WILDLIFE in a CHANGING WORLD an Analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™

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WILDLIFE IN A CHANGING WORLD An analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™

Edited by Jean-Christophe Vié, Craig Hilton-Taylor and Simon N. Stuart

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WILDLIFE IN A CHANGING WORLD An analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™

first_pages.indd I 13/07/2009 11:27:01 first_pages.indd II 13/07/2009 11:27:07 WILDLIFE IN A CHANGING WORLD An analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™

Edited by Jean-Christophe Vié, Craig Hilton-Taylor and Simon N. Stuart

first_pages.indd III 13/07/2009 11:27:07 The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reﬂ ect those of IUCN.

This publication has been made possible in part by funding from the French Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs.

Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland

Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.

Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Citation: Vié, J.-C., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N. (eds.) (2009). Wildlife in a Changing World – An Analysis of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 180 pp.

ISBN: 978-2-8317-1063-1

Editors: Chief Editor: Jean-Christophe Vié Editors: Craig Hilton-Taylor and Simon N. Stuart

Cover design: Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain

Cover photo: Iberian Lynx Lynx pardinus. © Joe Zammit-Lucia

Layout by: Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain

Produced by: Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain

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first_pages.indd IV 13/07/2009 11:27:07 Contents

Foreword – Holly T. Dublin ...... VII Preface – Julia Marton Lefèvre and Jane Smart ...... IX

Acknowledgements ...... XI

1. The IUCN Red List: a key conservation tool ...... 1 Jean-Christophe Vié, Craig Hilton-Taylor, Caroline M. Pollock, James Ragle, Jane Smart, Simon N. Stuart and Rashila Tong

2. State of the world’s species ...... 15 Craig Hilton-Taylor, Caroline M. Pollock, Janice S. Chanson, Stuart H.M. Butchart, Thomasina E.E. Oldﬁ eld and Vineet Katariya

3. Freshwater biodiversity: a hidden resource under threat ...... 43 William R.T. Darwall, Kevin G. Smith, David Allen, Mary B. Seddon, Gordon McGregor Reid, Viola Clausnitzer and Vincent J. Kalkman

4. Status of the world’s marine species ...... 55 Beth A. Polidoro, Suzanne R. Livingstone, Kent E. Carpenter, Brian Hutchinson, Roderic B. Mast, Nicolas J. Pilcher, Yvonne Sadovy de Mitcheson and Sarah V. Valenti

5. Broadening the coverage of biodiversity assessments ...... 67 Ben Collen, Mala Ram, Nadia Dewhurst, Viola Clausnitzer, Vincent J. Kalkman, Neil Cumberlidge and Jonathan E.M. Baillie

6. Species susceptibility to climate change impacts ...... 77 Wendy B. Foden, Georgina M. Mace, Jean-Christophe Vié, Ariadne Angulo, Stuart H.M. Butchart, Lyndon DeVantier, Holly T. Dublin, Alexander Gutsche, Simon N. Stuart and Emre Turak

7. The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat ...... 89 Annabelle Cuttelod, Nieves García, Dania Abdul Malak, Helen J. Temple and Vineet Katariya

Appendices

1. Summary of the ﬁ ve criteria used to evaluate if a taxon belongs in a threatened category ...... 105

2. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ threat categories scale ...... 106

first_pages.indd V 13/07/2009 11:27:07 3. Sources for numbers of described species used in Table 1 of the chapter State of the World’s Species ...... 107

4. Summary of number of animal species in each Red List Category in each taxonomic class ...... 108

5. Summary of number of plant species in each Red List Category in each taxonomic class ...... 109

6. Number of species in each Red List Category in each major animal taxonomic group (Class, Order) ...... 110

7. Number of species in each Red List Category in each major plant taxonomic group (Class, Family) ...... 116

8. Number of threatened species in each major group of organisms in each country ...... 125

9. Number of extinct, threatened and other species of animals in each Red List Category in each country ...... 132

10. Number of extinct, threatened and other species of plants in each Red List Category in each country ...... 139

11. Number of endemic and threatened endemic species per country for completely assessed taxonomic groups (mammals, birds, amphibians, freshwater crabs, reef-forming corals, conifers, cycads) ...... 145

12. Species changing IUCN Red List Category for genuine reasons ...... 152

first_pages.indd VI 13/07/2009 11:27:07 Foreword

People all over the world are becoming contribution to Red List assessments – a for reporting through the United Nations increasingly aware of the growing tangible and enduring demonstration Framework Convention on Climate Change challenges facing our future and of the vital of their passion and commitment to or towards refi ning our knowledge of links between the natural world and human conserving the world’s species. migratory species apropos the Convention wellbeing. For generations, views on the on Migratory Species. status of the world’s species remained The process of conducting Red List largely speculative and highly focused on assessments is extremely labour The Red List has grown continuously large, charismatic mammals but in recent intensive; historically a labour of love in terms of its technical strength and times we are beginning to understand the delivered through close cooperation breadth, providing a particularly unique and overall situation of biodiversity far better - and collaboration amongst members important tool for decision makers. With all from the smallest invertebrates and fungi of the SSC, staff of the IUCN Species species of amphibians, birds, mammals, to the great trees of our forests and the Programme, and other contributing reef-building corals, freshwater crabs, whales of our oceans. individuals and institutions around the conifers, cycads and subsets of other world. The production of this Analysis of taxonomic groups now assessed, the One of the tools that has helped us to The 2008 Red List has been no exception Red List provides an important foundation “connect-the-dots” is The IUCN Red and continues in our longstanding tradition. piece for conservationists by describing List of Threatened SpeciesTM – the most the patterns of species conservation status comprehensive information source on In this volume, you will fi nd the most up- across landscapes and seascapes. The the global conservation status of the to-date information on the patterns of reader will fi nd that in some areas of the world’s plant and animal species. For species facing extinction in some of the world, for example the Mediterranean, our decades, IUCN has brought together the most important ecosystems in the world knowledge on the extent, magnitude and knowledge of thousands of the world’s and the reasons behind their declining causes of threat is even greater for a wider leading authorities on species conservation status. For managers this information spectrum of species; especially highly through its expert network known as the will assist in designing and delivering threatened endemics. Such information Species Survival Commission (SSC). targeted action to mitigate these threats. is crucial for conservation planning at the Comprised of over 100 taxonomic and From a policy perspective, the Red List national, regional and global level. thematic Specialist Groups as well offers a progressively more valuable tool. as targeted, time-bound Task Forces Increasingly it provides the fundamental As a result of its continual updating, to tackle contemporary challenges, information needed to deliver indicators expansion and deepening of content, we the SSC continues to keep pace with for tracking: progress against national now know better than ever before that the the emerging issues confronting the obligations under the Convention on prognosis for species across the Planet is conservation of species across the planet. Biological Diversity; the conservation dire. This volume reports new information on Formed six decades ago, the SSC now status of those species in international freshwater and marine species, which deliver comprises almost 8,000 members - their trade under Convention on International important ecosystem services, including tireless, voluntary efforts help to expand Trade in Endangered Species; the extent the provisioning of protein to some of the the frontiers of science through their and magnitude of climate change impacts world’s poorest communities. These species

VII are now known to be facing extreme threat will provide predictive abilities to long-range authoritative global standards supporting from overexploitation and habitat loss. The planning and policy development as the policy and action to conserve species new insights presented here also help us to effects of climate change are increasingly felt around the world. We hope this Analysis better understand the most likely differential across the globe. of The 2008 Red List will provide you with responses and geographical patterns new information and insights, which will expected when the effects of global climate Through the dedicated efforts of thousands motivate you to actions of unprecedented change begin to impact the world’s most of scientists and practitioners, The IUCN intensity and commitment on behalf of these susceptible species. This cutting-edge work Red List has become one of the most fundamental building blocks of life on Earth.

Holly T. Dublin, Chair (2004-08), IUCN Species Survival Commission

VIII Preface

We live in a world with an overload of This gold mine comprising the extensive Assessment of 2005 made clear, information bombarding us every day. database ‘underneath’ The IUCN Red List biodiversity constitutes and sustains all Most people, wherever they live, know that also allows us to undertake analyses to life processes on the planet. It contributes wildlife – and by ‘wildlife’ we mean both determine, for instance, trends in the status utilitarian ecosystem ‘good and services’ animals from the smallest insect to the of threatened species, the geography of as well as cultural, aesthetic and spiritual largest mammal, as well as plants – is to threatened species as well as analyses values and ultimately a sense of identity. some extent ‘endangered’. But what is not of different threats and conservation It is thus fundamental to human well generally realized is what this really means responses. Some of the results of these being. It is increasingly appreciated – how much of our wildlife is threatened, analyses are presented here. that biodiversity loss and ecosystem by what, where, what the consequences degradation jeopardises human well being. are likely to be and if it really matters – to Every sector, whether it be trade, fi nancial, Examples abound from around the whole us or to our children. or health, has its metrics for monitoring world – destruction of grazing lands in trends. For biodiversity The IUCN Red List Ethiopia by invasive species resulting in The IUCN Red List of Threatened is that metric. Around 45,000 species whole villages being abandoned; the US SpeciesTM tells us the answers to have been assessed to-date. This is a tiny fruit industry being no longer able to rely many of these questions. With a long fraction (2.7%) of the world’s described on wild pollinators; and fi sheries collapsing established history, it is the world’s most species (with current estimates of the worldwide, to name but a few. comprehensive information source on the total number ranging from 5 to 30 million). global conservation status of plant and We now know that nearly one quarter of From all this ‘gloom and doom’ arises the animal species. It is based on an objective the world’s mammals, nearly one third of question – ‘What can we do about it?’ system for assessing the risk of extinction amphibians and more than 1 in 8 of all bird Less often articulated in public is a further of a species. Species listed as Critically species are at risk of extinction. This allows point – ‘Is it even worth bothering given Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable are us to come to the stark conclusion that that the situation seems so bad?’ In some regarded as threatened and therefore most wildlife (the word used in more technical ways we do not apologize for highlighting in need of conservation attention. circles is biodiversity) is in trouble, and the ‘bad news’. IUCN believes that the release extent of the current risk of extinction varies of The Red List acts as a clarion call for the However, The IUCN Red List is far more between different species groups. For this drive to tackle the extinction crisis – and than a register of names and associated reason IUCN is increasing the number of without those facts being made clear the threat categories. Underneath the listings conservation assessments of species in world will not react. It is a ‘wake up call’ is a gold mine of additional information. the marine and freshwater realms, and for and used as such by governments, NGOs, This includes a rich compendium of plants and invertebrate groups. Some early and civil society as a whole to help spread information on threats (e.g., climate change fi ndings of this work are presented here. their messages and educate the world or invasive species), on where the species about the need to conserve biodiversity. live, and most importantly information on A frequent reaction to any release of an conservation actions that can be used to update to The IUCN Red List is ‘Why does The Red List release is also an reduce or prevent extinctions. it matter?’ As the Millennium Ecosystem opportunity for us to show that

IX conservation works. In 2008 we were and publishes The Red List. It is therefore a is tied up with a need to move from a able to report that the Black-footed product of IUCN’s triple helix of members, situation which could be described as Ferret Mustela nigripes moved from commission members and secretariat. It a patchwork of conservation successes Extinct in the Wild to Endangered after a is important to recognize and pay tribute to a whole new approach to biodiversity successful reintroduction by the US Fish to not only the individual authors of the conservation by all sectors of society. and Wildlife Service into eight western papers in this volume, but all those who Over the last few years the world has states and Mexico from 1991-2008. contribute their expertise and data, often woken up to the threat of climate change. Similarly, the iconic Wild Horse Equus on a voluntary basis. The same now needs to happen in ferus moved from Extinct in the Wild in relation to biodiversity conservation. The 1996 to Critically Endangered this year In 2002 the most of the world’s two are inextricably linked of course after successful reintroductions started in governments (those who have ratifi ed given that the destruction of biodiversity Mongolia in the early 1990s. The fact that the Convention on Biological Diversity) contributes to climate change by several important conservation planning set a target to try to begin to arrest the releasing carbon from forests, wetlands, tools rely on The IUCN Red List means damage to the world’s wildlife. It states ‘To grasslands and peatlands for example, that even the business community is both achieve by 2010 a signifi cant reduction and its conservation offers solutions calling on and relying on this information of the current rate of biodiversity loss at to the climate problem as well as to to minimize their impact on the world’s the global, regional and national level as a humanity’s general well being. biodiversity. contribution to poverty alleviation and to the benefi t of all life on earth.’ We are hearing a great deal about the Every time it is released The IUCN Red economic ‘credit crunch’. What we face List gets increasing amounts of publicity. As we approach 2010, the world is also in the natural world is a ‘credit crunch This is because it is trusted – not only beginning to assess to what extent this for biodiversity’. As the world wakes up by the media but by governments, rather technical sounding target has to its failure to achieve the ‘2010 target’ NGOs, businesses and the general been achieved. As can be seen from the it is to be hoped that this publication and public. At the basis of this trust is the fi ndings presented in this volume we are the ongoing work to produce and update remarkable partnership of the world’s facing the stark conclusion that the target The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species leading species scientists – the IUCN will not be met. can contribute to a paradigm shift in our Species Survival Commission, the IUCN efforts to place true and realistic values Red List Partnership (including BirdLife As the world begins to appraise this on our wildlife. We need to set – and then International, Conservation International, situation in the run up to 2010, the reach - new ambitious targets to value and NatureServe and the Zoological Society of International Year of Biodiversity, it is conserve the fundamental riches of our London), together with the IUCN Species becoming clear that the prognosis for life support systems, and the wildlife and Programme which manages, processes the future of humankind on this planet people that depend on them.

