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Editor: A. Sarre Editorial Advisory Board: P. Csoka, L. Flejzor, T. Hofer, F. Kafeero, W. Kollert, Contents E. Rametsteiner, S. Rose, A. Sarre, J. Tissari, P. van Lierop, P. Vantomme, M.L. Wilkie Editorial 2 Emeritus Advisers: J. Ball, I.J. Bourke, C. Palmberg-Lerche, L. Russo Regional Advisers: F. Bojang, P. Durst, M. Saket F. Schmithüsen Three hundred years of applied sustainability in forestry 3 is published in English, French and Spanish. Free subscriptions can be obtained C. Küchli by sending an e-mail to [email protected]. The Swiss experience in forest sustainability and adaptation 12 Subscription requests from institutions (e.g. libraries, companies, organizations, universities) rather than individuals are preferred to make the J. Ball and W. Kollert journal accessible to more readers. The Centre International de Sylviculture and its historic All issues of Unasylva are available online free book collection 19 of charge at www.fao.org/forestry/unasylva. Comments and queries are welcome: A. Sarre and C. Sabogal [email protected]. Reproduction and dissemination of material Is SFM an impossible dream? 26 in this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without S. Appanah prior written permission from the copyright The search for a viable in Asia’s natural holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this publication for tropical forests 35 resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the Chief, Publishing F. Tongkul, C. Lasimbang, A. Lasimbang and P. Chin Jr Policy and Support Branch, Office of Knowledge Traditional knowledge and SFM: experience from Malaysia 41 Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO. Articles express the views of their authors, J.R. Matta, R. Ghate and H. Nagendra not necessarily those of FAO. The designations employed and the presentation The sustainability of traditional community forest management of material in this information product do not systems: lessons from 50 imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO concerning the legal or P.K. Aggarwal, R.V. Rao and S.C. Joshi development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the Wooden toys in India 57 delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of J. Blaser and H. Gregersen manufacturers, whether or not these have been Forests in the next 300 years 61 patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to FAO Forestry 74 others of a similar that are not mentioned. To order the FAO publications reviewed in Unasylva, contact the Sales and Marketing Group, World of Forestry 75 Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, Books 77 00153 Rome, Italy. Tel.: (+39) 06 57051; Fax: (+39) 06 5705 3360; Telex: 625852/625853/610181 FAO I; E-mail: [email protected]

Cover: Close-to-nature managed forest in Basadingen, Canton of Thurgau, Switzerland. This young, naturally regenerated spruce will grow slowly for decades in the “waiting room” until parent are harvested. In the additional light it will then develop its crown to become a giant like the behind it. C. Küchli editorial

Three hundred years of sustainable forestry

oresters tend to take a long-term view because trees In his article, Appanah reviews silvicultural models applied take so long to grow. That may explain why in tropical in Southeast Asia and finds that none have led the way in developing the modern concept of has fully demonstrated sustainability, at least partly because Fsustainability. overharvesting has limited the extent to which they have been There are debates on where, when and by whom this concept implemented. Technically, says Appanah, there is little reason arose, but in this edition of Unasylva, Schmithüsen makes a why SFM cannot be achieved in tropical rainforests by improving case for Hans Carl von Carlowitz as the catalytic figure. Three silvicultural and harvesting practices, but the real struggle is to hundred years ago this year, von Carlowitz, a German mining convince the holders of land and land-use rights that SFM is in administrator, was vexed by the dwindling supply of for their interests. the silver mines he oversaw, and he was critical of the profit- Tongkul and co-authors examine efforts to strengthen community driven thinking that was causing overharvesting of the forest. He involvement and the use of traditional knowledge in forest published a book, Sylvicultura oeconomica, in which he coined management in Sabah, a state of Malaysia. The Sabah Forestry the German term for sustainability, Nachhaltigkeit. Von Carlowitz Department has been willing to engage local communities in said that the Nachhaltigkeit principle should be applied to the addressing long-standing problems in forest reserves, but the key management of forests to ensure the perpetual supply of timber, issue of resource ownership is still to be tackled. The authors and he urged the adoption of measures that would make forests say this is critical to the survival of indigenous communities, a permanent economic resource. Over the next decades and who want formal ownership of the land to which they have centuries, the Nachhaltigkeit principle spread through Central customary rights. Europe and to India, the United States of America and elsewhere. Matta and co-authors develop this theme further. They Arguably, it was the start of the modern approach to sustainable acknowledge the long history of SFM in traditional communities forest management (SFM). in India, and report on social research that shows how traditional According to an article by Küchli, forestry in Switzerland communities work cooperatively to conserve and sustainably was influenced strongly by German approaches, but in the late manage their common resources. While there have been attempts 1800s it diverged towards what became known as close-to-nature in India to engage local communities in SFM, these have generally forestry. This approach moved away from the earlier tendency fallen short of the ideal. The restoration of traditional management to simplify forest stands towards the development of mixed, systems in India, say the authors, requires the transfer of power, naturally regenerating stands composed mainly of local species. resources and responsibility from central authorities to lower Küchli thinks that close-to-nature forest management could be levels of governance. the most effective strategy in the face of climate change. A short article by Aggarwal and co-authors looks at the makers Ball and Kollert report on the little-studied Centre International of traditional wooden toys, which play an important cultural role de Sylviculture, the first country-membership-based international in India. The resource on which this craft is based has dwindled forestry organization, which was established in Berlin, , due to overuse, and the authors suggest steps that can be taken in 1938. The organization was short-lived, but it managed to to ensure the continuation of this artisanal pursuit. accumulate a library of more than 15 000 books, some of This edition of Unasylva opened with an article looking back them rare editions dating to the 1600s. Not all the books in 300 years, and it finishes with one that looks forward an equal the collection survived the Second World War, but those that distance. Blaser and Gregersen speculate on the future role of did – more than 10 000 of them – were transferred in 1948 to forests, given climate change and expected increases in population the newly established Food and Agriculture Organization of the and resource consumption. The fate of humanity, they say, rests in United Nations, where they remain today. large measure on how we deal with forests. Optimistically, they Changing tack, Sarre and Sabogal ask whether SFM is an believe that, 300 years from now, forests will be highly valued impossible dream. Using certification as a proxy for SFM, they by the global community, as will their managers. There will be report that nearly 20 percent of forests designated for production many challenges, and forest managers will need a wide range or multiple uses were under management consistent with SFM of skills. SFM has come a long way since von Carlowitz’s day, in 2012, the majority in temperate forests. The authors describe but it is likely we will still be perfecting its art and science for some of the obstacles to SFM in the tropics, and they answer some time to come. their own question by asserting that SFM is not a fantasy – it is an essential pursuit. 3

A facsimile of the front cover of the first edition of von Carlowitz’s seminal work, Silvicultura oeconomica

Three hundred years of applied sustainability in forestry

F. Schmithüsen

The scientific approach to forestry oday’s guiding principle of sustain- sustainability, Nachhaltigkeit. Arguably, it has evolved from sustainable wood ability has its origins in forestry. In was also the start of a scientific approach to production to multifunctional 1713 – 300 years ago this year – Hans forestry, which ultimately expanded from forest management. TCarl von Carlowitz, a German, published Central Europe to the rest of the world. his book Silvicultura oeconomica, which This article uses historical and contempo- advocated the conservation, growing rary sources to show how the principle of and use of wood in a continuing, stable sustainability has permeated approaches to Franz Schmithüsen is Emeritus Professor, Forest Policy and Economics, Swiss Federal and sustained manner. This was the first forestry beyond Europe and remains the Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland. documented use of the German term for guiding light of forestry today.

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THE BEGINNING growing demand for wood in Europe in In Germany, Austria and Switzerland, Early reactions to forest overuse and the seventeenth century for early industrial the need to supply the mining and salt degradation processing led to increasingly intensive production industries was urgent. In Many early measures were taken to help prospecting for usable forests and the coastal countries such as Britain, , conserve forests in Europe. In Germany, systematic exploitation of newly opened Portugal, Spain and Sweden, maintaining for example, common law as early as 1330 forest stands for wood (Mantel, 1990). a wood supply for shipbuilding was one mentioned that woodcutting should be moderate and carried out without causing devastation (Mantel, 1990). Specific rules were adopted by villages, communal land associations, monasteries and towns. Measures included a ban on trees that yielded foods (e.g. fruits) and non-wood forest products. Forests near settlements were reserved for the use of local people and divided into coupes (rotation areas) to be harvested annually, after which such areas were to be protected from grazing until tree regeneration was assured. In medieval France, the concept of sustainability appeared in the use of the Old French word soustenir, “to sustain”, a technical term used in the Ordonnance de Brunoy, which is the first known French law dealing with the management of water- ways and forests. Enacted in 1346 by King Philippe VI, the law stipulated that: “The owners of waterways and forests will make enquiries about and visit all forests and and will conduct sales that will allow the aforementioned forests to perpetually sustain themselves in good condition”. In Britain, John Evelyn’s Sylva: a discourse of forest-trees and the propagation of timber in His Majesty’s dominions, was presented to the King, the Royal Society and the public in 1664 (Grober, 2007). The book was reprinted several times during the seventeenth century and encouraged the planting of millions of trees, albeit in the parklands surrounding the country estates of landed gentry and the aristocracy.

Growing demand Ultimately, though, such early efforts to ensure the conservation and management of forest resources were insufficient. The

An etching of woodcutters that appeared in von Carlowitz’s Silvicultura oeconomica

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of the main concerns. The push for wood and agricultural land led to large-scale Hans Carl von Carlowitz tree-felling, complete forest clearance and inadequate regeneration. This had serious The son of a , Hans Carl von Carlowitz was negative effects on forest condition, as born in the town of , Germany, evidenced by the contemporary reactions towards the end of the Thirty Years War. He of independent observers and campaigns studied law and public administration in , by local inhabitants, and by desperate learned foreign languages, and as a young man descriptions of cleared areas and overused spent five years on a tour of Europe that spanned forests. Deciduous and mixed forests from Sweden to Malta and included lengthy study declined, and there were changes in the stays in Leyden, and Paris (Grober, 2010, distribution of tree species such as beech, 2012). On his return to Germany, von Carlowitz oak, pine and fir. By the beginning of the entered the state service. In 1677, at the age of 32, eighteenth century, the demand for wood he became the administrator of mining, and in could no longer be met by expansion into 1711 he was put in charge of the mining industry previously unused forests. at the court of the Electorate of Saxony. He lived in Freiberg, in the foothills of the Iron Mountains VON CARLOWITZ AND THE MOVE (Erzgebirge), known for their silver mines. TO NACHHALTIGKEIT The Saxony mines were flourishing, employing

In 1713, as head of the Saxon mining Hans Carl von Carlowitz, 1645–1714 about 10 000 miners. Their smelting furnaces administration, Hans Carl von Carlowitz devoured enormous quantities of , (1645–1714) published Sylvicultura firewood and construction timber, and von Carlowitz was responsible for ensuring the oeconomica, oder haußwirthliche wood supply. Thus, he was confronted with the industry’s greatest problem at the time – a Nachricht und Naturgemäße Anweisung lack of wood. Large areas of forests had been exploited, and the devastated areas were zur Wilden Baum-Zucht (in brief, unlikely to be productive again for many years. Trees had been cut-over for generations, Economics of silviculture: instruction old-growth forest had disappeared, and no effort was being made to regenerate the for cultivating wild trees). In this 300- forests. The extensive grazing of cattle, pigs and goats, as well as subsistence agriculture, page treatise, von Carlowitz drew on his impeded forest recovery. In many experiences, the written materials of others, cases these agricultural practices international contacts and visits, and his had long-lasting consequences for own conviction that a new approach to using forest soil fertility, exacerbated by forests in a sustainable manner was required practices like litter-gathering. (see box). A second, augmented edition of Von Carlowitz was strongly the book, with a new section by the editor critical of the short-term thinking, Julius Bernhard von Rohr, appeared in driven by quick profits, that led to 1732, 18 years after von Carlowitz’s death. the ruthless exploitation of forests

The text became a must-read, not only for for their wood and then to their DETLEV MÜLLER generations of foresters but also for state conversion to agriculture. He administrators and managers in the mining developed ideas intended to ensure industry. Sylvicultura oeconomica can still a lasting supply of wood and to be read without difficulty, and in many create a permanent economic Modern-day Freiberg, Germany respects its content is as fresh and relevant resource. He suggested other today as it was when it was written. measures that are still central to sustainability today, such as improving the insulation In Sylvicultura oeconomica, von of houses, using energy-efficient smelting furnaces, and improving agricultural land Carlowitz wrote about the lack of wood and management practices. its causes and noted “that, over time, many Most important was his forcefully argued and simple message that there would be provinces of Europe will have great forests no future wood supplies if the cut-over areas were not replanted systematically. This logged over and made thin”. He not only set implied not just comprehensive legal and economic measures undertaken by the state, out a framework for a modern forest and but a complete rethinking of the forestry problem and a major effort to persuade people wood-processing sector, he also created box continues the term Nachhaltigkeit (“sustainability”)

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continued from previous page to be “managed in a sustainable manner if one takes care of the regeneration of to plant trees and maintain forest regrowth. It also required establishing a competent all logged stands in order to maintain forest service with specialists who understood both the biological basis of tree-planting the soil that is destined for forest produc- and the managerial tasks of developing a permanent regime. tion”. The Swiss forester Karl Albrecht Sylvicultura oeconomica was written in the tradition of mercantilism, which was the Kasthofer, who had studied in Heidelberg prevailing economic theory of his times. It brought a new, rational approach to society and Göttingen, translated the meaning of and change as well as to humanity’s understanding of nature and its relationship to it. Nachhaltigkeit as the “sustained and equal It was conceived in the spirit of the Enlightenment and the Age of Reason, and marked product of a forest”. the beginning of forest science and teaching. By no means does the work of von Carlowitz stand alone. He learnt from others and THE PRINCIPLE OF others came to learn from him. With his wide knowledge of the literature, he had the NACHHALTIGKEIT SPREADS ability to compare the forest situation in Saxony with that in other European countries. Europe He was well aware of innovative efforts undertaken elsewhere to develop new approaches Nachhaltigkeit started to become a and a more productive use of land in both agriculture and forestry. During his stay in reality in science-based forest research France he became familiar with Colbert’s legal reforms, which led to the Forestry Code and education in the early 1800s (Grober, of 1669. He quoted the new code extensively in his book, saying that it already contained 2007). The first privately run schools to most of his own work. He visited the forest of Montello in the Alto Adige, which was managed teach practical forestry were founded in the by the city of Venice for the supply of hardwoods for the Venetian fleet. And he likely knew Harz Mountains and (Germany). John Evelyn’s Sylva (see main text). Heinrich von Cotta established a school in (in Saxony, Germany) in 1811. There were strong professional relations by referring to the concept of nachhaltige formulated the principle of sustainability between Germany and France: Bernhard Nutzung (“sustained use”). He provided a from an intergenerational perspective, Lorentz, a native of Alsace in France and definition for what became, in following remarking in his textbook Anweisung zur a life-long friend of Georg Ludwig Hartig, decades, the basic concept of forest Taxation der Forste oder zur Bestimmung became the founder and first director of management: des Holzertrags der Wälder (Taxation of the French National Forestry School in forests) that: Nancy. This school was established in The greatest art, science, diligence and 1824, followed quickly by the enactment institution of these countries will rely on It is not possible to think about and of the French Forestry Code in 1827. the manner in which such conservation expect sustained forestry if the wood Step by step in Europe, policies and and growing of wood is to be under- allocation from the forests is not cal- laws introduced and normalized prin- taken in order to have a continuing, culated according to sustainability … ciples of renewable natural resource use. stable and sustained use, as this is an Any wise forest direction consequently Silvicultural models of wood production indispensable cause, without which the needs to tax (assess) the woods as high were developed, adapting wood harvesting country in its essence cannot remain.* as possible, but aiming at using them in to the long-term productive capacity of for- a way that the descendants can draw at est stands. European forestry professionals Von Carlowitz’s concept of sustainability least as many advantages as the now- and scientists became well known, and was further developed by others. In his living generation appropriates. technical schools and academies gained book Grundsätze der Forst-Ökonomie reputations and attracted foreign students. (principles of forest economics), In this last phrase it is possible to see the Graduates from these schools travelled to Wilhelm Gottfried Moser (1757), an seeds of the modern concept of sustainable other countries and spread the idea of sus- administrator and forester, referred to the development, which the World Commission tainable wood production. Johann Georg intragenerational and intergenerational on Environment and Development (1987) von Langen, an influential German forester, elements of Nachhaltigkeit: “A sustainable defined as “development which meets the for example, worked for many years as economy is as reasonable, just and wise needs of the present without compromising an adviser to the Danish court, helping to as it is certain that man must not live only the ability of future generations to meet build principles for forest resource man- for himself, but also for others and for their own needs”. agement in Denmark and Norway. posterity”. Georg-Ludwig Hartig (1795) In 1841, Carl Heyer referred to the sus- Tsar Peter the First (“Peter the Great”) and tainability of wood production when he Tsarina Katharina (“Catherine the Great”) * Translations are by the author. remarked that a forest could be considered used German experts when establishing

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a forestry profession in Russia. Peter the administrations and forest codes in their 1855, Lord Dalhousie, governor-general of Great visited Saxony in 1698 and returned native countries (Rojas-Briales, 1992). India, issued a memorandum calling for to see von Carlowitz in 1711 and to visit Below, the examples of India and the forest management. one of the salt mines. Later, he recruited United States of America illustrate the Dietrich Brandis was born in , miners from Saxony to build up the mining spread of the principle of Nachhaltigkeit Germany, and studied at the universities industry in Russia (Grober 2010, 2012). beyond Europe. of Copenhagen, Göttingen, Nancy and The oldest forest education institution still Bonn; he became a lecturer in botany in in operation today is the St Petersburg India and Burma the latter. He joined the British Imperial Forest Academy, which was established In British-ruled India, the felling of Forest Service in 1856 as superintendent in 1803. In the mid-nineteenth century, trees was unregulated in the first half of of the forests in eastern Burma. Spanish and Portuguese students received the nineteenth century. In 1850, at the After seven years in Burma, he was grants to study forestry in Germany and initiative of , the British appointed inspector-general of forests in were critical in the establishment of the Association in Edinburgh formed a India and held that position for 20 years. first forest schools and modern forest committee to study forest destruction. In He promoted the “taungya system”, an early form of agrosilviculture: villagers provided labour for clearing, planting and weeding teak and in return were allowed to plant food crops between the teak saplings in the early years of the cycle before the tree canopy closed. As the distance between the village and each newly established forest area grew, however, the plantations became increasingly difficult to maintain and later there was local resistance to them (Gadgil and Guha, 2006). Brandis developed teak growth-and-yield tables as a reliable basis for determining allowable annual cutting volumes under a sustainable management regime. plans against tree disease and fire were drawn up, timber purchasing rules were formulated, and extensive teak schemes were planned and implemented. The , with administrative and operational districts under the responsibility of forest conservators, was established, with Brandis at its head. Brandis also prepared new forest legislation and helped establish forest research and training institutions – in particular, the Imperial Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dun in 1906. Many of the accomplishments of Brandis were of interest in other countries in Asia and Africa and contributed to the spread of sustainable forestry practices.

The world’s largest teak tree,

TONYNIRAPPATHU Parambikulam forest, Kerala, India

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The United States of America specializing in forest management at the origins of sustainable forestry in the The concept of Nachhaltigkeit reached the French National Forestry School in United States. Pinchot was able to combine the United States of America through sev- Nancy. During his time in Europe, Pinchot his knowledge of forestry with a profound eral channels. One was Bernhard Fernow became familiar with the work of high- understanding of the political, economic (1851–1923), who studied forestry at the level scientists and researchers, both and social circumstances determining University of Königsberg and the Forest through personal contact and from reading the development of sustainability in his Academy in Münden before marrying the literature, and he also learned from country. The book remains relevant today an American woman and settling in the experienced forest practitioners and from because it addresses many issues that are United States. As chief of the Division of forest excursions he made in France and fundamental to forest development in Forestry in the United States Department Germany. In his later career in the United modern societies. of Agriculture from 1886 to 1898, Fernow’s States, Pinchot returned several times to focus was on establishing a national forest Europe to visit scientists and colleagues BUILDING A MULTIFUNCTIONAL system, introducing science-based forest he had met during his stay in Nancy. In FOREST SECTOR IN EUROPE management, and protecting forested 1898 he succeeded Fernow as head of the The process of building a productive forest watersheds. From 1898 to 1903 Fernow was Division of Forestry. In 1905 Pinchot was sector in Europe during the nineteenth the first dean of the New York State College appointed chief of the newly established and twentieth centuries is a model for of Forestry at Cornell, and in 1907 he United States Forest Service, of which he promoting the sustainable management of became the founding dean of the University was in charge until 1910. renewable resources in other sectors. The of Toronto’s Faculty of Forestry in Canada. Pinchot understood that if they were to decisive aspect during the transition from He established the Forest Quarterly (which engage in tree-planting as an economic local forest management regulations to later became the ) at venture, Americans needed clear and the implementation of the Nachhaltigkeit Cornell in 1902 and was that publication’s convincing evidence that sustainable principle was the recognition that forests editor-in-chief until his death. forestry by private landowners would repay could be used permanently as renewable Scientific and professional ties between the funds invested by generating income – resources for profitable and efficient the United States and Europe strengthened in the short term as well as the distant commercial and industrial activities during the career of future. Pinchot also believed that the while maintaining and even increasing (1865–1946). After graduating from Yale system on which European Nachhaltigkeit their productive capacity. In Europe, University in 1889, Pinchot followed the was based was not the way to proceed in growing stock and annual increment advice of Dietrich Brandis, at the time a the United States. In much of Europe at have both increased since the beginning professor in Bonn, and enrolled in a one- the time, the general citizenry was little of the nineteenth century, thanks to highly year forestry course for senior officials involved in the use and management developed silvicultural practices that of state and communal forests, and conform to the Nachhaltigkeit principle. Gifford Pinchot in 1909. At the time of decision-making was left to an admittedly Considerably larger volumes of roundwood this photo he was the first Chief of the competent and dedicated state forest can be harvested sustainably today than United States Forest Service administration. During his stay abroad, were available two hundred years ago. however, Pinchot had noticed that the During the nineteenth century there Sihlwald of Zurich was an exception – an was a separation of the agricultural and example of Nachhaltigkeit in which local forestry production systems as efforts people had a direct say. Pinchot believed were made to intensify the production of that the United States, with its democratic arable land and pasture on the one hand political system, would not achieve a shift and to limit damage to forest stands and to sustainable forestry without the consent establish the conditions for increased and active participation of its citizens. A wood production on the other. This led comprehensive policy of natural resource to important landscape changes: for conservation and preservation required example, many -rich biotopes the understanding and support of the that had developed under less intensive American public, private landowners and land management systems disappeared policy-makers. or were reduced in size. Pinchot’s book, Breaking new ground, By the mid-nineteeth century, the published posthumously in 1947 (Pinchot, sustainability of wood production had

P. M ACDONA LD 1947), provides a breathtaking insight into become a major consideration for foresters,

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Natural beech forest, Germany FAO/FO-7430/RAJENDRA K.C both public and private, who calculated conditions under which forests could ownership boundaries on the ground, were allowable annual wood harvest quantities be used as a lasting supply base for among the most significant contributions in relation to the growth and yield of industrial wood-processing. Putting the made by forest laws during the nineteenth the available forest stands. One of the Nachhaltigkeit principle into practice and twentieth centuries. methods for regulating the rate of wood- meant adjusting the intensity of felling The first generation of forest laws in harvesting was an area allotment system to the long-term production potential of Europe tended to restrict or abolish (Flächenfachwerk) that divided forest forest stands and sites. Silvicultural tech- usufruct rights and transform collective into annual harvest sections. The volume niques were developed for regeneration, tenure into clearly defined private, com- allotment method (Massenfachwerk) was the tending and of young stands, munal and state landownership. Customary later introduced to account for differing and matching species to site conditions private and collective use rights were wood-supply capacities, by area. In this and end uses. became an legally registered, or forests still under latter method, the usable total growing important discipline in forestry research collective tenure were divided among stock was divided according to the planned and development (Dupuy, 2005). users and became private forests. In other rotation period. More recent methods cases, communal and state forests were include management regulations based The importance of tenure confirmed or created. Quite often, a com- on the annual increment of forest stands, Ensuring the continuity of and increasing bination of private and public forest tenure and the control method, in which the the wood supply required considerable developed. More recently, the distribution sustainability adjustment is based on a private and public investment, but this of property and use rights has changed periodic assessment of the development could not be obtained without secure as a result of the sale of forest land, the of the growing stock. forest tenure. The current property of former agricultural areas, The widespread use of coal and oil, rights structure in European forests was and political and constitutional changes. improvements in infrastructure and the established largely in the nineteenth Legal requirements usually focus on intensification of agricultural production century. Forest lands were surveyed, protecting , setting minimum based on mechanization and fertilizers mapped and entered into land registries. standards for sustainable management, reduced pressure on forests to produce Defining, clarifying and formalizing forest and ensuring increased productivity. wood as an energy source and created ownership rights, and physically marking New forest laws generally aim to protect

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landowners’ wood production and their FOREST MANAGEMENT IN THE and social preferences and competition right to use their forestland as a productive CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE with other materials. Because wood is a asset for generating income and profit. The DEVELOPMENT renewable resource that can be managed laws also determine landowners’ responsi- Today, silviculturists in Europe use a range sustainably, and because forests have a bilities for serving certain purposes in the of harvesting techniques and regeneration largely carbon-neutral life cycle, the pro- public interest, such as watershed protec- methods to achieve stable and sustainable duction and use of wood is an essential tion, by stipulating the maintenance of forest production. Efforts to promote political option in efforts to protect the permanent forest cover. natural regeneration and a proportion environment and mitigate climate change. In Spain, two main historical events were of deciduous trees in planted coniferous At the same time, empirical studies show of particular importance for the distribu- stands have intensified, especially in that forests have acquired new meaning tion of land use and tenure. The first was Central Europe. The conservation of and significance in society. The aesthetic the Reconquista (the reconquest of Moorish genetic resources and landscape features values of trees and forests were already Spain in the Middle Ages), which had sig- while maintaining the capacity of forests acknowledged at the turn of the twentieth nificant consequences for land development to adapt to changing environmental century (von Salisch, 1902). For a growing in the pre-industrialization period of the conditions is now a major silvicultural part of the population today, the forest late eighteenth century. The second was the goal in most European countries. Close- represents a space for recreation that forced sale of church, municipal and crown to-nature forest practices (Küchli, 2013) is different from more intensively used forests in the nineteenth century, known help maintain the diversity of forest stands areas. Increasingly, Europe’s forests are as desamortización. This process, affect- while providing flexibility in production seen as natural; people perceive them ing at least 4.5 million hectares of forest and creating attractive, varied landscapes. as representing the free interplay of (18 percent of the total forest area), was in What forests mean today to people living natural forces, in contrast with inhabited line with liberal post-French Revolution in largely urbanized European societies is areas and land exploited intensively for thinking but was applied in Spain in an an interesting subject of debate and social agriculture. This perception reflects the exceptionally unstable political environ- research. The findings of such research needs and preferences of a growing part ment. The expected advantages were very confirm, first of all, that forests continue of contemporary society and the desire limited, and many authors identify it as a to be seen as a usable and productive part of urban populations for relaxation in cause of the country’s last of the human environment, and that their natural surroundings. Forests address a wave (Rojas-Briales, 1996). management is conditioned by economic need brought on by growing threats to the FAO/FO-7513/B. CIESLA FAO/FO-7513/B.

