animation links available on Blackboard- have a look! Overview of levels of control of gene expression Fig 12-32 Post-translational control also may exist Transcription level control:identifying promoter motifs promoter TATA box Coding region Components involved: 1. Recombinant DNA methods to alter sequences • ‘Reductionist’ approach: remove/alter sequence 2. Method of transforming cells of interest 3. Method of evaluating transcription • Hybridization using radioactive probe • Reporter gene technology Step 1: Altering cloned DNA Recombinant DNA methods permit almost any change to your favorite gene (YFG) ? ? ? TATA box YFG Deletions: YFG YFG Site-directed mutagenesis is also possible: Example: 5’ -GACCATGCT- changed to: 5’ -GACTATGCT- Step 2: Transform target cells with the altered DNA • Typically this was the original ‘host’ • Many methods available to transform cells • ‘Transgenic’ organism produced. Step 3: Analysis of expression of the ‘transgene’ • Problem: how to analyze? Endogenous (normal gene) already present, interferes with analysis of the altered DNA • Solution? Use a ‘reporter gene’ e.g: β-galactosidase or Green fluorescent protein (GFP) Reporter genes: examples Fig 12-33 MYO::β-galactosidase in FIL::GFP shows expression mouse embryo: muscle on the dorsal face of development floral organs: symmetry Histochemical staining/fluorescence reveal expression pattern Analysis of deletion mutants defines cis-acting regulatory sequences 6. Deletion in this region = higher levels of product A negative element has been removed by deletion. Fig 12-40 Many promoters contain binding sites for a number of proteins that can influence transcription. Fig 12-43 Multiple binding sites: provide fine control over expression and the ability to respond to multiple signals. Enhancers: •DNA elements often located far away from the gene they control. •Orientation independent. Why? Fig 12-44 1 2 1. Chromatin modifications 2. Interactions with general transcription machinery Transcription factors: Protein factors that influence transcription Positive and/or negative roles: e.g. may act to activate one gene and repress another Next class: Transcription factors and microarray (gene chip) technology .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Solutions for Practice Problems for Molecular Biology, Session 5
    Solutions to Practice Problems for Molecular Biology, Session 5: Gene Regulation and the Lac Operon Question 1 a) How does lactose (allolactose) promote transcription of LacZ? 1) Lactose binds to the polymerase and increases efficiency. 2) Lactose binds to a repressor protein, and alters its conformation to prevent it from binding to the DNA and interfering with the binding of RNA polymerase. 3) Lactose binds to an activator protein, which can then help the RNA polymerase bind to the promoter and begin transcription. 4) Lactose prevents premature termination of transcription by directly binding to and bending the DNA. Solution: 2) Lactose binds to a repressor protein, and alters its conformation to prevent it from binding to the DNA and interfering with the binding of RNA polymerase. b) What molecule is used to signal low glucose levels to the Lac operon regulatory system? 1) Cyclic AMP 2) Calcium 3) Lactose 4) Pyruvate Solution: 1) Cyclic AMP. Question 2 You design a summer class where you recreate experiments studying the lac operon in E. coli (see schematic below). In your experiments, the activity of the enzyme b-galactosidase (β -gal) is measured by including X-gal and IPTG in the growth media. X-gal is a lactose analog that turns blue when metabolisize by b-gal, but it does not induce the lac operon. IPTG is an inducer of the lac operon but is not metabolized by b-gal. I O lacZ Plac Binding site for CAP Pi Gene encoding β-gal Promoter for activator protein Repressor (I) a) Which of the following would you expect to bind to β-galactosidase? Circle all that apply.