Julia Marton-Lefèvre, Director General, IUCN Jane Smart, Director, Biodiversity Conservation Group and Head, Species Programme, IUCN

X Acknowledgements

General Ecosystem Partnership Fund; the the design of the publication as well as its The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ European Commission; the Esmée distribution, James Ragle and Claire Santer is compiled and produced by the IUCN Fairburn Foundation; the French Ministry for who compiled the long list of assessors and Species Programme based on contributions Foreign Affairs (DgCiD – Direction générale evaluators, Mike Hoffmann and Neil Cox from a network of thousands of scientifi c de la Coopération internationale et du who played a key role in the coordination experts around the world. These include Développement); and the MAVA Foundation of global assessments, Leah Collett who members of the IUCN Species Survival for Nature Conservation (MAVA Stiftung für helped with data processing and Jez Bird Commission Specialist Groups, Red List Naturschutz / Fondation pour la Protection who provided much help with queries on Partners (currently Conservation International, de la Nature). The 2010 Biodiversity the bird data. Nieves García and Annabelle BirdLife International, NatureServe and the Indicators Partnership and TRAFFIC Cuttelod supervised the Spanish translations Zoological Society of London), and many International supported the analysis of of the factsheets summarizing each chapter. others including experts from universities, species used for food and medicine. Further Jean-Christophe Vié supervised the French museums, research institutes and non- details about the specifi c contributions of translations. These one-page factsheets are governmental organizations. these and other donors are included under available at: www.iucn.org/redlist. the acknowledgement sections below for Wildlife in a changing world – An analysis the individual chapters. Freshwater biodiversity: a of the 2008 IUCN Red List of Threatened hidden resource under threat Species was made possible thanks to the To improve and expand the Red List IUCN would like to acknowledge those support of the French Ministry of Foreign assessment process, further development donors whose fi nancial contributions and European Affairs. of the tools used is required. In order to support freshwater biodiversity support the new developments an IUCN assessments; European Commission Compilation and production of The IUCN Red List Corporate Support Group has (EC); North of England Zoological Society Red List of Threatened Species™ would been established. IUCN would like to (Chester Zoo); Conservation International; not be possible without the fi nancial acknowledge those organizations that have Esmée Fairbairn Foundation; Global support of many donors. IUCN would like to become members of the support group: Environment Facility through the 2010 thank all the donors who have generously Chevron, Electricité de France, Holcim, Biodiversity Indicators Partnership; IUCN provided funds to support this work, and Oracle, Statoil, and Shell. Water and Nature Initiative (WANI); Junta in particular would like to acknowledge the de Andalucia; MAVA Foundation (through ongoing fi nancial support from The Rufford The editors would like to thank all authors the IUCN Mediterranean Regional Offi ce Maurice Laing Foundation that enables the and contributors for their production of for Cooperation); The Netherlands Ministry production of the annual Red List updates. the various parts of the publication as well of Foreign Affairs (DGIS); Rufford Maurice as Vineet Katariya, Susannah O’Hanlon Laing Foundation; Spanish Ministry of Other major donors to the Red List for producing all the maps, Mark Denil for Environment and Wetlands International. assessment process include the Moore designing the map layouts, and Kevin Smith Family Foundation; the Gordon and for doing all graphics. Thanks are also We would also like to acknowledge all the Betty Moore Foundation; the Critical due to Lynne Labanne who assisted with scientifi c experts from around the world

first_pages.indd XI 15/07/2009 13:41:09 Wildlife in a Changing World that have underpinned the freshwater G.M. De Bélair, F. De Moor, L. De Vos, Makocho, V. Mamonekene, B. Marshall, species assessments. Without these C. Dening Touokong, M. Diedhiou, E. G. McGregor Reid, A. McIvor, F. Médail, E. enthusiastic and dedicated individuals, this Dieme-Amting, K.-D. Dijkstra, B. Elvira, Michel, T. Moelants, N. Mollel, K.A. Monney, analysis would not be possible. J. Engelbrecht, M. Entsua-Mensah, F. R. Monsembula, M. Mrakovcic, Mubbala, Erk’akan, S.A.F. Ferreira, W. Foden, J. A. Muhweezi, M. Mutekanga, B. Mwangi, E. Abban, A. Abdelhamid, O. Akinsola, Freyhof, M. Ghamizi, J.-P. Ghogue, N. K. Naidoo, S. Ndey Bibuya Ifuta, A. Ndiaye, E. Akinyi Odhiambo, M. Ali, A. Amadi, Gichuki, P. Giorgio Bianco, M. Goren, G. Ndiritu, B. Ndodet, B. Ngatunga, C. G. Ameka, K. Amoako, M. Angliss, C. P. Grillas, W. Hagemeijer, C. Hamallah Ngereza, F. Niang Diop, A. Nicanor Mbe Appleton, F.Y.K. Attipoe, A. Awaiss, Diagana, G. Howard, H. Howege, A. Tawe, F. Nicayenzi, G. Ntakimazi, M. Nyaligu, M. Baninzi, R. Barbieri, J. Bayona, C. Ibala Zamba, D. Impson, S. Issa Sylla, H. T. Nzabi, L. Nzeyimana, P. Ochieng Mbeke, Bigirimana, R. Bills, E. Bizuru, N.G. James, D. Johnson, A. Jørgensen, M. S.S. Ogbogu, B. Olaosebikan, J.M. Onana, Bogutskaya, J.-P. Boudot, L. Boulos, Jovic, V. Kalkman, A. Kane, C. Kapasa, O. Opoye Itoua, L. Ouédraogo, D. Oyugi, T. Bousso, R. Brummett, J. Cambray, A. Karatash, E. Kaunda, J. Kazembe, J. L. Potter, V. Pouomogne, M. Povz, V. Prié, J.A.G. Carmona, M. Cheek, A. Chilala, S. Kipping, J. Kisakye, M. Kottelat, M. Kraiem, L. Rhazi, E. Riservato, J. Sa, B. Sambou, Chimatiro, V. Clausnitzer, F-L. Clotilde-Ba, T.K. Kristensen, J. Kruger, F. Krupp, R. B. Samraoui, M. Samways, W. Schneider, W. Coetzer, A.J. Crivelli, N. Cumberlidge, Kyambadde, P. Laleye, C. Lange, P.V. K. Schütte, M. Seddon, M. Séga Diop, E. B. Curtis, L. Da Costa, M. Dagou Diop, M. Loiselle, T. Lowe, M. Madeleine Manga, Sieben, J. Simaika, J. Šinžar-Sekulic´ , P.H. Dakki, F. Daniels, S. Daniels, F.S. Darboe, P. Mafabi, Z. Magombo, A. Mahamane, P. Skelton, J. Snoeks, G. Soliman, J. Somua

Partners and sponsors: a. Red List Partners, b. Publication sponsor, c. Major Red List sponsors, b and d. Red List Corporate Group.

XII Acknowledgements

Amakye, D. Soumaré Ndiaye, J.S. Sparks, who have given so selfl essly of their Nicola Lipczynski, Hannah Peck, Gary A-S. Stensgaard, M. Stiassny, F. Suhling, time to carry out the detailed research Powney, Jennifer Sears, Kate Sullivan, E. Swartz, S. Tchibozo, P. Tchouto, S. Terry, and analysis required to conduct the Oliver Wearn, Penny Wilson, Sally Wren, D. Tweddle, T. Twongo, D. van Damme, E. assessments for each of the turtle species, and Tara Zamin. Vela, J. Victor, K. West, and F. Wicker. and all of those who have shared their data so that the assessors could produce IUCN Specialist Groups and Species Status of the world’s marine the most accurate of assessments. We Programme species are grateful to the Marine Turtle Specialist BirdLife International (Stuart Butchart, Ali Group (MTSG) Assessment Steering Stattersfi eld); Crocodile Specialist Group Corals Committee and its Chair for all the hard (Tom Dacey); Freshwater Biodiversity We thank Tom Haas and the New work and careful independent review of Unit (Will Darwall, Anna McIvor, Kevin Hampshire Charitable Foundation, each assessment. We also acknowledge Smith); Freshwater Fish Specialist Group Conservation International, Esmée Fairbairn all of the host institutions for MTSG (Gordon McGregor Reid); Global Mammal Foundation, and the Royal Caribbean members, which allow us to invest time, Assessment (Janice Chanson, Mike Cruises Ocean Fund for their generous energy and dedication into meeting Hoffman, Jan Schipper); Global Marine support of the IUCN Coral Red List research and conservation goals for these Species Assessment (Kent Carpenter, Assessment. We also thank the following valuable species. Suzanne Livingstone, Beth Polidoro); for help and support: Moonyeen Alava, Global Reptile Assessment (Janice Jonathan Baillie, Deb Bass, Hector Reyes Sharks Chanson, Neil Cox, Simon Stuart); Bonilla, Thomas Brooks, Hubert Froyalde, We thank Conservation International, the Groupers and Wrasses Specialist Group Peter Glynn, Scott Henderson, Cleve David and Lucile Packard Foundation, (Yvonne Sadovy); Mediterranean Red Hickman, Michael Hoffmann, Danwei Defra, the US State Department, IUCN, List Assessment (Annabelle Cuttelod); Huang, Vineet Katariya, David Knight, Pew Lenfest Ocean Program, Marine Marine Turtle Specialist Group (Milani Federico Lopez, Roger McManus, Mike Conservation Biology Institute and Chaloupka); Odonata Specialist Group Palomar, Caroline Pollock, Rodolfo Quicho, numerous other funders of the SSG’s (Viola Clausnitzer, Vincent Kalkman, Frank Jonnell Sanciangco, Michael Smith, various Red List workshops over the past Suhling); Red List Unit (Craig Hilton- Muhammad Syahrir, Romeo Trono, Mariana fi ve years for their generous support. Full Taylor, Vineet Katariya, Caroline Pollock); Vera, Dana Zebrowski, Charles Darwin details are provided on the Sponsors Syngnathid Red List Authority (Amanda Foundation, Conservation International page of the SSG’s website. We thank all Vincent, Heather Koldaway, Sarah Bartnik, Philippines, Darwin Initiative, First Philippine members of the Shark Specialist Group Eve Robinson and Sian Morgan Shark Conservation Incorporated, FirstGen and invited regional and international Specialist Group (Sarah Fowler, Claudine Incorporated, Gordon and Betty Moore experts who have contributed to Gibson, Sarah Valenti); Tortoise and Foundation, Walton Family Foundation, and assessments for their valuable time and Freshwater Turtle Specialist Group (Anders the Zoological Society of London. enthusiastic commitment to species Rhodin, Peter Paul van Dijk). conservation, without which this work Groupers would not be possible. We also thank Contributors We thank the Society for the Conservation Caroline Pollock, Craig Hilton-Taylor and of Reef Fish Aggregations, the David the Global Marine Species Assessment REPTILES and Lucile Packard Foundation, the team for help and support. Klaus Adolphs, Cesar Aguilar, Allen University of Hong Kong, the US State Allison, Natalia Ananjeva, Steve Anderson, Department and IUCN for supporting work Broadening the coverage of Sergio Augusto A. Morato, Mark Auliya, on groupers. Members of the Groupers biodiversity assessments Christopher Austin, Sherif Baha el Din, & Wrasses Specialist Group who have We greatly acknowledge the funding Raoul Bain, Aaron Bauer, Daniel Bennett, worked on assessments over the years support of the following organizations: Don Broadley, Sharon Brooks, Rafe Brown, are: Phil Heemstra, Howard Choat, Liu Esmée Fairbairn Foundation, Rufford Juan Camilo Arredondo, Ashok Captain, Min, Michel Kulbicki, David Pollard, Barry Maurice Laing Foundation, Global Angus Carpenter, Fernando Castro, David Russell, Beatrice Padovani, Melita Samoilys, Environment Facility through the 2010 Chapple, José Rogelio Cedeño-Vázquez, Annadel Cabanban, Pat Colin, Matt Craig, Biodiversity Indicators Partnership, The B.C. Choudhury, Diego F. Cisneros- Luiz Rocha, Kevin Rhodes, William Cheung, North of England Zoological Society Heredia, Lázaro Cotayo, Harold Cogger, Rob Myers, Being Yeeting, Athila Andrade, (Chester Zoo), the Gordon and Betty Gabriel C. Costa, Teresa Cristina Sauer Dave Cook, Andy Cornish, Patrice Francour, Moore Foundation through Conservation Avila-Pires, Pierre-Andre Crochet, Brian Mauricio Hostim Silva, Chris Koenig, International, Natural Environment Crother, Felix Cruz, Ranjit Daniels, Neil Graciela Garcia-Moliner, Kwang-Tsao Shao Research Council and the Centre for Das, Ignacio de la Riva, Kevin de Queiroz, and Sean Fennessy, with excellent technical Population Biology, Imperial College Anslem de Silva, Maria del Rosario support from Rachel Wong. London, and The Fishmongers’ Company. Castandea, Lutz Dirksen, Jim R. Dixon, Tiffany M. Doan, Paul Doughty, Dirk Embert, Marine turtles Core team Robert E. Espinoza, Richard Etheridge, We would like to thank all those members Jon Bielby, Anna Chenery, Zoe Cokeliss, Andre Felipe barreto Lima, Xie Feng, of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group Blythe Jopling, Sarah Lewis, Paul Lintott, Lee Fitzgerald, Fred Franca, Leonardo

XIII Wildlife in a Changing World

Francisco Stahnke, Tony Gamble, Miguel FRESHWATER FISH grateful to members of the SSC network A. García, Juan Elías García-Pérez, Maren Aaron Jenkins, Nina Boguskaya, Will and our partner organizations, particularly Gaulke, Phillipe Geniez, Stephen Goldberg, Darwall, Rema Devi, Roberto Esser dos BirdLife International, for their valuable David Gower, Eli Greenbaum, Lee Grismer, Reis, Tan Heok Hui, Fang Kullander, contributions. Michael Guinea, Jakob Hallermann, Kelly Philippe Laleye, Flavio Lima, Topis Hare, Mike Harvey, Harold Heatwole, Macbeath, Gordon McGregor Reid, and The Mediterranean: a S. Blair Hedges, Neil Heideman, Robert Jos Snoeks. biodiversity hotspot under Henderson, Rod Hitchmough, Karim V. D. threat Hodge, Paul Horner, Barry Hughes, Mark DRAGONFLIES Assessing species for the IUCN Red Hutchinson, Ivan Ineich, Bob Inger, Richard Viola Clausnitzer, Vincent J. Kalkman, Matjaz List of Threatened Species relies on Jenkins, Tony Jewell, Ulrich Joger, Hinrich Bedjanic, Klaas-Douwe B. Dijkstra, Rory the willingness of dedicated experts Kaiser, Dave Kizirian, Paul Kornacker, Axel Dow, John Hawking, Haruki Karube, Elena to contribute and pool their collective Kwet, Enrique La Marca, William Lamar, Malikova, Dennis Paulson, Kai Schütte, knowledge, thus allowing the most reliable Malcolm Largen, Michael Lau, Matthew Frank Suhling, Reagan Joseph Villanueva, judgments of a species’ status to be made. LeBreton, Edgar Lehr, Kuang-Yang Lue, Natalia Ellenrieder, and Keith Wilson. Without their enthusiastic commitment to César Luis Barrio-Amorós, Luca Luiselli, species conservation, this kind of regional Vimoksalehi Lukoschek, Mikael Lundberg, CRABS overview would not be possible. Robert Macy, Ulrich Manthey, Jean Fernando Alvarez, Felix Y.K. Attipoe, Mariaux, Otavio Marques, Marcio Martins, Martha R. Campos, France-Lyse Clotilde- We would therefore like to thank the Brad Maryan, Nixon Matthews, Gregory Ba, Neil Cumberlidge, Savel R. Daniels, following people, asking for forgiveness Mayer, Werner Mayer, Colin McCarthy, Lara J. Esser, Celio Magalhaes, Anna from anyone whose name is inadvertently Randy McCranie, Michele Menegon, McIvor, Tohru Naruse, Peter K.L. Ng, Mary omitted or misspelled: Sanjay Molur, Tami Mott, Hidetoshi Ota, B. Seddon, and Darren C.J. Yeo. Jose Ottenwalder, Theodore Papenfuss, For Mediterranean amphibians Fred Parker, Olivier Pauwels, Tony Phelps, Species susceptibility to and reptiles Eric Pianka, Steven Platt, Paulino Ponce- climate change impacts Peter Paul van Dijk for producing the draft Campos, Robert Powell, Raju Radder, IUCN’s project on species susceptibility to species assessments for the tortoises and Arne Rasmussen,Chris Raxworthy, Bob climate change is funded by the John D. freshwater turtles, and the following people Reynolds, Gilson Rivas, Mark-Oliver Rödel, and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, who gave their time and valuable expertise Lourdes Rodríguez Schettino, Nelson with contributions from the Indianapolis to evaluate all of the assessments: Mr Rufi no de Albuquerue, Ross Sadlier, Zoo. We thank the Centre for Population Rastko Ajtic, Sherif Baha El Din, Wolfgang Hermann Schleich, Andreas Schmitz, Biology, Imperial College London for Böhme, Marc Cheylan, Claudia Corti, Jelka Muhamad Sharif Khan, Glenn Shea, workshop sponsorship and we are grateful Crnobrnja Isailovic, Pierre-André Crochet, Richard Shine, Roberto Soberón, Ruchira to the species experts who participated Ahmad Mohammed Mousa Disi, Philippe Somaweera, Steve Spawls, Peter Stafford, in the identifi cation of climate change Geniez, El Mouden El Hassan, Juan Antonio Bryan Stuart, Rob Stuebing, Gerry Swan, vulnerability traits, namely: Resit Akçakaya, Camiñas Hernández, Souad Hraoui-Bloquet, Sam Sweet, Manoel Alonso Tabet, Roberto Rob Alkamade, Jon Bielby, Neil Brummitt, Ulrich Joger, Petros Lymberakis, Rafael Ramos Targarona, John Thorbjarnsarson, Simon Butler, Mar Cabeza, Ben Collen, Márquez, Jose Antonio Mateo Miras, Jose Colin Tilbury, Peter Tolson, Sam Turvey, Keith Crandall, Nick Dulvy, Rob Ewers, Luis Mons Checa, Saïd Nouira, Carmen Johan van Rooijen, Monique van Sluys, Rich Grenyer, Craig Hilton-Taylor, Sarah Díaz Paniagua, Valentín Pérez Mellado, Juan Alvaro Velasco, Miguel Vences, Milan Holbrook, Joaquin Hortal, Kate Jones, Manuel Pleguezuelos, Paulo Sá-Sousa, Veselý, Gernot Vogel, Milan Vogrin, Raju David Keith, Zoe Macavoy, Rob Marchant, Riyad Sadek, Murat Sevinc, Tahar Slimani, Vyas, Fabiano Waldez, Van Wallach, Bryon Tom Meagher, J.B. Mihoub, David Obura, C. Varol Tok, Ishmail Ugurtas, Milan Vogrin Wilson, Larry Wilson, Kaiya Zhou, and Shyama Pagad, Paul Pierce-Kelly, Jeff and Yehudah Werner. We would also like to George Zug. Price, John Reynolds, Ana Rodrigues, Andy thank David Knox and Peter Paul van Dijk Sheppard, and Stephen Williams. Cagan for assisting with workshop facilitation and TORTOISES AND FRESHWATER TURTLES Sekercioglu, Stephen Garnett, Oliver Kruger, subsequent editing of the data. Patrick J. Baker III, Alexandre Batistella, David Hole, Brian Huntley, Steve Willis, Bill Branch, Russell Burke, Olga Victoria, Rhys Green, Arvind Panjabi, Rob Clay, Ian For the Birds Castaño Mora, Tomas Diagne, Ken Dodd, Burfi eld, Greg Butcher, Petr Vorisek, Terry BirdLife International and its partners for Sean Doody, Michael Dorcas, David Rich, Paul Donald, Bruce Young, Andrew providing the bird species assessments Emmett, Kevin Enge, Alejandro Fallabrino, Baker, Peter Harrison, Carden Wallace and and in particular Stuart Butchart and Jez Arthur Georges, Justin Gerlach, Shi Haitao, Charlie Veron contributed essential species Bird, for their support and analysis of Magaretha Hofmeyr, John Iverson, Michael data. Andy Symes, Tristram Allinson and further data. Lau, Dwight Lawson, Luca Luiselli, William Joe Wood played a vital role in compiling Magnusson, Sebastien Metrailler, Steven bird data, and Janice Chanson assisted For the Mediterranean cartilaginous Platt, Peter Pritchard, Willem Roosenburg, with the compilation of amphibian data. We fi sh Tracy Tuberville, Sabine Vinke, Thomas thank Conservation International for covering All of the IUCN SSC Shark Specialist Vinke, and Richard Vogt. the cost of Alex Gutsche’s time, and are Group (SSG) Mediterranean members