Mixed broadleaf forest, Germany

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global environment, including the loss of practices that are deemed incompatible Grober, U. 2007. Deep roots: a conceptual biodiversity. For a large number of people, with sustainable development. The legacy history of ‘sustainable development’ forests are places for meditation, reflection of von Carlowitz and his approach to forest (Nachhaltigkeit). Wissenschaftszentrum and personal freedom. management is capable of taking into Berlin für Sozialforschung (available at Under Nachhaltigkeit today, forest account profound currents of opinion in http://skylla.wzb.eu/pdf/2007/p07-002.pdf). practices address a range of forest uses, society. Multifunctional forest management Grober, U. 2010. Die Entdeckung der societal values and management systems. can react flexibly to diverse social interests Nachhaltigkeit – Kulturgeschichte eines The concept of priority functions allows and adapt forest management to local Begriffs. München, Germany, Verlag Antrje approaches that determine which social and environmental conditions. It Kunstmann. management priorities are assigned in a provides multiple options for responding Grober, U. 2012. Sustainability: cultural given forest stand. Accordingly, managers to market trends and the changing needs history. Totness, UK, Green Books. prioritize their objectives and the measures and values of society, while not precluding Hartig, G.-L. 1795. Anweisung zur Taxation that must be taken to achieve them, and options for future generations. der Forste oder zur Bestimmung des they limit or avoid uses and interventions Sustainable forest practices have Holzertrags der Wälder. Giessen, Germany. that are incompatible with priority forest developed steadily since von Carlowitz’s Hasel, K. & Schwarz, E. 2006. Forstgeschichte: functions. Such a process-steered approach day. His central idea formed the basis of ein Grundriss für Studium und Praxis. 3rd provides, for example, transparent evidence the long subsequent history of forestry edition. Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany, of performance in preserving the stability development. But the goals of sustainable Verlag Kessel. and productivity of protected forests. forestry – nowadays called sustainable Heyer, C. 1841. Die Waldertrags-Regelung. Distinguishing priority functions in given forest management – and the strategies Giessen, Germany. forest areas is useful whenever divergent to achieve them have been adapted over Küchli, C. 2013. The Swiss experience in forest interests lead to conflicting goals in natural time as environmental and socio-economic sustainability and adaptation. Unasylva, 240: resource management. Priority functions conditions have changed. The secret for 12–18. may relate to entire geographically achieving sustainable forest management Mantel, K. 1990. Wald und Forst in der delimited landscapes and watersheds or is to maintain the principle of sustainability Geschichte: ein Lehr- und Handbuch. to units such as forest stands and biotopes. while adapting forest management Hanover, Germany, Schaper. Balancing private and public interests in strategies to changing circumstances. In Moser von, W.G. 1757. Grundsätze der Forst- management planning, seeking agreement this, forestry has shown the way for other Ökonomie. 2 Bde. Frankfurt, Germany. among stakeholders with divergent interests natural resource management sectors. u Pinchot, G. 1947. Breaking new ground. in preparing national forest programmes, Commemorative edition, 1998. Washington and creating workable arrangements for DC, Island Press. landowners facing public demands for Rojas-Briales, E. 1992. Evolución de la the services provided by their forests legislación forestal en España. Desarrollo, have all become important forest-policy situación actual y perspectiva. Report of objectives. Such requirements are the IUFRO Working Group S6.13-00. Forst- result of a major shift from governmental References wissenschaftliche Beiträge No 11: 232–258. and hierarchical regulatory systems to Rojas-Briales, E. 1996. Evolución del formalized negotiation procedures, public Carlowitz von, H.C. 1713. Sylvicultura marco jurídico de la propriedad forestal process steering, and joint management oeconomica, oder haußwirthliche Nachricht en España desde la Reconquista hasta la responsibilities. Close-to-nature forest und Naturgemäße Anweisung zur Wilden desamortización. Forstwissenschaftlich management systems allow managers to Baum-Zucht. Reprint of 2nd edition, 2009. Beiträge der Professur Forstpolitik und adapt their strategies to meet changing Remagen-Oberwinter, Germany, Verlag Forstökonomie No 16: 237–252. societal values, leaving options open for Kessel. Salisch von, H. 1902. Forstästhetik. 2. Berlin, alternative uses and new developments. Dupuy, M. 2005. L’Essor de l’écologie Germany, Julius Springer. forestière moderne – Contributions des World Commission on Environment and CONCLUSION scientifiques européens 1880–1980. Nancy, Development. 1987. Our common future. In the face of pressing demands for France, Ecole Nationale du Génie Rural, des Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press. u environmental protection and the Eaux et des Forêts. conservation of biodiversity on a large scale, Gadgil, M. & Guha, R. 2006. This fissured it is not the principle of Nachhaltigkeit land: an ecological history of India. Oxford that is in question today, but certain forest India Paperbacks, 9th edition.

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The Swiss experience in forest sustainability and adaptation

C. Küchli C. KÜCHLI C.

Natural regeneration in this close-to-nature Swiss lowland forest will ensure that, when Close-to-nature forest orests in Switzerland have been mature trees are felled, younger trees are management has been practised managed for thousands of years; ready to take their place in Switzerland for more than for example, there is evidence of 100 years and could be crucial Fwell-ordered oak forest management valleys, have been used – more or less for minimizing risk in the face 5 000 years ago in the early Bronze Age intensively – for centuries. of climate change. (Gassmann, 2007). Since the fourteenth For centuries, too, the cities of the low- century, documents written by local lands relied heavily on wood. Around 1800, communities provide evidence of their the forests near urban centres began to efforts to secure the protective functions show signs of resource exhaustion and of forests, wood supply and other forest conflicts arose over their use. Clearfelling services. Forests have long provided vil- in the mountains for wood-hungry cities lagers with energy for cooking and heating, or for export contributed significantly to construction wood, fodder, autumn leaves the catastrophic floods of the 1860s, which and moss for fertilizing fields, food such had widespread effects on the lowlands as mushrooms and berries, medicines, and cities. Christian Küchli is a forester with the Forest Division of the Federal Office for and much more. Thus, the forests of A serious endeavour in forestry was the Environment, Switzerland. Switzerland, even in the most remote required. This article describes the

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development of forestry in Switzerland, was “capital”, only the growth – “inter- also used. Even today, there are stands that which at the beginning followed methods est” – was to be harvested. To regulate the bear the mark of this history. developed in Germany and then branched harvest, tree populations were organized off to a close-to-nature approach to for- like a chessboard. Each year a square THE NATIONAL FOREST LAW estry, which today is employed throughout would be clearfelled and afterwards Diverse developments in the economic Switzerland. reforested, often with a single tree spe- context of forests played an important role cies. The goal of German forestry and in the realization of the sustainability con- THE MODERN BEGINNING OF thus Swiss forestry in that period was to cept in Swiss forests. The construction of SUSTAINABLE FORESTRY produce as much wood as possible in the railways in the 1850s was decisive because Many of today’s forests were established in short term. Spruce (Picea abies) and pine it allowed the importation of coal, fertil- the context of the devastation arising from (Pinus silvestris) were the chosen species izers and food. The age of coal enabled the quest for energy and raw materials; in in this model. industrialization. The first train entered that sense, wood scarcity and catastrophe Prior to enactment of the first national Bern in 1858, and within two years coal are the parents of the mature forests in Swiss forest law, significant areas of had become cheaper than firewood in Switzerland today. The classical German broadleaved species near cities were the city. forestry model that was developed in clearfelled and the roots dug up for fire- These developments in the energy and Prussia and Saxony in the middle of the wood. Such clearing was often followed economic sectors reduced pressure on eighteenth century initially had a strong by several years of agriculture, mostly forests and their many products and made influence on the development of Swiss potato production, after which spruce or possible the introduction and implementa- forestry. In the mid-1800s forest use was other conifers were planted, often in mono- tion of the first national Swiss forest law in oriented toward a constant wood harvest cultures, following the German model. 1876. It is a myth, therefore, that this law – in other words, a sustainable harvest – as Exotic species from North America such alone saved Swiss forests, as argued by advocated by Hans Carl von Carlowitz in as Douglas fir Pseudotsuga( menziesii) some (Küchli, 1997), although it has been 1713 (Schmithüsen, 2013). If the forest and Weymouth pine (Pinus strobus) were hugely influential. It was conceived as a

Foresters discuss the use of a soil penetrometer. Soil fertility

has improved KÜCHLI C. tremendously under close-to-nature forest management

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framework law, and with several revisions made their way back on degraded land. and species composition, the better the it is still in force today. The law maintained In remote areas, trees naturally repopu- trees would withstand storms and disease the existing forest ownership structure but lated landscapes, while, in the lowlands, in the course of their long lives. in the interest of the whole – including trees were often planted. Even in those future generations – it introduced strict times, the pros and cons of planted ver- HENRY BIOLLEY AND THE controls on management by public and sus naturally regenerated trees were the BEGINNINGS OF CLOSE-TO-NATURE private owners. From the beginning, the subjects of difficult discussions among FORESTRY federal government provided the cantons foresters. In 1868, for example, one for- At the end of the nineteenth century, in the (analogous to provinces or states in other ester expressed the fear that if foresters forests of Couvet near Neuchâtel, the Swiss federal systems) with financial support did not plant, they would be laughed at, forester Henry Biolley refined the single to enable them to employ forest officials. and people would say, “if nature can do tree selection method. For many centuries The most important article of the national everything by itself in the forest, we don’t in those forests, a limited number of trees forest law pertains to forest area, which need any foresters” (Küchli, 1994). For the in a given area were harvested according may not decrease in size unless it is in the early Swiss foresters it was important to to the specific use to which they were put overarching public interest, for example produce quick results, just as it is today – for example, strong trunks for construc- the construction of a railway line. If an in many forestry projects, especially in tion and young firs for beanpoles. Over area of forest is cleared, an equivalent area developing countries. time, this felling of single trees or small elsewhere must be afforested. This rule, But nature was not always benevolent. groups of trees had a marked impact on which still applies today, is the reason that The mistakes of the young forestry pro- the structure of the forest: large firs grew the cultivated landscape of Switzerland, fession, such as inappropriately planted next to small spruces, and vice versa. Using with its typical pattern of forested and open exotic species or spruce monocultures, this traditional forest-related knowledge, land, has remained practically unchanged were exposed pitilessly by infestations of Biolley developed a vision of a “family for a century and a half (Küchli, 1997). insects and disease. Swiss foresters began forest” in which fir, beech and maple would By the 1880s, nature had begun to work to understand that the closer to nature were cohabit in a multistoried mixture, from its wonders: bit by bit, the trees and forests their forests, for example in their structure saplings to large trees.

In Switzerland, if a forest is cleared to make way for a new development in the overarching public interest, an equivalent area

C. KÜCHLI must be afforested

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Spruce logs lie stacked in a Swiss alpine Biolley described this form of forest forest as an organism. He recognized the forest, ready for transport to the mill for management, which today we call close- potential of natural regeneration, and in the production of high-value products to-nature forestry, as experimental because this he made his mark on Swiss forestry. it was flexible and oriented to the situation Similar developments were also occur- regeneration became predominant. This rather than following a fixed plan. Of ring in German forestry: in 1922, Alfred did not, however, preclude enrichment course, an experiment without oversight Möller presented his treatise called The planting with favoured tree species, such can fail. To record the effects of his permanent forest in which he described a as spruce or beech (for centuries, beech approach, Biolley set in place a tree mea- forest featuring trees of differing ages and had been cut for firewood and therefore surement procedure that had been invented species and in which the self-regulation was no longer or was only sparsely present by the Frenchman Adolphe Gurnaud and mechanisms of nature were applied in in many areas). All these developments can presented at the World Expo in Paris in order to achieve silvicultural goals. His best be understood under the overarching 1879. In refining Gurnaud’s method, which approach greatly stimulated discussion goal of minimizing risks through an adap- enabled the measurement of tree growth on close-to-nature approaches. tive silviculture. The chessboard approach in stands of trees with differing diameters, involved considerable economic and envi- Biolley laid an important foundation for Minimizing risk ronmental risk: single species – sometimes the liberation of foresters away from the By about 1900, therefore, Swiss foresters of unknown provenance – planted over chessboard approach towards a more subtle had learned to appreciate the natural large areas were prone to storm damage, approach that allowed uneven-aged stands. regeneration potential of trees, and the pest outbreaks (such as bark beetles) and For Biolley, irregularity was a charac- short historical phase of plantation forestry other risks. Close-to-nature forestry was teristic of nature, whose laws should be with clearfelling was abandoned in most increasingly seen as a way of controlling followed as closely as possible. He was one places. Trees were harvested in small and gradually diminishing such risks with of the first of his profession to consider the groups or as single stems, and natural simple silvicultural measures.

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The timber cut in this alpine forest is FROM QUANTITATIVE TO external disturbances such as storms, or extracted using cables to minimize soil disturbance and the risk of avalanche QUALITATIVE SUSTAINABILITY which recovers quickly after such events. Biological and ecological knowledge in The influence of those who use the forest European forests increased considerably should be as low as possible and should all trees in the forests of Couvet greater in the first half of the twentieth century. be aligned with natural processes. In than 17.5 cm in diameter, and his seven The soil was no longer thought of as a Leibundgut’s time, forest management successors continued that practice, which dead substrate but as a richly populated ceased to be geared towards producing has been maintained up to today. There root space. Insights into the nature of tree as much wood as possible; the emphasis may be no other forest in the world that diseases showed that pathogens multiplied shifted instead toward the management has been measured so consistently and particularly in weakened host plants, and of to provide a wide range managed according to the same principles chemical treatments were not the answer. of products – such as high-value timber – for so long. The collected data contain a Under the coordinated leadership of and services such as catchment protection, wealth of unique information. Well over Hans Leibundgut, professor of silviculture biodiversity conservation, clean air and 1 000 m3 of wood per hectare have been from 1940 to 1979 at the Swiss Federal recreation (Leibundgut, 1975). harvested on the exposed northern flank of Polytechnical School in Zurich, these and The results of the concepts and methods the forest since 1890 – an average of about many other findings from close-to-nature that were initiated by Henry Biolley and 10 m3 per hectare per year. Compared forestry were consolidated and adapted further developed and consolidated in with the state of the forest in 1890, the to the peculiarities of Swiss forests. The Leibundgut’s time are best explained by structure and composition are now greatly overall objective of the approach is a for- an examination of the forests where the improved – there is more standing volume est that is stable in the face of process began. In 1890, Biolley measured and many more high-value stems. Today,

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one-fifth of the trees are broadleaved; in A KEY TO COMBATING CLIMATE Extreme events such as storms, heat Biolley’s time, those species had practi- CHANGE waves, droughts and disturbances from cally disappeared. The median air temperature of Switzerland pests could have major impacts on forests. For these changes to have taken place, has increased by 1.5 °C since 1970. This Two events in the last decade provide a several framework conditions were nec- means that even if the international com- taste of things to come: a storm (called essary. Biolley found a forest area with munity can agree on measures to limit the “Lothar”) in 1999, and the 2003 summer secure tenure and a forest structure with global temperature rise to no more than heat wave. These two extreme events, good preconditions for the application of 2 °C (a target agreed at the Conference and the resultant bark beetle infestations, his tenets. His successors worked strictly of the Parties to the United Nations were responsible for the loss of more than in the same direction. Fellings were car- Framework Convention on Climate 8 million m3 of spruce in Switzerland; ried out by well-trained forest workers, Change in Copenhagen in 2009), climate many of the killed trees were remnants and over time a relatively dense network change in Switzerland will still be signifi- of the plantation period of a century ago. of forest roads developed to allow access cant. If international negotiations fail and A changed climate directly affects tree to the dispersed felled trees. It has always we have business as usual, an increase in growth, mortality and regeneration and in been possible to sell these trees at a healthy the summer temperature of up to 4.8 °C is the long term would fundamentally alter profit, or, in times of low prices, to at least expected in the Swiss Alps by 2100 (The many forests. Climate change will nega- cover costs. Finally, the community of CH2011 Initiative, 2011). Significantly less tively affect many forest functions and Couvet – the forest owners – have always rainfall is also projected. services that are taken for granted today. stood by their forests and supported the efforts of the forest stewards. The fundamental principles of close- Close-to-nature approaches in the tropics to-nature forest management such as that implemented in Couvet could be applied Close-to-nature forest management is a promising concept for tropical forests, and a in many other European forests as well variety of interesting parallels and connections exist between Europe and the tropics. as elsewhere, including the tropics (see At the end of the nineteenth century, Alfred Möller worked in the Brazilian , box). Organizations such as Pro Silva and his ecological research there was one of the key experiences that eventually led to Europe1 are continuing to develop close- his close-to-nature forest management concept (Bruenig, 2009). Forests can be managed to-nature principles, including through according to the same fundamental principles applied in Europe and elsewhere. a broad, country-spanning exchange of Evidence of close-to-nature principles being applied in tropical forests can be found information. There is continuous devel- in many parts of the Amazon. Only recently has science begun to decipher traces that opment towards attaining mixed stands indigenous populations have left of their strong impact on forest landscapes. The distribution composed mainly of tree species that of Brazil nut trees (Bertholletia excelsa) is closely linked to the traditional forest-related would grow naturally at a given loca- knowledge of local peoples (Brazil nuts, also known as Para nuts, are long, oily nuts that these tion. In Switzerland, regeneration today days can be found in almost any nut snack mix). Brazil nut trees are found in Amazonian is left mainly to nature (and therefore forests individually and also in groups of dozens of individuals per hectare. Such large costs very little). This is shown in Swiss stands can only develop in clearings because Bertholletia excelsa is a light-demanding planting statistics: between 1980 and species in its early years. It is probable that, today, the larger groups of these trees are 2011, the annual quantity of planted trees growing in what were once areas cultivated by indigenous people for cassava. Presumably declined from 7.5 million to 1 million the farmers planted the trees before they let natural tree succession take over again. seedlings. As long as a stand develops Very similar management practices can be observed in peoples such as the Dayak on the naturally in the direction of the manage- island of Borneo. The Dayak enrich small areas of cleared forest after dry rice cultivation ment goal, no interventions are made. A with fruit trees or trees that produce resin or other tradable products. The area is then similar approach is used as stands grow: taken over by natural forest. The cycle repeats itself after decades or centuries. Huge natural and no-cost processes are taken tracts of rainforest that are considered to be untouched – that is, primary forest – are, advantage of, and minimal, directed, cost- in fact, traditional cultural landscapes. Since time immemorial, such landscapes have effective interventions are carried out only been managed according to what we could call close-to-nature principles. when necessary. The feasibility of close-to-nature forest management in tropical rainforests has been demonstrated by extensive scientific research (Bruenig, 2009). Clear tenure and use rights are a crucial precondition for the local populations to apply their rich forest- related knowledge and management experience. 1 www.prosilvaeurope.org.

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It is not yet possible to determine the tree species that demonstrate the capacity Küchli, C. 1994. Die forstliche Vergangenheit best forest management strategies in the to cope with changing climate conditions. in den Schweizer Bergen: Erinnerungen an face of climate change. Close-to-nature Nevertheless, the planting of such species die aktuelle Situation in den Ländern des managed forests, however, offer a priori should be done cautiously and whenever Südens. In: Schweizerische Zeitschrift für a good basis on which to start because possible within a matrix of natural stands. Forstwesen, pp. 647–667. they are resilient and have high adaptive The great uncertainty about the impact Küchli, C. 1997. Forests of hope: stories of capacity. Their resilience is based on their and speed of climate change requires an regeneration. London, Earthscan. diversified structure and stability, and their effective distribution of risk, which is best Leibundgut, H. 1975. Wirkungen des Waldes adaptive capacity stems from their broad enabled by forests that are diversified in auf die Umwelt des Menschen. Zürich, genetic diversity, which is a precondition species and structure. Risk minimization Switzerland, Rentsch. for species to adapt to changing climatic is exactly what close-to-nature forest man- Pro Silva Europe. 2012. Principles of forest conditions. The large number of trees that agement has been attempting for more adaptation to risks caused by environmental establish through natural regeneration than a century. u changes. Trilingual position paper (German means that there is an ongoing process of p. 1; French p. 6; English p. 11). (available at: genetic recombination and consequently http://www.prosilvaeurope.org/sites/default/ high genetic diversity in close-to-nature files/risques%20final%203%20langues.pdf). forests. This effect is even more pro- Schmithüsen, F. 2013. Three hundred years of nounced in forests in which many old trees applied sustainability in forestry. Unasylva, stand together in mixed structures, because 240: 3–11. regeneration is occurring constantly and References The CH2011 Initiative. 2011. Swiss climate involves diverse mother trees. change scenarios CH2011. Zurich, When ecological conditions change, the Bruenig, E. 2009. Naturnahe Waldwirtschaft Switzerland, C2SM, MeteoSwiss, ETH, presence of diverse genotypes is a pre- im Tropenwald: Hoffnung, Traum, NCCR Climate, and OcCC (available at: requisite for producing offspring that are Wirklichkeit? AFZ-Der Wald, 19: 1018–1021. www.ch2011.ch/pdf/CH2011reportLOW. able to adapt to new environmental condi- Gassmann, P. 2007. L’exploitation de quelques pdf). u tions. Of the many saplings that regenerate chênaies durant le Lüscherz et l’Auvernier- naturally, the best adapted will survive. In Cordé ancien : quand les habitants du village contrast, nursery-reared plants are pro- littoral de Saint-Blaise/Bains des Dames duced under artificial conditions that may (Neuchâtel, Suisse) allaient aux bois. In favour less-adapted individuals and clones. M. Besse, ed. Sociétés néolithiques. Des From this we may conclude that natural faits archéologiques aux fonctionnements regeneration ensures better adaptive capac- socio-économiques. Actes du 27e colloque ity than planting (Pro Silva Europe, 2012). interrégional sur le Néolithique (Neuchâtel, This is not to preclude plantations of exotic 1–2 octobre 2005).

Unasylva 240, Vol. 64, 2013/1 19 FAO/R. CENCIARELLI

The Centre International de Sylviculture and its historic book collection

J. Ball and W. Kollert

A collection of rare forestry he Centre International de century. Twenty-six international forestry books amassed in the 1930s and Sylviculture (CIS) was an initiative congresses were held in Vienna from 1876 stored in the FAO vaults warrants to establish an international for- to 1914, and the International Union of greater exposure to the world. Testry organization in the 1930s. Its library Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) collection is now under the custodianship was founded in 1890. Two international of the David Lubin Memorial Library at meetings of foresters in France, the first FAO in Rome. This article describes the in 1900 in Paris and the second in 1913 in establishment of the CIS, recounts the Grenoble, recommended the establishment remarkable story of how the CIS collec- of a permanent forestry organization tion ended up at FAO, and gives a glimpse (Anon., 1939). The international forest at some of its historic books. sector was represented at that time only by a section of the International Institute Jim Ball is former Coordinator, FAO ESTABLISHING AN INTERNATIONAL of Agriculture (IIA), which was founded Forestry Department, now President of FORESTRY CENTRE the Commonwealth Forestry Association. Walter Kollert is Planted Forests Officer, The internationalization of modern FAO librarian Michelle Bergerre inspects FAO Forestry Department, Rome. forestry began in the late nineteenth a book in the CIS historic book collection

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in Rome in 1905 by the King of Italy with on wood technology that published statisti- The CIS consisted of a permanent secre- the intention of creating a clearinghouse cal yearbooks on forest products and was tariat in Berlin and an executive committee for the collection of agricultural statistics. based at that time in Vienna. made up of delegates from all the CIS In 1930, the IIA published the first world member countries. The first session of the agricultural census. The Centre International de executive committee was held in May 1939 The First International Forestry Congress, Sylviculture in Berlin and dealt with administrative, pro- organized by the IIA, was held in Rome in The negotiations arising from the resolution cedural and financial matters. The CIS office 1926. It set up the International Institute of the 1936 Budapest Congress contin- and its staff were granted extraterritorial of Forestry, which was affiliated with the ued under the auspices of the IIA, and status by the Government of Germany in IIA, and the IIA Bureau of International in March 1938 the statutes of the Centre 1940, thus placing them above German law. Forestry Statistics was established in 1927. International de Sylviculture (in German The office was located in a villa in Berlin- However, the success of these institu- Internationale Forstzentrale) were adopted Wannsee about 20 km southwest of Berlin. tions was limited due to a lack of funding by the IIA Permanent Committee. Article I At its first session, the executive com- (Johann, 2007). of these statutes established the CIS within mittee elected Baron Clément Waldbott as The Second International Forestry the framework of the IIA and its headquar- president, Dr Köstler as director-general Congress was hosted by Hungary and held ters in Berlin, Germany. The creation of and Dr Georges Golay as division chief in Budapest in 1936 with the participation the CIS benefited from the experience of and head of the secretariat. The CIS had of 35 countries. Its first resolution was to Baron Giacomo Acerbo of Italy, President three divisions – on forest resources, forest consider the establishment of a permanent of the IIA, Baron Clément Waldbott of techniques and forest management – and international forestry organization, the Hungary, who had been president of the the staff was from a total of 18 European main aim of which would be to organize Second International Forestry Congress countries. The library was run by a chief regular international forestry congresses. in Budapest, and Dr Josef Nikolaus librarian, who was supported by five multi- The Standing International Forestry Köstler, Professor of Forest Science at lingual librarians and two secretaries Committee was set up, consisting of rep- the University of Göttingen. Two other (Johann, 2007, 2009). resentatives of all 35 countries, the IIA and countries, Finland and France, also con- The CIS did not undertake its own the IIA’s Comité International du Bois, an tributed to the preparatory work for the scientific research, but its staff commis- international clearinghouse for information establishment of the CIS. sioned and published scientific papers of

The villa in Berlin- Wannsee, formerly

the headquarters BALL J. of the CIS, in January 2011

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The oldest book in the CIS historic book collection, dated 1577 FAO/R. CENCIARELLI

international significance. Despite their its activities in the Abstracts. The Bureau reported to the annual meeting of the later importance, the compilation and curtly responded that it regretted that it IIA Permanent Committee. Members of documentation of international literature was impossible to comply with the request the CIS executive committee represented on forestry and the establishment of a spe- and, moreover, that “owing to the present national governments – as they do today in cialized international library were neither international difficulties” (i.e. the Second international governmental forestry meet- mentioned in the 1938 statutes nor foreseen World War) the Bureau could not enter ings such as FAO’s Committee on Forestry in the 1939 programme or its budget. into an agreement for the exchange of and the United Nations Forum on Forests. No record has been found in the IIA the Abstracts for literature from the CIS. archives of the invitation sent to coun- “No doubt”, the letter continued, “later on The publication programme of the CIS tries or institutions to take part in the conditions will be more favourable for the Although its programme was reduced negotiations in Rome leading up to the arrangement of an exchange agreement”. during the Second World War, the CIS establishment of the CIS, or to join it after From 1939 to 1944, 19 countries were was able to set up, at its sixth session it had been set up. From the composition members of the CIS, although membership in 1942, an international clearinghouse of the participants at the first session of varied considerably over this period. For for information on wood technology, the executive committee, the organization example, Latvia and Lithuania, recorded as the Commission Internationale du Bois appears to have consisted initially of only members in 1939, disappeared from the list (CIB, not to be confused with the IIA’s European countries. Mexico joined the in 1940 because both were incorporated into Comité International du Bois, mentioned executive committee in 1940, but there is the Union of Socialist Soviet Republics in earlier), also located in Berlin. The aim no record of any approach being made to August 1940 and from 1941 were occupied of the CIB was to publish the titles and the United States of America, Canada or by Germany. Austria was never a member, keywords of all forestry publications in Spain, and the only record of an approach having been incorporated into Germany three languages yearly and to collect the to the of Great Britain after the 1938 Anschluss (annexation). titles in the documentation centre in Berlin. and Northern Ireland is a letter dated April The working language of the CIS was Despite the challenges of international 1940 from the Imperial Forestry Bureau French, presumably because French was collaboration and communication during in Oxford, which published Forestry then the international language of diplo- wartime, the CIB produced a large number Abstracts, evidently in response to a macy. The CIS executive committee met of publications in several languages request from the CIS to include notices of yearly, sometimes more frequently, and between 1941 and 1943, including:

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Schloss Emsburg today. In 1943 it became the headquarters of the CIS H. SUTTER H.