    [Show full text]
  • Visualizing Transcription in Real-Time
    Cent. Eur. J. Biol. • 3(1) • 2008 • 11-18 DOI: 10.2478/s11535-008-0001-1 Central European Journal of Biology Visualizing transcription in real-time Mini-Review Yehuda Brody, Yaron Shav-Tal* The Mina & Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan 52900, Israel Received 31 October 2007; Accepted 10 December 2007 Abstract: The transcriptional process is at the center of the gene expression pathway. In eukaryotes, the transcription of protein-coding genes into messenger RNAs is performed by RNA polymerase II. This enzyme is directed to bind at upstream gene sequences by the aid of transcription factors that assemble transcription-competent complexes. A series of biochemical and structural modifications render the polymerase transcriptionally active so that it can proceed from an initiation state into a functional elongating phase. Recent experi- mental efforts have attempted to visualize these processes as they take place on genes in living cells and to quantify the kinetics of in vivo transcription. Keywords: mRNA transcription • Nucleus • Live-cell imaging • Cellular dynamics © Versita Warsaw and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. 1. Introduction review will describe the developments in the field of live-cell imaging that have allowed the analysis of mammalian RNA polymerase II transcription kinetics as The central dogma of molecular biology describes the they unfold in real-time. flow of information in the living cell from DNA to RNA to protein [1]. Information can also flow back from protein to nucleic acids. The fundamental process within this pathway that enables the mobility of genetic information 2. Lighting-up the nucleus from the stagnant DNA molecules contained within the cell nucleus to the ribosomal centers of protein Fluorescence microscopy provides the capability of translation and production in the cytoplasm is the following specific molecules as they are produced and process of messenger RNA (mRNA) transcription.
    [Show full text]
  • Bicyclomycin Sensitivity and Resistance Affect Rho Factor-Mediated Transcription Termination in the Tna Operon of Escherichia Coli
    JOURNAL OF BACTERIOLOGY, Aug. 1995, p. 4451–4456 Vol. 177, No. 15 0021-9193/95/$04.0010 Copyright 1995, American Society for Microbiology Bicyclomycin Sensitivity and Resistance Affect Rho Factor-Mediated Transcription Termination in the tna Operon of Escherichia coli CHARLES YANOFSKY* AND VIRGINIA HORN Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5020 Received 13 March 1995/Accepted 27 May 1995 The growth-inhibiting drug bicyclomycin, known to be an inhibitor of Rho factor activity in Escherichia coli, was shown to increase basal level expression of the tryptophanase (tna) operon and to allow growth of a tryptophan auxotroph on indole. The drug also relieved polarity in the trp operon and permitted growth of a trp double nonsense mutant on indole. Nine bicyclomycin-resistant mutants were isolated and partially characterized. Recombination data and genetic and biochemical complementation analyses suggest that five have mutations that affect rho, three have mutations that affect rpoB, and one has a mutation that affects a third locus, near rpoB. Individual mutants showed decreased, normal, or increased basal-level expression of the tna operon. All but one of the resistant mutants displayed greatly increased tna operon expression when grown in the presence of bicyclomycin. The tna operon of the wild-type drug-sensitive parent was also shown to be highly expressed during growth with noninhibitory concentrations of bicyclomycin. These findings demonstrate that resistance to this drug may be acquired by mutations at any one of three loci, two of which appear to be rho and rpoB. Zwiefka et al. (24) found that the antibiotic bicyclomycin segment and interacts with the transcribing RNA polymerase (bicozamycin), an inhibitor of the growth of several gram- molecule, causing it to terminate transcription (7, 9).
    [Show full text]
  • I = Chpt 15. Positive and Negative Transcriptional Control at Lac BMB
    BMB 400 Part Four - I = Chpt 15. Positive and Negative Transcriptional Control at lac B M B 400 Part Four: Gene Regulation Section I = Chapter 15 POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CONTROL SHOWN BY THE lac OPERON OF E. COLI A. Definitions and general comments 1. Operons An operon is a cluster of coordinately regulated genes. It includes structural genes (generally encoding enzymes), regulatory genes (encoding, e.g. activators or repressors) and regulatory sites (such as promoters and operators). 2. Negative versus positive control a. The type of control is defined by the response of the operon when no regulatory protein is present. b. In the case of negative control, the genes in the operon are expressed unless they are switched off by a repressor protein. Thus the operon will be turned on constitutively (the genes will be expressed) when the repressor in inactivated. c. In the case of positive control, the genes are expressed only when an active regulator protein, e.g. an activator, is present. Thus the operon will be turned off when the positive regulatory protein is absent or inactivated. Table 4.1.1. Positive vs. negative control BMB 400 Part Four - I = Chpt 15. Positive and Negative Transcriptional Control at lac 3. Catabolic versus biosynthetic operons a. Catabolic pathways catalyze the breakdown of nutrients (the substrate for the pathway) to generate energy, or more precisely ATP, the energy currency of the cell. In the absence of the substrate, there is no reason for the catabolic enzymes to be present, and the operon encoding them is repressed. In the presence of the substrate, when the enzymes are needed, the operon is induced or de-repressed.