XIV Acknowledgements and invited regional and international enthusiasm, dedication and willingness V.N., Andrianjakarivelo, V., Andrianjakavelo, experts who participated at the San Marino of many people around the world who V., Ángeles Ortiz, M., Angelici, F.M., workshop; Marco Affronte, Irene Bianchi, contribute an enormous amount of time Angerbjörn, A., Angulo, A., Anstis, M., Mohamed Nejmeddine Bradai, Simona and effort to supply Red List assessments Anthony, B., Anwarul Islam, Md., Ao, M., Clò, Rui Paul Coelho, Francesco Ferretti, and the supporting documentation Aparicio Rojo, J.M., Aplin, K., Appleton, B., Javier Guallart, Ferid Haka, Nils-Roar required for The IUCN Red List. In Appleton, C., Aquino, L., Araújo, M.L.G., Hareide, Farid Hemida, Cecilia Mancusi, particular, we must acknowledge all the Arboleda, I., Ardila-Robayo, M.C., Areces- Imène Meliane, Gabriel Morey, Manal SSC Specialist Group Chairs, Red List Mallea, A.E., Arfelli, C.A., Argolo, A.J.S., Nader, Guiseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara, Authority focal points, Specialist Group Ario, A., Ariunbold, J., Arizabal, W., Arnaud, Persefoni Megalofounou, Titian Schembri, members, and the many fi eld scientists G., Arntzen, J.W., Aronson, R., Fabrizio Serena, Alen Soldo, Fausto Tinti, who have been involved in contributing to Arrendondo, A.G., Arrigoni, P.V., Arroyo, S., Nicola Ungaro, Marino Vacchi, Ramón The IUCN Red List. In the list below we Arroyo-Cabrales, J., Arumugam, R., Bonfi l, Nick Dulvy, Ian Fergusson, Sarah have tried to highlight all the individuals Arzabe, C., Asa, C., Asber, M., Ashenafi , Fowler, Charlotte Mogensen and Ransom whose contributions appear on the 2008 Z.T., Ashton, P., Asmat, G.S.M., Assi, A., Myers. Particular gratitude is expressed IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM. Assogbadjo, A., Astua de Moraes, D., to Imène Meliane and Ameer Abdulla of With such a long list of names, it is highly Atkinson, R.P.D., Attic, R., Attipoe, F.Y.K., the IUCN Global Marine Programme; and probable that we have inadvertently Augerot, X., Aulagnier, M., Aulagnier, S., Helen Temple of the IUCN Red List Unit for forgotten someone or spelt names Aune, K., Aurioles, D., Austin, C., Avermid, reviewing this document and especially to incorrectly; please forgive us. D., Averyanov, L., Avila Villegas, H., Sarah Fowler, IUCN SSC SSG Co-chair, Avirmed, D., Azeraoul, A., Azevedo- for her continual support. The Editors thank: Ramos, C., Azlan, A., Azlan, J., Azlan, Abba, A., Abbott, J.C., Abbott, T., Abdel M.J., Baard, E., Babieri, R., Babik, W., We gratefully acknowledge Leonard Rahman, E., Abe, H., Abramov, A., Abrar, Bachman, S., Bachraz, V., Bahir, M.M., Compagno and Fabrizio Serena for help M., Abreu-Grobois, A., Abril, V.V., Abu Baigún, R., Bailey, M., Baillie, J., Bain, R., in compiling the regional checklist for this Baker, M.A., Abuzinada, A.H., Acero, A., Baird, R., Baker, C.S., Baker, J., Baker, report, and Sarah Ashworth, Sarah Valenti Acevedo Rodríguez, A., Acevedo, M., L.R., Baldi, R., Baldisseri, F., Baldo, D., and Adel Heenan for all the work they have Acosta, A., Acosta, G., Acosta-Galvis, A., Baldwin, R., Balestra, A.D., Balete, D., undertaken in contributing to reviewing and Acuña, E., Adams, M., Adams, W.F., Balfour, D., Ballesteros, F., Balletto, E., editing species assessments. We would Addoor, S.N.R., Adema, F., Adoor, S., Balmforth, Z., Baloyan, S., Bambaradeniya, also like to thank Peter Kyne for extremely Aeby, G., Afuang, L., Agarwal, I., Agoo, C., Ban, N.T., Bañares, A., Bandeira, S., helpful discussions. Finally, we would E.M.G., Aguilar, A., Aguilera, M., Aguirre Bangoura, M.A., Banks, P., Banks, S., like to thank Alejandro Sancho Rafel for Leon, G., Aguirre, L., Agwanda, B., Ahmad Bannister, J.L., Bantel, C.G., Baorong, G., providing the illustrations. Disi, G.D., Ahmad Khan, J., Ahmad, N., Baral, H.S., Barashkova, A., Barbanti, M., Ahmed Khan, J., Ahmed, M.F., Ajtic, R., Barbieri, R., Barker, A., Barker, A.S., For the cetaceans Ajtic, R., Akinyi, E., Al Dosary, M., Al Barlow, J., Barnett, A.A., Barnett, L.A.K., All of the IUCN SSC Cetacean Specialist Habhani, H.M., Al Khaldi, A.M., Al Mutairi, Barney, L., Barquez, R., Barrantes, U., Group (SSG) Mediterranean members M.S., Al Nuaimi, A.S.M., Alberth Rojas, C., Barratt, P., Barratt, P.J., Barrera, G.S., and invited regional and international Alberts, A., Albornoz, R., Alcala, A., Alcala, Barriga, P., Barrio, J., Barrio-Amorós, C., experts who participated at the Monaco E., Alcaldé, J.T., Alcaraz, D., AL-Eisawi, Barroso, G.M., Barry, R., Bartels, P., workshop; Alex Aguilar, Alexei Birkun, Jr., D.M.H., Alempath, M., Alfonso, G.L., Bartnik, S., Barua, M., Bass, D., Basso, Ana Cañadas, Greg Donovan, Caterina Alford, R., Algarra Ávila, J.A., Alkon, P.U., N., Bastos, R., Basu, D., Batbold, J., Maria Fortuna Alexandros Frantzis, Stefania Allen, G., Allen, G.R, Allet, M., Allison, A., Bates, P., Batin, G., Batsaikhan, A., Gaspari, Philip Hammond, Ada Natoli, Almada-Villela, P., Almandáriz, A., Almeida, Batsaikhan, N., Bauer, H., Baum, J., Giuseppe Notarbartolo di Sciara, William D., Almeida, Z., Almendáriz, A., Alonso, Baxter, R., Bayona, J., Bayona, J.D.R., F. Perrin, Randall R. Reeves, Renaud de A.M., Alonso, R., Altrichter, M., Alvarado, Bazante, G., Beachy, C., Beamer, D., Stephanis, as well as Marie-Christine Grillo S.O., Alvares, R., Alvarez Castaneda, S.T., Bearder, S., Bearzi, G., Beasley, I., and the ACCOBAMS Secretariat for their Alvarez, F., Alvarez, R., Álvarez, S., Alvarez, Beauvais, G.P., Beccaceci, M.D., Beck, collaboration and support. S.J., Álvarez-Castañeda, S., Alves, P.C., H., Beckmann, J., Bedjanic, M., Beebee, Alviola, P., Amanzo, J., Ambal, G., T., Beentje, H.J., Beerli, P., Beever, E.A., For the Mediterranean freshwater Amézquita, A., Amiet, J.-L., Amir, O.G., Begg, C., Begg, K., Behler, J., Beier, M., crabs and crayfi sh Amori, A., Amori, G., Amorim, A.F., Beja, P., Bekoff, M., Belant, J., Belbachir, Francesca Gherardi for producing the Amorós, C.L.B., Amoroso, V.B., Amr, Z., F., Bell, B., Bell, T., Bellamy, C.L., preliminary assessments for crayfi sh and Anacleto, T., Anandanarayanan, Ananjeva, Bellingham, P., Bello, J., Benavente, A., Neil Cumberlidge for the assessments of N., Ancrenaz, M., Andayani, N., Andelt, Benavides, G., Benda, P., Benedikt freshwater crabs. W., Anderson, E.F., Anderson, M., Schmidt, A., Benishay, J.M., Bennett, D., Anderson, P.K., Anderson, R., Anderson, Bennett, M.B., Benshemesh, J., Benzie, Assessors and evaluators R.P., Anderson, S., Andrade, G., J., Berducou, C., Bergallo, H., Bergl, R.A., Producing this analysis would not be Andrainarivo, C., Andreone, F., Andrews, Bergmans, W., Berlin, E., Bernal, M., possible were it not for the extraordinary H.V., Andriafi dison, D., Andriaholinirina, Bernal, N., Bernal, R., Bernard, R., Bérnils,