• Intersylva, a quarterly review pub- purchased. The Eisenach collection con- management, and their texts helped lay lished in French and German between sisted of 3 498 books, including 957 rare the foundation of sustainable forest and 1941 and 1943 – the objective was to books. The libraries of the Ducal State natural resource management. The concept publish articles on forestry issues of Ministry, Gotha (about 950 books), and of sustainability was first articulated in international significance and to estab- the Ducal Finance College, Altenburg, Germany by Hans Carl von Carlowitz lish international networks between were also acquired, and contemporary (1645–1714), a mining administrator, who foresters and researchers; literature was collected from these and was concerned at the shortage of timber for • monographs published in the series other German institutions. In a joint ven- the mining of silver ore and investigated Silvae Orbis – by 1945, twelve issues ture with IUFRO, international collections the principles underlying the provision of of Silvae Orbis had been published, of current material were formed through regular supplies of timber essential for the with others in preparation; exchanges with libraries in, for example, industry. The CIS collection is thought to • an international forestry bibliography Finland, France, the Netherlands, Norway, have included a copy of von Carlowitzʼs (Bibliographia Forestalis), published Poland, Spain and Sweden. By 1943, the famous treatise Sylvicultura oeconomica, annually from 1941 to 1943; CIS collection is thought to have consisted oder haußwirthliche Nachricht und • economic forestry bulletins, published of 15 277 books and periodicals as well as Naturmäßige Anweisung zur Wilden monthly in German and English; 348 unpublished papers in 22 languages. Baum-Zucht of 1713 (Schmithüsen, 2013). • documents published from time to time It was almost certainly the largest forestry It is feared, however, that this book was on legal matters related to forestry. library in the world at that time. lost during the adventurous journey that This unique and valuable collection of the library made in the last days of the THE CIS HISTORIC BOOK historical forestry books, mainly from Second World War (see below). COLLECTION Germany, gives evidence of the origins The CIS collection also includes works of The CIS established an international of the concept of sustainability and is truly authors such as Sir Dietrich Brandis, con- forestry library which, in 1940, sub- a unique treasure. The collection includes sidered by some as the father of sustainable scribed to 556 technical journals through at least one hand-written document on tropical forestry, and the Bavarian forester the purchase, exchange and collection forest management from 1577, and the Josef Nikolaus Köstler, the first director of books and journals on forestry. The others date mostly from the eighteenth of the CIS. Other seminal authors whose entire library of the Forestry Academy and nineteenth centuries. The books are works are in the collection are Georg at Eisenach, Weimar, Germany, was by the classic scholars of sustainable forest Ludwig Hartig, Wilhelm Leopold Pfeil,

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Heinrich Cotta, Henri-Louis du Hamel du as usual, although several members of stored in a mine shaft at Wolf Dietrich Monceau, Johann Christian Hundeshagen, the foreign staff had left. In November Stollen, Hallein, near Salzburg. Max Robert Pressler, Johann Heinrich von 1944, Dr Köstler was conscripted into the The material held by the CIB was not Thuenen, Adam Schwappach, Friedrich army, leaving Dr Golay, his deputy and evacuated from Berlin, and unfortunately Judeich and Thomas Georg Hartig. The a citizen of Switzerland, to act for him. most of it was destroyed in the fighting near collection also contains copies of Brehm’s Dr von Frauendorfer, who since 1943 had the end of the war. Only about 600 books Illustriertes Tierleben (1864–1869, six vol- been head of the CIS library, acted as the survived the bombs; they were removed umes), essays on the physical description of director of the Salzburg office. In January by the British army and transported to the earth by Alexander von Humboldt (1847, 1945, the remainder of the archive was Hamburg in 1946 and subsequently to 1849), von Humboldt’s classic Kosmos, let- evacuated from Berlin to Salzburg. A make- London. It is possible that they were sent to ters on chemistry by Justus Liebig (1859), shift convoy of vehicles was assembled for the then Timber Research and Development classic economic literature by Adam Smith the journey from Berlin to Salzburg, each Authority at Princes Risborough in England, (Untersuchung über die Natur und die powered by producer (wood) gas prepared but that library subsequently closed and Ursachen des Nationalreichtums, 1794, from a charcoal gasifier because of the the contents were sent to the Building originally published in English in 1776 as shortage of petrol and diesel, with mem- Research Establishment at Watford. That An inquiry into the nature and causes of bers of the staff as drivers. Dr Golay left institution, too, closed in about 2005 and the wealth of nations) and the documen- to return to Switzerland in February 1945, at least some of the collection was taken tation of climatic variability since 1700 and Dr Géza Luncz and Dr Richard Immel to the Radcliffe Science Library in Oxford by Albrecht Penck (1890, Geographische assumed his responsibilities at the CIS. in 2010 (R. Mills, personal communica- Abhandlungen). By April 1945 the theatre of war was near- tion, 2010). It is unclear whether any of ing Salzburg, and the most important CIS the original CIB documents survive today. The CIS in Salzburg documents were moved to Lower Bavaria In December 1943, Berlin came under in Germany, where they were stored at THE POST-WAR PERIOD intense military attack and the head- the Schloss Haidenburg near Aidenbach. The post-war work of the CIS at Embsburg quarters of the CIS and its library were Most of the remaining books were moved consisted of maintaining the library and transferred to Schloss Embsburg in to Ramsau in Bavaria, while most of the reassembling the collection. Dr von Salzburg, Austria, where it functioned unpublished papers and documents were Frauendorfer was responsible for tracking FAO/R. CENCIARELLI

Books in the CIS historic book collection

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down missing documents in the second in Rome on 8–9 July 1946, the CIS was carried out an assessment, evaluation and half of 1945 and in 1946. He was only dissolved and its functions and assets partial cataloguing of the collection of old partially successful in this because parts of integrated into FAO. forestry books in German, which was fol- the collection had been lost in the chaotic As a result of consultations between lowed by an exhibition of rare books at the conditions of its dispersal. He is reported FAO (then based in Washington, DC) and 18th session of the Committee on Forestry to have recovered 16 boxes of documents. CIS staff, the book collection was moved held at FAO headquarters in Rome in 2007. The integrity of the headquarters of the from Salzburg to the European office of CIS in Salzburg was fully respected by FAO in Geneva, where a note in the CIS THE SIGNIFICANCE AND FUTURE the American troops, into whose zone it archives states that it was located in 1948. OF THE COLLECTION fell after the war, but recognition of its From there it was moved to the IIA in Rome The CIS is important as the world’s first international extraterritorial status was and then to FAO when its headquarters international forestry organization (as not granted. Nevertheless, the American were transferred to Rome in 1951. opposed to a forest research organization military government and authorities gave FAO’s David Lubin Memorial Library such as IUFRO). It collected and dissemi- high priority to the maintenance of the CIS remains the home of the approximately nated publications in several languages and and its book collection and agreed to pay 11 000 forestry-related books and jour- anticipated the role of FAO in forestry data the costs of maintaining the offices and nals in 21 languages salvaged from the collection and analysis by a decade. The the salaries of existing staff and three new CIS’s original library. To a large extent, history of the CIS, outlined here, shows staff members from mid-October 1945. the value of this historic collection has that international cooperation within the The military government also agreed to been overlooked, perhaps because it is scientific and forestry community began the eventual incorporation of the CIS into uncatalogued and therefore not easily in the 1930s and continued even during the framework of the newly established accessible. In recent years, only Rubner the Second World War. Due to the war, United Nations specialized agency, FAO. (1997), Steinsiek (2008) and Johann (2009) Based on a resolution of the 16th General have mentioned its existence in published The CIS historic book collection is Assembly of the IIA, which convened papers. In 2007, Dr Elisabeth Johann housed securely in a controlled and fire-protected environment at FAO FAO/R. CENCIARELLI FAO/R.

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however, the CIS could not meet the and digitization of some of the more impor- Wald-Forst-Holz Weihenstephan, 206: high expectations of its founding mem- tant volumes would allow universal online 56–61. bers, in particular in the organization of access and ensure that the collection has Rubner, H. 1997. Deutsche Forstgeschichte international congresses and the develop- an enduring benefit for the global forestry 1933–1945: Forstwirtschaft, Jagd und ment of international conventions related community, well beyond the monetary Umwelt im NS-Staat. Second extended to forestry. value of the collection. edition, St. Katharinen, Scripta mercanturae. The legacy of the CIS is its surviving An online exhibition of some items in the Schmithüsen, F. 2013. Three hundred years of library collection, which contains materi- CIS collection can be accessed at: http:// applied sustainability in forestry. Unasylva, als published by the CIS and acquired by www.flickr.com/photos/73428043@N00/ 64(240): 3–11. it. A considerable number of the books in sets/72157603275242277/. Steinsiek, P.M. 2008. Forst und Holzforschung the collection are valuable because of their im Dritten Reich. Freiburger Schriften zur age and rarity. Many are by famous authors ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Forst- und Umweltpolitik, Bd. 18, S. 6–7, and stem from the dawn of forestry as a The idea to explore the CIS collection 10–11. u science; arguably, some form the origin of first came from Dr Wulf Killmann, then the concept of sustainability. Others have Director of the Forest Products Division continuing scientific value, and yet others of the FAO Forestry Department, who, are valuable for their artwork, containing in 2007, engaged Dr Elisabeth Johann, beautiful illustrations and copperplate Forest Historian at the Universität für prints of plants and animals. Some are Bodenkultur, Vienna, Austria, to make first editions and possibly the only remain- an assessment of the books stored in ing copies of ground-breaking documents FAO. We borrowed heavily from her (Johann, 2007, 2009). The books bear report in preparing this article and witness to an era in which traditional gratefully acknowledge both her work forest-related knowledge gained from field and Dr Killmann’s initiative. We also experience was replaced or complemented thank Peter Csoka, Patricia Merrikin, by the results and findings of scientific Rachele Oriente and Harald Sutter for observations, and they also reflect the their valuable contributions. u social and cultural values of earlier cen- turies. In short, the collection documents the world’s first science-based attempts to sustainably manage renewable resources. It is an invaluable resource, not only for for- est historians but also for those researching the development of the concept of sus- References tainability and the origins of sustainable forest management. Anon. 1939. Rapport sur la réunion pour la Considering the extraordinary history of Fondation du Comité International de the books, the collection is in very good Sylviculture, Berlin. 1939. FAO archives. condition. It is housed securely in a con- Johann, E. 2007. Aufgaben und Tätigkeiten des trolled and fire-protected environment at Centre International de Sylviculture (C.I.S.) FAO. Visiting researchers can gain access bzw. der Internationalen Forstzentrale (IFZ) to it on request to the FAO David Lubin in Berlin 1939 bis 1945. Unpublished work- Memorial Library, Rome. ing report. Rome, FAO. Making this important collection of Johann, E. 2009. Aufgaben und Tätigkeit des books accessible to a wider audience in Centre International de Sylviculture (C.I.S.) digital form would accord with FAO’s bzw. der Internationalen Forstzentrale (IFZ) mandate to disseminate information and in Berlin 1939–1945. In J. Hamberger, ed., knowledge. The cataloguing of the col- Forstliche Forschungsberichte München. lection, which Dr Johann began in 2007, Forum Forstgeschichte. Festschrift must be completed to comprehend its zum 65. Geburtstag von Prof. Dr. Egon scope and content, after which indexing Gundermann. Schriftenreihe des Zentrums

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Is SFM an impossible dream?

A. Sarre and C. Sabogal

The implementation of SFM, in its orestry can make a strong case as what is meant by the term SFM in the various guises, has been patchy. the first profession to articulate modern context and how its meaning con- the concept of sustainability and tinues to change. We attempt to quantify Fto apply science towards its attainment, the minimum extent of its application, and yet sustainable forest management (SFM) we examine the obstacles that lie in its is still not being applied universally today. way, especially in the tropics, where they In this article we ask why. We examine are greatest.

A researcher inspects a tree in the Yoko Forest, the Democratic Republic of the Congo FAO/G. NAPOLITANO FAO/G.

Alastair Sarre is a freelance writer specializing in forestry. Cesar Sabogal is Forestry Officer, FAO, Rome.

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Forests will always be subject to perturbations, such as this forest in Grenada, which was devastated by Hurricane Ivan in 2006. A sustainably managed forest has the resilience to withstand disturbances and the capacity to adapt to longer-term environmental changes FAO/G. BIZZARRI FAO/G. BIZZARRI

DEFINING SFM Nations Forum on Forests agreed on the and indicators processes, the NLBI sets While the concept of forest sustainabil- Non-legally Binding Instrument on All out seven thematic elements of SFM “as ity might be relatively old (Schmithüsen, Types of Forests (NLBI). In that document, a reference framework for sustainable 2013), the term “sustainable forest man- SFM is described as: forest management”. They are: the extent agement” is not1, at least in English. It of forest resources; forest biological was absent from Westoby’s Introduction a dynamic and evolving concept [that] diversity; forest health and vitality; to world forestry, published in 1989, but aims to maintain and enhance the eco- productive functions of forest resources; present in the International Tropical nomic, social and environmental values protective functions of forest resources; Timber Organization’s Guidelines for of all types of forests, for the benefit of socio-economic functions of forests; the sustainable management of natural present and future generations. and the legal, policy and institutional tropical forests, published in 1990 (ITTO, framework. Collectively, these elements, 1990), and in the agreed This is not a definition but a statement and the criteria and indicators that underlie at the 1992 Earth Summit. The term of intent: it makes clear that SFM will them, may be thought of as providing emerged in common use in parallel with change over time but that its purpose, at a categories of “values” that should be “sustainable development”, defined by the minimum, is to maintain all forest values monitored and maintained. To a certain World Commission on Environment and in perpetuity. Turning the SFM concept extent, they underpin forest certification, Development (1987) as “development that into practice in a given forest manage- which is discussed later. meets the needs of the present without ment unit is demanding because it requires Forests will always be subject to pertur- compromising the ability of future gen- setting and attempting to achieve (often bations, but a sustainably managed forest erations to meet their own needs”. One of multiple) objectives in a milieu of multiple has the resilience to withstand them and the definitions of SFM is the management stakeholders, dynamic environmental, eco- the capacity to adapt to longer-term envi- of forests according to the principles of nomic and social conditions and imperfect ronmental changes. Nevertheless, a forest sustainable development. ecological knowledge. SFM becomes even that is sustainably managed today could be The SFM concept has proved elusive. more complex when scaled up to the land- cleared tomorrow if the owner has a change In 2007, member countries of the United scape, subnational and national levels. of heart, or it might die or degrade quickly Drawing on the criteria identified by if environmental (e.g. the climate) or social 1 Or its common use is relatively new. various international forest-related criteria conditions suddenly change. The task of

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A member of a community council holds honey collected in a community forest area in Chhouk District, Kampot Province, Cambodia. Local involvement in decision-making is essential for SFM

managing forests so that its values are maintained is a tall order, especially given inherent uncertainties: some might say it is an idealistic – and unrealistic – dream.

Society decides In a survey of 28 forest management case studies in the Asia and Pacific region, Brown, Durst and Enters (2005) found that the fundamental principle in the pursuit of SFM was reaching societal consensus with regard to how forests should be man- aged and what a society wants from forests. The scale at which such consensus should be reached – community, subnational, national or global – will vary depending on the scale and nature of the resource. Sustainability has four dimensions – economic, environmental, social and cultural2 – that involve tradeoffs, but quantifying these is not always easy. To some extent, the economic and environmental dimensions can be assessed, but not necessarily using comparable measures by which tradeoffs can be optimized. Science, therefore, can only

make a limited contribution to defining FAO/P. DEGENS/FO-6058 in practice the goals of SFM in a given context. Decisions on forests – and on the goals of SFM in a given context – should be made, therefore, through informed, broad-based, participatory and democratic processes. The forestry profession has made considerable progress in developing for example, the social forestry and forestry was concerned predominantly participatory models of natural resource models that developed with the sustainability of wood supply management and could be said to have especially from the 1980s. Experience has (Schmithüsen, 2013). Since then, the been a leader in such efforts through, shown that such processes can be unwieldy, concept of SFM has broadened sufficiently long-winded and expensive, but that they to embrace virtually any forest-based 2 The cultural dimension may be viewed as are essential for SFM. objective, including the management of part of the social dimension, however. United forests in which no products (or only non- Nations General Assembly (2012) referred to the “three dimensions of sustainable Forest multifunctionality wood products) are harvested – forests development” but also acknowledged that What issues might a society consider in usually known as protection or conser- democracy, good governance and the rule of deciding the objectives of SFM? Three vation forests. In many contemporary law, at the national and international levels, as well as an enabling environment, are essential hundred years ago, when forest science societies, SFM is expected to ensure that for sustainable development. first began to blossom (Westoby, 1989), neither biodiversity nor carbon stocks

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diminish over time, that the quality of Certification as a proxy • The pursuit of certification makes water issuing from forests is perpetually Forest certification can be described as a more financial sense in forests where high, that recreational pursuits are catered process whereby an independent auditing the harvested timber is to be sold for, that the cultural heritage embodied (third party) body conducts an inspection into markets where certification is by forests is respected, that people who and awards a certificate using independently a prerequisite for doing business or have relied traditionally on forests for developed standards and objectives (FAO, provides some other market advan- their livelihoods can continue to do so, undated). According to Molnar (2003), gov- tage. Relative to temperate forests, that products needed or desired by soci- ernments and international policy-makers, only a small proportion of the timber ety are supplied in sufficient volume including multilateral financial institutions, harvested in the tropics is sold into with no diminution in productivity, that promote forest certification for its political such markets, so it might be expected conflicts over the use of forests are man- and regulatory value and “as a credible that certification would be pursued aged in a fair and transparent way, and and cost-effective proxy to indicate that a less often there. that the wider landscape benefits from forest or industry is sustainably managed”. • Certification is usually applied to it. This is known as managing for the This use of forest certification as a proxy forests subject to harvesting, mostly multiple functions (“multifunctionality”) measure of SFM is flawed, yet to date there for timber. Therefore, a very large of forests (Collaborative Partnership on is no better survey for judging the state of area of protection/conservation Forests, 2012). Arguably, no other land use forest management globally. Here, there- forests, and forests otherwise not is required to meet so many simultaneous fore, the area of certified forest is used as a subject to timber harvesting, are not and dynamically changing objectives. proxy assessment of the minimum area of included in the survey. In Australia, Forest management commonly falls short forest in which management is consistent for example, only about 113 million of the expectation that it can fully maintain with SFM.3 ha of the 149 million ha of forest all forest values at all times. In practice, Table 1 shows that, worldwide, the countrywide are legally available for however, not all forest areas can (or should) total forest area certified under the two wood harvesting, and much of that be managed for all values, although man- dominant global certification schemes, the area contributes little to wood supply agement should aim to minimize losses. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and the (Montreal Process Implementation Multifunctionality is best considered at a Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Group for Australia, 2008). scale large enough to include a mosaic of Certification (PEFC), is about 415 million • Not everyone agrees that certification areas in which SFM may have specialized hectares (ha). According to FAO (2010), is a good indicator of management that objectives but which, in aggregate, delivers there are about 4.03 billion ha of forest is consistent with SFM. For example, on all forest functions. While SFM should globally. Therefore, using certification as standards of certification, even within always be the goal of managers, the most a proxy, a minimum of 10.3 percent of all the same scheme, may vary widely that can be said at any given time is that forests is under management that could among (and even within) countries. forest management should be consistent be considered consistent with SFM. FAO Auld, Gulbrandsen and McDermott with the concept of sustainability and the (2010) estimated that 54 percent of the (2008) noted scepticism that certifi- associated management objectives that total forest estate (about 2.18 billion ha) cation can assist in achieving forest are in place (ITTO, 2006). SFM should was designated for production or “multiple conservation goals at the landscape be envisaged as a co-evolutionary pro- use” in 2010.4 Therefore, about 19 percent level. Zimmerman and Kormos (2012) cess between changing societal demands, of forests in which timber harvesting is claimed that “industrial-scale” forest changing forests, changing markets and likely to be allowed are certified. management (of which some examples changing industry efficiency (Nasi, 2013). This estimate comes with important are certified) “guarantees the com- caveats, including the following: mercial and biological depletion of ASSESSING SFM • The estimate is for a minimum area high-value timber species within three Despite the many difficulties associated of forest under management that is with the concept of SFM, the manage- consistent with SFM, because a large 3 However, the Forest Stewardship Council, ment of many forests today is consistent area of forest that has not been certi- a major certification body, uses terms such as “responsible management” and with it. Some forests have been managed fied (for example, where managers see “environmentally appropriate, socially for more than one hundred years (see, for no commercial advantage in attaining beneficial, and economically viable example, Küchli, 2013); while it cannot be certification, or where the cost of cer- management” rather than SFM. 4 said definitively that such forests are under tification is probably greater than the The remainder was designated for the protection of soil and water, the conservation SFM, the fact that they are still productive benefit) is likely to be managed as well of biodiversity, social services, “other”, or is prima facie evidence of this. or better than many certified forests. “none or unknown”.

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harvest rotations in all three major TABLE 1. Global area of forest certified by FSC and PEFC, 2012 tropical forest regions”. Country Area of forest Total area Total area % of total (’000 ha) certified by: of certified of forest forest forest (’000 ha) certified Less progress in the tropics FSC PEFC (’000 ha) Given that the forest certification concept Argentina 305 0 305 29 400 1.0 arose only in the early 1990s (the FSC, Australia 895 10 100 10 995 149 300 7.4 the world’s first forest certification body, Belize 170 0 170 1 393 12.2 Bolivia (Plurinational State of) 1 270 0 1 270 57 196 2.2 was established in 1993), the fact that Brazil 7 200 1 230 8 430 519 522 1.6 about one-fifth of the world’s production Cameroon 728 0 728 19 916 3.7 and multiple-use forests are certified is a Canada 54 300 109 000 163 300 310 134 52.7 considerable and laudable achievement. Chile 508 1 910 2 418 16 231 14.9 As a number of authors have pointed out China 2 520 0 2 520 206 861 1.2 (e.g. Auld, Gulbrandsen and McDermott, Colombia 94 0 94 60 499 0.2 Congo 2 480 0 2 480 22 411 11.1 2008), however, the distribution of certified Costa Rica 41 0 41 2 605 1.6 forests is very uneven. Table 1 shows that Ecuador 54 0 54 9 865 0.5 384 million ha of the 415 million ha of Europe* 72 900 83 500 156 400 998 370 15.7 certified forest are located in temperate, Gabon 1 879 0 1 879 22 000 8.5 mostly developed countries – Australia, Ghana 2 0 2 4 940 0.0 Guatemala 502 0 502 3 657 13.7 Chile, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Honduras 153 0 153 5 192 2.9 United States of America and the coun- India 40 0 40 68 434 0.1 tries of Europe. Only 31 million ha are in Indonesia 1 450 0 1 450 94 432 1.5 developing (mostly tropical) countries; Japan 397 0 397 24 976 1.6 this is equivalent to only 1.9 percent of the Kenya 1 0 1 3 467 0.0 Republic of Korea 371 0 371 6 222 6.0 total forest estate in developing countries. Lao People’s Democratic Republic 83 0 83 15 751 0.5 Blaser et al. (2011) reported on the Madagascar 1 0 1 12 553 0.0 extent of SFM in 33 tropical countries Malaysia 504 4 590 5 094 20 456 24.9 that account for about 85 percent of the Mexico 601 0 601 64 802 0.9 world’s closed tropical forests and 35 per- Mozambique 5 0 5 39 022 0.0 cent of all forests worldwide. Focusing Namibia 275 0 275 7 290 3.8 Nepal 14 0 14 3 636 0.4 on the “permanent forest estate” (PFE, New Zealand 1 452 0 1 452 8 269 17.6 defined as “land, whether public or private, Nicaragua 22 0 22 3 114 0.7 secured by law and kept under permanent Panama 14 0 14 3 251 0.4 forest cover”), they estimated the area Papua New Guinea 33 0 33 28 726 0.1 of natural forest under SFM in 2010 at Paraguay 19 0 19 17 582 0.1 Peru 818 0 818 67 992 1.2 53.3 million ha, comprising 30.6 million ha Solomon Islands 64 0 64 2 213 2.9 of production PFE and 22.7 million ha of South Africa 1 552 0 1 552 9 241 16.8 protection PFE. This was about 7 percent Sri Lanka 32 0 32 1 860 1.7 of the total PFE. Suriname 89 0 89 14 758 0.6 Although the data are patchy, the survey Swaziland 80 0 80 563 14.2 by Blaser et al. (2011) and the data on United Republic of Tanzania 113 0 113 33 428 0.3 Thailand 24 0 24 18 972 0.1 forest certification (admittedly subject to a Turkey 95 0 95 11 334 0.8 number of important caveats) are sufficient Uganda 107 0 107 2 988 3.6 to show that SFM is less established in United States of America 14 100 35 300 49 400 304 022 16.2 the tropics than in the temperate zone Uruguay 836 0 836 1 744 47.9 (nevertheless, there is evidence that SFM Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) 140 0 140 46 275 0.3 Viet Nam 45 0 45 13 797 0.3 can be applied successfully in the tropics – Total 169 378 245 630 415 008 3 390 662 12.2 see box). What is holding it back? While Notes: FSC data current as of November 2012; PEFC data current as of 13 November 2012; * “Europe” comprises the following discussion focuses on some Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, of the obstacles to SFM in the tropics, Romania, the Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The five European countries with the most certified forests are the this should not be taken to imply that the Russian Federation (33.7 m ha), Sweden (22.1 m ha), Finland (21.5 m ha), Belarus (13.1 m ha) and Norway (9.38 m ha). situation is always rosy elsewhere. Sources: FSC, 2012; PEFC, 2012; FAO, 2010.