    [Show full text]
  • Explain the Importance of Gene Regulation in Both Prokaryotes And
    Unit 4 - Gene Expression and Module 4A – Control of Gene Expression Genetic Technology Every cell contains thousands of genes 4A. Control of Gene Expression which code for proteins. However, every gene is not actively 4B. Biotechnology producing proteins at all times. 4C. Genomics In this module, we will examine some 4D. Genes and Development of the factors that help regulate when a gene is active, and how strongly it is expressed. 1 2 Objective # 1 Objective 1 Prokaryotes: Explain the importance of gene ¾ are unicellular or colonial regulation in both prokaryotes ¾ evolved to quickly exploit transient and eukaryotes. resources ¾ main role of gene regulation is to allow cells to adjust to changing conditions ¾ in the same cell, different genes are active at different times 3 4 Objective 1 Objective # 2 Eukaryotes: ¾ mostly complex multicellular organisms List and describe the different ¾ evolved the ability to maintain a stable levels of gene regulation, and internal environment (homeostasis) identify the level where genes ¾ main role of gene regulation is to allow are most commonly regulated. specialization and division of labor among cells ¾ at the same time, different genes are active in different cells 5 6 1 Objective 2 Objective 2 We can classify levels of gene To be expressed, a gene must be regulation into 2 main categories: transcribed into m-RNA, the m-RNA must be translated into a protein, and ¾ Transcriptional controls - factors that the protein must become active. regulate transcription ¾ Posttranscriptional controls – factors Gene regulation can theoretically occur that regulate any step in gene at any step in this process.
    [Show full text]
  • Germinal Center Dysregulation by Histone Methyltransferase EZH2 Promotes Lymphomagenesis
    Amendment history: Corrigendum (April 2014) Germinal center dysregulation by histone methyltransferase EZH2 promotes lymphomagenesis Marieta Caganova, … , I-hsin Su, Stefano Casola J Clin Invest. 2013;123(12):5009-5022. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI70626. Research Article Immunology Protection against deadly pathogens requires the production of high-affinity antibodies by B cells, which are generated in germinal centers (GCs). Alteration of the GC developmental program is common in many B cell malignancies. Identification of regulators of the GC response is crucial to develop targeted therapies for GC B cell dysfunctions, including lymphomas. The histone H3 lysine 27 methyltransferase enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (EZH2) is highly expressed in GC B cells and is often constitutively activated in GC-derived non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHLs). The function of EZH2 in GC B cells remains largely unknown. Herein, we show that Ezh2 inactivation in mouse GC B cells caused profound impairment of GC responses, memory B cell formation, and humoral immunity. EZH2 protected GC B cells against activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) mutagenesis, facilitated cell cycle progression, and silenced plasma cell determinant and tumor suppressor B-lymphocyte–induced maturation protein 1 (BLIMP1). EZH2 inhibition in NHL cells induced BLIMP1, which impaired tumor growth. In conclusion, EZH2 sustains AID function and prevents terminal differentiation of GC B cells, which allows antibody diversification and affinity maturation. Dysregulation of the GC reaction by constitutively active EZH2 facilitates lymphomagenesis and identifies […] Find the latest version: https://jci.me/70626/pdf Research article Germinal center dysregulation by histone methyltransferase EZH2 promotes lymphomagenesis Marieta Caganova,1 Chiara Carrisi,1 Gabriele Varano,1 Federica Mainoldi,1 Federica Zanardi,1 Pierre-Luc Germain,2 Laura George,3 Federica Alberghini,1 Luca Ferrarini,1 Asoke K.