XV Wildlife in a Changing World

R.S., Bertolino, S., Bertoluci, J., Bertoncini, Cailliet, G.M., Cairns-Wicks, R., Cajas, J., Collins, T., Coloma, L.A., Compagno, A., Bertozzi, M., Best, P.B., Bestelmeyer, Cajas, J.O., Caldas, J.P., Calderón L.J.V., Connolly, R., Conran, J.G., Conrath, S., Beyer, A., Bhat, G.K., Bhatnagar, Y.V., Mandujano, R., Calderon, E., Caldwell, I., C., Conroy, J., Constantino, E., Contreras- Bhatta, G., Bhatta, T., Bhattacharyya, T., Callaghan, D., Camancho, J., Camara L., Balderas, S., Conyers, J., Cook, S., Cook, Bhuddhe, G.D., Bhupathy, S., Bianchi, I., L., Camarda, I., Cambi, V., Cambray, J., S.F., Cooke, J., Cooper, N., Cootes, J., Bianco, G., Bianco, P.G., Bibiloni, G., Camhi, M., Campagna, C., Campbell, Copley, P., Coppois, G., Corbett, L.K., Bickford, D., Bidau, C., Biggins, D., J.A., Camperio-Ciani, A., Canseco- Cornejo, F., Cornejo, X., Cornish, A., Bigirimana, C., Biju, S., Biju, S.D., Bila-Isia, Márquez, L., Cantley, R., Canty, P., Cornish, A.S., Coroiu, C., Coroiu, I., I., Bilgin, C., Bills, R., Bird, J., Birkinshaw, Capper, D., Caramaschi, U., Carauta, Correia, J.P.S., Cortés, E., Cortés, J., C., Birkun Jr., A.A., Birstein, V., Bishop, P., J.P.P., Caraway, V., Carbajal, R., Carbyn, Cortés-Ortiz, L., Cortez, C., Corti, C., Corti, Bist, S.S., Bisther, M., Biswas, B.K., L., Cardiff, S., Cardiff, S.G., Cardozo, V., M., Corti, P., Cossios, D., Cossíos, E.D., Bizzarro, J.J., Bjørge, A., Black, P., Black, Carey, C., Caringal, A.M., Cariño, A., Costa, L., Costa, P., Cotayo, L., Cotterill, P.A., Blair Hedges, R.J., Blair, D., Cariño, A.B., Carino, P., Carlisle, A.B., F.P.D., Cotterill, F.W., Cotton, E., Blakenmore, R.J., Blanc, J., Blanca, G., Carlson, J., Carlson, J.K., Carlstrom, A., Courtenay, O., Covert, B., Cowie, R., Bleisch, B., Bleisch, W., Blois, J., Blom, A., Carmona, J., Carnaval, A.C., Carpenter, Cowie, R.H., Cox, D., Cox, N., Coxe, S., Blomquist, S., Bloomer, P., Blotto, B., K., Carqué Álamo, E., Carr, J.L., Carranza, Craig, C., Craig, M., Crandall, K., Craul, Boada, C., Boeadi, Boesch, C., Bogan, S., Carrick, F., Carrington, C.M.S., Carrión M., Craven, P., Crawford-Cabral, J., Creel, A.E., Bogarin, D., Bogutskaya, N., Bohlen, Vilches, M.Á, Carron, G., Carter, R.L., S., Crespo, E.A., Crespo, M.B., Cribb, P., J., Böhme, W., Bohs, L., Boisserie, J-R., Carter-Holmes, S., Carvalho, L.d’A.F., Cribb, P.J., Crider, D., Crivelli, A., Crivelli, Boistel, R., Boitani, L., Bolaños, F., Bolívar, Cashatt, E., Caso, A., Casper, B.M., A.J., Crochet, P.-A., Crochet, P-A., W., Bolten, A., Bonaccorso, F., Cassinello, J., Castañeda, F., Castellanos, Crombie, R., Cronk, Q.C.B., Crosby, M., Bonaccorso, F.A., Bonal, B.S., Bonfi l, R., A., Casteñeda, F., Castillo, A., Castro, Crouse, D., Crump, M., Cruz, G., Cruz- Bonham, K., Bonifaz, C., Bonvicino, C., A.L.F., Castro, F., Castro, O., Castro- Aldan, E., Csiba, L., Csorba, G., Cuarón, Boonratana, R., Borah, M.M., Boratynski, Arellano, I., Castroviejo-Fisher, S., A.C., Cuarón, A.D., Cuéllar, E., A., Bordoloi, S., Borges-Najosa, D., Born, Catenazzi, A., Catling, P., Catzefl is, F., Cumberlidge, N., Cumming, D.H.M., E.W., Born, M., Borroto, R., Bosch, J., Causado, J., Cavalcanti, T.B., Cavallini, P., Cunningham, M., Curtis, B., Custodio, C., Bossuyt, F., Bosworth, B., Botello, J.C., Cavanagh, R.D., Ceballos, N., Cedeño, A., Cuzin, F., Cypher, B.L., D’Anatro, A., Da Boubli, J.P., Boubli, J.-P., Bouchet, P., Cerón, C., Cervantes, F.A., Céspedez, J., Costa, L., da Cruz, C.A.G., da Fonseca, Boudot, J.-P., Bour, R., Bóveda-Penalba, Chakraborty, S., Chalise, M., Chaloupka, G.A.B., Dacey, T., Dagit, D.D., Dahal, B., A.J., Bowler, M., Bowles, M., Boyd, L., M., Chalukian, S., Chan Tak-Chuen, T., Dalebout, M.L., Dalponte, J., Daniel, B.A., Boyer, A.F., Boza, E., Bozdogan, M., Chan, B., Chan, B.P.L., Chan, S., Chan, Daniels, R., Daniels, S., Daniels, S.R., Bradaï, M.N., Bradford, D., Bradley Martin, T., Chanard, T., Changyuan, Y., Channing, Darbyshire, I., Darman, Y., Darria, J., E., Brahim, K., Branch, W.R., Brandão, R., A., Chanson, J., Chaparro, J.C., Darwall, W., Das, I., Das, J., Datong, Y., Brandle, R., Brandon, A., Branstetter, S., Chaparro-Auza, J.C., Chapman, R., Dávalos, L., Davenport, T., Davenport, Brash, J., Brash, J.M., Brasileiro, C., Chapman, R.E., Chardonnet, P., Charvet- T.R.B., David, J., Davidson, C., Davis, Braswell, A., Braulik, G., Braulik, G.T., Almeida, P., Chaudhry, A.A., Chauhan, G.S., Dawson, S.E., Dawson, S.M., Day, Breed, W., Breitenmoser, U., N.P.S., Chaves, G., Cheek, M., Chemnick, M., de A. Goonatilake, W.I.L.D.P.T.S., de Breitenmoser-Wursten, C., Brereton, R., J., Chen, X.-Y., Cheng, L., Cheylan, M., Almeida, M.P., de Bustos, S., de Carvalho, Brescia, F., Breuil, M., Brickle, N.W., Chhangani, A., Chiang, P.J., Chiaramonte, M.R., de Carvalho, M.R., de Grammont, Bridson, D., Brit, D., Brito, D., Brockelman, G., Chiaramonte, G.E., Chiarello, A., P.C., de Granville, J.J, de Iongh, H., De W., Broderick, A.C., Bronner, G., Brooke, Childerhouse, S., Chin, A., Chiozza, F., Jong, Y., De Jong, Y.A., de la Riva, I., de la A., Broome, L., Broughton, D.A., Brown, Chippindale, P., Chiramonte, G., Sancha, N., de la Torre, S., de Lange, P.J., D., Brown, D., Brown, D.S., Brown, J., Chiramonte, G.E., Chiriboga, A., Chitaukali, De Leon, J., De Luca, D., de Montmollin, Brown, M., Brown, P., Brown, R., Brownell W., Choat, H., Choat, J.H., Chou Wenhao, B., de Oliveira, L.F., de Oliveira, M.M., de Jr., R.L., Bruce, B., Bruckner, A., Choudhury, A., Choudhury, B.C., Oliveira, T., de Silva, A., de Silva, P.K., de Bruegmann, M.M., Brugiere, D., Brule, T., Christodoulou, C.S., Christodoulou, S., Smet, K., de Thoisy, B., de Tores, P., De Bucal, D., Buckner, S., Buckner, S.D., Christoff, A., Christofi des, Y., Chua, L.S.L., Vega, C., de Villalobos, A., de Villiers, A., Buden, D., Buhlmann, K., Buitrón, X., Chuaynkern, Y., Chuen, N.W., Chundawat, de Vogel, E.F., de Wilde, W.J.J.O., de Bukhnikashvili, A., Bumrungsri, S., R.J., Chundawat, R.S., Chundaway, R.A., Winter, A.J., Decher, J., Degani, G., Deka, Burbidge, A., Burdin, A., Burfi eld, I., Burger, Chung, R.C.K., Church, D., Cianfrani, C., P., Dekker, W., Delbeek, J.C., Delgado, C., M., Burgess, G.H., Burgess, G.M., Cilliers, S., Cisneros-Heredia, D., Delgado, T., D’Elia, G., Delphey, P., Burgoyne, P.M., Burkanov, V., Burke, A., Clapham, P.J., Clark, D., Clark, J.L., Clark, DeLuycker, A.M., Denham, J., Denny, M., Burneo, S., Burnett, S., Burrows, J., T.B., Clarke, C., Clarke, D., Clarke, G.P., Denoël, M., Derocher, A., Derocher, A.E., Burton, F.J., Burton, J., Bury, B., Buskirk, Clarke, J., Clarke, M., Clarke, M.W., Desai, A., Deutsch, C.J., DeVantier, L., J.R., Bustamante, M.R., Butchart, S., Clarke, S., Clausnitzer, V., Cliff, G., Clò, S., d’Huart, J.P., Di Bernardo, M., Di Fiore, A., Butterworth, D.S., Butynski, T.M., Cloete, E., Clotilde-Ba, F.-L., Clubbe, C., Di Giácomo, E., di Tada, I., Díaz, A., Diaz, Buuveibaatar, V., Byers, J., Bygrave, P., Coelho, R., Coetzee, N., Cogal, D., A.G., Diaz, G.Q., Díaz, L., Díaz, L.M., Diaz, Cabanban, A., Cabello, J., Cabezudo, B., Cogalniceanu, D., Cogger, H., Cole, N., M., Díaz-Paéz, H., Di-Bernardo, J.C., Cable, S., Cadena, A., Cadi, A., Cadle, J., Collen, B., Colli, G., Collins, J., Collins, K., Dicht, R.F., Dickman, C., Diesmos, A.,

XVI Acknowledgements

Diesmos, M.L., Dieterlen, F., Dijkstra, K.- Maurice, W.A., FitzGibbon, C., Flaherty, A., Gongora, J., Gonzales, J.C., González, B., D.B., Din, S.B.E., Ding-Qi, R., Dinh Thong, Flammang, B.E., Flander, M., Flannery, T., Gonzalez, E., González, J., González, M., V., Dipper, F., Disi, A., Disi, M., Ditchfi eld, Florence, J., Florens, D., Flores-Villela, O., Gonzalez, P., Gonzalez, S., González, S., R., Dittus, W., Dixon, R., Do Tuoc, Doadrio, Flueck, W., Foerester, C., Foggi, B., Gonzalez, T., González-Espinosa, M., I., Dobbs, K., Dodd, K., Doggart, N., Dold, Folkerts, G., Fonseca, G.d., Font Garcia, Gonzalez-Maya, J., Gonzalez-Maya, J.F., T., Dolino, C., Dollar, L., Domeier, M., J., Forbes, T., Forchhammer, M., Ford, J., Gonzalez-Porter, G.P., Goodman, D., Domingo, A., Domning, D., Donaire, F., Fordham, S., Formas, J., Formas, R., Goodman, S., Goodman, S.M., Donaire-Barroso, D., Donaldson, J.S., Formozov, N., Forney, K., Foster, G., Goossens, B., Gordon, G., Gordon, I., Donaldson, T.J., Dong, S., Donnelly, M., Foster, S.J., Foufopoulos, J., Foulkes, J., Gordonia, I., Goren, M., Gosline, G., Donnelly, N., Donovan, G.P., Dorjderem, Fouquet, A., Fournaraki, C., Fowler, S., Gottelli, D., Gour-Broome, V.A., Gower, D., S., Dormeier, M., Doroff, A., Doughty, P., Fraga Arguimbau, P., Fragoso, J., Francis, Grach, C., Grady, J., Graham, K., Graham, Doumbouya, F., Dowl, J.L., Dowler, R., C., Francis, M., Francis, M.P., Francis, N., K.J., Graham, R., Graham, R.T., Granjon, Down, T., Downer, C., Dransfi eld, J., Francisco Jiménez, J., Franco, F.L., L., Grant, T., Grassman, L., Grasso, R., Dressler, R.L., Drew, C., Drewes, R., Franco, M., Frantzis, A., Fredriksson, G., Gray, A., Gray, M., Greenbaum, E., Driessen, M., Drioli, M., Driscoll, C., Freire, E.M.X., Freire-Fierro, A., Frere, E., Greengrass, E., Gregorin, A.D., Griffi n, M., Drummond, L.O., Du Puy, D., Du, L.-N., Frest, T., Fretey, T., Frey, J., Freyhof, J., Griffi ths, H.I., Griffi ths, M., Griffi ths, O., Duarte, J.M.B., Dublin, H.T., Duckworth, Frias-Martin, A., Fridlender, A., Friedland, Griffi ths, R., Grismer, L., Groenedijk, J., J.W., Ducrocq, M., Dudley, S., Dudley, K.D., Friend, T., Frodin, D., Fronst, A., Groves, C.P., Groves, M., Grubb, P., S.F.J., Duellman, W., Duellman, W.E., Frost, A., Frost, C., Frost, D., Frost, D.R., Grubbs, D., Grubbs, D.R., Grubbs, R.D., Duffy, C., Duffy, C.A.J., Dujsebayeva, T., Fruth, B., Fu Likuo, Fuenmayor, Q., Gruber, S., Gu Huiqing, Guadagnin, D.L., Duke, S., Dulloo, M.E., Dulvy, N., Dunham, Fuentes-Ramos, O., Fuller, D., Fuller, T.K., Guallart, J., Guanfu, W., Guayasamin, J., A., Dunn, A., Dunnum, J., Dupain, J., Funes, M., Furey, N., Furtado, M., Furuichi, Güemes, J., Guevara, M.A., Guineo, G., Duplaix, N., Durant, P., Durant, S., Durate, T., Gadea, J.C.-S., Gadig, O.B.F., Gumal, M., Gunatilake, S., Gunawardena, J.M.B., Durbin, J., Durbin, L.S., Dutta, S., Gadsden, H., Gafny, S., Gaikhorst, G., M., Güner, A., Gunn, A., Günther, R., Dutton, P., Duvall, C., Duya, A., Duya, M., Galat, G., Galat-Luong, A., Gales, N., Gururaja, K.V., Gutierrez, B., Gutiérrez, L., Duya, M.R., Duya, P., Eamkamon, T., Galicia Herbada, D., Gallina Tessaro, S., Guttiérrez, E.E., Guttman, A., Guzmán, A., Easa, P.S., East, R., Eastwood, A., Ebert, Gallina, S., Gamisans, J., Gang, L., Guzmán, H., Ha, D.S., Haaker, P., Haase, D., Ebert, D.A., Eddowes, P.J., Edgar, G., Gankhuyag, P., Ganzhorn, J., Garayzar, M., Habib, B., Hack, M., Hack, M.A., Edgar, P., Edwards, A., Eeley, H., Ehardt, C.V., Garbutt, N., García Aguayo, A., Hadfi eld, M., Hadjikyriakou, G., C., Ehardt, T., Eizirik, E., Eken, G., Eklund, Garcia de Souza, G., Garcia, G., Garcia, Hadjisterkotis, E., Hadway, L., A-M., Ekué, M.R.M., El Din, S.B., El H., García, I., García, J.C., Garcia, J.E., Haevermans, T., Hafner, D.J., Hahn, N., Hassan, M., El Mouden, H., Eldredge, Garcia, J.J., Garcia, M., Garcia, P., Garcia- Hai Yin, W., Haines, W.P., Haitao, S., L.G., Elias, P., Ellis, C.M., Ellis, E., Ellis, J., Moliner, G., García-París, M., García- Hajkova, P., Hall, J., Hall, L., Hallingbäck, Ellis, J.E., Ellis, M., Ellis, S., Elron, E., Elsey, Pérez, J.E., García-Vasco, D., Gardner, A., T., Hämäläinen, M., Hamer, M., Hamilton, R., Elvira, B., Emberton, K.C., Emmons, L., Gardner, M., Gardner, R., Garfì, G., Garner, R., Hamilton, S., Hammer, S., Hammerson, Emslie, R., Endrody-Younga, S., T., Garrido, A., Garshelis, D.L., Garske, L., G., Hammerson, G.A., Hammond, J., Engelbrecht, J., English, K., Enlbrecht, J., Gartshore, M., Gascon, C., Gasgoigne, A., Hammond, P.S., Hampson, K., Han, K.H., Enssle, J., Erdmann, M., Erk’akan, F., Ermi, Gasith, A., Gates, C., Gatti, S., Gaubert, Han, S., Hanken, J., Hanski, I., Hanssens, Z., Espino Castellanos, L.A., Espinoza, C., P., Gaucher, P., Geberemedhin, B., Gee, M., Happold, D., Happold., M., Hardersen, Esselstyn, J., Esser, L., Essig, F.B., G., Geffen, E., Geiger, D., Geise, L., S., Harding, L., Hardy, J., Hare, J., Estupinan, R.A., Eterovick, P.C., Etuge, M., Geissler, P., Geissmann, T., Geist, V., Hareide, N., Härkönen, T., Harmelin-Vivien, Evans, G., Evans, R., Evans, T., Everett, Gelatt, T., Gem, E., Gemmill, C., Gen, P., M., Harris, R., Harris, R.B., Harrison, J., B., Fa, J., Fabregat Llueca, C., Fagundes, Geniez, P., Geraldine, V., Gerber, G., Harrison, J., Hart, J., Hart, J.F., Hart, T., L., Fagundes, V., Fahr, J., Fahr, J., Gerber, L., Gerlach, J., Gerson, H., Gese, Harvey, M., Hashimoto, C., Hashimoto, T., Fairclough, D., Faivovich, J., Faria, D., E.M., Gesti Perich, J., Ghazanfar, S.A., Hawking, J., Hawkins, A.F.A., Hawkins, Faria, V., Farías, V., Farjon, A., Farmer, Gianguzzi, L., Giannatos, G., Giannatos, C.E., Hawthorne, W., Haxhiu, I., Hayes, K.H., Fasola, L., Faulhaber, C.A., Faulkes, T., Giaretta, A.A., Gibbons, W., Gibson, C., W.K., Haynes, J., Hays, D., Haywood, M., C., Feh, C., Feio, R., Feistner, A., Felix, T., Gibson, C.G., Gibson, R., Gil, A.Q., Gil, Heaney, L., Hearn, A., Heckel, J.-O., Fellers, G., Fellers, G.M., Fellowes, J., E.R., Gil, Y., Gill, R., Gillespie, G., Gilroy, Héctor, M., Heddle, M., Heddle, M.L., Feng, X., Fenner, D., Fennessy, J., J., Giman, B., Gimenez Dixon, M., Hedges, B., Hedges, S., Heemstra, P.C., Fennessy, S., Ferguson, M., Fergusson, I., Ginsberg, J.R., Gippoliti, S., Giri, V., Giusti, Heenan, A., Hefner, R., Heide-Jørgensen, Fergusson, I.K., Fergusson, R., Fernades, F., Gizejewski, Z., Glaw, F., Gledhill, D., M.P., Helgen, H., Helgen, K., Heller, J., M., Fernandes, M., Fernández Jiménez, Glowacinski, Z., Gober, P., Goedeke, T., Henderson, A., Henderson, R., Henschel, S., Fernández-Badillo, E., Fernandez- Goettsch, B., Golamco, Jr., A., Golden, P., Henttonen, H., Herbert, D., Herbert, Duque, E., Fernando, P., Fernando, S., C., Golding, J., Goldman, C., Goldman, D.G., Herbert, J., Herbinger, I., Herman, Ferrari, S.F., Ferreira, B., Ferreira, D.C., K.J., Goldstein, I., Goldsworthy, S., A., Hermann, P., Hernández González, A., Ferreyra, N., Festa-Bianchet, M., Fil, Y., Gomez, H., Gómez, L.D., Gomez, R., Hernández Luís, A., Hernández, C., Findlay, K.P., Finet, Y., Finnie, D., Firsov, Gomez-Campo, C., Gómez-Hinostrosa, Hernández, H.M., Hernandez, M., G.A., Fisher, D., Fitz Maurice, B., Fitz C., Gómez-Laverde, M., Gondek, A., Hernández-Bermejo, E., Herndon, A.P.,