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Biodiversity – obstacle and asset. A butterfly feeds on a flower in Ecuador FAO/R. FAIDUTTI/CFU000782 FAO/R. FAIDUTTI/CFU000782

OBSTACLES IN THE TROPICS (Westoby, 1989). Many broad social issues Pederson and Desclos, 2005). Silvicultural Less is known about tropical forests. In with profound implications for tropical efforts to increase the density of commer- Europe in particular, forest science has a forests – such as poverty, the quest for cially valuable species may compromise 300-year history, and the practice of SFM agricultural land, the duality of land the maintenance of biodiversity. On the is well advanced. Forest science has had a tenure, and ethnic conflicts – could not be other hand, the increased use of lesser-used more chequered history in the tropics. In solved by foresters alone, and institutional species would enable the more intensive – general, the primary concern of colonial capacity to tackle such issues was lacking. but potentially sustainable – use of mixed forest services was the supply of timber; This lack of attention to social issues tropical forests, with the effect that less rarely were resources devoted specifically could be said to be a common failing of forest overall would be subject to harvest- to learning how tropical forest ecosystems classical forestry, one that was identified by ing. Such intensive use is the norm in the might be managed on a sustainable basis Westoby (1987), and by Poore et al. (1989) often lower-diversity temperate forests. (Westoby, 1989). While much research of in the tropics. It remains a challenge for Unresolved tenure disputes. A lack of this type has been conducted in the last the forestry profession today and requires clarity on forest ownership, and injustices several decades, there is still plenty to learn much stronger intersectoral cooperation. in the allocation of rights over forests, are and apply. On the other hand, a great deal High levels of biodiversity. Maintaining a major obstacles to SFM. For example, the of traditional knowledge and practices held high level of biodiversity, such as that found Government of Liberia (2008) reported by customary owners, which ensured cer- in natural tropical closed forests, compli- that “the most pressing issue affecting tain levels of resource sustainability, is cates the silviculture and management of all land use in Liberia is the lack of legal yet to be incorporated into modern forest SFM.5 It can also compromise the profit- clarity over property ownership and use management systems (Tongkul et al., 2013). ability of timber harvesting under an SFM rights. ... Rights of access to and use of After the Second World War, many regime because the density of marketable foresters in the newly independent species is often low. Considerable effort has 5 It also complicates their management in a countries of the tropics were well- been made to increase the marketability of broader sense because it can lead to increased trained in classical forestry but less so, diverse tropical forest tree species – often legal restrictions and brings a wide range of cultural issues and the close scrutiny of perhaps, in dealing with “the real forestry called lesser-used species –with only conservationists, which may or may not be problems confronting their own people” limited success (e.g. Rivera et al., 2003; obstacles to good management.

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natural resources, including land, minerals, in Cameroon, which arose partly as a result forest companies should not be expected forests and water, are shrouded in a state of poor policy decisions made in 1999 (to to adopt it without additional incentives to of tenure insecurity, vague and ambiguous suspend small-scale licences) and improve its profitability. High transaction legislation, conflicting and competing in 2006 (to centralize the allocation of such costs for timber and (even more so) non- tenure arrangements, and constant and licences, when the suspension was lifted). timber forest products due to inefficient persistent clashes of customary and statu- Cerutti et al. (2012) showed that corruption and sometimes corrupt legal, institutional tory rights over the management, authority was systemic and that a small number of and administrative arrangements also act and control of these resources”.6 This is officials actively perpetuated it because to reduce profitability. Given current prices a problem in many parts of the tropics, it served their interests. This is having for most tropical timbers (kept low, at least although significant reforms have been “rippling negative effects that extend from in some markets, in part by the availability achieved in some countries and reform the morale and professional performance of illegally harvested wood) and the low processes are under way in some others of state officials to the efficacy of state density of marketable species, timber alone (Rights and Resources Initiative, 2013). institutions” and undoubtedly reduces the is rarely sufficient to make SFM competi- Corruption. Corruption can be a major likelihood of SFM. tive with other land uses. This is perhaps hindrance to SFM because it hampers the Uncompetitiveness of SFM as a land the fundamental obstacle to the pursuit enforcement of forest-related laws. Cerutti use. Appanah (2013) suggested that the of SFM, at least in moist tropical forests: et al. (2012), for example, describe corrupt quest for quick profits was one of the main the land occupied by forests has other uses practices in the small-scale logging sector reasons why adequate silviculture has been that many landholders (community, state rare in the natural forests of Southeast and private) perceive to be more in their Asia. Pearce, Putz and Vanclay (2003) interests. When the land on which forests 6 A law was passed in Liberia in 2009 aimed reviewed evidence and arguments for the stand is seen to be more valuable than the at addressing this lack of clarity, but tensions over land-grabbing persist there and elsewhere viability and desirability of SFM in the trees and other biodiversity on it, the forest (Rights and Resources Initiative, 2013). natural tropical forests and found that inevitably disappears.

Land-use change from tropical rainforests to rubber or oil- palm plantations, Peninsular Malaysia. When the land on which forests stand is seen to be more valuable than the trees and other biodiversity on it, the forest inevitably

FAO/M. KASHIO/FAO/M. FO-6365 disappears

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A forest harvesting operation in the Amazon using reduced impact logging

further institutional improvements, many tropical countries are likely to make incremental progress in all or most of the above areas in coming years, and, globally, forest management will become more consistent with SFM principles over time. The world’s rich could expedite the process by helping to increase the financial viability of SFM, such as through payments for locally-to-globally important eco- system services.

CONCLUSION SFM is not just an idealistic dream: it embodies a process that is the best bet we have for maintaining and increasing the contributions of forests to global

FAO/C. SABOGAL Exemplary cases of SFM

PREREQUISITES FOR SFM as greater efficiency, better working FAO has compiled and documented Douglas and Simula (2010) suggested conditions and less long-term risk; almost 80 cases of successful SFM in that bringing about SFM required • capacity and institution strengthen- action, demonstrating the economic, linking finance and capital with natural ing at the local level coupled with social and environmental benefits that forest systems, and with ongoing human adequate and timely information and can be achieved under SFM. Using interactions with those systems, to shift effective technical and extension sup- varied approaches and strategies in mul- the dynamic towards sustainability. In port services; tiple contexts, these examples show that other words, tropical forest management • the continued development of silvi- good forest management is a powerful must become more profitable. This may cultural approaches to maintain, conservation practice that can reduce involve better prices for timber and non- increase or restore vital ecological deforestation and maintain ecosystem timber products, greater use of currently functions, including productivity and services, and that it is a potent develop- unmarketable species, payments for regeneration capacity; ment option that can help reduce rural ecosystem services, subsidies, or some • much greater interorganizational and poverty and improve living conditions. other financing mechanism. In our view, intersectoral cooperation to ensure The FAO initiative, called In search of the following are also necessary: the maintenance of forest values at excellence: exemplary cases of sustainable • competent institutions at all levels the landscape scale; forest management, sought to: identify a (community, subnational and national); • effective monitoring and evaluation broad cross-section of exemplary forest • clarity on tenure and the resolution of of forest management to enable the management in Central Africa (FAO, tenure conflict; adaptation of management as circum- 2003), Asia and the Pacific (Durst • the use of participatory, democratic stances and expectations change; et al., 2005), and Latin America and the management models to define the • at the national scale, the political will Caribbean (Sabogal and Casaza, 2010); objectives of SFM at various scales to encourage SFM through tenurial, showcase forest management efforts and enable the participation of institutional, regulatory and market that display promise for the future; and stakeholders in management and the reforms and the provision of incentives highlight examples across a variety of equitable sharing of benefits and costs; to compensate landholders for the forest types and ecosystems from many • efforts to convince users of the ecosystem services they provide. countries in the tropical regions. advantages of SFM practices – such As they grow economically and achieve

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well-being. The risks posed by resource Douglas, J. & Simula, M. 2010. The future (available at: http://blog.cifor.org/13757/ degradation and depletion and by climate of the world’s forests: ideas vs ideologies. is-financing-sustainable-forest-management- change make SFM imperative; more than Dordrecht, the Netherlands, Springer. an-inappropriate-use-of-public-funding/#. ever, humanity will need the products and Durst, P., Brown, C., Tacio, H.D. & UWX-taJTZ8E). ecosystem services provided by forests Ishikawa, M. 2005. In search of excellence: PEFC. 2012. PEFC website (available at: (Blaser and Gregersen, 2013). Undoubtedly, exemplary forest management in Asia and http://pefcregs.info/statistics.asp) (accessed given its dynamic nature, the SFM concept the Pacific. Bangkok, FAO and the Regional January 2013). will continue to be debated, but we should Community Forestry Training Center for Poore, D., Burgess, P., Palmer, J., Rietbergen not allow its ambiguity to slow our ground- Asia and the Pacific. S. & Synott, T. 1989. No timber without level pursuit of it. u FAO. undated. FAOTERM website (available trees: sustainability in the tropical forest. at: http://termportal.fao.org/faoterm/main/ London, Earthscan Publications. start.do?lang=en). Pearce, D., Putz, F.E. & Vanclay, J.K. 2003. FAO. 2003. Sustainable management of Sustainable forestry in the tropics: panacea tropical forests in Central Africa: in search or folly? Forest Ecology and Management, of excellence. FAO Forestry Paper No. 143. 172: 229–247. Rome. Pederson, O. & Desclos, P. 2005. Review of References FAO. 2010. Global forest resources assessment the French timber market. Preproject report. 2010. Main report. FAO Forestry Paper No. Yokohama, Japan, International Tropical Appanah, S. 2013. The search for a viable 163. Rome. Timber Organization. silviculture in Asia’s natural tropical forests. FSC. 2012. Global FSC certificates: types and Rights and Resources Initiative. 2013. Unasylva, 64(240): 35–40. distribution. Forest Stewardship Council Landowners or laborers? What choice Auld, G., Gulbrandsen, L.H. & McDermott, (available at: https://ic.fsc.org/download. will developing countries make? Rights C.L. 2008. Certification schemes and the facts-and-figures-december-2012.a-1258.pdf). and Resources Initiative Annual Review, impacts on forests and forestry. Annual Review Government of Liberia. 2008. Readiness 2012–2013. Washington, DC. of Environment and Resources, 33: 187–211. program idea note (R-PIN) for reducing Rivera, R., Vindel, C., Flores, J. & Tovar, O. Blaser, J. & Gregersen, H. 2013. Forests in emissions from deforestation and degradation 2003. Increasing the value. Tropical Forest the next 300 years. Unasylva, 64(240): 61–73. (REDD). Submission to the World Bank Update, 13(1): 3–4. Blaser, J., Sarre, A., Poore, D. & Johnson, S. Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (available Sabogal, C. & Casaza, J. compilers. 2011. Status of tropical forest management at www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/ 2010. Standing tall: exemplary cases of 2011. ITTO Technical Series No 38. node/72). sustainable forest management in Latin Yokohama, Japan, International Tropical ITTO. 1990. Guidelines for the sustainable America and the Caribbean. Rome, FAO. Timber Organization. management of natural tropical forests. ITTO Schmithüsen, F. 2013. Three hundred years of Brown, C., Durst, P. & Enters, T. 2005. Policy Development Series No. 1. Yokohama, applied sustainability in forestry. Unasylva, Perceptions of excellence: ingredients of good International Organization. 64(240): 3–11. forest management. In P. Durst, C. Brown, ITTO. 2006. Status of tropical forest Tongkul, F., Lasimbang, C., Lasimbang, A. H.D. Tacio & M. Ishikawa, eds. In search of management 2005. ITTO Technical Series & Chin Jr, P. 2013. Traditional knowledge excellence: exemplary forest management No. 24. Yokohama, International Tropical and SFM: experience from Malaysia. in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok, FAO and Timber Organization. Unasylva, 64(240): 41–49. the Regional Community Forestry Training Küchli, C. 2013. The Swiss experience in forest United Nations General Assembly. 2012. The Center for Asia and the Pacific. sustainability and adaptation. Unasylva, future we want. Resolution A/RES/66/288. Cerutti, P.O., Tacconi, L., Lescuyer, G. & 64(240): 12–18. Westoby, J. 1987. The purpose of forests: Nasi, R. 2012. Cameroon’s hidden harvest: Molnar, A. 2003. Forest certification and follies of development. Oxford, UK, Basil commercial chainsaw logging, corruption, communities: looking forward to the next Blackwell Inc. and livelihoods. Society & Natural decade. Washington, DC, Forest Trends. Westoby, J. 1989. Introduction to world Resources: An International Journal, DOI: Montreal Process Implementation Group forestry. Oxford, UK, Basil Blackwell Inc. 10.1080/08941920.2012.714846. for Australia. 2008. Australia’s state of World Commission on Environment and Collaborative Partnership on Forests. 2012. the forests report 2008. Canberra, Bureau Development. 1987. Our common future. SFM and the multiple functions of forests. of Rural Sciences. Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press. CPF fact sheet No. 1 (available at www. Nasi, R. 2013. Is financing sustainable forest Zimmerman, B.L. & Kormos, C.F. 2012. cpfweb.org/32819-045ba23e53cbb67809c management an inappropriate use of public Prospects for sustainable logging in tropical ef3b724bef9cd0.pdf). funding? CIFOR Forest News, blog site forests. BioScience, 62(5): 479–487. u

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The search for a viable silviculture in Asia’s natural tropical forests

S. Appanah

Natural forest silviculture could ustainable forest management management. As several authors in this work in South and Southeast (SFM) is an evolving process; it edition of Unasylva point out, therefore, Asia – but only if pressures to always has been and always will SFM is about much more than a silvicul- overharvest and deforest ease. Sbe. It has changed as society’s views and tural system: it encompasses a wide range needs have changed and as knowledge of of environmental and socio-economic forest ecosystems has improved. It has also issues as well. A scientifically perfect sil- been influenced strongly by ownership. vicultural system may not be implemented In many parts of the world, most recently if the social settings – such as a lack of in the tropics, forest ownership shifted involvement of local people in manage- from local people and customary systems ment – do not support its implementation, to the state, and now there are societal there is a sudden change in environmental pressures – and considerable impetus – to Simmathiri Appanah recently retired as FAO Forestry Officer, Regional Office for Asia and revert to local ownership or use rights, Profuse regeneration in a the Pacific, Bangkok. with often profound implications for forest tropical lowland rainforest, Sabah, Malaysia leine M. K

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conditions, or the practices applied are MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS low-intensity practices such as the culti- economically unviable. Indigenous management systems vation and protection of fruit trees like The notion of forest conservation has While people have lived in tropical forests mango and durian (in South and Southeast existed in the Asian tropics for thousands for tens of thousands of years, their tradi- Asia), and avocado and Brazil nut (in South of years, and modern silvicultural sys- tional activities barely made a dent on forest and Central America). Traditional forest- tems have been in place in some areas area – perhaps unsurprisingly, given the dwellers in Asia rarely cut the largest trees, for more than 100 years. Yet SFM is generally low population pressures – and preferring to use small poles, vines and still relatively rare. This article reviews may have even promoted forest diversity for their houses and most other historical approaches to forest manage- (Baker, Wilson and Gara, 1999). Forest- construction needs.1 Some cultures devel- ment in the moist tropics of Asia and the dependent indigenous people practised oped more intensive forest management silvicultural systems in use in the region. shifting agriculture (rotational farming) – practices, such as the “firestick farming” And it discusses what is needed for their usually sustainably, thanks to long fallows employed by Australian Aborigines, to widespread success. (about 40 years, compared with current manage their food resources (Jones, 1969), practices of often less than eight years), which sometimes had major influences A future-harvest tree marked for and they also harvested forest products on forests, landscapes and biodiversity. retention in a lowland tropical rainforest and game. Early cultures developed When forest management was taken over managed for timber by the state, however, indigenous peoples were often blamed for forest destruction, their needs were ignored, they were evicted from forest reserves and they usu- ally missed out on the benefits of forest development.

Ancient civilizations As human populations grew and agriculture expanded, forests became overexploited. The Roman Empire is often cited as an example of how, with its expansion, forests went into decline. The Romans failed to institute conservation measures and, when timber became scarce locally, they simply met their needs by importing from foreign territories. Several authors (e.g. Diamond, 2005) have suggested that the historical decline of some civilizations was closely linked to the destruction of forests and the subsequent shortage of wood and decrease in ecosystem services, and to the failure to adapt to such changes. Some societies, however, were able to address overexploitation in time. They instituted rules and regulations to control tree harvesting, grazing and the collec- tion of non-wood forest products. In Asia, India stands out as a well-researched case

1 Heavy hardwoods such as iron wood (Eusideroxylon zwageri) and teak (Tectona grandis) were sometimes cut for special leine purposes like the building of temples, palaces,

M. K long houses and dugout boats.

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This natural regeneration will form a future tree crop in a harvested lowland tropical rainforest leine M. K

(e.g. Kumar, 2008). The concepts of sus- tropical forest management”. During the ownership and rights, including customary tainable management and conservation early British occupation, forests appeared rights; determining the extent of the forest were embedded in the religious ethos of inexhaustible and were harvested with estate; investigating the silviculture of the the region as far back as the Vedic period little control to meet demand for materials main timber species; determining growth (4 500–1 800 Before the Common Era). for ship-building in Britain, India’s rail- rates and investigating how to generate Religious texts (aranyakas, or forest road expansion and other requirements. By more precise inventory measurements; and works) contain descriptions of uses and the early 1800s, the teak forests of Malabar developing sustained-yield management management of forests, the need to main- (South India) had been destroyed, and regimes that included yield control and the tain forests for the “wholeness” of villages, similar reports of forest devastation were replenishment of harvested areas. participatory forest management and the filtering in from Tenasserim province in creation of sacred forests and groves as Burma (now ). FOREST MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS part of cultural landscapes. Another well- Such widespread forest damage provided FOR TROPICAL FORESTS recorded case in Asia is Japan, and there the impetus for forestry pioneers such as The early experiences in India resulted in were many other examples in ancient Asia. Dietrich Brandis to introduce to India several new forest management regimes, Nevertheless, with the growth of popu- approaches that had been developed in developed to accommodate variations in lations and increases in commerce and Europe (Schmithüsen, 2013). While the climatic, edaphic and physiographic fea- industrial development in the seventeenth approaches were imported, these pioneers tures and human–forest interactions. The century, forest resources declined rapidly. recognized the complexity of tropical for- main components of these management ests and, through analysis and research, systems were silvicultural and addressed Advent of scientific forest progressively developed methods to suit the harvesting of trees, the regeneration management local geographical and social settings of harvested areas, and the tending of India also provides an excellent example (Leslie, 1989). The basic management regeneration to maturity. Two of the most of the origins of scientific forest manage- elements of this scientific and iterative well-developed silvicultural systems, the ment in the tropics, so much so that the approach were: taking over the author- selection and shelterwood systems, are system there is referred to as “classical ity to manage forest areas; formalizing described below.

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Heavily logged- over dipterocarp forest: the often high level of logging damage has made it difficult to determine the success of silvicultural approaches M. K M. leine

Selection systems Shelterwood systems regeneration is poor, artificial regeneration Selection systems are the most prevalent Shelterwood systems were introduced techniques are employed. The rotations form of silviculture in natural moist tropi- when the demand for wood increased should be between 120 and 180 years, cal forests in Southeast Asia. When the and regeneration was not assured. The although they have become shorter as proportion of valuable species is low, trees system involves the removal of the old timber demand has increased. of these species are felled selectively over stand through a series of cuttings so that a large area at periodic intervals. Areas regeneration produces a new, even-aged Spread of Indian systems that come under the system are called stand. Two variants of the shelterwood sys- The experiences in India were subse- the selection working circle. Under this tem have been broadly employed in India: quently transferred and adapted to other polycyclic selection system, exploitable the irregular shelterwood system and the British colonies in the tropics. The devel- trees of a specific girth are harvested and uniform system. The irregular shelter- opment of forest management systems in the next cutting cycle is determined by the wood system is used when regeneration Peninsular Malaysia in the early 1900s time taken for the pre-exploitable class to is uncertain. Trees above the minimum demonstrates clearly the paths taken to reach harvestable size. The length of the exploitable diameter are removed, although deal with the issue of sustainability. Prior felling cycle varies from 15 to 45 years, mother trees are kept if there is a lack of to introducing forest management, log- depending on the region and species. The regeneration. Additional regeneration ging in Peninsular Malaysia was selective system assumes that the selective removal improvement cuts are undertaken until and focused on the heavy hardwoods, and of harvestable trees and the presence of regeneration is established, over a rotation silvicultural operations were limited to pre-exploitable trees will provide the right of about 120 years. enrichment planting. But with the increase environment for the establishment and The uniform system has been tried in in timber demand, improvement fellings growth of new regeneration. Some gap- high-value sal (Shorea robusta) and teak were carried out to release immature trees planting may be undertaken where natural (Tectona grandis) forests. All exploitable of valuable species. The approach did not regeneration is poor. timber is removed in one felling and bring about the intended result, but young regeneration is allowed to grow up. Where regeneration became profuse. This led to

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the development of regeneration improve- HOW SUCCESSFUL HAVE THESE Appanah and Weinland, 1990). Surveys ment fellings, in which commercially SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS BEEN? have revealed a lack of pre-exploitable inferior species were removed in a series After almost a century and a half of mod- trees nearly two decades after the first of fellings. Once the regeneration was ern management in tropical forests, are logging, which will mean a reduction in the verified as meeting requirements, a final there lessons to be learned? While the number of harvestable, valuable trees at the felling of exploitable trees was carried out. “scientific” silvicultural systems described next cut. With technological developments, A serendipitous discovery led to the above originated in Western Europe, they many previously undesirable or lesser development of the Malayan uniform were adapted to new climatic conditions known species have increased in com- system (Wyatt-Smith, 1963). During and high tree diversity. mercial value, or may do so in the future the Japanese Occupation (1942 to 1945), Despite the lengthy period of trials, revi- (Freezailah, 1984). But the lack of attention many forests in Malaya (now Peninsular sions and change, however, the success of to regeneration in selection systems means Malaysia) were clearfelled without apply- these systems remains tentative. There are that a lack of continuity of timber produc- ing systematic regeneration fellings. Later inherent difficulties in all these systems tion is likely, if not inevitable. surveys revealed that these forests con- and they have often been applied imper- In contrast, shelterwood systems, which tained profuse regeneration, thus giving fectly. The selection system, which exploits focus on regeneration, have greater rise to the Malayan uniform system. Under mature timber in cycles of 30–40 years potential to provide continuity for future this system, if adequate regeneration is and relies on pre-exploitable trees to crops. Forest departments seem unwill- present, a single felling is used to release form the future harvest, appeals to most ing, however, to wait for the maturation of the fast-growing dipterocarp seedlings practitioners. It does not, however, take harvestable trees in shelterwood rotations, and saplings to form a high stocking of into account the severe logging damage which can take 60 years or more. In the a uniform future commercial crop. This often inflicted by a combination of heavy last few decades, as the demand for timber approach was the basis for managing low- harvesting machinery and poor harvesting increased in South and Southeast Asia, land dipterocarp forests from the late 1940s. planning and techniques (Nicholson, 1979; especially as export markets expanded, In the mid-1970s when the lowland dipterocarp forests in Malaysia were mainly alienated for extensive agricultural pro- grammes, forestry was relegated to hillier sites, where natural regeneration was not uniformly present. A simplified version of the Philippines selective logging system was adopted (Appanah and Weinland, 1990), under which all commercial species of specific girth were harvested, with a sufficient number of pre-exploitable trees retained to form the next cut in around 30 years. An adequate stock of seedlings is assumed to exist, or will be replenished by the residual trees retained for the next crop. Selective fellings used for mixed dipterocarp forests in Indonesia and the Philippines, which preceded the selective fellings employed in Peninsular Malaysia, relied on the same principle: cutting exploitable individuals and leaving behind an adequate number of residual trees, which then provided stems for the next cut, which was carried out in cycles of about 30 years.

Silvicultural tending operations K M.

in dipterocarp forests: this is leine indispensable for sustainable production in tropical forests

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extraction clearly overwhelmed natural SFM compared with agriculture (when production capacity. As a consequence, services provided by the forest are not overharvesting has placed extreme stress adequately remunerated). Hence, if SFM on the viability of these nascent forest is ever to be realized there is an urgent References management systems. need to demonstrate to decision-makers Selection systems provide timber in the that the ecological and protective values Appanah, S. & Weinland, G. 1990. Will the short term, with no guarantee of sustain- of the forests far exceed those of timber management systems for hill dipterocarp ability. Shelterwood systems have a built-in production alone. forests stand up? Journal of Tropical Forest mechanism for sustainability but so far An even more contentious issue for SFM Science, 3:140–158. have proved too demanding in terms of silvi- is meeting the needs of local communities. Baker, P.J., Wilson, J.S. & Gara, R.I. 1999. cultural interventions and are unpopular Contrary to popular belief, this issue was Silviculture around the world: past, present, with practitioners with short-term goals. recognized early and given high priority and future trends. In Proceedings of the in India (Stebbing, 1926). Later, however, long-term ecological monitoring workshop. THE POTENTIAL FOR SFM IN emphasis was placed on reserving and con- Washington, DC, US National Parks Service. TROPICAL ASIAN FORESTS serving forests, without due concern for the Diamond, J. 2005. Collapse: how societies Forest management is of course more needs of local communities. These imbal- choose to fail or succeed. New York, USA, than (and in some cases may not even ances are now being redressed, slowly, Penguin Books. involve) achieving a sustainable timber through policy and regulatory measures Freezailah, B.C.Y. 1984. Lesser-known yield: it is a continuous pursuit to meet and by decentralization and devolution tropical wood species: how bright is their ever-changing and increasingly varied processes to return tenurial rights to the future? Unasylva, 36(145): 3–16. needs. While foresters argue over which people – admittedly only after much of Jones, R. 1969. Fire-stick farming. Australian silvicultural system is best, external fac- the timber wealth has been exploited by Natural History, 16: 224–231. tors may render such arguments academic. those with or close to political power. But Kumar, B.M. 2008. Forestry in ancient India: Forests in Southeast Asia face intense much more still needs to be done in this some literary evidences on productive and competition from agriculture, and there regard. There is also a need to assist local protective aspects. Asian Agri-History, is much controversy over replacing timber- rights-holders to implement SFM. 12(4): 299–306. rich dipterocarp forests with oil-palm Technically, there is little reason why Leslie, A. 1989. Review of forest management plantations. SFM is yet to demonstrate SFM that includes commercial-scale systems of tropical Asia. FAO Forestry Paper that it is financially competitive as a land timber harvesting cannot be achieved in No. 89. Rome, FAO. use compared with cash-crop plantations. closed moist natural tropical forests by Nicholson, D.I. 1979. The effects of logging In steeper terrain, SFM is arguably the improving silvicultural and harvesting and treatment on the mixed dipterocarp best form of land use because forests practices to reduce logging damage and forests of South East Asia. Rome, FAO. provide important services related to ensure that harvesting and regrowth are Putz, F. 1994. Approaches to sustainable forest the protection of water catchments and in balance (Putz, 1994). But without management. CIFOR Working Paper No. 4. soil, biodiversity conservation and other political will and in the face of sustained Bogor, Indonesia, Center for International environmental benefits that agriculture pressure for quick profits, purely technical Forestry Research. and urban settlements take for granted solutions are impotent. Historically, the Schmithüsen, F. 2013. Three hundred years of (and cannot match). But the provision of profits derived from commercial timber applied sustainability in forestry. Unasylva, such services has not yet been factored into extraction have favoured a relatively narrow 64(240): 3–11. land-use planning in many countries, and segment of society, and approaches that Stebbing, E.P. 1926. The forests of India. land conversion for agriculture continues meet the needs of multiple stakeholders, London, John Lane, The Bodley Head Ltd. relentlessly. It has been argued, especially and distribute benefits more equitably, Wyatt-Smith, J. 1963. Manual of Malayan in Malaysia, that if the lowland diptero- have a better chance of ensuring forest silviculture for inland forests. Malayan carp forests had not been converted for permanence. Silvicultural approaches Forest Records No. 23. Volume I. Kuala agricultural development, SFM would certainly need to evolve further, but until Lumpur, Forest Department, Peninsular have been achieved. This is a doubtful the holders of land rights and land-use Malaysia. u claim, considering the problems with rights are convinced that the best use of the overcutting and heavy logging damage, the land is the management and maintenance uncertainty associated with the regenera- of the forest growing on it, silvicultural tion of preferred species in logged forests, solutions are unlikely to achieve their and the low financial competitiveness of expected goals. u