    [Show full text]
  • How Transcription Factors Can Adjust the Gene Expression Floodgates. Denis Michel
    How transcription factors can adjust the gene expression floodgates. Denis Michel To cite this version: Denis Michel. How transcription factors can adjust the gene expression floodgates.. Progress in Bio- physics and Molecular Biology, Elsevier, 2010, 102 (1), pp.16-37. 10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2009.12.007. hal-00464812 HAL Id: hal-00464812 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00464812 Submitted on 18 Mar 2010 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. 1 How transcription factors can adjust the gene expression floodgates Denis Michel Université de Rennes1, Molecular and Cellular Interactions UMR6026, Hip, IFR140 GFAS, Bâtiment 13, Campus de Beaulieu, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France Abstract The rate of transcription initiation is the main level of quantitative control of gene expression, primarily responsible for the accumulation of mRNAs in the cell. Many, if not all, molecular actors involved in transcription initiation are known but the mechanisms underlying the frequency of initiations, remain elusive. To make the connection between transcription factors and the frequency of transcription initiation, intricated aspects of this complex activity are classified i) depending on whether or not the DNA-bound transcription factors directly activate the commitment to transcription and ii) on the destructive or non-destructive effect of transcription initiation on the stability of promoter complexes.
    [Show full text]
  • Is Inhibited by a Specific Posttranscriptional Repressor, the Formation of Which Requires RNA Synthesis
    CONTROL OF SPECIFIC GENE EXPRESSION EXAMINED IN SYNCHRONIZED MAMMALIAN CELLS BY DAVID W. MARTIN, JR., GORDON M. TOMKINS, AND MICHAEL A. BRESLER LABORATORY OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ARTHRITIS AND METABOLIC DISEASES, NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH, BETHESDA, MARYLAND Communicated by Marshall Nirenberg, April 3, 1969 Abstract.-The control of synthesis of the steroid-inducible enzyme, tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT), has been studied in synchronized cultures of HTC cells, an established line of rat hepatoma cells. During the mitotic and early Gi periods of the generation cycle of cells previously exposed to inducer, TAT syn- thesis is maximal in the absence of inducer, i.e., synthesis is constitutive. (By contrast, in random cells maximal TAT synthesis is always dependent upon the presence of the inducer.) After the third hour of GI ("Gi [3]"), TAT synthesis is inhibited by a specific posttranscriptional repressor, the formation of which requires RNA synthesis. We speculate that this repressor is antagonized by the steroid inducer. The degradation of TAT during mitosis and GI is constant and not affected by cycloheximide or actinomycin D in our experiments. Adrenal steroids induce a large increase in the rate of synthesis of tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) in HTC cells, a line of rat hepatoma cells in culture.1-3 TAT can be synthesized during all phases of the cell cycle, but is inducible only during the latter portion of the Gi phase and the entire S phase.4 In the present studies we have examined both synthesis and degradation of TAT in HTC cells induced for TAT prior to their synchronization.
    [Show full text]
  • Interaction of Spatially Separated Protein-DNA Complexes For
    Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 85, pp. 9683-9687, December 1988 Genetics Interaction of spatially separated protein-DNA complexes for control of gene expression: Operator conversions (gal operon/repressor/distal sites/DNA loop) ROBERTA HABER AND SANKAR ADHYA* Laboratory of Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 Communicated by Jon Beckwith, September 19, 1988 (received for review July 18, 1988) ABSTRACT Two operators, spatially separated from each that in the absence ofinducer, Gal repressor protein interacts other and from the promoters, repress the gal operon when with two operator regions (refs. 10 and 22; A. Majumdar and bound to Gal repressor. Conversion of either gal operator to a S.A., unpublished data). The external operator (OE) is lac operator results in derepression, although both Gal and Lac upstream from the promoters: the internal operator (Or) maps repressors are present, suggesting that mere occupation of within the galE structural gene. Both operators, whose operator sites is not sufficient to cause repression. Conversion centers ofsymmetry are separated by 114 base pairs, function ofboth operators to lac operators restores normal repression in in repression of both promoters. We discuss evidence that in the presence of Lac repressor protein. We propose that normal conjunction with Gal repressor protein, wild-type OE and 01 repression requires interaction between operator-bound like elements act in synergy, and we suggest that this synergy repressor molecules; this generates a DNA loop, which is part results in a higher order structure that is required for normal of a higher order structure. RNA polymerase and cyclic AMP repression.