XVII Wildlife in a Changing World

Hero, J.-M., Herrera, M.I., Herrera-Molina, C., Kahwa, D., Kalkman, C., Kalkman, V., R., Leiva, A.M., Lemckert, F., Lemine Ould F., Herrero, J., Herrero. J., C., Herrington, Kalkman, V.J., Kamenya, S., Sidi, M., Lenain, D.M., Lenin, J., León, R., Herrmann, H.-W., Hersteinsson, P., Kanchanasaka, B., Kaneko, Y., Kappeler, N.P.L., Leong Tzi Ming, Léon-Yánez, S., Hess, W.J., Heupel, M., Heupel, M.R., P., Karanth, U., Karatas, A., Karatash, A., Lescure, J., Leslie, D., Lessa, E., Lessa, Heyer, R., Heymann, E., Hicham, M., Karczmarski, L., Karsen, S., Kasembe, J., R., Leus, K., Leuteritz, T., Lew, D., Lewis, Hickman, C., Hicks, C., Hiep, N.T., Hierro, Kasuya, T., Katende, A.B., Kaufman, L., D., Lewis, R., Lewison, R., Lhagvasuren, M.J., Highton, R., Hill, K.D., Hill, R., Hilton- Kauhala, K., Kaunda, E., Kawada, S., B., Li Zhenyu, Li, S.Y., Liang, F., Libois, R., Taylor, C., Hines, H., Hinton, G., Hinton, Kawanishi, K., Kays, R., Kazembe, J., Licandeo, R.R., Lichtenstein, G., Licuanan, G.B., Hinton, G.S., Hobbelink, M.E., Kebede, F., Kefelioglu, H., Keirulff, M.C.M., A., Lidicker Jr., W.Z., Lim, B., Lim, T.W., Hoces, D., Hodgetts, N., Hodgson, G., Keith, M., Kelly, B.T., Kelly, D.L., Kelly, M., Lima, A., Lima, R., Limpus, C., Linder, J., Hoeck, H., Hoeksema, B., Hoeksema, E., Kelt, D., Kemper, C., Kemper, K., Lindquist, E., Lindsey, P., Lindstrom, A., Hofer, A., Hoffmann, M., Hofmeyr, G., Kendrick, A.J., Kerbis Peterhans, J., Kerle, Link, A., Linkie, M., Linzey, A.V., Lippold, Hogan, Z.S., Hohmann, G., Holden, J., A., Kessner, V., Keuroghlian, A., Kevan, L., Lips, K., Lira-Torres, I., Lisney, T.J., List, Holdsworth, M., Holekamp, K.E., P.G., Khac Quyet, L., Khalikov, R., Khan, R., Lister, A., Litt, A., Littlejohn, M., Litvaitis, Hollingsworth, B., Holtzhausen, H., J., Khan, M.K.M., Khan, M.S., Khan, W., J., Litvinov, F., Liu Zhengyu, Livingstone, Holtzhausen, H.A., Hon, J., Honer, O., Khat Quyet, L., Khawa, D., Khonsue, W., S., Lizana, M., Lizcano, D., Lizcano, D.J., Honess, P., Hong-Wa, C., Hoock, A., Khorozyan, I., Kierulff, C., Kierulff, C.M., Lkhagvasuren, D., Llamozas, S., Lloyd, P., Hoogmoed, M., Horner, P., Horodysky, Kierulff, M.C.M., Kiesling, R., Kilburn, R.N., Loader, S., Loc, P.K., Lockyear, J., A.Z., Horrocks, J., Horsup, A., Hoskin, C., Kiliç, T., King, S.R.B., Kingdon, J., Loiselle, P., Loman, J., Loman, J., Long, Hounsome, M., Howard, J., Howell, K., Kingston, N., Kingston, T., Kipping, J., Kis, B., Long, M.A., Loots, S., Lopez Arevalo, Howeth, J., Hozbor, N., Hrabar, H., Hraoui- I., Kiss, I., Kittle, A., Kiwi, L.K., Klingel, H., H., Lopez Gonzalez, C., López Jiménez, Bloquet, S., Htun, S., Hua, Z.Z., Huacaz, Knapp, C.R., Knowlton, F., Kochummen, N., Lopez Luna, M.A., López Udias, S., D., Huang, D., Huber, D., Hudson, R., K.M., Kock, D., Koenig, C., Koenig, S., López, M., Lopez-Gonzalez, C., Lopez- Hughes, C., Huibin, Z., Huiqing, G., Kofoky, A.F., Köhler, G., Köhler, J., Kohorn, Luna, M.A., Lorenzen, E., Lorenzo, C., Huitson, A., Human, B., Human, B.A., L., Kok, P., Konstant, B., Koprowski, J., Lorica, R., Lorica, R.P., Lorite, J., Lötters, Humle, T., Hunt, K.D., Hunter, C., Hunter, Kotas, J.E., Kottelat, M., Kouadio, A., S., Louis Jr., E., Loureiro, M., Lourie, S., L., Huntsman, G., Hurley, M., Hurter, J., Kovacs, K., Kovács, T., Kovács, T., Lovari, S., Lovell, E., Loveridge, A.J., Hussain, S.A., Hutson, A.M., Hutson, T., Kozlowski, A., Kranz, A., Krasinska, M., Lovett, J., Loving, J., Low, B., Lowrey, C., Hutterer, R., Huveneers, C., Ibanez, M., Krasinski, Z.A., Kraus, F., Kreb, D., Lowrie, A., Lowry, L., Lowry, P., Lowry, P.P., Ibáñez, R., Ibéné, B., Ibisch, P.L., Icochea, Krecsák, L., Krentz, S., Kristensen, T., Loy, A., Lu, S.Y., Lu, W., Lü, Z., Lucherini, J., Idriz, H., Ilambu, O., Iliffe, T.M., Impson, Kristensen, T.K., Krose, M., Kryger, U., M., Ludovic, R., Lue, K., Luiselli, L., Luke, D., Incháustegui, S., Indrawan, M., Ineich, Kryštufek B., A.A., Kryštufek, B., Q., Lumsden, L., Luna-Mora, V.F., Lunde, I., Inger, R., Ingle, N., Iñi, Inoue, K., Insall, Kuangyang, L., Kubicki, B., Kuchling, G., D., Lunn, N., Lunney, D., Luque Moreno, D., Irwin, K., Isailovic, J.C., Isfendiyaroglu, Kukherjee, S., Kulbicki, M., Kulka, D., P., Luque, P., Lüthy, A.D., Luu, N.D.T., S., Is-haquou Daouda, H., Ishchenko, V., Kulka, D.W., Kullander, F., Kumar Lyenga, A., Lymberakis, P., Lynam, A., Ishihara, H., Ishii, N., Iskandar, D., Isnan, Chhangani, A., Kumar, A., Kumar, N.S., Lynam, A.J., Lynam, T., Lynch, J., Lynch, W., István Kiss, M.P., Iverson, J., Iverson, Kumar, S., Kümpel, N., Kunte, K., Künzel, J.D., Maas, B., MacCulloch, R., J.B., Izawa, M., J Lee, J., Jackson, D., T., Kupfer, A., Kurczewski, F.E., Kurniati, Macdonald, A.A., Macdonald, D., Jackson, J., Jackson, P., Jackson, R., H., Kurt, F., Kuzmin, S., Kwet, A., Macdonald, D.W., Mace, G.M., Maciel, N., Jacobs, D., Jaeger, J., Jaén Molina, R., Kyambadde, R., Kyne, P., Kyne, P.K., MacKinnon, J., MacPhee, R., Madhyastha, Jaffré, T., Jakubowsky, G., James, D., Kyne, P.M., Kypriotakis, Z., La Mantia, A., N.A., Madulid, D., Madulid, D.A., Maeda, James, R., Jansen, M., Jaramillo, C., Labat, H., Labat, J.N., Lacher, T., LaClaire, K., Maeda-Martinez, A.M., Maffei, L., Jaramillo, T., Jaramillo-Legorreta, A., Jaya, L., Laegaard, S., Lafrance, P., Lahiri Magalhaes, C., Magin, C., Magombo, Z., J.P, Jayat, J., Jayat, J.P, Jdeidi, S., Jdeidi, Choudhury, D.K., Laidre, K., Lajmanovich, Magombo, Z.L.K., Maharadatunamsi, D., T., Jeanmonod, D., Jefferson, T.A., Jehle, R., Laker, J., Lakim, M., Lamarque, F., Maharadatunkamsi, D., R., Jenkins, P., Jenkins, R., Jenkins, Lamilla, J., Lamilla, J.M., Lammertink, M., Maharandatunkamsi, D., Maheswaran, G., R.K.B., Jennings, A., Jennings, A.P., Lamónaca, A.F., Lamoreux, J., Lanfranco, Mahony, M., Mahood, S., Mailosa, A., Jennings, R., Jensen, J., Jerusalinsky, L., E., Lang, B., Lange, C., Lange, C.N., Mailosi, A., Maisels, F., Makocho, P., Jhala, Y.V., Jiang Zhigang, Jiang, Y.-E., Langguth, A., Langone, J., Lanjouw, A., Makris, C., Malakar, M.C., Malcolm, J.R., Jianping, J., Jiddawi, N., Jimena San Lanza, B., Lara-Ruiz, P., Largen, M., Maldonado-Silva, R.A., Mallari, A., Mallon, Martín, M., Jiménez Martínez, J.F., Lascelles, B., Last, P., Last, P.R., Lastica, D., Mallon, D.P., Malombe, I., Malonza, P., Jiménez, J., Jiménez, J.E., Joger, U., E., Latroú, G., Lau, M.W.N., Laurenson, Manamendra-Arachchi, K., Mancina, C., Joglar, R., Johan, O., Johnsingh, A.J.T., M.K., Lavilla, E., Lavin, P., Lavin-Murcio, P., Mancina, C.A., Mancini, P., Mancusi, C., Johnson, D., Johnson, K., Johnston, C.H., Lavrenchenko, L., Lawes, M.J., Lawson, Maneyro, R., Manganelli, G., Manh Ha, N., Jones, A., Jones, C., Jones, G., Jones, D., Lawson, D.A., Lazell, J., Lea, J., Lea, Mann, T., Mannheimer, C., Mannullang, B., M., Jones, T., Jordan, M., Jørgensen, P., R., Leach, G., Leandro, L., Leary, T., Mansur, M.C.D., Mantilla, H., Mantuano, Jørgensen, P.M., Jorgensen, S., Joshua, Leasor, H., Lecis, R., Lee, B., Lee, J., M., Manullang, B., Manzanares, J.M., J., Jowkar, H., Juncá, F., Jungfer, K.-H., Lehmann, T., Lehn, C., Lehr, E., Leipelt, Manzanilla, J., Mar, I., Maran, J., Maran, T., Juškaitis, R., Juste, J., Kaariye, X.Y., Kadis, K.G., Leite, M.R.P., Leite, Y., Leite-Pitman, Marca, E.L., Maree, S., Marijnissen, S.,