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Traditional knowledge and SFM: experience from Malaysia

F. Tongkul, C. Lasimbang, A. Lasimbang and P. Chin Jr PACOS TRUST Healthy forests provide local communities Forest knowledge held by raditional management practices in Sabah with wild vegetables and herbs indigenous communities have contributed enormously to has a vital role to play in the world’s natural and cultural Today, owners of traditional forest forest management. Theritage by creating and maintaining knowledge face significant challenges, landscapes that sustain the production of especially encroachment onto their lands multiple goods and services and therefore and expropriation of those lands, leading livelihoods. Traditional forest knowledge to and the erosion of is based on long historical experience traditional cultures, values and lifestyles. and deep insight into the dynamics of If disconnected from their natural Felix Tongkul is president, Partners of forest ecosystems and the behaviour and environments, indigenous communities Community Organisations in Sabah (PACOS) characteristics of a wide range of animal inevitably lose their traditional knowledge Trust, and Professor at the Universiti Malaysia Sabah. Claudia Lasimbang is and plant species. Most of the world’s and usually end up among the world’s Community Organizing Trainer, PACOS primary forests and biodiversity hotspots poorest people. Trust. Anne Lasimbang is Executive Director, are in regions with high diversities of There are some hopeful signs, how- PACOS Trust. Philip Chin Jr is Natural Resource Management Program Coordinator, indigenous cultures and their associated ever. There is growing awareness among PACOS Trust. traditional knowledge and wisdom. forest scientists, for example, that local

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communities who possess traditional describes efforts to integrate traditional land to farm because in most cases agricul- forest knowledge can play important forest knowledge with sustainable for- ture is a major source of their daily food. roles in co-managing forestry sustain- est management (SFM), the strengths Where rural communities and people have ably (e.g. Fortmann and Ballard, 2011; and weaknesses of such integration, legal ownership of land, permanent crops Ramakrishnan, 2007; Pei, Zhang and Huai, and obstacles to it in Sabah, a state in like fruit trees and rubber are planted on 2009; Herrmann, 2006). Collaboration Malaysian Borneo. a small scale. The forest is important as a between decision-makers, forest manag- land bank and as a source of food, medicine ers and local communities is increasingly TRADITIONAL FOREST and materials to make houses, handicrafts, recognized as a key to sustainable forestry KNOWLEDGE IN SABAH utensils and farming equipment. Although (Parrotta and Trosper, 2012). And there are The indigenous peoples of Sabah there is no specific regulation regarding many initiatives by indigenous peoples’ About 62 percent of Sabah’s 3.2 million forest use, it is understood by local people organizations, non-governmental orga- people are indigenous, comprising several that forests near a given village belong to nizations (NGOs), national governments, groups such as the Kadazandusun, Bajau, the community and are usually claimed intergovernmental organizations and Murut and Malay (Department of Statistics under native customary rights. Streams others related to safeguarding traditional Malaysia, 2010). The Dusunic, Murutic and and rivers are the main source of water for knowledge (UNCCD, 2005). Paitanic ethnic groups (King and King, household needs. Clean rivers are required In Malaysia, collaboration between 1984) are mostly found in rural areas, and to maintain fish populations, an important international agencies, government, NGOs a large percentage of the total population source of protein. and communities to promote sustainable lives in forested areas. These rural com-

forestry has been on the rise for 20 years munities depend on three major resources A typical rural village surrounded (UNDP, 2008; Escobin, Gonslaves and – land, forest and water – to sustain their by natural forest located within a Queblatin, 2008; SFD, 2012). This article traditional livelihoods. They need enough designated class II commercial forest reserve, Sabah PACOS TRUST PACOS

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Traditional forest knowledge is seen as God-given and should be taken quantities of timber – they contributed Traditional knowledge related to forest care of by all. Thus, it is generally the more than 50 percent of the state’s revenue management is yet to be documented accepted norm that users will take only between the 1970s and the early 1990s. systematically in Sabah. To the extent to what is needed when collecting from the Nearly all class II commercial forest which it is known, traditional knowledge forest. Every user is expected to look after reserves are now logged-over or second- can be classified broadly into three catego- common resources, based on a concept ary forests, and extraction in the past was ries: landscape diversity; biodiversity and called gompi–guno (“use and care”). largely unsustainable. Timber production resource use; and traditional governance. Should an area become overused it is the in Sabah plummeted from a high of about The long association of indigenous responsibility of everyone in the commu- 12 million m3 in the early 1980s to about communities with their physical surround- nity to leave it to regenerate. Traditional 2.2 million m3 in 2011, in which year it ings for gathering, hunting and farming agricultural practices, often seen to be in contributed only about 5 percent to state makes them highly knowledgeable about conflict with forest conservation, are in revenue (SFD, 2012). It is expected that local topography, landscapes and micro- fact highly dependent on the availability of timber production will decline further in ecosystems. For example, indigenous forestland for their continuation. To ensure the future. Despite this, forestry is still communities have intimate knowledge that forests are kept healthy and productive, considered an important sector, and the of their water catchments, including the unnecessary clearing and tree-cutting is state government has committed to bring- location of springs, which in Sabah are prohibited. The opening up of farmland ing all forest reserves under SFM. sacred places for indigenous communi- is usually done on a small scale based A model SFM area, the Deramakot ties and are associated with high plant on a family’s capacity and need, and is Forest Reserve, was developed during the diversity. Indigenous communities have restricted to . When the Malaysian–German Sustainable Forest knowledge of trails and the migratory fertility of the land is reduced by farming, Management Project that operated from paths of certain animals, and they know a fallow period, usually five to seven years, 1989 to 2000. The model recognizes the the locations of caves and waterfalls. Based is observed to give the land a rest and to multiple functions and uses of forests on this knowledge, indigenous communi- restore its fertility. and addresses the future productivity of ties usually assign the use of their ancestral the forest and the environmental impacts areas by function, such as burial grounds, COMMUNITY FORESTRY IN SABAH and economics of the forest operation. community-owned sacred forests (primary Sabah’s forests A comprehensive planning procedure, forest), farms (secondary forest), and hunt- Sabah is richly endowed with forests. Of implementation guidelines and monitor- ing grounds. the total land area of 7.4 million hectares ing at various management levels were The dependence of indigenous communi- (ha), about 60 percent, or 4.5 million ha, is introduced to resolve the many economic, ties on forests to sustain their traditional under forest cover. Of the total forest area: social, environmental and technical chal- livelihoods makes them very knowledge- • 3.6 million ha (49 percent) is allocated lenges of SFM. Based on the model, in 1997 able about the types and richness of plants as forest reserves (“permanent forest the Deramakot Forest Reserve became and animals present in their areas. There estate”) and managed by the Sabah the world’s first tropical rainforest to be is knowledge of the trees most associated Forestry Department (SFD); certified under the Forest Steward Council with certain animals, birds, bats and • 0.25 million ha is allocated as national (Malaysian Timber Council, 2008). insects. Sabah’s indigenous communities parks and managed by Sabah Parks; In September 1997, the state government have detailed knowledge of specific types • 0.03 million ha is allocated as water adopted the SFM concept, as embodied in of trees, vines and other plants suited to catchment and managed by the the Deramakot Forest Reserve model, for their daily needs. Drainage and Irrigation Department; state-wide application to some 2 million Indigenous communities have their own • the remainder (0.9 million ha) is ha of forest by signing long-term SFM mechanisms for the orderly use and man- designated as state land, which ulti- licence agreements (SFMLAs) with ten agement of their forests based on their adat, mately will be deforested, mainly for private companies. SFMLAs are vehicles or customs (Tongkul, 2002). Adat operates agriculture. designed to expedite SFM adaptation on the simple principle that everything is Forest reserves gazetted under the Sabah and implementation. As of 2011, a total interconnected – physically and spiritually. Forest Enactment, 1968, are classified of 27 such licence agreements had been All things, living or dead, have spirits and into seven classes according to function. signed, under which the companies, in are somehow related to and need each A large part (about 2.7 million ha) of the cooperation with the SFD, are required other. This relationship needs to be kept forest reserve estate is classified as class to manage the production forest reserves in balance to create a harmonious environ- II commercial forest reserves. In the within their forest management units in ment for all beings. The natural resource past, these reserves produced very large accordance with SFM. Apart from the

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Indigenous women tend sweet potatoes grown between young rubber trees planted as part of a Sabah Forest Department project PACOS TRUST PACOS

Young villagers pose in a community nursery to supply seedlings of indigenous tree species to enrich community forests in the Ulu Moyog area, Penampang District. The development of the nursery was supported by the

EC–UNDP Small TRUST PACOS Grants Programme for Operations to Promote Tropical Forests

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Deramakot Forest Reserve, several forest number of people live in the fringes of EC–UNDP community-based reserves covering a total of 864 000 ha forest reserves. Most of these people are forestry projects of forest are now subject to some form of extremely poor, with little or no access to In 2004–2007, several community certification (SFD, 2012). Since 2011, the basic facilities and amenities and with a forestry projects were implemented SFD has been taking the lead in develop- heavy dependence on forests for survival. throughout Malaysia with funding from ing a roadmap for the uptake of REDD+ The SFD has undertaken various mea- the European Commission (EC)–United (reduced emissions from deforestation and sures to improve the living conditions Nations Development Programme (UNDP) forest degradation in developing coun- and livelihoods of communities and to Small Grants Programme for Operations tries) in the state (World Wide Fund for help safeguard forest reserves from fur- to Promote Tropical Forests, with a long- Nature, 2011). ther degradation. One such measure is term development objective of improving In recent years there have been substan- the introduction of community forestry the livelihoods of poor, forest-dependent tial efforts to promote community forestry projects in several key areas (SFD, 2012), communities by strengthening the links in Sabah, both by the SFD and through an beginning with the Kelawat Forest Reserve between economic enterprise and sustain- external small-grants programme. These community able forest use and management. Some of efforts are described below. project in 1992. As of 2012, four projects the projects demonstrated good practices had been implemented in the Kelawat, that brought about positive change and SFD community forestry projects Lingkabau, Mangkawagu and Bengkoka reinforced the commitment of communities One of the challenges faced by the SFD in forest reserves, with variable success to look after their forests (Kadazandusun implementing SFM is the issue of ensuring (Table 1). Community forestry projects Language Foundation, 2006). In Sabah, the rights of local indigenous communi- involve the conservation of primary for- seven projects were initiated and imple- ties living within and adjacent to forest est, the restoration of degraded forest, mented by indigenous communities reserves. The SFD estimates that there the development of agroforestry and the themselves, some in collaboration with are about 20 000 people living within provision of housing and basic amenities NGOs, community organizations and forest reserves statewide, and an unknown to affected communities. the SFD (Table 2). They involved a range

TABLE 1. Community forestry under the SFD in Sabah Project; initiated; Background Joint activities Achievement community Kelawat Forest Reserve •• 70% of forest areas under the •• Biodiversity protection of •• Biodiversity of undisturbed natural forest Joint Forest Management Kelawat Forest Reserve are remaining natural forest protected project; initiated in 1992 degraded and devoid of forest •• Replanting of indigenous tree •• Biodiversity in degraded areas restored between the SFD and cover species and rubber and fruit (20 000 trees planted) local communities; •• The forest reserve has been trees in degraded forest •• Basic subsistence needs addressed Kampong Ponopuan, opened for farming and rubber •• Alternative socio-economic Kota Belud District cultivation by local communities activities Gana Resettlement and •• Forests in the Lingkabau Forest •• Complete settlement of all •• Basic infrastructure provided Integrated Development Reserve are degraded villages in one area •• Critical access road to settlement in project; initiated in 1998; •• Ten villages are scattered within •• Alternative socio-economic progress Kampong Gana, Kota and adjacent to the forest reserve activities for the resettled •• Basic subsistence needs addressed Marudu District •• The Sabah government wants a communities •• Training in “modern” agriculture provided development model that meets •• Agroforestry programme •• Rubber plantation implemented the needs of the communities •• of water and at the same time protects catchment and conserves the forest Mangkuwagu Forest •• The forest is degraded •• Capacity-building of communities •• Community forest compartments set Reserve project; •• Several villages are located •• Development of economic aside for local communities initiated in 2006; within the forest reserve alternatives •• Physical development (road access) Alatang, Mangkawagu, •• Community forestry provided Saguan, Tampasak •• Establishment of forest •• Agroforestry project (rubber plantation) Darat and Tampasak management and certification implemented in community compartments Laut kampongs, committee Tongod District •• Review of current legal framework for forest management Bengkoka Forest •• Forest is degraded •• Forest restoration programme •• Physical development (road access) Reserve project; initiated •• Several villages are located (tree-planting) provided in 2006; Sorupil, Ungkup, adjacent to the forest reserve •• Agroforestry programme •• Agroforestry project (rubber plantation) Gumpa and Bongkol implemented in community compartments kampongs, Pitas District •• Forest restoration of forest reserve implemented (40 000 trees planted)

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TABLE 2. Community forestry activities under the EC–UNDP Small Grants Programme for Operations to Promote Tropical Forests, Sabah, 2004–2007 Project; community; organization Background Activities Achievement (organization type) Community initiative on natural •• Forest areas in water •• Reviving traditional knowledge •• Forest in water catchment resource management and poverty catchments, national parks on forest management using the enriched eradication; Ulu Moyog area, and forest reserves and on gompi–guno concept •• Several medicinal gardens Penampang; PACOS Trust (NGO) state land were threatened by •• The establishment of a network established in community farming among ten villages on resource forests •• There was no existing formal conservation •• Indigenous tree nursery cooperation between several •• Capacity-building established communities •• The development of new economic •• Traditional forest knowledge activities was not promoted Replanting, conservation and •• Forest area in water •• Enrichment of water catchment area •• Forest enriched maintenance of communal forest and catchment was degraded •• Revival of interest in a small sacred •• Heightened interest in water catchment areas; Kampong hill within the catchment looking after the hill Kalampon, Keningau; Pertubuhan Rakyat Kampong Kalampon (community organization) Creating alternative economic •• Forest area on state land •• Work with the owner to conserve •• Forest enriched activities to conserve and protect the was threatened by farming forest in the water catchment area •• Agreement for long-term community’s forest resources and because it was located on an by planting fruit trees community use signed water catchment zones; Kampong individual title •• Development of an agreement Tiong, Tamparuli; Pertubuhan between the owner and community PUSAKAG (community organization) management Conservation and management •• Forest areas in water •• Weeding of Acacia mangium and •• Water catchment of natural resources at Bukit catchment was degraded replanting in catchment areas rehabilitated Gumantong communal water by forest fire and invasion •• Conserving remaining forest •• Medicinal garden catchment; Kampong Tinanggol, by Acacia mangium, an •• Training in handicraft-making to established Kudat; Pertubuhan MONUNGKUS introduced tree species that younger generation (community organization) seemed to have a negative •• Capacity-building effect on water supply •• There was a decreased supply of materials for handicraft-making Knowledge-based integrated •• Forest area in water •• Planting of trees in water catchment •• Forest enriched management of forests for the benefit catchment was degraded due areas •• Water source secured of the local community; Kampong to •• Repair of gravity pipes •• Community organization Bundu, Keningau; Pertubuhan •• Capacity-building strengthened MAMAKAT (community organization) •• Income generation by planting •• New source of income ginger established Management and conservation of •• Communities resettled by the •• Mapping of catchment area •• Forest enriched water catchment area; Kampong SFD in Gana Resettlement •• Planting of indigenous trees •• Youth organization Gana, Kota Marudu; Kelab Belia and Integrated Development •• Capacity-building strengthened Kampung Gana (NGO) Project •• Creation of food-processing house •• New industry established •• The forest area in forest reserve was degraded •• There was limited economic activity Maintenance and management •• Forest in water catchment was •• Control of Acacia mangium •• Forest rehabilitated of natural resources in water invaded by Acacia mangium •• Replanting in catchment areas •• Fruit trees planted catchment; Kampong Liu Tamu, •• Conserving remaining forest •• Medicinal garden Pitas; Pertubuhan KOMOKITUKOD •• Capacity-building established (community organization)

of activities, such as the conservation CHALLENGES IN INTEGRATING Small Grants Programme for Operations of communal forests; the replanting of TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE IN THE to Promote Tropical Forests have made indigenous tree species in degraded forest SFM CONCEPT IN SABAH some progress in integrating traditional in water catchments, national parks and Observation on community forestry knowledge in forest management in Sabah. forest reserves and on state land to secure programme The SFD has shown a willingness to engage community water supplies; the establish- The on-going community forestry proj- local communities in addressing the long- ment of medicinal gardens; and the setting ects by the SFD and community-based standing problems of deforestation and up of new economic activities. forestry projects under the EC–UNDP land degradation in its forest reserves. The

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linking of socio-economic incentives and Except for the Kelawat Forest Reserve management between local communities forest development has been instrumental Joint Forest Management project, no proper and relevant government bodies such as in eliciting community participation. joint management of natural forest has the SFD, Sabah Parks and the Drainage The success of most of the projects has been implemented in which there is a clear and Irrigation Department. demonstrated that local communities are mechanism by which local communities equally committed to protecting their com- and the SFD will meaningfully co-manage Outstanding issues related to SFM munity forest if given the opportunity to the forest and share the benefits. The implementation of SFM in Sabah is a participate meaningfully. None of the private companies under work in progress, and there are still many While the partnership between the SFD, SFMLAs has shown significant progress hurdles to overcome (SFD, 2012). One NGOs and community organizations is in the co-management of community forest of the key issues hampering the imple- commendable, however, the incorpora- with local communities. Similarly, about mentation of SFM is the determination tion of traditional knowledge in forest half the community-based forestry proj- of local community ownership of land management is yet to be fully realized. ects under the EC–UNDP Small Grants inside forest reserves – the Sabah Forest The community forestry projects under Programme for Operations to Promote Enactment, 1968, does not allow for native the SFD in production forests are mostly Tropical Forests are geared towards forest title ownership within forest reserves. This geared towards providing basic infrastruc- enrichment in water catchment areas and issue came up strongly during the recent ture and introducing agroforestry practices building capacity among local communi- National Land Inquiry by the Human (rubber planting), with minimal inputs of ties to meet their immediate economic Rights Commission of Malaysia (Vanar, traditional knowledge from the local com- needs. Except for the Kampong Tiong 2012). Forest reserve boundaries were not munities. Communities participate little in project, where a long-term agreement has drawn and marked on the ground until the actual management of natural forest been established between the community very recently – in most cases only after areas; their task is mainly to assist the SFD and the individual owner of the land to 2000. Therefore, many affected communi- in the (seedling preparation conserve the forest area, there has been ties were unaware that their lands were and planting) of degraded natural forest. little effort to establish proper joint forest within a forest reserve until the arrival

Community members work to rehabilitate a highly degraded forest invaded by Acacia mangium with indigenous tree species in Kampong Liu Tamu,

PACOS TRUST Pitas District

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Project staff document a community herbal of logging companies or the posting of the SFD does not entertain such claims. garden established during a project in notices by authorities warning against Affected local communities therefore view the Ulu Moyog area, Penampang District, with the support of the EC–UNDP Small trespassing. Since the establishment of the SFD with suspicion, despite the SFD’s Grants Programme for Operations to many forest reserves did not involve efforts to encourage them to participate in Promote Tropical Forests ground surveys that could have ensured community forestry projects such as those that communities and their native custom- in the Mangkawagu and Bengkoka forest ary rights territories were excluded from reserves. To the communities, such par- CONCLUSION the reserves, the SFD issued a circular in ticipation would be akin to relinquishing The Sabah experience shows that 1998 allowing communities living within their ancestral land to the SFD in exchange traditional knowledge on the use and such reserves to stay there and to continue for minimal benefits from projects that do management of forests still has a vital role their farming activities. However, they are not guarantee secure tenure. Establishing in forest management. Local communities not permitted to expand their farms within genuine partnerships between the SFD and who possess this knowledge are willing the forest reserves. local communities in this kind of situa- to participate in managing community Land is critical to the survival of tion, therefore, is challenging. Despite the forests sustainably, if given the opportunity. indigenous communities. For them, it requirement under FSC certification and Collaboration between government depart- is insufficient to be allowed to farm or more recently REDD+ – both of which the ments, NGOs and local communities is cultivate rubber in assigned community SFD is actively promoting – to recognize getting stronger, but the integration of forestry areas. They want formal owner- the rights of local communities to their traditional knowledge in SFM still has ship of the land that they consider rightly ancestral lands and to fully consult them a long way to go. For traditional forest- belongs to them under native customary prior to development, the situation on the related knowledge to be fully incorporated rights. As custodian of the forest reserves, ground has not improved. in SFM, the communities, who possess this

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knowledge, must be fully acknowledged, King, J. W. & King, J.K. eds. 1984. Languages Borneo. Website (available at: http://wwf. properly consulted and genuinely engaged. of Sabah: a survey report. Canberra, Pacific panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/ Local community requirements to main- Linguistics, Australian National University. borneo_forests/borneo_rainforest_ tain their traditional livelihoods, and their Malaysian Timber Council. 2008. FSC conservation/greenbusinessnetwork/ ownership of the land, must be respected. extends certification of Deramakot. news/?198691/Sabah-government-sees- More capacity-building for communi- Timber Malaysia, 14(3) (available at: http:// REDD-in-the-Heart-of-Borneo). u ties and research support on traditional www.mtc.com.my/info/). knowledge is needed. There is also a need Parrotta, J.A. & Trosper, R.L. eds. 2012. to further explore benefit-sharing and other Traditional forest-related knowledge: joint-management arrangements. sustaining communities, ecosystems and biocultural diversity. World Forest Series ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Volume 12. Dordrecht, the Netherlands, We thank the rural indigenous communities Springer. in Sabah, who have freely shared their Pei, S., Zhang, G. & Huai, H. 2009. problems, needs and aspirations through Application of traditional knowledge in forest informal sharing, community workshops management: ethnobotanical indicators of and village exchange programmes for the sustainable forest use. Forest Ecology and last 20 years. We also thank the Sabah Management, 257: 2017–2021. Forestry Department for its continued Ramakrishnan, P.S. 2007. Sustainable forest support for our community-based management and traditional knowledge forestry programme. u in north-east India. Forest Ecology and Management, 249: 91–99. SFD. 2012. Sabah Forestry annual report 2011. Available at: www.forest.sabah.gov.my/ index.php/en/2012-03-29-03-57-57/2012-04- 10-04-06-15/ar2011. Tongkul, F. 2002. Traditional systems of References indigenous peoples of Sabah, Malaysia: wisdom accumulated through generations. Department of Statistics Malaysia. PACOS Trust. 2010. Population and housing census of UNCCD. 2005. Revitalizing traditional Malaysia 2010: Sabah. Website (available knowledge: a compilation of UNCCD at: www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_ documents and reports from 1997-2003. Population/files/population/05Jadual_ Bonn, United Nations Convention to Mukim_negeri/Mukim_Sabah.pdf). Combat Desertification Secretariat (also Escobin, R., Gonslaves, J. & Queblatin, E. available at: http://www.unccd.int/Lists/ eds. 2008. Forest management through SiteDocumentLibrary/Publications/ local level action. EC–UNDP SGPPTF traditional_knowledge.pdf). Malaysia. UNDP. 2008. Malaysia sustainable Fortmann, L. & Ballard, H. 2011. Sciences, community forest management in Sabah. knowledges, and the practice of forestry. United Nations Development Programme Eur. J. Forest Res., 130: 467–477. (Available at: www.undp.org.my/uploads/ Herrmann, T.M. 2006. Indigenous knowledge Forest_Mgmt_final.pdf). and management of Araucaria araucana Vanar, M. 2012. Suhakam inquiry highlights forest in the Chilean Andes: implication for issues faced by Sabah’s indigenous native forest conservation. Biodiversity and people. The Star Newspaper, 11 June Conservation, 15(2): 647–662. 2012 (also available at: http://thestar. Kadazandusun Language Foundation. 2006. com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2012/6/11/ Good practices of EC UNDP SGP PTF nation/11453680&sec=nation). projects in Malaysia. Final report submitted World Wide Fund for Nature. 2011. Sabah to UNDP Malaysia. Government sees REDD in the Heart of

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The sustainability of traditional community forest management systems: lessons from India

J.R. Matta, R. Ghate and H. Nagendra

Traditional forest institutions ince the dawn of the nineteenth about changes in community values, atti- work, but their restitution century, the ecological and cultural tudes and livelihoods that affect the need, requires fundamental reform landscapes of forest-fringe societies ability and willingness of local people to through decentralization. Shave transformed dramatically. Growing work collectively in forests. populations, top-down policies and market Reporting on recent studies in India, forces have led to the rapid depletion of this article examines traditional systems Jagannadha Rao Matta is Forestry Officer, natural wealth and the abandonment of for managing local natural renewable FAO, Rome. Rucha Ghate is Researcher, many traditional systems. In rural India, resources and the contributions they Institute for Research and Development, communities are threatened by, among have made to the concept of sustainable Nagpur, India, and Harini Nagendra is D.S.T. Ramanujan Fellow, Ashoka Trust for Research other things, abject poverty, a lack of in Ecology and the Environment, Bangalore, economic opportunities, and the looming Forest-dependent women participate India, and Asia Research Coordinator, Center consequences of climate change. Changing in a survey. The effective engagement for Study of Institutions, Population and of women, including recognition Environmental Change, Indiana University, global market dynamics and associated of their needs, is critical to the United States of America. development patterns have also brought sustainability of any community- based forest management system FAO/D. MACQUEEN

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The field setting for a behavioural experiment described in case study 1

resource management. The article explores the question of whether community values remain strong enough to catalyse sustain- able forest management, and examines factors that could enable or constrain vil- lage societies in their forestry efforts today.

Sustainability and Traditional Natural Renewable Resource Management in India

Long before the modern world coined R. G the words sustainability and sustainable hate resource management, these concepts were already deeply ingrained in tradi- tional customs and cultural practices in with forests (Mitra and Gupta, 2009). adjoining forests, and the capacity of local India. Ancient scriptures emphasized the Their lifestyles are usually defined by the forest management institutions.2 The stud- importance of ecological preservation and absence of exploitive classes and organized ies were designed to capture attitudinal moderation in the use of natural resources. state structures; the complex ways and aspects underpinning individual behaviour Many traditions of Indian worship consider means by which they relate to each other expressed through privately taken deci- that all nature, be it rivers, mountains, and cooperate within and between kinship sions on forest use. Such decisions related lakes, forests, stars or sky, is pervaded by bonds; the all-pervasiveness of religion; to the harvesting of trees; the non-wood a divine presence, and even today there frequent cooperation among members forest products collected; the level of is great reverence and respect for nature. towards common goals; a low level of dependence on forests; the establishment Over the years, social customs and reli- technology; the segmented character of of forest plantations in degraded forest; gious beliefs and rituals influenced the the socio-economic unit1; distinct taboos, and responses to increases in payments attitude of communities towards forests customs and moral codes; and common from forest-related activities. and resulted in the evolution of distinct territories, descent, language and culture The studies involved experiments using systems of management. Although not (Pathy, as cited in Xaxa, 1999). Although games concerning common-pool resources without instances of conflict, these sys- there are many tribes in India and a wide designed to be relevant to participants, so tems were widely adhered to, within and range of linguistic and cultural differ- that participants’ behaviour in the experi- outside communities, and were monitored ences among them, their attitudes to forest ments correlated with their behaviour closely locally. Some of the common traits protection are commonly determined by in real-world situations. At the start of of traditional systems are: a holistic view religious dictates (e.g. the dos and don’ts each game, 100 small paper cut-outs in of ecosystems; a deep attachment to cul- in sacred groves), belief systems and social the shape of trees were stuck on a board ture and traditions (e.g. cultural festivals norms (Gadgil and Guha, 1992). Tribal placed prominently in a room. The five reinforcing belief in the preservation of traditions generally exhibit pro-social players in each game were informed that nature); resource ownership attributed behaviour towards forests (Gurven and these trees represented the forest about to communities; and restricting the use Winking, 2008). The following case studies of natural resources to the meeting of illustrate that traditional systems remain 1 Indigenous communities in India mostly basic needs. strong in many communities in India. participate in a low-skilled agricultural sector In contemporary India, the term “indige- that generates low income and offers little opportunity to upskill, which tends to be self- nous people” is synonymous with the word CASE STUDY 1: COOPERATION FOR perpetuating. The occupational distribution “tribal”, indicating these communities to SUSTAINABLE HARVESTING is also often fixed (segmented), increasing the be vanvasi (forest dwellers) or adivasi Two studies were conducted between difficulty of transitioning to higher-skilled occupations. (original inhabitants). Etymologically and January 2009 and April 2011 in eight tribal 2 The methodologies and results of these studies spatially, the lives and livelihoods of these villages in the state of Maharashtra that are published in full in Ghate, Ghate and tribal communities are linked intrinsically differed in their locations, dialects, state of Ostrom (2011) and Ghate et al. (2012).

