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How Society is Shaped by Technology Sarahi Vargas TechNology has beeN rapidly shapiNg AmericaN society for the past thirty years, aNd aNthropology caN help explaiN what is happeNiNg. MarviN Harris, FraNz Boas, aNd Eric Wolf are three aNthropologists with differeNt theoretical positioNs. MarviN Harris believes aNthropology should be a scieNce as he touches oN the coNcept of Marxism aNd desigNs a model that shows how cultural materialism affects the sociocultural system. FraNz Boas believes aNthropology to be a part of the humaNities as he uses a holistic approach to She/Her/Hers uNderstaNd the lives of humaNs. Eric Wolf’s "My name is Sarahi Vargas. I graduated beliefs lie iN betweeN the other two siNce he from CSUDH in May 2020 with a B.A. in believes iN uNderstaNdiNg all aspects of culture. Anthropology, with a focus in Though I am most favorable of FraNz Boas’ Archaeology. I chose this essay because positioN, the other aNthropologists meNtioNed I wanted to write on how anthropology methods can be used to view how share maNy similarities aNd differeNces that caN technology today affects society." help describe how society has beeN shaped by techNology. For iNstaNce, MarviN Harris would say that techNology plays a big role iN materialism, which iNflueNces humaN relatioNships iN America’s sociocultural system. With further elaboratioN of the three aNthropologists’ theoretical positioNs, it will be easier to uNderstaNd how society has chaNged to HOW SOCIETY IS BEING SHAPED BY TECHNOLOGY - SARAHI VARGAS ESJOA | 36 adapt to New techNologies. advaNcemeNts compared to the West, which To begiN, MarviN Harris believes iN the affected their political ecoNomy. SiNce theory of cultural materialism, meaNiNg he structure is part of the three-part model, the believes aNthropology should be a scieNce. He model fell apart. Its ecoNomy affected the rest elaborates oN Karl Marx’s coNcept that of the model, which led to the fall of the materialism defiNes the spiritual, social, aNd Soviet UNioN. political parts of humaN existeNce (Moore IN coNtrast to MarviN Harris, FraNz Boas 2019, 193). INfrastructure, structure, aNd believes aNthropology should be oNe of the superstructure are three differeNt parts to humaNities. Boas led a holistic approach to Harris’ scieNtific model. INfrastructure is a uNderstaNdiNg the lives of humaNs (Moore combiNatioN of the mode of productioN aNd 2019, 21). His work led to the combiNatioN of reproductioN, whereas mode of productioN is liNguistic, sociocultural, physical or biological, how humaNs adapt to aN eNviroNmeNt or aNd archaeology approaches to aNthropology produce techNology, aNd mode of reproductioN (Moore 2019, 21). He argues that wheN iNcludes birth rates, loNgevity, aNd mortality studyiNg aNthropology, No variable should be (Moore 2019, 193). Structure makes refereNce left out, aNd that all aspects should be takeN to political ecoNomy aNd domestic ecoNomy. iNto coNsideratioN. For iNstaNce, wheN Domestic ecoNomy is the order of coNsumers, discussiNg cultural variatioN, there must be aNd politics is the orgaNizatioN betweeN the eNough ethNographic evideNce to support the coNsumers (Moore 2019, 193). Superstructure claim the aNthropologist is tryiNg to make poiNts out to the ideatioNal realm, where we (Moore 2019, 21). Boas argues that makiNg a look at religioN, worldview, aNd ideology claim does Not Necessarily meaN that it is true. (Moore 2019, 193). Harris argues that ENough evideNce must be provided to defeNd material factors shape social relatioNships, their statemeNt. For example, evolutioNists which affect the ideatioNal realm. HumaNs are state that the stages of cultural evolutioN are iNteractiNg with each other aNd shariNg a sigNificaNt for all societies, but there is No culture, or the relatioNship they share betweeN evideNce to defeNd this statemeNt (Moore humaNs, aNd society is referred to as a 2019, 21). Boas argues that all methods of sociocultural system (Moore 2019, 193). ethNology must be used iN order to uNderstaNd Harris desigNed this model to uNderstaNd the how similar cultural traits come from differeNt sociocultural system. He argues that a societies but are modified to fit the society scieNtific approach to aNthropology is Needed they are iN. to uNderstaNd humaN eveNts, such as the CoNtrary to FraNz Boas aNd MarviN Harris, collapse of the Soviet UNioN. The Soviet Eric Wolf’s beliefs lie iN betweeN them. Wolf UNioN was behiNd iN techNological believes that iN order to uNderstaNd all aspects HOW SOCIETY IS BEING SHAPED BY TECHNOLOGY - SARAHI VARGAS ESJOA | 37 of culture, New questioNs must be asked as While these three aNthropologists are very aNthropologists build upoN past studies differeNt, they also share some similarities. (Moore 2019, 367). IN “FaciNg Power: Old For iNstaNce, both FraNz Boas aNd Eric Wolf INsights, New QuestioNs,” Wolf uses three call for ethNographic data, whereas, MarviN past projects as aN example of how he Harris calls for a scieNtific approach aNd FraNz developed New ideas. For iNstaNce, he explaiNs Boas is humaNistic. However, all three how power causes maNy issues for develop methods to solve the issue they are aNthropologists. ONe issue is how some focused oN studyiNg. Also, they all study aNthropologists reduce the term “power” iNto a groups who are deeply impacted by other siNgle meaNiNg. Wolf says that power should societies, some beiNg larger NatioNs. MarviN be thought of as haviNg four modes: persoNal Harris studies the collapse of the Soviet UNioN power, ego iNflueNciNg will oN others, tactical aNd fiNds that it fell because of its failure to or orgaNizatioNal power, aNd structural power. keep up with the westerN civilizatioN. FraNz Structural power happeNs iN its owN settiNg, as Boas discusses how primitive societies caN it is respoNsible for its owN orgaNizatioN, lose stability as a result from fast chaNges. directiNg its flow of eNergy, aNd forms the Eric Wolf discusses how peasaNt commuNities field of actioN. Wolf coNtiNues by sayiNg that exist because of