XVIII Acknowledgements

Marijnissen, S.A.E., Marinhio-Filho, J., M.G.L., Milne, D., Milner-Gulland, E.J., Notarbartolo di Sciara, G., Nouira, M.S., Marinho, F., Marinho-Filho, J., Marino, J., Ming, L.T., Minter, L., Minton, G., Miquelle, Nouira, S., Novarino, W., Novaro, A.J., Marker, L., Markezich, A.L., Marks, M., D., Mira, A., Miranda, F., Miras, J.A.M., Novellie, P., Nowell, K., Ntakimazi, G., Marler, T., Marmontel, M., Marques, Mi-Sook, M., Mitani, J.C., Mitchell, J., Núñez, H., Núñez, J., Nusalawo, M., O.A.V., Márquez, F., Marquez, R., Marrero Mitchell, N., Mitra, S., Mitré, M., Mitsain, Nussbaum, R., Nyambayar, B., Nyberg, Gómez, M.V., Marrero Rodríguez, A., G., Mittermeier, R.A., Mix, H., Moehlman, D., Nyhus, P., Nyström, P., Nzeyimana, L., Marsden, A.D., Marsden, D., Marsh, H., P.D., Moehrenschlager, A., Mogollón, H., O’Corry-Crowe, G., Oakwood, M., Oates, Marsh, L., Marsh, L.K., Marshall Mattson, Mohammed, O.B., Moler, P., Molinari, J., J., Oates, J.F., Oates, M.R., Obradovitch, K., Marshall, A., Marshall, A.D., Marshall, Molur, S., Monadjem, A., Monkhzul, T., M., Obura, C., Obura, D., Ochavillo, D., B.E., Marshall, L.J., Martin, R., Martínez Monkhzul, T.S., Montenegro, O.L., Ochoa, J., Odhiambo, E.A., O’Donnell, C., Lirola, M.J., Martínez Rodríguez, J., Montesinos, D., Montúfar, R., Monzini, J., O’Donovan, D., Odum, R.A., Oetinger, Martinez, J., Martinez, J.L., Martínez- Mooney, N., Moore, J., Moore, L., Mora M.I., Ogi, M., Ogielska, M., Ogrodo, A., Solano, I., Martínková, N., Martins, M., Vicente, S., Moraes, M., Morales, A., Ogrodowczyk, A., Oguge, N., Ohdachi, Martins, M.B., Martins, P., Martin-Smith, K., Morales, A.L., Morales, M., Morales- S.D., Ohler, A., Ojeda Land, E., Ojeda, R., Marty, C., Martyr, D., Martyr, D.J., Jiménez, A.L., Morato, S.A.A., Moravec, Ojeda., R., Oleas, N., Olech, W., Olgun, Maryanto, I., Masafumi Matsui, B.S., J., Moreira Fernandes, F., Moreira, G., K., Oliveira, M.M., Oliveira, R.B., Oliveira, Maskey, T., Maslova, I., Mason, T., Moreno Saiz, J.C., Moreno, P., Morey, G., S.N., Oliver, W., Olivieri, G., Olson, A., Masoud, T.S., Massa, A., Masseti, M., Morey, S., Morgan, A., Morgan, A.J., Olson, L., Olsson, A., Omasombo, V., Masseti, T., Mateo Miras, J.A., Mateo, J., Morgan, B., Morgan, B.J., Morgan, D.B., Ong, P., Ong, R.G., Oommen, O.V., Mathew, R., Mathieu Denoël, M.S., Morgan, S., Morgan, S.K., Morris, K., Ordoñez Delgado, L., Orlov, A., Orlov, N., Matillano, J., Matola, S., Matson, J., Morrison, C., Mortimer, J.A, Moseby, C., Ortiz, J.C., Osorno-Muñoz, M., Matsui, M., Matthee, C., Matthee, C.A., Moseby, K., Moss, K., Mostafa Feeroz, M., Otgonbaatar, M., Ott, J., Ottenwalder, J., Mattoccia, M., Mauchamp, A., Maude, G., Mota Poveda, J.F., Motokawa, M., Oval de la Rosa, J.P., Ovaska, K., Maunder, M., Mauremootoo, J., Mauric, Mouden, E.H.E., Mouna, M., Mouni, A., Ovsyanikov, N., Pacheco, V., Packer, C., A., Mawson, P., Maxwell, A., May, S., Moura, R., Moura-Leite, J.C., Mousa Disi, Packer, K., Padhye, A., Padial, J., Mayol, J., Mayoral García-Berlanga, O., A.M., Moya, C., Moyer, D., Moyer, D.C., Padovani Ferrera, B., Page, W., Paglia, A., Mazibuko, L., Mazzoleni, R., Mbeiza Mrakovcic, M., Msuya, C., Muddapa, D., Paguntalan, L.M., Painter, C., Paisley, S., Mutekanga, N., McAdam, J.H., McAllister, Mueller, H., Mueses-Cisneros, J.J., Palacios, E., Palazzi, S., Palden, J., Palis, D., McAuley, R., McCallum, H., McCarthy, Mugisha, A., Mukherjee, S., Mulavwa, M., J., Palmeirim, J., Palmeirim, P., Palomares, T., McCord, M., McCord, M.E., Muller, H., Müller, O., Mumpuni, Munis, M., F., Pamaong, R., Pamaong-Jose, R., Pan, McCormack, C., McCracken, S.F., Munks, S., Munny, P., Muños, A., Muñoz, F.J., Pangulatan, L.M., Pangunlatan, L.M., McCranie, J., McCranie, J.R., McCranie, A., Muñoz, L.J.P., Muñoz-Alonso, A., Paniagua, C.D., Pannell, C.M., Papenfuss, R., McCreery, K., McDonald, K., Murdoch, J., Muriel, P., Murray, D., T., Paradis, G., Parauka, F.M., Pardina, U., McDonald, R., McDougall, P.T., McDowall, Murugaiyan, P., Mus, M., Musick, J., Pardinas, U., Parent, C., Parker, F., R.M., McEachran, J.D., McGinnity, D., Musick, J.A., Musser, G., Mustari, A.H., Parnaby, H., Parr, M., Parra-Olea, G., McGraw, S., McGuinness, C.A., McIvor, Muths, E., Mycock, S.G., Myers, R.A., Parris, M., Pasolini, P., Passamani, M., A., McKay, J., McKenzie, G., McKenzie, Mylonas, M., Nabhitabhata, J., Nader, I., Pasta, S., Patel, E., Paton, A.J., N., McKinnon, J., McKnight, M., McLellan, Nader, I., Nadler, T., Naeer, P.O., Naggs, F., Pattanavibool, A., Patterson, B., Patton, J., B.N., McLeod, D., McNutt, J.W., McShea, Nagorsen, D.W., Nagy, Z., Nakamura, M., Patton, J.L., Paul, L., Paul, S., Paulson, D., B., Mead, J.G., Means, B., Measey, J., Nakaya, K., Nakazono, A., Nambou, M., Paunovic, M., Pauwels, O., Pavan, D., Mech, L.D., Medecilo, M.P., Medellín, R., Nameer, P., Nameer, P.O., Namora, R.C., Paxton, J., Paxton, J.R., Payan, E., Payne, Medhi, R., Medici, P., Medina, A., Medina, Napoli, M., Naranjo, E., Narayan, G., J., Pearce-Kelly, P., Pearl, C., Pearson, D., C., Medina, E., Medina, G., Medina-Vogel, Naruse, T., Narvaes, P., Nascimento, L.B., Peckover, R., Pedralli, G., Pedraza, S., G., Meegaskumbura, M., Natakimazi, G., Natalia Ananjeva, N., Pedregosa, M., Pedregosa, S., Pedro Meegaskumbura, S., Mehlman, P., Navarrete, H., Navarro, F., Navas, D., Beja, F.A., Pedro Beja, S.K., Pedrono, M., Meijaard, E., Meinig, H., Mejia-Falla, P.A., Navas, P., Naveda, A., Navia, A.F., Ndiritu, Peet, N., Peeters, P., Peguy, T., Pei, Mellado, V.P., Menard, N., Mendelson III, G.G., Ndjele, M.B., Ndunda, M., Neer, K.J-C., Peixoto, A.L., Peixoto, O.L., Peñas, J., Mendelson, J., Mendes, S.L., Mendoza J.A., Neill, D., Neira, D., Nekaris, A., Nel, J., Pennay, M., Per Nyström, B.A., Perälä, Qoijano, F., Menegon, M., Menkhorst, P., J.A.J., Nel, R., Nellis, D., Nelson, C., J., Percequillo, A., Percequillo, A.R., Menon, V., Menzies, J., Merino, M.L., Nelson, K., Nerz, J., Nettmann, H.K., New, Percequillo, C., Percequillo, M., Perdomo, Merino-Viteri, A., Meritt, D., Meritt, M., T.R., Newby, J., Newell, D., Newton, A., A., Pereira, J., Pereira, J.P., Perera, A., Merker, S., Mertzanidou, D., Mesa Coello, Newton, P., Ng Wai Chuen, Ng, P., Ng, Peres, M.B., Pérez Latorre, A.V., Perez, R., Meyer, A., Meyer, E., Meyers, D., P.K.L., Ngereza, C., Nghia, N.H., Ngoc A.M., Pérez, J.C.W., Pérez, J.M., Perez, Miaud, C., Mickleburgh, S., Mignucci- Thanh, V., Nguyen Duc To Luu, Nguyen M., Perez, N., Perez, S., Pérez, S., Perez, Giannoni, A., Mijares, A., Mikkelsen, P., Tien Hiep, Nguyen Van Nhuan, Nicayeniz, V., Pérez-Mellado, V., Pergams, O., Milan Vogrin, J.L., Milan Vogrin, M., F., Nichols, G., Nicolalde, F., Nijman, V., Perieras, A., Perkin, A., Perold, S.M., Mildenstein, T., Millar, A.J.K., Miller, A., Nikolic, T., Nistri, A., Nixon, K., Nixon, S., Perret, J., Perrin, M., Perrin, W.F., Miller, A.G., Miller, B., Miller, D.J., Miller, J., Noblet, J.F., Noblick, L., Nogales, F., Perzanowski, K., Peters, S., Pethiyagoda, Miller, K.A., Miller, S., Mills, G., Mills, Norman, B., Noronha, M.N., Noss, A., R., Petrovic, F., Pfab, M.F., Phan Ke Loc,

XIX Wildlife in a Changing World

Pheeha, S., Phillips, C., Phillips, D.M., Rayaleh, H.A., Razafi mahatratra, E., Santana, F.M., Santiago, S., Santiana, J., Phillips, M.K., Phiri, P.S.M., Pickersgill, M., Razafi manahaka, H.J., Read, J., Reading, Santos Motta, F., Santos, G., Santos, Pierce, S.J., Piercy, A., Piercy, A.N., R., Reardon, M., Reardon, M.B., Reardon, S.S.D., Santos-Barrera, G., Sanyal, P., Pilcher, N., Pilgrim, J., Pillans, R., Pillay, D., T., Reboton, C., Reed, J., Reeves, R., Sarig Gafny, A., Sarkar, S.K., Sarker, S.U., Pimenta, B., Pimley, E., Piñeda, C., Reichle, S., Reid, F., Reid, J.W., Reid, R., Sarmiudo, R., Sarmudio, R., Sarti Martinez, Pineda, J., Pineda, W., Pinilla, M.P.R., Reidl, P.M., Reilly, S.B., Reinartz, G., Reis, A.L., Sasaki, H., Sá-Sousa, P., Sato, K., Pino, J., Pino, J.L., Pinto, L.P., Piovezan, M., Reizl, J.C., Renjifo, J.M., Rentz, D.C.F., Savage, A., Savage, J., Saw, L.G., U., Pipeng, L., Pires Costa, A., Pires Retallick, R., Reuling, M., Rey, J., Reyes- Sazima, I., Sbordoni, V., Schabetsberger, O’Brien, J., Pires-Costa, L., Pita, R., Bonilla, H., Reyna, R., Reyna-Hurtado, R., R., Schaller, G.B., Scheidegger, C., Pitman, N., Pitman, R., Pitman, R.L., Platt, Reynolds III, J.E., Reynolds, J.C., Schembri, P.J., Scherlis, J., Schilthuizen, S., Pleguezuelos, J., Ploss, J., Plotkin, P., Reynolds, R., Reynolds, V., Rhind, S., M., Schiøtz, A., Schipper, J., Schliebe, S., Plötner, J., Plowman, A., Plumptre, A.J., Rhodes, K., Rhodin, A.G.J., Rice, C., Schlitter, D., Schmidt, B., Schmidt, P.A., Pogonoski, J., Pogonoski, J.J., Pokheral, Richard-Hansen, C., Richards, G., Schmitz, A., Schneider, W., Schnell, D., C.P., Pokryszko, B., Polechla, P., Richards, J., Richards, N., Richards, S., Scholtz, S., Schraml, E., Schreiber, A., Polhemus, D.A., Polidoro, B., Politano, E., Richards, Z., Richardson, M., Richter, S., Schulte, R., Schulz, M., Schwaner, T., Pollard, B., Pollard, B.J., Pollard, D., Riddle, H., Riga, F., Rigaux, P., Rincon, G., Schwitzer, C., Schwitzer, N., Scott, D., Pollard, D.A., Pollock, C.M., Pombal, J., Rios-López, N., Rioux Paquette, S., Scott, E., Scott, M.D., Scott, N., Scott, P., Pomilla, C., Pompert, J., Ponce-Campos, Ripken, T., Rischer, H., Riservato, E., Rita Scott-Shaw, R., Sebastian, T., Secchi, E., P., Ponder, W., Ponder, W.F., Pople, R., Larrucea, J., Ritchie, E., Rivalta, V., Rivas, Secchi, E.R., Sectionov, Sedberry, G., Porini, G., Porley, R.D., Potsch de B., Rivas, P., Rivas-Pava, P., Rivera, F., Seddon, M.B., Sedlock, J., Sefass, T., Carvalho-e-Silva, S., Pounds, A., Riyad Sadek, S.H.-B., Robbins, M., Segalla, M.V., Seisay, M., Self-Sullivan, C., Pourkazemi, M., Povz, M., Powell, J., Robbins, R., Robbrecht, E., Roberton, S., Selvi, F., Semesi, S., Semiadi, G., Powell, J.A., Powell, R., Poyarkov, A., Roberts, C., Roberts, D., Roberts, D., Seminoff, J.A., Señaris, C., Sengupta, S., Poynton, J., Pradhan, M.S., Prado, D., Robertson, P., Robichaud, W.G., Sepulveda, M., Sequin, E., Serena, F., Prados, J., Precht, B., Preece, R.C., Price, Robinson, L., Robinson, T., Rocha, C.F.d., Serena, M., Serena, S., Séret, B., Seri, L., D., Prina, A., Princee, A., Princee, F., Rocha, L., Rodden, M., Rödel, M.-O., Serra, J.M., Serrano, M., Servheen, C., Printes, R.C., Pritchard, P.C.H., Priyono, Rodrigues, F., Rodrigues, M.T., Rodrigues, Seryodkin, I., Sevinç, M., Seychelles, A., Ptolemy, J., Pucek, Z., Pudyatmoko, W.A., Rodriguez, A., Rodriguez, B., N.P.T.o., Seydack, A., Shaffer, B., Shah, S., Puig, S., Puky, M., Punt, A., Puntriano, Rodríguez, L., Rodríguez-Luna, E., N., Shank, C., Shanker, K., Shar, S., Sharif C.A., Purchase, N., Puschendorf, R., Rodriquez, J.C., Roemer, G.W., Rogers, Khan, M., Sharifi , M., Sharma, J., Sharma, Qarqas, M., Qin, H.-N., Queirolo, D., A., Rogers, S., Rohwer, J.G., Rojas, W., R.K., Shedden, A., Sheftel, B., Shekelle, Queiroz, H.L., Quero, H.J., Querouil, S., Rojas-Bracho, L., Romano, A., Romero M., Shenbrot, G., Shepard, D., Sheppard, Quibilan, M., Quierolo, D., Quijano, S.M., Malpica, F.J., Romero, M., Romero-Saltos, A., Sheppard, C., Sherbrooke, W., Sherley, Quintana, C., Quintero Díaz, G., Quintero H., Romoleroux, K., Ron, S., Rookmaaker, G., Sherrill-Mix, S.A., Shi Haitao, Díaz, G.E., Qureshi, Q., Rabarivola, F., K., Roos, A., Roos, C., Rorabaugh, J., Shoemaker, A., Sholz, S., Shoshani, H., Rabarivola, J.C., Rabearivelo, A., Rosa, R.S., Rosell-Ambal, G., Shrestha, N., Shrestha, T.K., Shuk Man, Rabibisoa, N.H.C., Rabiei, A., Racey, P., Rosenbaum, H., Rosmarino, N., Ross, J., C., Shunqing, L., Sidi, N., Sidiyasa, K., Rachlow, J., Rada, M., Raffaelli, J., Ross, J.P., Ross, S., Rossi, R.V., Rossiter, Siegel, R., Siex, K., Siler, C., Siliwal, M., Raherisehena, M., Rahmani, A.R., Rainho, S., Roth, B., Roth, L., Roux, J.P., Rovero, Sillero-Zubiri, C., Silva Jn., J., Silva Jr, J.S., A., Rajamani, N., Rajeriarison, C., F., Rovito, S., Roy, D., Ruanco, G., Rübel, Silva, C., Silva, G., Silva, N.M.F., Silva, Rakotoarivelo, A.R., Rakotondravony, D., A., Rubenstein, D., Rubenstein, D.I., S.P.d.C.e., Silvano, D., Simaika, J., Rakotosamimanana, B., Rueda, A.R., Rueda, L., Rueda-Almonacid, Simaika, J.P., Simkins, G., Simons, M., Rakotosamimanana, J.C., Ram, M., J.V., Ruedas, L., Ruggerone, G., Ruiz, M., Simpfendorfer, C., Simpfendorfer, C.A., Ramala, S.P., Ramanamanjato, J.B., Ruiz-Olmo, J., Rumiz, D.I., Runcie, M., Sinaga, J., Sinaga, U., Sinanga, U., Ramayla, S., Ramiarinjanahary, H., Ramilo, Runstrom, A., Rushforth, K., Russell, B., Sindaco, R., Singadan, R., Singh, L.A.K., E., Ramirez-Marcial, N., Rand, P.S., Rutty, R., Ryan, S., Ryan, T., Rylands, A.B., Singh, M., Singleton, I., Sinha, A., Sinha, Randall, D., Randi, E., Randriamahazo, H., Sadek, R., Sadek, R.A., Sadovy, Y., Saeki, R.K., Sinisterra Santana, J., Sinsch, U., Randriamanantsoa, H.M., M., Sáenz Goñalons, L., Safi na, C., Sagar Situ Yingyi, A., Situ, A., Siu, S., Skelton, P., Randrianantoandro, C., Randrianasolo, A., Baral, H., Saha, S.S., Sahlén, G., Salas, Sket, B., Skog, L.E., Skopets, M., Skuk, Randrianjafy, V., Randrianjohany, E., A., Salas, L., Saleh, M., Salim, A., Saltz, G., Slack-Smith, S., Slimani, T., Sliwa, A., Randriantafi ka, F.M., Rangel Cordero, H., D., Salvador, A., Salvia, H., Slooten, E., Sluys, M.V., Smale, M., Ranivo, J., Ranker, T., Rao, R.J., Samarawickrama, P., Samba Kumar, N., Smale, M.J., Smith, A., Smith, A.T., Smith, Rasamimanana, H., Rasamimanana, R., Sami Amr, Z., Samiya, R., Samoilys, M., B., Smith, B.D., Smith, C., Smith, E., Rashid, S.M.A., Rasmussen, G., Rastegar- Sampaio, C., Sampaio, E., Samudio, R., Smith, G., Smith, J., Smith, J.A., Smith, K., Pouyani, N., Rathbun, G., Ratimomanarivo, Samways, M., San Martín, J., San Martín, Smith, R., Smith, R.K., Smith, S.E., Smith, F., Ratnayeke, S., Ratrimomanarivo, F.H., J.M., San Martin, M.J., Sánchez Gómez, W.D., Snell, H., Snelson Jr., F.F., Snelson Ratsi, H., Rattanawat Chaiyarat, P., Sanchez Rojas, G., Sánchez, B., Jr., F.S., Snelson, F., Snoeks, J., Sobel, J., Ravichandran, M.S., Ravino, J., Rawson, Sánchez, J., Sánchez, J.M., Sanchez, R., Soberón, R.R., Söderström, L., B., Raxworthy, C., Ray, J., Ray, P., Sanderson, J., Sandiford, M., Sano, A., Sogbohossou, E., Solari, S., Soldo, A.,