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which they were to make decisions. They cooperation is not returned (Heylighen, rounds of the game. The harvesting rules were also told that they would individually 1995). Extending this to a natural resource, determined in advance by the group were “harvest” these trees, and that there would one might expect that individuals will take followed, with no infractions. be a group discussion prior to the harvest- more than their agreed share – trees, in this The players in these games understood ing “operation” to set the harvesting rules. instance – because of the risk that others that overharvesting would eventually A number of paper trees (determined to be will do so, hence depriving individuals deplete the resource and preferred long- the total allowed maximum harvest size who stuck to the agreement. In this study, term benefits over quick gains, even though for that round in the game) were placed however, the president of the forest man- this meant sacrifices on their part. The next to an empty box on a table in another agement committee harvested fewer than studies also revealed the communities’ room. Players entered this room in turn his permitted individual share of trees (the extensive knowledge of growth potential and dropped into the box the number of number having been agreed in advance, and their willingness to follow appropriate trees they wished to harvest in that round. in group discussions). When asked why management practices. They indicated that, A player could refrain from dropping any- this was the case, he responded that he given a proper platform for participatory thing into the box to indicate that he did did so in case other members harvested decision-making, indigenous communities not wish to harvest at all in that round. The more than their permitted share – that is, are likely to adopt norms of conservation, organizer recorded the number of trees to protect the forest from the possibility often also addressing issues of equity and harvested by each participant, removed of degradation. This precaution on the making conscious efforts to promote mod- the trees from the box and placed them part of the president, although admirable, erate harvesting. The take-home message back on the table. Thus, the next player in turned out to be unnecessary, because none here is that even after many decades of a the same round had the same number of of the other participants harvested more centralized forest management regime, the trees available for harvesting and did not than their agreed share. essence of cooperative, non-exploitative know the number of trees harvested by the Arguably, this behaviour contradicts the behaviour still exists in the indigenous previous player. Each player kept track of theory of the prisoner’s dilemma. The communities that can be relied on and the number of trees he had harvested in absence of infractions and the need for encouraged through decentralization all rounds. At the end of each round, the the exchange of only a few words – and policies. total number of trees harvested by the five even then only in initial rounds of the players was disclosed to the group. game – indicate the prevalence of mutual CASE STUDY 2: COMMITMENT TO The results confirmed the prevalence of trust. In one series of four experiments, CONSERVATION IN THE FACE OF systems of mutual trust and cooperation in the payoffs were doubled in one of the EXTREME CHALLENGES the communities. Participants discussed experiments, yet it made no difference to Located in the central Indian dry forest harvesting decisions, mainly in the initial harvesting decisions (Ghate, Ghate and belt in an area rich in biodiversity, the rounds. Once decisions were taken, they Ostrom, 2013). Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve is one of were followed in the remaining rounds, An important observation of the India’s best-known tiger conservation with few infractions – even though infrac- Maharashtra studies is that “harvesting” areas. Like many national parks and tions would have increased individual in the communities was conservative in wildlife sanctuaries in India, however, earnings – and there was no need for that it did not over-use the resources. In it is surrounded by communities of explicit verbal sanctions. There were four some sense the simulated harvesting could extremely poor people – mainly ethnic instances in which fewer than the allowed be termed suboptimal – that is, the com- indigenous tribes, in this case largely from number of trees were harvested, one of munities could have harvested more trees the Gond community – who are highly which is described below. sustainably without adversely affecting dependent on forests (Nagendra, Pareeth the sustainability of the resource. Ostrom and Ghate, 2006). With the formation The prisoner’s dilemma (1998) called this “better than rational” and expansion of the tiger reserve, many The prisoner’s dilemma is the term given behaviour. In many laboratory experiments tribes faced severe restrictions on their to an element of game theory related to featuring the prisoner’s dilemma, it has traditional rights to access forest products cooperation between two (or more) par- been observed that if players are told the and conduct livelihood activities inside ties. The idea is that each player in a given number of rounds to be played there will be the area (Ghate, 2003). Their settlements game (or life situation) gains when both overkill in the final rounds, with heavy and in the forest close to the tiger reserve has cooperate, but if only one cooperates, the unsustainable rates of harvesting. Yet in become both a blessing and a curse: while other, who defects, will gain more. If both the Maharashtra studies the behaviour – at they continue to meet many of their needs defect, both lose (or gain very little), but or below the maximum allowable harvest- from forests, such as timber, fuelwood, not as much as the “cheated” party whose ing – was consistent throughout the various medicine, livestock grazing, honey and

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A wild tiger in the Bandhavgarh other non-wood forest products, they are naturally, given an opportunity. These Tiger Reserve, India. Human–wildlife conflict is a growing natural resource also subject to crop and livestock losses norms strongly influence resource-use management issue in India from wildlife, as well as to direct attack patterns and discourage overexploitation by tigers. The communities are rarely for short-term benefit, while also helping to The involvement of local people and compensated for such losses or attacks minimize the negative impacts of wildlife sustaining their interest in resource and, in cases where they are, it is usu- conservation on local livelihoods. management is more difficult when the ally insufficient. The communities also benefits are not high, immediate or widely lack access to basic facilities due to their CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES distributed (Kerr, 2002). Given that most remote locations and the restrictions AND THE POTENTIAL FOR REVIVAL forests in India available for community placed on their traditional activities in In highly productive forest areas with management are degraded, they may often the . small human populations, the needs and be insufficiently productive to inspire Despite these challenges, a recent study interests of local stakeholders can often enthusiasm for management among local (Nagendra, Rocchini and Ghate, 2010) be met with few compromises on forest people. In general, users living at a sub- in six villages in the Tadoba Andhari quality: past studies have indicated posi- sistence level will have an incentive to Tiger Reserve indicated that a majority tive associations between local collective conserve their resource base because they of people identified forest conservation action and good forest condition (Lise, as an important goal and were keen 2000). In such situations, the introduction 3 to be involved in forest protection and of incentives for local participation, such “Collective action” describes a situation in which multiple individuals would all benefit monitoring, reinforcing the communities’ as shares of the proceeds from wood and from a certain action, but the action has an historical and symbiotic association with non-wood forest products and ecotourism, associated cost that makes it implausible that forests. For them, forests are an important could be reasonably simple and sustainable, any one individual can or will undertake the action alone. In addition to the transaction common-pool resource; social norms for although it may face typical collective- costs, challenges include, for example, “free their sustainable management evolve action challenges (Vira, 1999).3 riding” and ensuring fairness and justice.

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Women weave baskets in a women’s self- have limited alternative income options, dilution of biodiversity protection and help group in Tamil Nadu. Establishing but if the resource is degraded, such users conservation efforts. women’s self-help groups and promoting skills in the processing of, and value- may be unable to restore it to a level where In some cases, practices such as JFM adding to, forest products are key it will provide good, sustainable livelihood have helped restore local environments components of JFM in many Indian states opportunities. In such circumstances, there (Sreedharan and Matta, 2010). In many are good grounds for external interven- others, however, such practices have been Early investment is needed tions that assist poor users to overcome unable to ensure sustainability due to a It is in this context that the role of incen- barriers to local investment in sustain- lack of involvement of local communi- tives and secure resource access rights are able management. ties in decision-making; a lack of tenure particularly important if local management and access rights, particularly given the traditions are to be revived and placed Continued reform is needed long-term nature of forestry; and a heavy on a strong footing. Some indigenous The Indian Government's approach to for- dependence on external agencies (Matta, institutions such as sacred forests func- est management began to evolve towards 2006). Overall, an explicit linkage was tion effectively to safeguard biodiversity greater participation in the 1980s with lacking between the devolution of local through traditional rules, without any programmes such as joint forest man- responsibilities for forest conservation and external inputs in terms of money or forest agement (JFM). The Forest Rights Act, the right to devise locally suitable, adaptive interventions (e.g. Nagendra and Gokhale, 2006, moved the process a step further, and flexible rules for forest management at 2008). In many larger, contested or espe- promising a significant transfer of rights to a community level (Ostrom, 2005; Ostrom cially degraded forest patches, however, tribal groups despite some apprehensions. and Nagendra, 2006). Such a linkage monetary investments may be required Concerns about the Act were expressed requires the strong involvement of local in initial years, not only to increase forest particularly by conservation groups, some people in planning and management pro- productivity but also to strengthen local of which took the issue to the courts cesses, which, in turn, requires appropriate institutional capacities (Ghate, Mehra and because they were worried by the possible institutional arrangements and support. Nagendra, 2009).

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People value and use forests for many local people have greater power and ability (Matta and Kerr, 2007). Thus, rather than purposes other than social and economic; to make informed decisions in managing providing project-based external assis- the psychological benefits – such as an their resources and institutions (Matta and tance, decentralized governance should be increased sense of satisfaction and reduced Kerr, 2007). the main approach to restoring local forms stress – are often also important (Sundar, of natural resource management. Those to 2000). Thus, incentives must go beyond MOVING FORWARD whom responsibilities are devolved should the financial to include wider social issues Traditional management systems in India be allowed to set objectives themselves, such as tenure, community development, worked well for as long as communities rather than being expected to meet the social recognition and institution-building. held together and were not disrupted by objectives set by others. Effective and sustainable local natural external forces. Restoring such systems There is also a need for various minis- resource management requires the pres- to meet wider needs for forest goods and tries and departments engaged in tribal ence of appropriate mechanisms to generate services, however, requires the genuine and areas to statutorily recognize local forest financial returns, legal empowerment committed transfer of power, resources management institutions. In the absence to enforce institutional obligations, and and responsibility from central authorities of such affirmative action at the top accountability for allocated responsibili- to lower levels of governance (Nagendra policy level, it is unrealistic to expect ties. The effective engagement of women, and Ostrom, 2012). local villagers to bring about fundamental including recognition of their needs and Effective and sustainable local resource changes in the way forests are governed their participation in decision-making, is management also entails active community or to ensure their sustainable management. also critical. The ultimate objective should participation, appropriate legal measures More importantly, maintaining the status be to progress from the current emphasis to enforce institutional obligations by com- quo could lead to further environmental on the participation of local communities munities, mechanisms to generate needed degradation and could further entrench in government programmes to the promo- financial resources, and accountability rural poverty and staggering social and tion of decentralized governance where to deliver the responsibilities entrusted economic inequities. u

Villagers stand near a sacred grove in Maharashtra. Sacred groves are maintained by local communities and are generally associated with a presiding deity; they often act as reservoirs of rare flora and fauna, and hunting and hate logging are strictly

R. G R. prohibited in them

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Matta, J.R. 2006. Transition to participatory for India’s forests? New Delhi, Sage forest management in an era of globalization: Publications. challenges and opportunities. Paper Xaxa, V. 1999. Transformation of tribes in References presented at the International Association India. Economic and Political Weekly, for the Study of the Commons, 19–23 June, 34(24): 1519–1524. u Gadgil, M. & Guha, R. 1992. This fissured Bali, Indonesia. land: an ecological history of India. New Mitra, S. & Gupta, G. 2009. The logic of Delhi, Oxford University Press. community participation: experimental Ghate, R. 2003. Global gains at local costs: evidence from West Bengal. Economic and imposing protected areas: a case study Political Weekly, 44(20): 51–57. from central India. Journal of Sustainable Nagendra, H. & Ostrom, E. 2012. Polycentric Development and World Ecology, 10: governance of forest resources. International 377–395. Journal of the Commons, 6: 104–133. Ghate, R., Mehra, D. & Nagendra, H. 2009. Nagendra, H., Rocchini, D. & Ghate, R. Local institutions as mediators of the impact 2010. Beyond parks as monoliths: spatially of markets on non-timber differentiating park-people relationships in extraction in central India. Environmental the Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve in India. Conservation, 36: 51–61. Biological Conservation, 143: 2900–2908. Ghate, R., Ghate, S. & Ostrom, E. 2011. Nagendra, H. & Gokhale, Y. 2008. Indigenous communities, cooperation, Management regimes, property rights, and communication: taking experiments and forest biodiversity in Nepal and India. to the field. SANDEE Working Paper No. Environmental Management, 41: 719–733. 64–11. Kathmandu, South Asian Network for Nagendra, H., Pareeth, S. & Ghate, R. 2006. Development and Environmental Economics. People within parks: forest villages, land- Ghate, R., Ghate, S. & Ostrom, E. 2013. Can cover change and landscape fragmentation communities plan, grow and sustainably in the Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve, India. harvest from forests? Economic and Applied Geography, 26: 96–112. Political Weekly, 48(8): 59–67. Ostrom, E. 1998. A behavioral approach to Gurven, M. & Winking, J. 2008. Collective the rational choice theory of collective action in action: prosocial behaviour action. American Political Science Review, in and out of the laboratory. American 92(1):1–22. Anthropologist, 110(2): 179–190. Ostrom, E. 2005. Understanding institutional Heylighen, F. 1995. The prisoner’s dilemma. diversity. Princeton, USA, Princeton In F. Heylighen, C. Joslyn & V. Turchin, University Press. eds. Principia Cybernetica Web. Brussels, Ostrom, E. & Nagendra, H. 2006. Insights on Principia Cybernetica (available at: http:// linking forests, trees, and people from the air, pespmc1.vub.ac.be/PRISDIL.html). Last on the ground, and in the lab. Proceedings accessed 28 February 2013. of the National Academy of Sciences USA, Kerr, J. 2002. Watershed development, 103: 19224–19331. environmental services, and poverty Sreedharan, C.K. & Matta, J.R. 2010. Poverty alleviation in India. World Development, alleviation as a pathway to sustainable forest 30 1387–1400. management. Environment, Development, Lise, W. 2000. Factors influencing people’s and Sustainability, 12 (6): 877-888. participation in forest management in India. Sundar, N. 2000. Unpacking the ‘joint’ in Ecological Economics, 34: 379–392. Joint Forest Management. Development and Matta, J.R. & Kerr, J. 2007. Barriers Change, 31: 255–279. beyond the partners: bureaucratic and Vira, B. 1999. Implementing Joint Forest political constraints to implementing Joint Management in the field: towards an Forest Management in India. Environment, understanding of the community– Development, and Sustainability, 9(4): bureaucracy interface. In R. Jeffery & 465–479. N. Sundar, eds. A new moral economy

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Traditional Indian toys, handmade by Indian artisans Wooden toys People have been making wooden toys on the Indian subcontinent since the civilizations of in India Mohenjodaro and Harappa, up to 5 000 years ago. Today, wooden toys are manufactured have always been popular in both urban and by traditional artisans throughout India and rural markets. Thus, Indian wooden toys have P.K. Aggarwal, R.V.Rao especially in the north, northeast, centre a tradition of linking play and amusement with and S.C. Joshi and south, depending on the availability of religion, history, art and education. raw materials. A wide range of timbers is Traditional wooden-toy making is conducted used, such as the lightweight species Givotia mainly at the cottage-industry scale, and The toy-making industry is rottleriformis in Karnataka and Wrightia most artisans are “unorganized”, meaning part of the country’s rich tinctoria in Andhra Pradesh, and the well- that they operate independently (Kumar et al., cultural heritage, but action is known sandalwood (Santalum album) and 1996a). Traditionally, artisans use very simple needed if it is to prosper. rosewood (Dalbergia sissoo). But the industry hand tools, but some are turning to power is under threat, including from a lack of raw tools such as lathes, jigsaws, circular saws, materials. This article discusses some of the fretsaws and spray-painting equipment. issues facing Indian traditional wooden toy- The wood favoured by artisans is soft to making and the actions required to ensure moderately hard, has a fine texture and is its viability. easy to carve into desired shapes, although ultimately the choice of wood depends on INDIA’S TOYMAKERS availability. Traditional toymakers use lac, an Traditional wooden-toy making constitutes insect-derived substance that is melted and an important part of India’s cultural heritage. solidified into sticks. The required size and Pankaj Aggarwal is Scientist, R.V. Rao is Traditional toys depict, in different ways, the shape of wood is cut, seasoned, attached to Scientist (Retired) and S.C. Joshi is Director at the Institute of Wood Science and Technology, country’s rich history, mythologies, legends, a lathe operated either manually or by motor, Bangalore, India. folklore and plant and animal life, and they and turned in order to smooth it. Chisels are

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used to shape the revolving piece of wood, and flaws are sandpapered. The surface is lacquered by rubbing lac sticks into the revolving wood.

MAJOR CENTRES OF TOYMAKING The main centres of wooden-toy making are Meerut, Moradabad, Sharanpur, Nagina and Srinagar in northern India; Assam, Tripura, Nagaland, West Bengal and Rajasthan in the northeast; Bhopal and Jabalpur in central India; and various centres in southern India

(see Table 1, which also shows the main tim- M.SURESH ber species used, by state and population centre, in southern India). Some areas have particular specialties, such as idols in sets of various shapes, animal figures, and models India has a rich diversity of tree species, Sterculia urens (gular and tapsi), Toona ciliata of musical instruments. including about 1 600 species with timber of (toon), Wrightia tinctoria (ankudu, jeddapaala, commercial value. The major species used tedlapaala), Pterocarpus santalinus (red CHALLENGES traditionally in the toymaking sector are sanders), Givotia rottleriformis (puniki) and The problem of raw-material supply Adina cardifolia (haldu), Ailanthus excelsa Gyrocarpus jacquini (helicopter tree, pro- The materials used in traditional wooden-toy (maharukh), Albizia lebbek (kokko), Artocarpus peller tree, stinkwood) (Kumar et al., 1995, making fall into two categories: wood, the heterophyllus (kathal), Artocarpaus hirsutus 1996a, 1996b). basic raw material from which toys are made; (aini), Alstonia scholaris (chatian), Anogeissus However, the industry is facing an acute and subsidiary materials such as aluminum, pendula (kardahi), Azadirachta indica shortage of many of these species due to zinc, waste coir and cotton, mogali (kewada) (neem), Chloroxylon swietenia (satinwood) overexploitation (not exclusively by wooden- leaves from Pandanus fascicularis, sawdust, Cinnamomum zeylanicum (cinnamon), toy makers), which is pushing up the prices ochre (derived from clay containing mineral Diospyrous ebonum (ebony), Dysoxylum of the wood and hence of the handicrafts oxides), orpiment (an arsenic sulphide mineral malabaricum (white cedar), Gmelina arborea themselves. Squeezed by higher costs, many compound), chalk powder, gums and pastes, (gamarai), Hardwickia pinnata (piney), Juglans artisans are abandoning their professions gurjan oils (from Dipterocarpus turbinatus), regia (walnut), Lagerstromia microcarpa (Kumar et al., 1995). and other natural colours and paints. (benteak), Pterocarpus marsupium (bijasal), For example, the artisans of Nirmal and Kondapalli, in the state of Andhra Pradesh, TABLE 1. Timber species used for toymaking in southern India depend on Givotia rottleriformis for various Species State Population centre types of toys. In Nirmal, the annual Givotia rottleriformis (puniki) Andhra Pradesh Nirmal, Kondalpalli, Tirupathi requirement for wood of this species is Wrightia tinctoria (ankudu, dudhi) Andhra Pradesh Nirmal, Ettikopakka 40 m3, and 50–60 families derive their Karnataka Channapatna, Sagar livelihoods by using this species for making Pterocrapus santalinus (red sanders) Andhra Pradesh Chittoor, Tirupathi toys (Rao et al., 2001). However, Givotia rottleriformis is becoming scarce because Santalum album (sandalwood) Karnataka Sagar, Mysore of the overexploitation and degradation of Kerala Thiruvananthpuram the forest in which it grows. The situation Andhra Pradesh Hyderabad is similar in Kondapalli. The artisans of Dalbergia latifolia (rosewood) Kerala Thiruvananthpuram Ettikoppaka in Andhra Pradesh depend on Karnataka Mysore the wood of a small deciduous tree, Wrightia Tamil Nadu Tanjavore tinctoria. Anecdotal information suggests Andhra Pradesh Rajamundry that nearly 200 families in Ettikoppaka and Source: Rao et al., 2001 the surrounding area are dependent on

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toy making based on this raw material (Rao, ongoing effort to generate scientific data of more even quality). It may also reflect Balaji and Joshi, 2011). There is an urgent on the working and carving qualities of tree the continuing low profile in the industry of need for these artisans to shift to alternative species that could provide alternatives to women, who have traditionally catered to species, especially plantation species, Indian woods. local clients and markets. because Wrightia is becoming scarce. So far, the conservation of the genetic Our institute has carried out studies of sources of the main Indian tree species used Low prices alternative species, now being grown in plan- in the wooden-toy industry has not received Artisans complain that while raw-material tations, that may provide suitable wood for toys due attention. There is an urgent need to prices increase, the prices paid for their and other handicrafts. They include Acacia conserve existing forests, bring these species products remain static. This is partly because auriculiformis (earpod wattle), Eucalyptus under sustainable management and affo- of the presence of intermediaries between camaldulensis (river red gum), E. citriodora restation programmes, and encourage the suppliers and purchasers in export, wholesale (lemon scented gum), E. tereticornis (mysore use of alternative plantation-grown species. and retail markets and partly a function of gum), Leucaena leucocephala (subabul), With a few exceptions, wooden-toy makers product substitution and the need for product Maesopsis eminii (musizi), Swietenia lack sufficient support from research insti- diversification. As synthetic substitutes flood mahogani (), Dalbergia sissoo tutions, government agencies and private the market, prices for handmade products (sissoo) and Simarouba glauca (oil tree) companies, due to a lack of interaction and cannot be expected to rise unless they acquire (Kumar et al., 1995; IWST, 2008). political will. a new level of desirability. It is necessary to improve designs and diversify products, Lack of conservation of genetic resources Gender exploitation by traders which requires new skills and training (Rao Given the shortage of traditional raw materi- Export traders often bypass women during et al., 2001). als, there is a need to ensure that a sufficient procurement processes, even though many area of planted forest is available to meet the women make export-quality products (group A SUCCESS STORY needs of the traditional wooden-toy industry. of craftspeople in Chennapatna, personal Channapatna, in Karnataka, is home to more Potentially, this industry is a good source of communication, 2012). This bias may be than 5 000 skilled craftsmen whose livelihoods foreign exchange and also a vehicle for main- partly because women mostly use hand are based on wooden-toy making. According taining cultural heritage (Rao et al., 2001), as lathes and exporters prefer articles made to the artisans themselves, they earn Rs 300– well as a provider of employment and income on power lathes (which men are more likely to 350 per day; an income of Rs 5000–6000 in rural communities. However, there is little use than women, and which provide products per month enables a family to lead a fairly M.SURESH

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decent life in Channapatna (Rao et al., 2001). raw-material supply, by providing sufficient encourage the use of alternative plantation- Some years back, their industry was threat- infrastructure; grown species. At the same time, wooden-toy ened by a flood of low-cost, plastic “made • develop adequate material testing and makers need assistance to upskill in the face of in China” toys on the market, which quickly performance measurement and upgrade international competition in the toy market. u replaced traditional handmade wooden toys production processes to improve the qual- and jeopardized the livelihoods of the arti- ity and safety of products; sans. The industry survived, however, thanks • use innovative marketing to increase reach partly to the efforts of the state government and build new marketing channels. and some non-governmental organizations One way to increase the profitability of (NGOs), which provided the industry with makers of traditional wooden toys would crucial support. Many artisans who had be to cut the middleman from the trade. A References migrated to other cities in search of employ- mechanism is needed to enable wooden- ment have now returned to Chennapatna as toy makers to sell their products directly IWST. 2008. Information brochure. Bangalore, the industry gains momentum and economic to government and private agencies at a India, Institute of Wood Science and importance. The Karnataka State Handicraft pre-fixed rate. Certain government agen- Technology. Development Corporation is running a com- cies collect and sell the product of cottage Kumar, P., Sujatha, M., Shashikala, S. & mon facility centre, in which artisans pay a industries through various markets in India’s Rao, R.V. 1995. Wood handicraft: traditional small fee to use the facilities. NGOs such as temple towns and through state handicrafts and alternate timbers. Wood News, October– Maya Organics have developed new designs development corporations, such as Leepakhi December. to help the artisans further develop their prod- (Andhra Pradesh), Pumpar (Tamil Nadu) and Kumar, P., Sujatha, M., Shashikala, S. ucts. About 1 000 registered members avail Cauvery (Karnataka). But to properly support & Rao, R.V. 1996a. Wood handicraft: themselves of the benefits offered by the the wooden-toy makers, such agencies need traditional and alternate timbers. Wood Karnataka State Handicraft Development to be strengthened. News, January–March. Corporation to encourage the industry, includ- Kumar, P., Sujatha, M., Shashikala, S. ing funds for health schemes and training on THE FUTURE OF INDIA’S WOODEN-TOY & Rao, R.V. 1996b. Wood handicraft: new designs, and the government is providing INDUSTRY traditional and alternate timbers. Wood loans to help improve the facilities. The Indian middle class has emerged as a News, April–June. major consumer force; its purchasing power is Rao, K.S., Khan, B.A., Reddy, K.S., Rao,R.V., ACTIONS TO MAKE THE INDUSTRY now equivalent to that of the entire European Adkoli, N.S., Suryaprakash & Achoth, L. SUSTAINABLE market (Rao et al., 2001). India’s wooden-toy 2001. Study on demand and supply of timber, The following actions are needed to address artisans create beautiful things. Considering poles and firewood in the state of Andhra the problems facing the traditional wooden- the retail boom and the changing consumption Pradesh. An Institute of Wood Science and toy sector: habits of the middle class, which favours the Technology report. 156 pp. • provide technological support and training, use of toys as a medium for entertainment and Rao, M.V., Balaji, M. & Joshi, S.C. 2011. including in social and design trends; education, the wooden-toy industry in India Etikoppaka: an Indian village perpetuating • establish training centres to improve the could – if adequately supported – experience the joy of wood through the tradition of toy skills base, including in design, manufac- major upward growth. art. International Conference and Exhibition ture and marketing; In our view it is the duty of society, which on Art and Joy of Wood, held at IWST • conserve natural forests used to supply benefits from the artistic creations of the Bangalore, 19–22 October 2011. u the sector, bring them under sustainable wooden-toy makers, to assist them. The management and, where necessary, refor- most important factor is the availability and est them; affordability of the raw material with which • evaluate the working, carving and turning to practise their craft. A dwindling supply of qualities of alternative woods that might wood from natural forests has caused an substitute for traditional species; escalation in the cost of the raw material. • encourage the use of alternative plantation- The problem of raw-material supply can be grown species suitable for the sector and overcome by using the wood of alternative establish and sustainably manage planta- species, grown in plantations. There is an tions of them; urgent need to conserve existing forests and • increase the scale of production, depend- bring them under sustainable management ing on the feasible level of sustainable and reforestation programmes, and to