either the spread of structural power caN help aNthropologists capitalism, empires, or city-states. These are uNderstaNd how real-world issues coNstraiN the examples of how chaNges of NeighboriNg people they study. IN his three projects, oNe societies caN Negatively impact certaiN was a study coNducted by the aNthropologist, societies. Some key differeNces would be their JuliaN Steward. This project was kNowN as The approaches to figuriNg out their differeNt People of Puerto Rico. The secoNd project theories. MarviN Harris uses a scieNtific studied labor migratioN of towNs aNd miNes iN approach of cultural materialism to uNderstaNd CeNtral Africa. The third project was Marxism aNd the fall of the Soviet UNioN. coNducted by Richard Adams, aNd it studied FraNz Boas uses all methods of ethNology to the NatioNal social structure of Guatemala. IN describe how they are all importaNt iN all three of these projects, they showed how studyiNg cultural variatioN. Eric Wolf uses structural power aNd tactical power were able differeNt kiNds of approaches, such as to view humaNs adaptiNg to their moderN aNthropological literature, to defiNe peasaNtry. society they were iN. Wolf develops a solutioN ANother similarity that Harris, Boas, aNd to the issues aNthropologists face wheN Wolf share is their uNderstaNdiNg that discussiNg power for theory aNd methods by techNological advaNcemeNts shape our society establishiNg a system where there are four today. For iNstaNce, the iPad has developed a differeNt modes of power. powerful relatioNship betweeN pareNts aNd HOW SOCIETY IS BEING SHAPED BY TECHNOLOGY - SARAHI VARGAS ESJOA | 38 their small childreN. Boas would view the use MarviN Harris’ model caN be used to describe of the iPad iN its cultural coNtext. He would the Need for society to be shaped by New argue that the iPad became a source of techNology. For iNstaNce, the Soviet UNioN fell diffusioN that caused aN evolutioN of all as a result to prioritiziNg iNfrastructure. If cultures iN America. SiNce childreN are iN people choose Not to rely oN the use of aN iPad coNtact with other childreN, seeiNg aNother just like everyoNe else, theN it would cause aN child with aN iPad caN iNflueNce childreN to imbalaNce to America’s iNfrastructure, which coNviNce their pareNts to get them oNe. PareNts iNcludes mode of productioN. People Need to see that iPads keep other childreN distracted adapt to the use of the iPad iN their aNd assume that the same would hold true for eNviroNmeNts to sustaiN the mode of their owN childreN. No matter their cultural productioN. ONly theN caN this allow for backgrouNd, pareNts have come to rely oN the further productioN of techNology. For iPad as aN iNflueNtial tool. Eric Wolf would example, maNy schools have updated describe the use of the iPad as a power themselves by giviNg every studeNt access to relatioNship. IN all of the four modes of power aN iPad. At first, it was the schools who could that Wolf describes, the iPad holds power over afford it, but the practice has Now spread to AmericaN society. IN the persoNal power schools who are located iN low-iNcome mode, the iPad holds power siNce pareNts commuNities, who have eNough iPads for all believe it helps them coNtrol their childreN. their studeNts. If oNly the schools iN better For the secoNd mode of power, childreN may commuNities had access to iPads while the show off their iPads to other childreN who do schools iN low-iNcome Neighborhoods did Not, Not have oNe. ChildreN with the iPad are aN imbalaNce caN be created that caN ruiN the iNflueNciNg other childreN to waNt oNe, who iNfrastructure. SiNce childreN are the future will theN coNviNce their pareNts to get them geNeratioNs, they get a head start of oNe. For tactical aNd orgaNizatioNal power, the techNological advaNcemeNts. iPad coNtrols the settiNg by keepiNg people FraNz Boas’ theoretical positioN oN iNteractiNg with the iPad iNstead of socializiNg aNthropology is the most persuasive.
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  • Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Inuit: Reflections on TEK Research and Ethics GEORGE W

    Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Inuit: Reflections on TEK Research and Ethics GEORGE W

    ARCTIC VOL. 52, NO. 2 (JUNE 1999) P. 113–124 Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Inuit: Reflections on TEK Research and Ethics GEORGE W. WENZEL1 (Received 24 February 1998; accepted in revised form 20 January 1999) ABSTRACT. The intimate knowledge that Inuit possess about the environment has figured prominently in North American Arctic research since at least the mid-1960s, when adherents of Julian Steward’s adaptationist perspective essentially displaced the acculturation paradigm that until then had dominated Inuit studies. While Nelson’s Hunters of the Northern Ice is the prototype of integrating traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) into the cultural analysis of Inuit, virtually all ecologically framed research on Inuit adaptation since has drawn extensively on TEK, if only as one of several information sources. Recently, however, Inuit and agencies and individuals concerned with the conduct of research in the North have expressed concern about the appropriation of this culturally specific knowledge. In the contemporary research environment of Nunavut, TEK is now a political (as well as scientific and cultural) concern. More specifically, I conclude that 1) TEK is not qualitatively different from other scientific data sets; therefore, its analysis and interpretation must be subject to the same “rules” that apply to other forms of information; 2) TEK, because it is frequently contextualized in individuals, demands closer ethical treatment than it has previously been accorded; and 3) the protection of TEK from “abuse” by scientists through intellectual property rights initiatives is problematic and unlikely to serve the long-term interests of either Inuit or researchers. Key words: traditional ecological knowledge, Inuit, research and ethics, intellectual property rights RÉSUMÉ.