XX Acknowledgements

Solem, A., Soliano, P., Solís, F., Song, J.- T., Tinnin, D., Tinsley, R., Tinti, F., Tirira, D., Waldman, B., Waldren, S., Walker, P., Y., Sonké, B., Soriano, P., Soto, J., Soto, Tiu, D., Tizard, R.J., Tocher, M., Tok, V., Walker, P., Walker, R., Walker, T.I., Wallace, J.M.R., Sotomayor, M., Sousa, M.C., Tokida, K., Tokita, K., Toledo, L.F., Tolson, R.B., Wallance, R., Wallays, H., Walsh, Southwell, C., Sovada, M., Soy, J., Sozen, P., Tomiyama, K., Tooze, Z.J., Toral, E., P.D., Walston, J., Walstono, J., Wang M., Sparks, J.S., Sparreboom, M., Torres, D.A., Torres, R.B., Torrijos, I.A., Ying-Xiang, Wang, D., Wang, J.Y., Wang, Spector, S., Spelman, L., Spence, C., Touk, D., Tous, P., Townsend, J., Traeholt, S., Wang, X., Wang, Y., Wanzenböck, J., Spironello, W.R., Spitzenberger, F., Sredl, C., Tran Quang Phuong, Treloar, M.A., Ward, D., Warguez, D., Warner, J., Warren, M., Srinivasulu, C., St. Louis, A., St. Pierre, Trembley, R., Trillmich, F., Trinnie, F.I., M.S., Watanabe, K., Waters, 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Williams, K., Suhling, F., Suin, L., Sukhchuluun, G., Rompaey, H., van Rompaey, J., van S.A., Williamson, E.A., Wilson, B., Wilson, Sukumaran, J., Sumardja, E., Sumardja, Schaik, C., van Strien, N.J., van Swaay, K., Wilson, L., Wilson, M.L., Wilting, A., M.K.M, Sun, W., Sunarto, S., Sunderland- C., van Swaay, C.A.M., van Weenen, J., Win Ko Ko, U., Wingate, D., Winter, J., Groves, J., Sundström, L.F., Sunyer, J., van Welzen, P.C., Vana, J., Vanitharani, J., Wintner, S.P., Witsuba, A., Wogan, G., Superina, M., Supriatna, J., Suprin, B., Varela, D., Vargas, I., Vargas, J., Varman, Woinarski, J., Wolseley, P.A., Wong, G., Surprenant, C., Suyanto, A., Suyanto, I., R., Varty, N., Vaslin, M., Vasquez Díaz, J., Wong, S., Wood, E., Wood, J., Wood, Swan, S., Swartz, E., Syahrir, M., Symes, Vasquez, C., Vasudevan, K., Vaz, A.M.S., K.R., Woodman, N., Woodroffe, R., A., Tabao, M., Tabaranza, B., Taber, A., Vázquez Díaz, J., Vázquez, E., Vázquez, Woods, C.M.C., Cotterill, F.P.D., Woolley, Tabet, M.A., Taggart, D., Tahar, S., E., Vázquez, R.C., Vázquez-Domínguez, P., Wozencraft, C., Wranik, W., Wright, D., Talavera, S., Tallents, L., Talukdar, B.K., E., Veiga, L.M., Velasco, A., Velazco, P., Wright, P., Wuster, W., Xia, W., Xiang Talukdar, B.N., Tan, B., Tan, B.C., Velez-Espino, L.A., Velez-Liendo, X., Velilla, Qiaoping, Xie Feng, Xiuling, W., Xuan Tandang, D.N., Tandy, M., Tannerfeldt, M., M., Veloso, A., Velosoa, J., Vences, M., Canh, L., Xuelong, J., Yaakob, N., Yahr, R., Tapia, F., Targarona, R.R., Tarkhnishvili, D., Venegas, P., Venkataraman, A., Venturella, Yahya, S., Yamada, F., Yambun, P., Yánez- Tatayah, V., Tattersﬁ eld, P., Tavares, V., G., Vera Pérez, J.B., Vera, M., Verdade, V., Muñoz, M., Yang, B., Yang, J., Yang, J.-X., Taylor, A., Taylor, B., Taylor, B.L., Taylor, J., Vermeer, J., Vermeulen, J., Veron, G., Yang, S.Y., Yanling, S., Yano, K., Yapa, W., Taylor, N.P., Taylor, P., Taylor, P.J., Taylor, Vicens Fandos, J., Victor, J., Victor, J.E., Yensen, E., Yeo, D., Yigit, N., Ying-xiang, S., Teclai, R., Teixeira de Mello, F., Tejedo, Vié, J.-C., Vieira, E., Vieites, D., W., Yohannes, H., Yokohata, Y., Yom-Tov, M., Tejedor, A., Telfer, W., Telles, A.M., Vijayakumar, S.P., Vila, A., Villalba, L., Y., Yongcheng, L., Yongzu, Z., Yonzon, P., Temple, H., Teta, P., Tezoo, V., Thalmann, Villamil, C., Vincent, A., Vincent, A.C.J., Young, B., Young, B.E., Young, J., Yoxon, U., Thanh Hai, D., Thapa, J., Theischinger, Viney, D.E., Vivar, E., Vivero, J.L., Vizcaino, G., Yoxon, P., Yuan, Y.C., Yuezhao, W., G., Thirakhupt, K., Thomas, P., Thomas, S., Vogel, P., Vogliotti, A., Vogrin, M., Vogt, Yustian, I., Zagorodniuk, I., Zambrano, L., R., Thompson, D., Thompson, F.G., R.C., Vohralík, V., Vololomboahangy, R., Zapfack, L., Zappi, D.C., Zaw, T., Zeballos, Thompson, J., Thomson, B., Thomspon, von Arx, B., von Arx, M., von Cosel, R., H., Zeballos, N., Zeballos, Z., Zemanova, D., Thorbjarnarson, J., Thouless, C., von Ellenrieder, N., Vonesh, J., Vooren, B., Zerbini, A.N., Zhao Ermi, Zhigang, Y., Thulin, M., Thun, S., Ticul Alvarez, S., C.M., Vörös, J., Vovides, A., Vovides, A.P., Zhou, K., Ziaie, H., Ziegler, T., Zielinski, J., Tikhonov, A., Tilson, R., Timberlake, J., Vreven, E., Vyas, R., Wabnitz, C., Wacher, Zima, J., Zimmermann, W., Zoerner, S., Timm, B., Timm, R., Timm, T., Timmins, R., T., Wade, P., Wager, R., Wagner, A., Wai, Zona, S., Zortea, M., Zorzi, G., Zug, G., Timmins, R.J., Timmins, T., Ting, N., Ting, H., Wake, D., Wake, M., Waldemarin, H.F., and Zweifel, R.

XXI

The IUCN Red List: a key conservation tool

Jean-Christophe Vié, Craig Hilton-Taylor, Caroline M. Pollock, James Ragle, Jane Smart, Simon N. Stuart and Rashila Tong

Biodiversity loss is one of the world’s most pressing crises with many species declining to critically low levels and with signiﬁ cant numbers going extinct. At the same time there is growing awareness of how biodiversity supports human livelihoods. Governments and civil society have responded to this challenge by setting clear conservation targets, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity’s 2010 target to reduce the current rate of biodiversity loss. In this context, The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ (hereafter The IUCN Red List) is a clarion call to action in the drive to tackle the extinction crisis, providing essential information on the state of, and trends in, wild species.

A highly respected source Figure 1. The IUCN Red List can be viewed in its entirety on www.iucnredlist.org. of information The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are widely accepted as the most objective and authoritative system available for assessing the global risk of extinction for species (De Grammont and Cuarón 2006, Lamoreux et al. 2003, Mace et al. 2008, Rodrigues et al. 2006). The IUCN Red List itself is the world’s most comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of plant and animal species; it is updated annually and is freely available online at www.iucnredlist.org (Figure 1). It is based on an objective system allowing assignment of any species (except micro-organisms) to one of eight Red List Categories based on whether they meet criteria linked to population trend, size and structure and geographic range (Mace et al. Figure 2. Red List data allows detailed analysis of biodiversity at various scales across the globe. 2008).

1 Wildlife in a Changing World

Far more than a list One of The IUCN Red List’s main purposes is to highlight those species that are facing a high risk of global extinction. However, it is not just a register of names and associated threat categories. The real power and utility of The IUCN Red List is in what lies beneath: a rich, expert-driven compendium of information on species’ ecological requirements, geographic distributions and threats that arms us with the knowledge on what the challenges to nature are, where they are operating, and how to combat them.

A wealth of information about threatened and non-threatened species The IUCN Red List is not limited to just providing a threat categorization. For an increasing number of species, be they The IUCN Red List includes threatened and non-threatened species such as the Vulnerable Shoebill threatened or not, it now provides extensive Balaeniceps rex and the Least Concern Guianan Cock-of-the-rock Rupicola rupicola. information covering taxonomy (classiﬁ cation © Jean-Christophe Vié of species), conservation status, geographic distribution, habitat requirements, biology, threats, population, utilization, and assessed for The IUCN Red List so far; and medicine, but also purification of conservation actions. Spatial distribution therefore the number of reported threatened water and air, prevention of soil erosion, maps are also becoming available for an species is much less than the true number at regulation of climate, pollination of crops, increasing number of species (almost serious risk of extinction. The IUCN Red List and many more. They also provide a vital 20,000 species on The 2008 IUCN Red is, nevertheless, by far the most complete resource for economic activities (such as List have maps). All this information allows global list of such species available. tourism, fisheries and forestry), as well scientists to undertake detailed analyses of as having significant cultural, aesthetic biodiversity across the globe (Figure 2). Species: the cornerstone and spiritual values. Consequently the of biodiversity loss of species diminishes the quality Only about 2.7% of the world’s estimated Species provide us with essential of our lives and our basic economic 1.8 million described species have been services: not only food, fuel, clothes security.

Species are the building blocks of biodiversity and provide us with essential services. Barracudas Sphyraena sp. in Guinea Bissau and Cork Oaks Quercus suber in Portugal. © Jean-Christophe Vié

2 The IUCN Red List: a key conservation tool

Figure 3. Some examples of past Red List publications.

Species are easier to identify and Service Commission in 1963, with the most in need of conservation attention if categorize than ecosystems, and they fi rst two volumes (on mammals and birds) global extinction rates are to be reduced; are easier to measure than genes. They published in 1966. and (ii) to provide a global index of the provide the most useful, and useable, state of change of biodiversity. The fi rst of indicators of biodiversity status and loss. Since the 1960s The IUCN Red List has these goals refers to the “traditional” role Species have been extensively studied evolved from multiple lists and books of The IUCN Red List, which is to identify for more than two centuries and there dedicated to animal groups or plants into particular species at risk of extinction. is an impressive amount of information a unique comprehensive compendium However, the second goal represents dispersed around the world, that once of conservation-related information now a more recent radical departure, as it compiled and standardized, can be used too large to publish as a book (Figure 3). focuses on using the data in the Red for developing strategies to tackle the However it can be viewed in its entirety List for multi-species analyses in order current extinction crisis. on a website managed and maintained to identify and monitor trends in species by the IUCN Species Programme. It status. A long and successful history is updated once a year and is freely The IUCN Red List is well established available to all users of the World Wide To achieve these goals the Red List and has a long history. It began in the Web. aims to (i) establish a baseline from 1960s with the production of the fi rst Red which to monitor the change in status Data Books (Fitter and Fitter 1987). The Identifying, documenting of species; (ii) provide a global context concept of the Red Data Book, registers and monitoring trends for the establishment of conservation of wildlife assigned categories of threat, is By assessing the threat status of species, priorities at the local level; and (iii) monitor, generally credited to Sir Peter Scott when The IUCN Red List has two goals: (i) to on a continuing basis, the status of a he became Chair of the then IUCN Survival identify and document those species representative selection of species (as

Polypedates fastigo – a Critically Endangered amphibian from Sri Lanka. Zanzibar Red Colobus Procolobus kirkii – an Endangered species endemic to © Don Church Zanzibar island. © Jean-Christophe Vié

3 Wildlife in a Changing World

Figure 4. Structure of the Red List Categories and the ﬁ ve Red List Criteria.

simply roll-over from the previous edition; population trend, population size and and (vii) analyses of its fi ndings are regularly structure, and geographic range. Species published, approximately every four to classifi ed as Vulnerable, Endangered and fi ve years, usually at the time of the World Critically Endangered are regarded as Conservation Congress (Hilton-Taylor ‘threatened’. The IUCN Red List Criteria 2000; Baillie et al. 2004; Vié et al. this were developed following extensive volume). consultation and testing, and involved experts familiar with a very wide variety of From expert judgment species from across the world, and can be to robust criteria used to assess the conservation status of The fi rst Red List Criteria were adopted in any species, apart from microorganisms. 1994 (IUCN 1994) after a wide consultative process involving hundreds of scientists. The Red List Criteria were developed for The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria use at the global scale when the entire were revised in 2001 (IUCN 2001). They range of a species is considered. They can biodiversity indicators) that cover all the currently include nine categories and be applied at any regional scale, provided major ecosystems of the world. fi ve quantitative criteria (Figure 4). The the guidelines for application at regional Guidelines for Using The IUCN Red List levels (IUCN 2003) are used, but they may The high profi le, standards and scientifi c Categories and Criteria (http://www.iucn. not be appropriate at very small scales. integrity of The IUCN Red List are org/redlist) have been developed and maintained in the following ways: (i) the are updated on a regular basis; they Working in partnership scientifi c aspects underpinning The IUCN provide detailed guidance on how to The IUCN Red List is compiled and Red List are regularly published in the apply the categories and criteria and aim produced by the IUCN Species scientifi c literature (Butchart et al. 2004; at providing solutions to specifi c technical Programme based on contributions from a 2007; Colyvan et al. 1999; Mace et al. issues to ensure that assessments are network of thousands of scientifi c experts 2008); (ii) the assessment process is conducted in a standardized way across around the world. These include members clear and transparent; (iii) the listings of various plant and animal groups. of the IUCN Species Survival Commission species are based on consistent use of Specialist Groups, Red List partners the Red List Categories and Criteria and The IUCN Red List Categories and (currently Conservation International, are open to challenge and correction; Criteria are the world’s most widely BirdLife International, NatureServe and the (iv) all assessments are appropriately used system for gauging the extinction Zoological Society of London), and many documented and supported by the best risk faced by species. Each species others including experts from universities, scientifi c information available; (v) the data assessed is assigned to one of the museums, research institutes and non- are freely available through the World Wide following categories: Extinct, Extinct in the governmental organizations. Assessments Web to all potential users; (vi) The IUCN Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, can be done by anyone and submitted to Red List is updated regularly (annually at Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Least IUCN for consideration. Assessments are present) but not all species are reassessed Concern and Data Defi cient, based on impartial and are developed and approved with each update – many assessments a series of quantitative criteria linked to based on their scientifi c merits without

4 The IUCN Red List: a key conservation tool consideration of their policy implications. This approach allows for an independent, robust process, requiring rigorous peer- review of all the data. Assessments are periodically updated to ensure that current information is available to users. The IUCN Red List is therefore a synthesis of the best available species knowledge from the world’s foremost scientists. Only after the data have been through the peer review process can they be included in The IUCN Red List.