    [Show full text]
  • The Timing of Transcriptional Regulation in Synthetic Gene Circuits Yu-Yu
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by DSpace at Rice University The timing of transcriptional regulation in synthetic gene circuits Yu-Yu Cheng1, Andrew J. Hirning1, Krešimir Josić1,2,3, and Matthew R. Bennett1,4,† 1Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA. 2Department of Mathematics, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA. 3Department of Biosciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA. 4Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA. †Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected] Abstract Transcription factors and their target promoters are central to synthetic biology. By arranging these components into novel gene regulatory circuits, synthetic biologists have been able to create a wide variety of phenotypes, including bistable switches, oscillators, and logic gates. However, transcription factors (TFs) do not instantaneously regulate downstream targets. After the gene encoding a TF is turned on, the gene must first be transcribed, the transcripts must be translated, and sufficient TF must accumulate in order to bind operator sites of the target promoter. The time to complete this process, here called the “signaling time,” is a critical aspect in the design of dynamic regulatory networks, yet it remains poorly characterized. In this work, we measured the signaling time of two TFs in Escherichia coli commonly used in synthetic biology: the activator AraC and the repressor LacI. We found that signaling times can range from a few to tens of minutes, and are affected by the expression rate of the TF. Our single-cell data also show that the variability of the signaling time increases with its mean.
    [Show full text]
  • Promoter-Proximal Pausing of RNA Eolymerase II Defines a General Rate- Limiting Step After Transcription Initiation
    Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on September 27, 2021 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Promoter-proximal pausing of RNA Eolymerase II defines a general rate- limiting step after transcription initiation Anton Krumm, 1,3 Laurie B. Hickey, ~ and Mark Groudine 1"2 1Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, Washington 98104 USA; ~Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98195 USA We have shown previously that the majority of RNA polymerase II complexes initiated at the c-myc gene are paused in the promoter-proximal region, similar to observations in the Drosophila hspTO gene. Our analyses define the TATA box or initiator sequences in the c.myc gene as necessary components for the establishment of paused RNA polymerase II. Deletion of upstream sequences or even the TATA box does not influence significantly the degree of transcriptional initiation or pausing. Deletion of both the TATA box and sequences at the transcription initiation site, however, abolishes transcriptional pausing of transcription complexes but still allows synthesis of full-length RNA. Further analyses with synthetic promoter constructs reveal that the simple combination of upstream activator with TATA consensus sequences or initiator sequences act synergistically to recruit high levels of RNA polymerase II complexes. Only a minor fraction of these complexes escapes into regions further downstream. Several different trans-activation domains fused to GAL4-DNA-binding domains, including strong activators such as VP16, do not eliminate promoter-proximal pausing of RNA polymerase. Thus, we conclude that pausing of RNA polymerase I! is a common phenomenon in eukaryotic transcription and does not require complex promoter structures.
    [Show full text]
  • Programmed Cell Senescence in Skeleton During Late Puberty
    ARTICLE DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-01509-0 OPEN Programmed cell senescence in skeleton during late puberty Changjun Li1,2, Yu Chai1,3, Lei Wang1,3, Bo Gao1, Hao Chen1, Peisong Gao 4, Feng-Quan Zhou1, Xianghang Luo2, Janet L. Crane1,5, Bin Yu3, Xu Cao1 & Mei Wan1 Mesenchymal stem/progenitor cells (MSPCs) undergo rapid self-renewal and differentiation, contributing to fast skeletal growth during childhood and puberty. It remains unclear whether 1234567890 these cells change their properties during late puberty to young adulthood, when bone growth and accrual decelerate. Here we show that MSPCs in primary spongiosa of long bone in mice at late puberty undergo normal programmed senescence, characterized by loss of nestin expression. MSPC senescence is epigenetically controlled by the polycomb histone methyltransferase enhancer of zeste homolog 2 (Ezh2) and its trimethylation of histone H3 on Lysine 27 (H3K27me3) mark. Ezh2 maintains the repression of key cell senescence inducer genes through H3K27me3, and deletion of Ezh2 in early pubertal mice results in premature cellular senescence, depleted MSPCs pool, and impaired osteogenesis as well as osteoporosis in later life. Our data reveals a programmed cell fate change in postnatal skeleton and unravels a regulatory mechanism underlying this phenomenon. 1 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA. 2 Department of Endocrinology, Endocrinology Research Center, The Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410008, China. 3 Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510515, China. 4 Johns Hopkins Asthma & Allergy Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
    [Show full text]