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Forests in the next 300 years

J. Blaser and H. Gregersen FAO/V. MAKSIMOV FAO/V.

“Even if I knew that tomorrow the world would go to pieces, I would still plant my apple tree.” – Martin Luther (early sixteenth century)

The global forest estate will he oak tree being planted as we At the global scale, the question of whether be much larger in 2313, and write on a cold morning in 2013 at individual trees such as these survive to forest managers will be very a university campus on the Swiss maturity is unimportant, but the overall important people. Tplateau should reach maturity sometime fate of the forests of which they are part is in the twenty-fourth century. All going crucial. Forests and trees are a renewable well, the sipo tree (Entandrophragma resource, providing an enormous range of utile) that has just established itself in a goods and ecosystem services. In the face rainforest gap in northern Republic of the of expected declines in the availability Congo, starting a life of fierce competi- of non-renewable resources and massive tion for light and nutrients, will overgrow environmental change, the fate of trees the forest canopy to become an emergent and forests in the next 200–300 years is Juergen Blaser is Professor of International Forestry, Bern University of Applied tree sometime after 2350. The fir seedling Sciences – School of Agricultural, (Abies sibirica) in the Northern Ural of Above: The Kaybitsky Forest, the Forest and Food Sciences, Switzerland. the Russian Federation, which today is Russian Federation, which houses Hans Gregersen is Professor Emeritus, genetic reserves of oak trees. Department of Forest Resources, University 20 cm tall, will have a stem diameter of Maintaining forest biodiversity will of Minnesota, USA. 60 cm by 2313. be crucial for a sustainable future

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of fundamental importance to humanity. We assume that people will continue to will face in the next 300 years, social Forests come and go (Box 1), but in the change and that those who live 300 years cohesion will generally be maintained. last several hundred years there has been from now will differ greatly from us in Societies will become increasingly demo- a dramatic decline. Nevertheless, there many ways that we cannot predict. We cratic, research capacity will increase, and is potential to reverse this and to greatly assume, however, that their fundamental nanotechnologies and other undreamed-of increase the global forest resource. In this values will remain the same – they will innovations will flourish. Three hundred article, we consider the factors that will value environmental quality, economic years ago, societies used forests and trees influence the fate of forests in the next prosperity and social equity. for the same basic reasons we use them 300 years, and predict a world that is more As discussed below, we assume that the today, but in totally different ways. We reliant than ever on its forests – and on its overall consumption of resources will expect that the same will be true 300 years forest managers. increase due to population growth and from now – the same benefits will be growth in per capita consumption. At reaped from forests, but in many new the same time, we expect that climate ways. Below, therefore, we make a case Forests come and go change will have dramatic impacts on for expanded demand for forests and trees the environment, potentially inducing over the next 300 years and therefore for Fourteen thousand years ago, at the end major movements of people and leading to an expanded global forest estate. of the last glacial period, the world’s increased conflict and civil unrest. Forest forests were found mainly in refuges destruction could continue unabated and MAJOR CHALLENGES AND A in hot and humid Southeast Asia, the even increase over the next decades. In his PATHWAY FOR CHANGE central Amazon, West and Central acclaimed A Brief History of the Future, Figure 1 shows the major elements we Africa and the southeast of North Attali (2011) envisioned that “forests will considered in projecting what will happen America (Adams, 1997) and covered be rarer and rarer, devoured by the packag- to forests in coming centuries. Of the an area of less than 2 billion hectares ing and paper-making businesses and by many challenges and drivers (Box I in (ha). As temperature and humidity the expansion of agriculture and cities”. Figure 1) that will influence forests of increased, forests expanded to their Despite such a potentially bleak medium- the future, we focus on what we view largest extent of more than 9 billion ha term outlook, we choose to accept an in the mid-Holocene, 7 000–9 000 years equally reasonable assumption; namely, 1 ago. From about 3 000 years ago, the that, despite the many problems humanity The future of forests: challenges, forest area declined steadily as humans responses and impacts developed from hunters and gatherers leads to II. Implications in terms to farmers and herders (Figure 2). We of growth in demand for estimate the net loss of forest area since resources: IV. Supply responses and the early 1700s at about 1 billion ha, all leads to • Space their impacts on forests: of it human-induced. Nevertheless, in • Arable land • Increased harvest the last two decades, 77 countries have • Forest goods • Increased conversion of • Forest services changed from being net losers of forests forest land for non-forest • Energy uses to net gainers, although the forests being • Biodiversity • Increased trade I. The major challenges added are often quite different from the • Increased planted forest, and drivers of change forests being lost (Putz, forthcoming). agroforests, urban forests affecting forests: • Management intensification • Population growth • Growth in per capita III. Tools and human Impacts on forests: abilities available THE MAIN ASSUMPTIONS income • Initial increase in to influence supply 1 • Human-induced climate deforestation and forest The information age is giving rise to dra- change responses and impacts: degradation matic changes in the way in which societies • Ingenuity • Biodiversity and loss live, think, work, buy and prioritize future • Innovation • Increased GHG emissions • Technology development • Increased vulnerability of investments, and the humans of today are species and ecosystems motivates • Education, extension very different – physically, mentally and • Increased economic • Models of management, activities spiritually – to those of 300 years ago. governance, cooperation • Economic reasoning and prioritization 1 The first two “ages” were the agricultural age influenced by and the industrial age (Toffler, 1980).

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14 000 years ago (based on Adams, 1997) 8 000 years ago (based on WRI, 1997)

Last Glacial Maximum (18 000 14C years ago) Early Holocene (8 000 14C years ago)

Closed forest Extreme desert Closed forest Extreme desert

Today (based on remote sensing map FAO and JRC, 2012)

2 as the three most important: population the responses to the challenges, and the The world’s forest area growth; growth in per capita consump- responses, in turn, will determine the size tion; and climate change. These give rise and nature of the impacts (Box IV). Each for the world population to grow from to many challenges (Box II), but also to of these four elements (as shown in boxes 60 million to 600 million people in 1700 many opportunities to meet the challenges I–IV) is discussed below. (McEvedy and Jones, 1978) and only by providing incentives for ingenuity and 300 years to grow almost twelve-fold to innovation to flourish and leading to the Major challenges and drivers of 7 100 million in 2012. However, the good development of new technologies and ways change affecting forests news, based on a well-justified “medium of organizing societies (Box III). Societal Population growth. The world is getting growth” scenario, is that the world’s priorities, abilities and tools will determine more crowded. It took about 2 000 years population will grow, at a slowing rate, to

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around 9 billion by 2050 and then stabilize than population growth rates. The con- non-deforesting uses. This increased up to 2300 and beyond (UN, 2004). The sumption of goods and services differs acknowledgement of the importance of growth to 2050 will occur nearly exclu- dramatically between poorer and richer forests is one reason why most developed sively in tropical and subtropical countries, countries, both in absolute and relative and middle-income countries are now net mainly in Africa and Asia, where defor- quantities. According to the Worldwatch adders to their forest areas. Another reason estation for food production is likely to Institute (2011), “the 12% of the world’s is that some major countries have “exported remain a challenge for the next 50 years. population that live in North America their deforestation” to mainly developing However, the current trend of migration and Western Europe account for 60% of countries by becoming net importers of from tropical areas to temperate areas, and private consumption spending, while the food and forest products because they are from rural to urban areas, is also likely to third of the population that lives in South often cheaper than domestic production continue, perhaps mitigating the direct Asia and sub-Saharan Africa accounts for (Gregersen et al., 2011). impacts of population growth on forests. only 3.2%”. As per capita incomes increase Climate change. Science-based predic- A global population of 9 billion people in developing countries it is likely that tions of climate change generally do not could live sustainably (see, for example, resource consumption will also rise. go beyond 100 years from now; thus, a Tudge, 2007), except for expected growth Income growth will also shift the mix projection to 300 years involves many in per capita consumption. of goods and services demanded from uncertainties. We have chosen an optimistic Consumption and income growth. forests. The demand on the world’s natural scenario of an increase in mean global tem- OECD (2012) and The Conference Board forests is likely to increasingly shift away perature of 4 °C by 2313; this is optimistic (2012) projected that world gross domestic from uses such as fuelwood and timber because this increase is projected by most product would continue to grow for the towards services such as watershed climate models by the end of the current next 20 years or so, with rates of growth protection, , biodi- century, given no serious policy changes higher in developing countries and higher versity conservation, recreation and other (World Bank, 2012a). Despite being

Mid-altitude (1 500 m above sea level) fire- affected savanna in Madagascar. Under climate change there is a risk that many forested areas today will become savanna- like landscapes, with © J. BLASER small islands of biodiversity-rich but isolated forest stands

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Savannah in the Republic of the Congo in October 2012. This could be the landscape in a large part of the Congo Basin in 2313 © J. BLASER

optimistic, such an increase is projected to the resulting physiological stress makes much forest and in develop- have devastating consequences, including them more susceptible to catastrophic ing countries will likely be cleared to the inundation of coastal cities; increasing damage from ecological disturbances such make room for food and possibly biofuel risks to food production, potentially leading as disease, insects and fire (Bergengren, crops. Thus, deforestation will continue to higher malnutrition; increased aridity in Waliser and Yung, 2011) and increases to convert forests to land suitable for many dry regions and increased rainfall the likelihood of local and even regional agricultural crop production (Bruinsma, in wet regions; unprecedented heat waves extinctions. Research to better understand 2003). On the other hand, the area of land in many regions, especially the tropics; vulnerability and resilience will play a in agricultural use in the industrialized substantially exacerbated water scarcity major role in providing forest management countries of Europe and North America in many regions; an increased frequency options in the face of climate change. will actually decrease to 2030, and of high-intensity tropical cyclones; and the much of it will revert to forest and other irreversible loss of biodiversity, including Implications for resource demand environmental uses (Wirsenius, Azar and in coral reef systems and forests (World The three major challenges discussed Berndes, 2010; Gregersen et al., 2011). We Bank, 2012a). above will lead to increased demand for expect a similar, if somewhat later, trend The 4 °C scenario involves an increase natural resources and have major implica- in most developing countries. in the mean global temperature from the tions for the future of forests. Watershed management. Freshwater pre-industrial value of 13.5 °C in 1800 Deforestation and reforestation. If scarcity is likely to become a major con- and the 14.5 °C today to about 18.5 °C in technological progress in food productiv- straint to development in coming centuries. 2313. Changes in climate could happen ity per unit of land does not keep up with Water use and availability are affected by very fast, prompting dramatic changes to the growing demand for food, then there population size, technology development forests. When trees, plants and animals are are likely to be significant reductions in and income growth, and climate change exposed to environmental conditions that forest area as agriculture expands to meet is likely to have an increasing impact. differ from those to which they are adapted, growing demand. Over the next 50 years, There is evidence that trees can reduce

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An old-growth ayous tree in the Sanga forest, Republic of the Congo. Climax forests will dwindle in the face of climate change and will be rare by 2313 J. B J. laser

runoff at the small catchment scale and, and genetically narrow high-yielding of forest carbon stocks will be a major at a very large scale (e.g. the Amazon varieties, increasing the vulnerability challenge for foresters. REDD+2 was Basin), forests are linked to precipitation of food production to biotic and abiotic first proposed in 2007 as a mechanism to patterns and water availability (Ellison, stresses. The risk of crop failure will reduce greenhouse gas emissions from Futter and Bishop, 2011). In drier areas, increase further with climate change and forests, and there are high expectations trees can reduce the amount of available the increasing fragmentation of . that it will become a major tool for fund- water (although through sheltering effects Conserving biodiversity, particularly in ing forest management. However, there they can also increase local water avail- tropical dry and moist forests, should is considerable work to do to put this or ability). In the future, such direct links be a top priority for humanity because other similar mechanisms into effect and between forests and water will be crucial, genetic diversity will be essential as a to ensure the permanence of forest carbon. and managing forests specifically for water buffer against changing environmental Wood energy. Oil, gas and coal are quality and the timing of water flows will conditions and as a pool of variation to be exhaustible resources; the first two will be increasingly important. used in crop and forest tree improvement likely be almost exhausted in 300 years, Biodiversity protection. In past mil- and breeding. lennia, human societies used hundreds of The permanence of carbon stocks. 2 A term that has come to mean reducing plant and animal species to ensure their Besides oceans, sediments and fossil fuels, emissions from deforestation and forest food and health security. Today, however, forests, tundra and peatlands constitute degradation and the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and global food security depends on only a the planet’s main carbon pools (about enhancement of forest carbon stocks in few crop species (Salim and Ullsten, 1999) 2 000 gigatonnes). Ensuring the stability developing countries.

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but coal may last longer. Addressing the responsibilities for, public-domain forest Governance and management. The energy challenge will be a priority in a resources can lead to more sustainable main governance challenges in the future hotter and more crowded world. Wood forest use and management. Most of the will be linked to access to crucial natu- was the main source of energy before the major innovations that will be needed to ral resources such as land, forests, water, nineteenth century and continues to be an secure a positive forest future must occur energy and minerals. Good global gover- important energy source. In 2009, about outside the forest sector; they include nance will be required to avoid devastating 1.7 billion m3 of wood was consumed as advances in food production to increase conflicts and disputes over resources, par- fuel, amounting to 73 percent of the world’s productivity per unit area of land to help ticularly water in transboundary situations renewable energy supply in that year reduce deforestation, energy technologies but also land. Human migration towards (IEA, 2010). Third-generation biofuels3 that move away from inefficient fuelwood areas with the best living conditions is will become increasingly important, but use, and the development of means to deal likely to increase in the coming century. most other types of wood-based energy with the threat posed by climate change. We expect that the current governance are likely to decline. Advances in forest science and knowl- structure will change towards a more Wood as a raw material. The global edge. There is no technical reason why the comprehensive, resource-based approach consumption of industrial roundwood goals of sustainable forest management with greater focus on resource access. The was about 1.9 billion m3 in 2009 and is (SFM) cannot be achieved in all forest present trend to provide forest communi- projected to grow to 3 billion m3 by 2050 biomes. In the past 300 years, forest man- ties and indigenous groups in developing (FAO, 2010). The consumption of wood agement systems have been developed in countries with statutory legal rights and for industrial purposes and as a biofuel most biomes that mimic nature, and there responsibilities will need to continue. New will increase in the next 30–50 years. is a good understanding of the regenera- institutional arrangements for making Beyond that, wood fibre will play an tion of many forest-associated plant and payments for and managing ecosystem increasingly major role as a raw material animal species. Nevertheless, climate services will be needed. for composite products and as substitutes change represents a major challenge for Intersectoral governance will also for petroleum-based materials, with a vast forest scientists: climax forests are at require greater attention. Multifunctional range of applications in medicine, electron- high risk; successional forests with fast solutions that optimize the use of a given ics, biomaterials and energy. Wood and rotational cycles may take over in many landscape will be needed to address, for many other forest products are recyclable, areas because of extended droughts, forest example, integrated climate change mitiga- another factor in their favour. The bottom fires and other extreme events; and many tion and adaptation, energy generation, line is that wood will likely continue to tree species might not reach maturity due freshwater protection and ecosystem be important, and indeed will increase to physiological stress and the increased resilience. Securing a permanent forest in importance, as we move toward 2313. frequency of disturbance. Forest science estate is likely to be a significant challenge: must enable a better understanding of potentially, some of the best future living Tools and human abilities will forest vulnerabilities and stressors and areas for humanity will be where forests influence supply responses and develop implementable solutions to the are growing now. impacts challenges posed by climate change. Global cooperation and policy pro- Human societies are ingenious, inventive Technology development. Much effort cesses. It seems obvious that existing and creative, once the incentives present will be needed to develop technologies global arrangements on forests will be themselves. Societies can apply systematic based on renewable resources such as trees insufficient, even to tackle forest-related approaches to discovery and innovation that are cost-efficient and environmentally issues over the next 20 years or so. How to and use research, development and educa- friendly. Wood has huge potential as a raw address the current void is a crucial policy tion to produce workable new technologies material, and the genetic improvement of challenge. New international agreements and applications. It has also proved pos- commonly used tree species could make it dealing with issues such as international sible to change human behaviour, at both even more versatile. Genetic modification land-grabbing may be required. There is a the sociopolitical and individual levels; is contentious; nevertheless, as the risks need for stronger emphasis on compliance for example, increasing the rights of become better evaluated, and as competi- and enforcement in many forest-related local communities and citizens to, and tion for land intensifies, the practice of agreements, including the multilateral envi- genetic modification is likely to become ronmental agreements. Strong regional and 3 Third-generation biofuels are made from more frequent for both agricultural crops global technical and scientific institutions algae and other microorganisms dealing, and trees. Overall, continual innovation with clear mandates to address environmen- among other things, with the degradation of lignocellulose, hemicellulose and lipid- in forest products is needed to ensure the tal, sociopolitical and economic challenges rich materials. economic viability of production forests. across national boundaries will be needed.

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THE SUPPLY RESPONSE: IMPACTS A crucial supply response will be to natural regeneration, the restoration of ON FORESTS maintain natural forests for their increas- degraded forests and the rehabilitation Overall, we expect a greatly expanded ingly valued ecosystem services, including of degraded lands will all increase in demand for forest and tree goods and biodiversity and the permanence of carbon importance (Poore, 2003). Forests will ecosystem services. Table 1 indicates stocks, and to reduce extractive uses of become much more important as a source likely possible supply responses to this them. To meet increasing demand for wood of fibre and for their ecosystem services, increased demand. and wood fibre, planted forests, assisted and increasingly they will become

TABLE 1. Possible management and supply responses and their impacts on forests to 2313 Now to 2100 2100 to 2200 2200 to 2313 Deforestation due +++ + + ------to overexploitation Continuous deforestation in the tropics, Reduced large-scale, human-caused Human-made forests managed for wood and to with some success in reducing it over deforestation but increased climate sustainably become much more provide land for time through REDD+ and new, holistic change-based disturbances. Forest important. Most remaining natural other priority uses forest programmes area increases in the majority of countries forests are in protected reserves

Land degradation ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ + Increased degradation of arable land, Continuous degradation due to climate Land degradation remains an issue, mainly in tropical least-developed change, but increased restoration but ways of reclaiming lands are countries. Restoration of degraded of degraded land due to increased much improved. Intensive restoration lands in developed world land value programmes are in place

Biodiversity and ++ +++ +++ ++ ++ - habitat loss Continued loss of biodiversity and Continuing loss, mainly due to Stabilization and partly artificial habitats in all biomes, slowing towards climate change and regaining of habitats and biodiversity the end of the period increasing in all forest biomes. Intensive conservation programmes are in place

Vulnerability + ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ of species and Gradual increase in vulnerability in Gradual increase in vulnerability in Continued threat, particularly in ecosystems all biomes all biomes; management systems are marginal areas; management systems developed to minimize threats are developed to minimize threats

Harvesting and use + ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ of forest products Increased use of and trade in timber, Shift of production towards higher- Wood fibre and non-wood forest wood products, fuelwood and non-wood end uses of wood fibre and derivates; products of great importance for products increase in trade based on comparative materials of all kinds; most wood advantage supply is from planted forests

Natural forests ++ ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ Integrated management in temperate Shift in emphasis of natural forest Conservation management of natural and boreal zones, less so in the tropics management towards the provision of forests; sophisticated, human-induced ecosystem services forest protection systems

Planted forests, + ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ agroforests and Landscape forestry: steady growth in Large-scale commercial afforestation, Comprehensive approach involving urban forests all biomes; increased domestication reforestation and agroforestry are improved management systems of tree species; development of practised more widely and ; the focus is on genetically modified organisms for human-made forests of genetically major planted species improved trees

Watershed and + ++ ++ ++ ++ ++ soil protection Integrated through REDD+ and Landscape management is an The capital-intensive management and payments for ecosystem services; intensive, integrated, well-accepted protection of landscapes are priorities landscape-level management systems approach in all biomes are evolving Carbon - ++ ++ +++ +++ +++ sequestration, Weak approaches through climate- Increased consideration of carbon as The permanence of carbon pools is ensuring the change mitigation instruments, a co-benefit of SFM ensured through SFM permanence of including REDD+ and nationally carbon pools appropriate mitigation approaches Other non-use + + + ++ ++ ++ values, such as Recognized by stakeholders, but Recognized as highly important local Considered among the main values of climate protection politically undervalued and global externalities forests and a primary focus of SFM and spiritual and recreational values Note: + and – indicate the level of importance and change of a management or supply response at the beginning and end of a period.

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A eucalypt plantation in India in 2008. Intensive wood-fibre production will be an important element in the future ©J. BLASER economically competitive with agriculture. meat will be produced much more effi- and social values of functioning restored Degraded lands will become more valu- ciently. However, while we expect the gross ecosystems. These points are interrelated able, including for planted forests. area of available land to be sufficient, it and may occur in parallel. In nearly all will be of variable quality and much of it cases, replanting would not replicate the WHAT FUTURE FOR OUR FORESTS? will require restoration. former forest in either carbon density or Extent of forests in 2313 Christophersen (2010) suggested that biodiversity but would provide a wide Table 2 shows our estimate of the extent of there are more than 1 billion ha of clear-cut range of benefits. the world’s forest estate in 2313 at about or degraded forest land worldwide. Forests We do not foresee a linear expansion of 5 billion ha. The point here is not so much could be re-grown on most of that land forest cover over the coming 300 years. the exact increase over today (1.2 billion if demand for forests and trees increases Large-scale forest destruction, focused ha), but rather the expectation that tree and the economics of restoration become in the tropics, may well continue to 2050. cover will expand and be more impor- more favourable. Looking at the require- Then, or fairly soon thereafter, a turning tant in the future as a renewable resource ments for effective large-scale restoration, point will be reached at which policy with great versatility, and that the increase Menz, Dixon and Hobbs (2013) proposed efforts to stop deforestation on natural for- will be almost entirely due to increases in a four-point plan to ensure that restoration est lands start to bite. Recovery will happen planted and assisted natural regeneration sustains and enhances ecological values: fast, but unevenly worldwide.4 Below, the forests, agroforestry systems and urban identify focal regions with high restoration main forest biomes are discussed. forests. Although competition for land is demands; identify knowledge gaps and a significant issue today, we expect there prioritize research needs to focus resources 4 A good example of what is possible is the rapid to be sufficient land available for such an on building capacity; create restoration greening of the Republic of Korea in the period expansion of forests. Agricultural crops knowledge hubs to aggregate and dissemi- 1960–1980 through a large-scale replanting will increasingly be produced using inten- nate knowledge at the science–practice and community forestry programme made possible when thousands of villages were given sive production systems (often under-roof), interface; and ensure political viability secure rights to the outputs of their planting there will be more urban agriculture, and by ensuring recognition of the economic efforts (Gregersen, 1982, 1988; Lee, 2012).

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TABLE 2. Forest distribution, by broad type, 2013 and 2313 Forest cover, 2013 Total Primary forests, Forest/landscape Well-managed Planted forests – Agroforestry and economically mosaic, accessible (semi) natural forest, afforestation and trees in landscapes, inaccessible or forests including including natural and reforestation for including urban geographically too degraded forests semi-natural secondary production and/or forests and scattered remote for intensive and secondary/ forests (mainly boreal protection purposes parks in urban areas use (mainly boreal and successional forests and temperate forests) (all regions) (all regions) tropical forests; also (mainly in the tropics), forest protected areas) used primarily for fuelwood and timber < 800 million ha > 1 900 million ha > 700 million ha < 300 million ha < 100 million ha 3.8 billion ha (29% of total land area)

Expected forest cover, 2313 Total Natural forests, Forest/landscape Intensively managed and controlled assisted Urban forests close-to-pristine mosaic, with naturally natural regeneration forests and planted and trees, and but considerably grown forests in forests, including high-yielding clonal forests, agroforestry, for local affected by climate patches in dry combined with semi-natural forests for fibre for climate, air-quality, change; predominantly landscapes (e.g. along various uses such as construction, furniture, water and recreational successional rather rivers); managed bioplastics, paper, clothing and nanotechnology values, and occasional than climax forests. predominantly applications and for energy use of wood fibre Almost entirely with for carbon and protected status biodiversity, often by smallholders < 500 million ha > 1 000 million ha > 3 000 million ha > 500 million ha 5.0 billion ha (38% of the total current land area) Source: Data for 2012 based on FAO and JRC, 2012; Blaser et al., 2011; Forest Europe, UNECE and FAO, 2011. Note that FAO (2010) estimated the global area of primary forest in 2010 at 1.36 billion ha.

In the tropical moist biome, population Tropical dry biomes are likely to have west to the Ural in Russia. This will allow and income growth will influence land different pathways: some regions will interchanging ecotypes under projected and forest use, particularly in Africa and receive more precipitation and humidity climate change as planned adaptation Southeast Asia, to 2100. It can be expected (e.g. the Sahel), and some will be more at measures. that considerable parts of the tropical risk of extended drought due to changing What today is the core area of the boreal moist forests in the Congo Basin, which atmospheric circulation (e.g. the monsoon forests will become vulnerable due to the are relatively accessible, will be converted areas of eastern Africa and India). Semi- increased frequency of summer drought to agricultural land (World Bank, 2012b). arid and semi-humid tropical forests, and mild winters (Barnett, Adams and The Amazon Basin, the Mekong and some including on the Indian subcontinent and Lettenmaier, 2005) and more frequent and of the major islands of Indonesia will also in parts of Central America and south- intense fires. In the transitional area in experience considerable forest loss in the ern South America, will be among the the south, however, deciduous tree spe- coming 50–100 years to make way for most vulnerable forest ecosystems, due cies might take up niches left by dying commercial crops to meet worldwide to extreme events. Overall, tropical dry conifer forests. In the transitional areas demand for food, fodder and bioenergy. biomes will expand in area but tree cover towards the north (tundra), conifer for- Climate change will become a major issue is likely to reduce. ests will expand northward, although only in these regions, not only for forests but also Temperate biomes will host natural slowly and without any major increase in for agricultural production. Biodiversity forests with the best chance of adapting to global , carbon or wood supply. and habitat loss will accelerate, and there major climatic changes and with most hope There will be new successional forests in is a risk of complete land degradation, of ensuring the permanence of carbon Siberia, Alaska and Greenland, although particularly in the Congo Basin, where a stocks. In some regions, forests in tem- these slow-growing forests will have had savannah/forest mosaic could become the perate biomes will expand into the boreal relatively little effect on solving global major landscape feature, and in lowland zone. In Europe, for example, dominant problems by 2313. Southeast Asia. Beyond 2100, on the other tree species such as beech (Fagus silvatica) hand, most of the predicted reforestation and various temperate-zone species of oak Forest quality will take place in the tropics, where fast- (Quercus spp.) and pine, among others, While human-induced forest degrada- growing tree species can rapidly sequester will expand from the Mediterranean area tion is an issue today and will be for the carbon and produce fibre. to southern Sweden and from the extreme next 50 years, climate change will have

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the biggest effect on forest quality in the Development of planted forests, tropical areas, in genera such as Ochroma, longer term. In a world with an average agroforests and urban forests Schizolobium, Terminalia, Trema and temperature of 18 °C, biomass-rich climax There are many legitimate concerns about many others, and genetic improvement forest types in all forest biomes will be the potential harmful ecological, social of already widely planted genera such as replaced by successional forests character- and economic impacts of planted forests, Acacia, Eucalyptus, Cunninghamia, Picea, ized by lower biomass and lower carbon but sufficient experiences have accumu- Pinus, Populus and Tectona. Wood yields stocks and often also by lower biodiversity. lated to avoid such negative impacts in and ecological resilience can be greatly Nevertheless, those forests will have to the future (Evans, 2009). In our predic- increased by genetic improvement, site– fulfil the same functions as forests today; tion for 2313, there will be 3 billion ha of species matching and silviculture. Ways thus, there will be a need for more forest, at intensively managed planted and assisted will be needed to increase the diversity least to secure permanent carbon stocks. A natural regeneration forests, of which and biomass of other associated plants challenge will be to address forest vulner- about 2 billion ha will be planted forests and fauna. Urban forestry will become ability, including to and pests and for the production of wood and non-wood increasingly important for improving the diseases, and to restore degraded forest goods and services, including watershed liveability of city environments and per- ecosystems. Another will be to ensure and soil protection, recreation and carbon forming a wide range of ecosystem and that forest cover is a competitive land use – sequestration. In the future, large areas social services. otherwise it will not expand as we predict. of degraded land will be afforested and New forest management approaches may reforested through community, private and Coppice forest management system of beech (Fagus silvatica) in The former be required (see below), and all the eco- government efforts. There is huge potential Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, system services provided by forests will for the domestication of a wide range of 2012. This kind of resilience-based need to be monetized. light-demanding species, particularly in management for wood-fibre production will be widespread in 2313 ©J. BLASER

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What kind of management will be in CONCLUSION better defined rights and responsi- demand for sustaining forests? With their huge protective and productive bilities will increase efforts to protect, As natural forests become more vulnerable functions, forests will play a crucial global invest in and use forest resources and fragile due to the fast pace of change, role in the next 300 years and beyond. wisely. especially climate change, maintaining the Knowledge of the art and practice of sus- The scenario described in this article is production of forest goods and ecosystem tainably managing forests will be in high an optimistic one (although some elements, services will likely depend increasingly on demand. As one of the main renewable such as the loss of primary forests, are human interventions and ingenuity. Science natural resources available to humanity, depressing), but it is not an impossible or and governance reform will have important forests will be expected to help mitigate even an improbable one. It is likely that roles to play. Specialized forestry and forest climate change, protect soil and water, the oak tree on the Swiss plateau, the products professionals will be required in provide clean air, conserve biodiversity, sipo tree in northern Congo and the fir disciplines such as biology, silviculture, help maintain the mental health of humans, tree in western Siberia will not see the physiology, genetics, soil science, ento- and produce wood fibre and other products. beginning of the 24th century, but for- mology, biochemistry, nanotechnology, Thus, in 2313 we expect that: ests – albeit different to today’s – will have information technology, urban forestry, • Natural forests will still exist but, to a spread. Humanity’s future will depend landscape management and resource great extent, climax forest types, such in large measure on how it deals with its economics. While there will be a need as primary rainforests, will have disap- forests. There is still time and the ability to for highly skilled forestry professionals, peared, due mainly to shorter forest implement SFM. Today’s and tomorrow’s there will also be much more locally based cycles caused by increased (climate- foresters have much work to do. management that makes full use of local related) disturbance. We expect that and traditional knowledge and interdisci- natural forests will cover about 0.5 bil- Acknowledgements plinary research and interactions. Forest lion ha, mainly in boreal and temperate A longer, more detailed version of this managers will also need exemplary social areas in Europe, Siberia and North paper benefited from comments from skills, including in conflict management. America, and in the tropics (mainly numerous colleagues. We particularly Forest governance, management and the Amazon Basin and the mountain- acknowledge the thoughtful reviews of policy development will face many seri- ous areas of Borneo and New Guinea). Keith Anderson, Ken Andrasko, Brian ous challenges in the future. Optimizing They will mostly be in protected areas, Belcher, Jeff Burley, Neil Byron, Jim Carle, a variety of objectives in management, with minimal timber harvesting, and Paola Deda, Hosny El Lakany, Anton including new issues such as the resilience will provide important ecosystem ser- Hilber, Marko Katila, Godwin Kowero, of tree species, securing carbon pools and vices. Legal reforms will ensure that Jag Maini, Duncan Poore, Alastair Sarre, optimizing materials production based indigenous communities maintain their Patrick Sieber, Markku Simula, Thomas on wood, will demand new approaches to cultural associations with such forests. Stadtmüller and Astrid Zabel. Any errors forest management. Some “new” forms of • Planted and semi-natural forests, as in predictions to 2313 are those of the forest management could be derived from readily renewable natural resources, authors alone, who will take full respon- the past. In Central Europe, for example, will be providing huge quantities of sibility if they are proved wrong. u hochwald () systems might need wood and wood-based fibre. Urban to be converted from even-aged stands to forests will be providing recreational uneven-aged stands or to coppice systems and spiritual benefits and serving as as a way of reducing vulnerability to envi- climate buffers. ronmental change and changing economic • Overall, the forest area will have objectives. In tropical forests, managing increased to about 5 billion ha, young secondary forests in combination although those forests will have less References with enrichment plantings might lead to biomass per unit area than natural new forms of short-rotation forestry, where forests today. The life cycles of forests Adams, J. 1997. Global land environment a maximum of biodiversity can be con- and tree species will become shorter since the last interglacial. USA, Oak Ridge served and an optimal level of biomass can and they will be subjected to a con- National Laboratory (available at www.esd. be maintained. Above all, forest managers stant dynamic of climatic and biotic ornl.gov/ern/qen/nerc.html). will need to be versatile and adaptable as disturbances. Attali, J. 2011. A brief history of the future: a they develop and implement new forest • Forest governance, at the regional and brave and controversial look at the twenty- management approaches that respond best global levels, will still be a key issue. first century. (Translated by J. Leggatt). New to changing conditions. The redistribution of ownership and York, USA, New Arcade Publishing.

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Barnett, T.P., Adam, K.C. & Lettenmaier, case study. In L. Fortmann & J. Bruce, ed. changes and livestock productivity increases D. P. 2005. Potential impacts of a warming Proprietary dimensions of forestry, pp. in 2030? Agricultural Systems, 103(9): climate on water availability in snow- 225–233. Boulder, USA, Westview Press. 621–638. dominated regions. Nature, 438: 303–309. Gregersen, H., El Lakany, H., Bailey, L. & Worldwatch Institute. 2011. State of the world Bergengren, J.C., Waliser, D.E. & Yung, Y.L. White, A. 2011. The greener side of REDD+: 2011: innovations that nourish the planet. 2011. Ecological sensitivity: a biospheric lessons for REDD+ from countries where Washington, DC. view of climate change. Climatic Change, forest area is increasing. Washington, DC, World Bank. 2012a. Turn down the heat: why 107: 433–457. Rights and Resources Initiative. a 4°C warmer world must be avoided. A Blaser, J., Sarre, A., Poore, D. & Johnson, S. IEA. 2010. Renewable energy information report for the World Bank by the Potsdam 2011. Status of tropical forest management 2010. International Energy Agency Institute for Climate Impact Research and 2011. ITTO Technical Series No. 38. (available at: www.iea.org/stats/index.asp). Climate Analytics. Washington, DC. Yokohama, Japan, International Tropical DOI: 10.1787/renew-2010-en. World Bank. 2012b. Deforestation trends in Timber Organization. Lee, D.K. 2012. The forest sector’s contribution the Congo Basin: reconciling economic Bruinsma, J. ed. 2003. World agriculture: to a “low carbon, green growth” vision in the growth and forest protection (also available towards 2015/2030: an FAO perspective. Republic of Korea. Unasylva, 63(239): 9–16. at www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/fcp/ Rome, FAO and London, Earthscan McEvedy, C. & Jones, R. 1978. Atlas of sites/forestcarbonpartnership.org/files/ Publications. world population history. Penguin (data Documents/PDF/Nov2012). Washington, DC. Christophersen, T. 2010. Addressing reproduced at: www.worldhistorysite.com/ WRI. 1997. The last frontier forests: ecosystems degradation as an opportunity: perspectives population.html). and economies on the edge. Washington, DC, from the Global Partnership on Forest Menz, M., Dixon, K. & Hobbs, R. 2013. World Resources Institute. u Landscape Restoration. Presentation at the Hurdles and opportunities for landscape- CIFOR–FAO side-event at Bonn Climate scale restoration. Science, 339(6119): Change Conference. 1 June 2010. 526–527. Ellison, D., Futter, M.N. & Bishop, K. 2011. OECD. 2012. Medium and long-term scenarios On the forest cover–water yield debate: from for global growth. OECD Economic Outlook, demand- to supply-side thinking. Global 2012/1. Paris, Organisation for Economic Change Biology, 18(3): 806–820. DOI: Cooperation and Development. 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02589.x. Poore, D. 2003. Changing landscapes: the Evans, J. ed. 2009. Planted forests: uses, development of the International Tropical impacts and sustainability. Rome, FAO Timber Organization and its influence and London, CABI. on tropical forest management. London, FAO. 2010. Global forest resources assessment Earthscan Publications. 2010: full report. FAO Forestry Paper Putz, F.E. forthcoming. Futures of forestry and No. 163. Rome. forests in the tropics. Biotropica. FAO & JRC. 2012. Global forest land-use Salim, E. & Ullsten, O. 1999. Our forests, change 1990–2005, by E.J.Lindquist, R. our future: report of the World Commission D’Annunzio, A. Gerrand, K. MacDicken, F. on Forests and Sustainable Development. Achard, R. Beuchle, A. Brink, H.D. Eva, P. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Mayaux, J. San-Miguel-Ayanz & H-J. Stibig. Press. FAO Forestry Paper No. 169. Rome, FAO and The Conference Board. 2012. The global European Commission Joint Research Centre. economic outlook 2013 (www.conference- Forest Europe, UNECE & FAO. 2011. board.org/data/globaloutlook.cfm). State of Europe’s forests 2011: status and Toffler, A. 1980. The third wave. Bantam trends of sustainable forest management in Books. Europe. Oslo, Ministerial Conference on the Tudge, C. 2007. Feeding people is easy. Pari. Protection of Forests in Europe. UN. 2004. World population to 2300. New Gregersen, H. 1982. Village forestry York, UN Department of Economic and development in the Republic of Korea. Social Affairs, Population Division. Document GCP/INT/347/SWE. Rome, FAO. Wirsenius, S., Azar, C. & Berndes, G. 2010. Gregersen, H. 1988. Village forestry How much land is needed for global food development in the Republic of Korea: a production under scenarios of dietary

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fao forestry FAO/G. NAPOLITANO

International Conference on Forests for governments, civil-society organizations, indigenous and other Food Security and Nutrition local communities, donors and international organizations in The International Conference on Forests for Food Security and more than 100 countries. A summary of discussions was tabled Nutrition was organized by FAO in partnership with Bioversity and commented on by participants in the final plenary session. International, the Center for International Forestry Research, the The next edition of Unasylva will feature articles based World Agroforestry Centre and the World Bank and held at FAO on conference presentations, discussions and background headquarters on 13–15 May 2013. This technical meeting was information. attended by more than 400 participants, comprising experts from

Above: Gabriel Tchango, Minister of Water and Forests, Gabon, speaks at the opening session of the International Conference on Forests for Food Security and Nutrition

Left: Beneficiaries of the FAO Acacia Tree Project in Senegal hold a village meeting on gum Arabic, an income-earning product from trees. Training in the management of sustainable forest enterprises can help communities, particularly women and youth, gain access to equitable value- chains and improve their food

FAO/S. DIALLO security and nutrition

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world of forestry EARTH NEGOTIATIONS BULLETIN/F. DEJON BULLETIN/F. NEGOTIATIONS EARTH

Mahir Küçük, Deputy Under-Secretary-General, Tenth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, Turkey, and The tenth session of the United Nations Forum on Forests Jan McAlpine, UNFF Director, at the close of UNFF 10 (UNFF 10) was convened in Istanbul, Turkey, on 8–19 April 2013, focusing on the theme “forests and economic development” and policy and programme coordination, including the provision of involving nearly 1 300 participants. further guidance to the Collaborative Partnership on Forests. Delegates, including ministers and heads of delegation, WGII addressed agenda items on the means of implementation took part in a ministerial segment on 8–9 April. This included (MoI) for SFM, emerging issues, and the Forum Trust Fund. The a high-level opening session featuring, among other things, “Resolution on Agenda Items 3, 4, 5 and 8” and the “Resolution a statement by the Prime Minister of Turkey, Recep Tayyip on Emerging Issues, MoI and the Forum Trust Fund” were Erdoğan. Mr Erdoğan said that global population growth and adopted by acclamation on Saturday 20 April. the deterioration of the global environment were creating new UNFF 10 featured many events organized in the margins economic and social gaps and widening existing ones between of the session. Participants at one of these, on forests and regions, countries, peoples and individuals. “If we insist on this landscape restoration (FLR), co-organized by the Forest Service relentless competition, ambition and greed, there will be no world of the Republic of Korea, FAO and the International Union for for our children to inherit,” he said. Conservation of Nature, learned about FAO’s plans to create A multistakeholder dialogue took place on 10 April, providing the FLR Mechanism, to be supported by the Republic of Korea, an opportunity for inputs by representatives of the Major Groups, and heard about that country’s successful forest rehabilitation comprising women; farmers and small forest landowners; efforts. Private-sector involvement in FLR and the roles of the forest workers and trade unions; scientific and technological Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration, communities; non-governmental organizations; children and the International Model Forest Network and the Asia Forest youth; indigenous peoples and industry. The remaining agenda Cooperation Organization were also discussed. items were opened in plenary on 11 April. Five “forest heroes” from Brazil, Puerto Rico, Rwanda, Thailand Work on the UNFF 10 outcome took place in two working and Turkey were recognized at UNFF 10 for their outstanding groups (WGs), which convened on 12–19 April. WGI addressed contributions in support of forests, their communities and around agenda items on: the assessment of progress made in the the world. FAO Forestry Department Assistant Director-General implementation of the Non-legally Binding Instrument on All Eduardo Rojas-Briales sat on the jury for the awards. The Types of Forests and towards the achievement of the four Global winning photographs of the first International Forest Photograph Objectives on Forests; regional and subregional inputs; forests Contest, and the winning films in the Short Film Festival, were and economic development; and enhanced cooperation and also showcased at the awards ceremony.

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An FAO-organized side event on pilot experiences in implementing the Non-legally Binding Instrument on All Types of Forests (NLBI) provided a platform for four countries – India, Liberia, Nicaragua and the Philippines – to share their experiences of FAO-supported implementation. The NLBI was adopted by the UNFF in 2007 to boost the implementation of SFM. Adapted from Earth Negotiations Bulletin, 13(187), Monday, 22 April 2013, and other sources.

Better coordination in timber trade instruments needed Better coordination and sharing of experiences among nations in The XXIV IUFRO World Congress implementing anti-illegal timber legislation is needed to ensure The United States of America is delighted to host the 24th a move to responsible trade in timber products, according World Congress of the International Union of Forest Research to participants at the first Global Timber Forum, which was Organizations (IUFRO) in Salt Lake City, Utah, USA, on co-organized by FAO, the European Timber Trade Federation 5–11 October 2014. Join scientists and professionals from and the Forest Trust/Timber Trade Action Plan and held at FAO around the world to share research and learn from one another’s headquarters in May 2013. experiences around the Congress title of Sustaining Forests, Forum participants also agreed that responsible timber trade Sustaining People: The Role of Research. plays a key role in sustainable forest management by providing The 2014 World Congress in Salt Lake City will feature: a commercial incentive to retain and increase tree cover and • 5 world-class plenary speakers intensify forest productivity. • 15 sub-plenary speakers Over 80 delegates from 40 countries, including representatives • 150 outstanding technical sessions featuring more than of industry organizations and private-sector companies, attended 2 000 oral and poster presentations the two-day meeting to increase understanding of sustainable • Spectacular field trips sourcing and the use of timber in green building; share market • An informative trade exhibition expertise; and develop solutions to ensure inclusive and legal • An exciting companion programme. trade in timber and timber products. Importantly, this first Global The Congress will focus on seven themes: Timber Forum provided a platform for sharing experiences on • forests for people applying the new trade instruments to curb illegal trade, such • forests and climate change as those in the European Union, the United States of America • forest biomass and bioenergy and Australia. • forest biodiversity and ecosystem services The meeting in Rome concluded that the Global Timber Forum • forest and water interactions should seek to formulate a Commitment Charter, followed by a • forests and forest products for the future long-term work plan with a revolving secretariat and an advisory • forest health in a changing world. board. Regional focal points were nominated for that end, from all Key dates six continents and including China. • July 2013 to October 2013 – call for abstracts André de Boer, Secretary General of the European Timber • November 2013 – registration opens Trade Federation, said his organization would underwrite the • October 2014 – IUFRO World Congress initial development of the Global Timber Forum. The goal The 94th Annual Convention of the Society of American would then be to secure wider industry sponsorship in the Foresters will be held simultaneously at the same venue, bringing form of partnerships, also including international specialized an additional 1 500 forest land managers and decision-makers to organizations in this field. Salt Lake City. For more information contact: Jukka Tissari, FAO Forestry To learn more about the World Congress, including information Department ([email protected]), or André de Boer, the on the process for submitting session proposals and abstracts, or European Timber Trade Federation ([email protected]). to become a sponsor or exhibitor, visit www.iufro2014.com. A limited number of scholarships are available through the Scientist Assistance Program. Learn more at: http://iufro2014.com/ registration/scientist-assistance-program.

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books

Monitoring soil carbon Remote sensing for global forest change

Soil carbon monitoring using surveys and modelling: general description and Global forest land-use change 1990–2005. FAO & European Commission Joint application in the United Republic of Tanzania. R. Mäkipää, J. Liski, S. Guendehou, Research Centre. 2012, written by E.J. Lindquist, R. D’Annunzio, A. Gerrand, R. Malimbwi & A. Kaaya. 2012. FAO Forestry Paper No. 168. Rome, FAO. ISBN K. MacDicken, F. Achard, R. Beuchle, A. Brink, H.D. Eva, P. Mayaux, 978-92-5-107271-4. J. San-Miguel-Ayanz & H-J. Stibig. FAO Forestry Paper No. 169. Rome, FAO. Forest constitute a large pool of carbon and the release ISBN 978-92-5-107399-5. of carbon from this pool through deforestation or forest This report presents the key findings on forest land use and land- degradation may significantly increase the concentration of use change between 1990 and 2005 from FAO’s 2010 Global greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Reliable estimates of soil Forest Resources Assessment Remote Sensing Survey. It is the organic carbon stock and stock changes are needed for REDD first report of its kind to present systematic estimates of global (reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation forest land use and change. in developing countries) and for reporting on greenhouse gas The Remote Sensing Survey used remote sensing data to emissions under the United Nations Framework Convention on obtain globally consistent estimates of forest area and changes in Climate Change. tree cover and forest land use between 1990 and 2005. It found This publication describes the application of survey-based and that there was a net decrease in global forest area between 1990 modelling-based methods for monitoring soil organic carbon and 2005, with the highest net loss in South America. While stock and its changes on a national scale. It presents a design of forest area increased over the assessment period in the boreal, the first inventory of soil organic carbon, including a discussion temperate and subtropical climatic domains, it decreased by an on factors that affect the reliability of carbon stock estimates; average of 6.8 million hectares annually in the tropics. The survey and a design of a modelling-based approach, including links to estimated the total area of the world’s forests in 2005 at 3.8 billion national data and a discussion on alternative soil hectares, or 30 percent of the global land area. organic carbon models. Both approaches can provide information This report is the result of collaborative work by staff at FAO on soil carbon changes for national greenhouse gas inventories. and the European Commission Joint Research Centre, with Also available online: www.fao.org/docrep/015/i2793e/i2793e00. inputs from technical experts from more than 100 countries. Many htm. of these contributors now constitute a valuable global network of forest remote sensing and land-use expertise. Also available online: www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3110e/i3110e00. htm.

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Consolidating knowledge on an important species Insects on the menu

Sustainable management of Pinus radiata plantations. D. Mead. 2013. FAO Forestry Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security. FAO and Wageningen Paper No. 170. Rome, FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-107634-7. University and Research Centre. 2012, written by A. van Huis, J. Van Itterbeeck, Pinus radiata (radiata pine) is a versatile, fast-growing, medium- H. Klunder, E. Mertens, A. Halloran, G. Muir & P. Vantomme. FAO Forestry Paper density softwood that is suitable for a wide range of end-uses. Its No. 171. Rome, FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-107595-1. silviculture is highly developed and is built on a firm foundation Edible insects have always been a part of human diets, but in of over a century of research, observation and practice. some societies there remains a degree of disdain and disgust for Radiata pine is often considered a model for growers of other their consumption. Although the majority of consumed insects plantation species. This book explores current knowledge of, are gathered in forest habitats, mass-rearing systems are and experiences with, radiata pine plantation management and being developed in many countries. Insects offer a significant examines its long-term sustainability. opportunity to merge traditional knowledge and modern science Radiata pine management needs to integrate the biological to improve human food security worldwide. aspects of tree-growing with socio-economics, management This publication describes the contribution of insects to food objectives, practical considerations and other constraints and security and examines future prospects for raising insects at a opportunities. Although stands of radiata pine may appear simple, commercial scale to improve food and feed production, diversify they are actually complex ecosystems because they contain large, diets, and support livelihoods in both developing and developed long-lived trees that change dramatically over time and interact in countries. It shows the many traditional and potential new uses changing ways with the environment and other organisms. of insects for direct human consumption and the opportunities for The focus of this book is on the principles and practices of and constraints to farming them for food and feed. It examines growing radiata pine sustainably. It also looks ahead to emerging the body of research on issues such as insect nutrition and food challenges facing radiata pine plantation management, such as safety, the use of insects as animal feed, and the processing and the effects of climate change, new diseases and other threats, preservation of insects and their products. It highlights the need and meeting changing product needs and societal demands. to develop a regulatory framework to govern the use of insects Also available onlline: www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3274e/i3274e00. for food security. And it presents case studies and examples from htm. around the world. Also available online: www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3253e/i3253e00. htm.

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books

About Mediterranean forests Forest farmer cooperatives in China

State of Mediterranean forests 2013. FAO & Plan Bleu. 2013. Rome, FAO. Success cases and good practices in forest farmer cooperative organizations in Forest ecosystems and other wooded lands are important China. L. Wang. 2012. Rome, FAO. components of landscapes in the Mediterranean region, To increase forest farmers’ income and promote the rapid contributing significantly to rural development, poverty alleviation development of collective forest areas, China has being reforming and food security. Forests and other wooded lands in the its collective forest tenure system since 2003 by clarifying Mediterranean are sources of wood, cork, energy, food and property rights, reducing taxes, liberalizing business operations, incomes, and they provide important ecosystem services such and regulating the transfer of rights over forest land. as biodiversity conservation, soil and water protection, recreation Since they have been granted use rights over forest land and and carbon storage. disposal rights over forest, farmers have been highly motivated This first report on the state of Mediterranean forests pays to engage in forest production. However, the allocation of special attention to the vulnerability of Mediterranean forests forests to individual households has also resulted in forest to climate change and changes in regional demographics and land fragmentation and small-scale management, which have lifestyles. It highlights, for example, the relationship in some parts hampered the access of individual farmers to, for example, of the region between depopulation and increased forest fires; technical services, forest fire prevention measures, pest and, in other parts, the relationship between population growth and disease control and forest road construction. Collective and increased deforestation. management is an effective way of solving these problems. The report reviews the goods and ecosystem and social Supported by the government, various forms of forest farmer services provided by Mediterranean forests, with special sections cooperative organizations (FFCOs) have been established and on cork oak forests and stone pine forests. Other sections have increased rapidly in number. focus on urban and peri-urban forestry; and legal, policy and This report collects and assesses good practices from FFCOs institutional frameworks in the region. The report notes the urgent in China. It presents case studies on FFCOs of different types need for better information and tools to monitor and communicate and analyses their successful experiences and good practices forest changes to stakeholders across the region. In recognition and their role in poverty reduction. of this gap, FAO intends to publish reports on the state of Also available online: www.fao.org/docrep/017/ap470e/ Mediterranean forests every five years. ap470e00.pdf. Also available online: www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3226e/i3226e.pdf.

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books

Boosting funding for the forest sector A theory on tropical deforestation

Guidelines for formulating national forest financing strategies. P. Kant & S. Appanah, Private or socialistic forestry? in Finland vs. deforestation in the with contributions from J. Siteur & A. Steel. 2013. RAP Publication 2013/01. tropics. M. Palo & E. Lehto. 2012. World Forests 10. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, London Bangkok, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific. ISBN 978-92-5-107476-3. and New York, Springer. ISBN 978-90-481-3896-8. One of the major constraints to sustainable forest management The premise of this book is that studying the transition from is the lack of finance available to government agencies. This deforestation to sustainable forestry in Finland in the first part of publication outlines the issues to be addressed to increase the twentieth century can provide insights into how deforestation financing for forestry, including the roles and concerns of public in the tropics might be reduced in the future. Finland is the institutions, how to safeguard the interests of communities, the world’s second-largest net exporter of forest products and also additional sources of funding available beyond that derived from has the highest forest cover in Europe. The authors compare the timber harvesting, and how to make the sector attractive for underlying causes of Finland’s transition with existing conditions private-sector investment. Based on these issues, the publication in 74 tropical countries. presents a set of guidelines for formulating national forest The interaction of public policies and market institutions financing strategies. It is hoped that this work, based mainly appears to have been critical during Finland’s transition. The on developments in the Asian region, will serve to invigorate authors suggest that private forest ownership, a continuous the forest sector, thereby increasing its role in economic increase in the real value of forests, the alleviation of poverty development. The guidelines should equip countries with the under non-corruptive conditions, and conducive public policies means to increase their funding sources and their efforts to were necessary preconditions for this transition. They conclude implement sustainable forest management. that “socialistic” forestry, which they define as “a situation where Also available online: www.fao.org/docrep/017/i3187e/i3187e00. the state owns all or the majority of forests in a country, and htm. sets stumpage prices [below] the respective market prices by administrative orders, and the forest administrators have not been [given] any financial profitability goals”, along with corruption, is keeping wood prices artificially low in tropical forests.

Unasylva 240, Vol. 64, 2013/1 NEW! GlobAllomeTree the international tree allometric equation platform

GlobAllomeTree is designed to improve global For the full range of products, access to tree allometric equations and therefore visit: www.globallometree.org to assist in the assessment of tree biometric characteristics for calculating commercial volume, Contact: [email protected] bioenergy production and carbon cycling. Developed jointly by FAO, the Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche GlobAllomeTree products are well-suited to Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD) a range of users, such as foresters, project and the Università degli Studi della Tuscia developers, scientists, students and forest technicians. Access to GlobAllomeTree is free.

FAO Forestry: delivering information resources for 21st century learning and communication. www.fao.org/forestry I2890E/1/11.12