An effort has also been made to work in partnership with other organizations to agree for example, on standard classiﬁ cation schemes and a common language for threats and conservation measures (Salafsky et al. 2008)

A complex and rigorous process The IUCN Species Programme plays the lead role in helping to fund, convene Blacktip Reef Sharks Carcharhinus melanopterus – Near Threatened – on Aldabra atoll, a World Heritage Site in and facilitate the assessment workshops the Seychelles. All 1,045 species of sharks and rays have been assessed. © Jerker Tamelander which drive much of the data gathering and review process for the Red List. It has expanded its staff to facilitate assessments within and across groups of List Unit and the establishment of global the coordination of assessments. This organisms. assessment teams within the IUCN has allowed the information to grow Species Programme. In particular, a signifi cantly in recent years, particularly in Since 2000, a signifi cant effort has Biodiversity Assessment Unit established in terms of the number and type of species been made to increase the number of partnership with Conservation International being assessed, and in the improved assessments through assessing entire is coordinating the work on mammals, richness of the collected data. It has taxonomic groups, as BirdLife International reptiles, amphibians and marine species. also permitted a signifi cant increase has done for birds since 1988. This led Other IUCN units are coordinating global in the quality and consistency of the to the establishment of a central Red freshwater biodiversity and regional species assessments. These units play a key role in running the assessment processes, and also in fi nding the necessary resources to Asian Wild Ass Equus hemionus – Endangered. © Jean-Christophe Vié mobilize the experts’ knowledge and bring assessments to completion.

The Species Survival Commission (SSC) currently has 80 Red List Authorities which work very closely with the Species Programme, especially in identifying the leading experts to contribute to assessments, and conducting evaluations of the data as part of the peer-review process. Many of the Red List Authorities are part of SSC Specialist Groups, and some are also within the Red List Partner organizations.

From the ﬁ eld to The IUCN Red List All species assessments are based on data currently available for the species (or subspecies, population) across its entire

5 Wildlife in a Changing World

global range. Assessors take full account Almost 45,000 listed species 45000 of past and present literature (published The number of species assessed as 40000 and grey) and other reliable sources of threatened keeps increasing every year information relating to the species. For (Figure 5). By 2008, 44,837 species have 35000 subspecies, variety or subpopulation been assessed; at least 38% of these 30000 assessments, a species-level assessment have been classifi ed as threatened and 25000 Total species Total is also carried out. 804 classifi ed as Extinct. The documented 20000 number of threatened species and All submitted assessments are evaluated extinctions is only the tip of the iceberg, 15000 by at least two qualifi ed reviewers, in most as this number depends on the overall 2000 20022004 2006 2008 cases assigned by the Red List Authorities. number of assessed species; in addition Red List The evaluation process is similar to the 5,561 species classifi ed as Data Defi cient Figure 5. Number of species appearing on each peer review process used by scientifi c are possibly threatened (Hilton-Taylor et published IUCN Red List since 2000. journals in deciding which manuscripts to al. this volume). The number of Extinct accept for publication. species is also a very conservative estimate given that for a species to be A sophisticated information listed as Extinct requires exhaustive and selected groups of plants and management system surveys to have been undertaken in all invertebrates. IUCN has developed the Species known or likely habitats throughout its Information Service (SIS), an information historical range, at appropriate times and Around 1.8 million species have been management tool to collect, manage, over a timeframe appropriate to its life cycle described, yet the estimates of the total process, and report data – to the point and life form (IUCN 2001). Species that are number of species on earth range from of publication on The IUCN Red List. The likely to be Extinct but for which additional 2 – 100 million. We are far from knowing SIS allows the contributors to participate surveys might be necessary to eliminate the true status of the earth’s biodiversity. in the Red List assessment work more any doubt, are classifi ed in the Critically Although, only a small proportion of the easily than was the case in the past. In Endangered Category with a “Possibly world’s species has so far been assessed, addition, through improved data exploration Extinct” fl ag (Butchart et al. 2006). this sample indicates how life on earth is capabilities on The IUCN Red List website, faring, how little is known, and how urgent SIS is making the world’s most accurate, Comprehensive assessments of every the need is to assess more species. up-to-date information on species, their known species of mammal, bird, distribution and conservation status amphibian, shark, reef-building coral, Despite the limited number of species accessible with fl exible, easy-to-use tools cycad and conifer have been conducted. assessed in relation to the total number of to support sound environmental decision- There are ongoing efforts to complete species known, and the signifi cant number making. assessments of all reptiles, all fi shes, of Data Defi cient species included in it,

Terraphosa leblondi, the world’s largest spider, and Equadorian plants. Plant and invertebrate species are currently under-represented on the Red List but a dedicated effort is being made to increase their number. © Jean-Christophe Vié

6 The IUCN Red List: a key conservation tool

the Red List is still the largest dataset of current information on species. It allows us to measure how little the diversity of life on our planet is known and how urgent the need is to expand the assessment work if we want to be in a position to track Figure 6. An example of a regional biodiversity analysis: threatened terrestrial mammal species richness in progress towards reducing biodiversity Europe. loss.

Better links with regional regional Red List projects, for example in Fungi represent a very diverse component of and national Red Lists Europe and in the Mediterranean region biodiversity which is too often overlooked. The global IUCN Red List only includes (Temple and Terry 2007; Cuttelod et © Jean-Christophe Vié information on species, subspecies al. this volume) (Figure 6). IUCN is also or populations that have been globally collaborating with other national Red assessed; regional and national level List projects to incorporate their data, assessments are currently not included especially on national endemics, into the unless these are also global assessments global IUCN Red List. (for example, a species that is only found in one country, (i.e., is endemic) and Regional and national lists are usually therefore has the same Red List status at country-led initiatives, and are not both national and global levels). centralized in any way; they differ from each other widely in terms of scope For non-endemics, it is important to note and quality but are very useful to guide that the status of a species at the global conservation work at sub-global levels. level may be different to that at a national IUCN and its Red List Partners are level. In certain situations, a species may currently discussing how to disseminate be listed as threatened on a national Red the data in the national and regional Red List even though it is considered Least Lists more effectively, especially those Concern at the global level by IUCN and that are conducted using the IUCN vice versa. standards.

An increasing number of regional A multitude of uses and national Red Lists are compiled The IUCN Red List can help answer many following the Guidelines for Application important questions including: of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Levels (Gärdenfors et al. 2001; IUCN • What is the overall status of biodiversity, 2003). IUCN is increasingly undertaking and how is it changing over time?

7 Wildlife in a Changing World

Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanophrys - Endangered. © Richard Thomas

• How does the status of biodiversity vary Goal 7 aiming at ensuring environmental The IUCN Red List Index (RLI) has been between regions, countries and sub- sustainability by 2015; this goal underpins ofﬁ cially included in various sets of national areas? the others, in particular those related to indicators to measure progress towards health, poverty and hunger. Tools are the 2010 CBD target. It has also been • What is the rate at which biodiversity is needed to monitor our progress towards recently adopted as an indicator to being lost? achieving these targets and to highlight measure progress towards the UN MDG where we need to focus our conservation 7 goal. It will play a vital role in tracking • Where is biodiversity being lost most efforts. Indicators are vital in tracking progress towards achieving these targets, rapidly? progress in achieving these targets. The and beyond. IUCN Red List Index (RLI) provides such • What are the main drivers of the decline an indicator and reveals trends in the The RLI shows trends in the overall and loss of biodiversity? overall extinction risk of sets of species extinction risk of sets of species. It is (Brooks and Kennedy 2004; Butchart et al. based on the number of species that move • What is the effectiveness and impact of 2005ab, 2007). between Red List Categories as a result conservation activities? of genuine improvements in status (e.g., The development of reliable indicators owing to successful conservation action) The IUCN Red List is used in many requires robust baseline data; species or genuine deteriorations in status (e.g., different applications, some of which are data are still scarce for most species owing to declining population size). The RLI outlined below as examples. groups and have been collected in a shows the net balance between these two variety of formats. Collecting the baseline factors. It excludes non-genuine changes An indicator of biodiversity trends: information is certainly what requires the in Red List status resulting, for example, The IUCN Red List Index largest effort in terms of time, expense and from improved knowledge, taxonomic Governments have agreed various targets the number of people involved. To respond changes, or correction of earlier errors to reduce biodiversity loss. A global target to this challenge, IUCN and its partners (Butchart et al. 2004; 2007). of reducing or stopping biodiversity loss by have been putting extensive efforts in 2010 has been adopted respectively by biodiversity assessment initiatives at global The proportion of species threatened with the Parties to the Convention on Biological and regional levels to develop The IUCN extinction is a measure of human impacts Diversity (CBD) and the European Union. Red List in a manner that allows the Red on the world’s biodiversity, as human In 2000, the United Nations adopted the List Index (including various cuts of it) to be activities and their consequences drive the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) with calculated and measured over time. vast majority of threats to biodiversity.

8 The IUCN Red List: a key conservation tool

1.00 Palearctic 1.00 Afrotropical Freshwater 0.98 Indomalayan 0.98 Marine Nearctic Terrestrial 0.96 Neotropical 0.96 Australasian 0.94 Oceanian 0.94 0.92 0.92

0.90 0.90

0.88 0.88

0.86 0.86

0.84 0.84

Red List Index of species survival 0.82 Red List Index of species survival 0.82 Worse Better Worse Better Worse

0.80 0.80 1988 1994 2000 2004 2008 19881992 1996 2000 2004 2008 Year Year

Figure 7. The Red List Index for the world’s birds shows that their overall status deteriorated steadily during 1988-2008. Declines have occurred worldwide but regions and biomes differ in the overall extinction risk of their bird fauna, and in the rate of declines (source BirdLife International). Similar graphs will be available shortly for mammals, amphibians, corals and cycads.

Birds are the class of organisms for which that declines have occurred worldwide but This is the case for mammals (Schipper et all species (9,990) have been assessed regions differ in the overall extinction risk of al. 2008), amphibians (Stuart et al. 2004), the largest number of times (fi ve times their bird fauna, and in the rate of declines reef-building corals (Carpenter et al. 2008), between 1988 and 2008). For this group, (Figure 7). sharks and rays, freshwater crustaceans, the percentage threatened increased from cycads and conifers. A preliminary RLI 11.1% in 1988 to 12.2% in 2008. Birds are excellent, although not perfect, has already been calculated for mammals, indicators for trends in other forms of amphibians and corals (Hilton-Taylor et al. The RLI for the world’s birds shows biodiversity. Several other classes of this volume). that their overall status (extinction risk) organisms have been comprehensively deteriorated steadily during 1988-2008. assessed for The IUCN Red List and found For other groups (e.g., reptiles, fi shes, The RLI for birds in different regions shows to be even more threatened than birds. molluscs, dragonfl ies, and selected groups

A preliminary assessment of all plant species have been called for by the Convention on Biological Diversity. © Jean-Christophe Vié

9 Wildlife in a Changing World

Informing Development and Conservation Planning In regional and national resource management and development, The IUCN Red List can be used to guide management at scales ranging from local to national and sometimes regional levels. Examples include setting policies and developing legislation related to land-use planning, certiﬁ cation, transport, energy, river-basin management, and poverty reduction.

For site-development and planning, The IUCN Red List is a key input into the Environmental Impact Assessment process and can guide site level management and planning. There is growing interest by the corporate sector in using the Red List information to inform the selection The IUCN Red List is a useful tool for infrastructure development and planning. © Jean-Christophe Vié and management of sites in which they operate. of plants) assessment work is being The IUCN Red List is also an important The wealth of information contained in undertaken with the aim of developing tool for implementing some elements The IUCN Red List on the distribution and RLIs for each of these groups. For species of the Global Strategy for Plant ecological requirements of species can groups that are composed of very large Conservation adopted by the CBD be used in large-scale analyses such as numbers of species (e.g., plants and in 2002, for example, Target 2 which identifying gaps in threatened species invertebrates), a Red List Index will be calls for a preliminary assessment of coverage by the existing protected area calculated on the basis of a random all plant species and Target 7 aiming at network (Rodrigues et al. 2004). The data sample of 1,500 species. This approach, conserving 60 per cent of the world’s has long been used at various scales pioneered by the Zoological Society of threatened species in situ (Callmander et in conservation planning , especially for London, will allow trends in the status of al. 2005). deﬁ ning speciﬁ c requirements of species at a broader spectrum of biodiversity to be determined (Baillie et al. 2008; Collen et al. this volume).

Advising Policy and Legislation The IUCN Red List data is used to inform the development of national, regional and sub-national legislation on threatened species protection, and also the development of national biodiversity strategies and action plans. It is also used to inform multi-lateral agreements such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, and the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). The Red List is recognized as a guiding tool to revise the annexes of some agreements such as the Convention on Migratory Species.

Fergusson Island Striped Possum Dactylopsila tatei – Endangered. © Pavel German

10 The IUCN Red List: a key conservation tool

A signiﬁ cant effort is being made to increase the number of marine species on the Red List. Scorpionﬁ sh Scorpaenopsis sp. on Pavona clavus coral in the Maldives. © Jerker Tamelander

site, landscape/seascape level, and global be addressed, and conservation actions the important role that species play if levels. For example, Red List data are used that are recommended) can be used ecosystems are to function properly. to support the identifi cation of site-scale to identify species that require specifi c conservation priorities, such as Important conservation action, and to help develop The Red List is increasingly informing Bird Areas, Key Biodiversity Areas, the conservation programmes and academic work (e.g. school home-work Important Plant Areas, Ramsar Sites, and recovery plans. The data have also been assignments, undergraduate essays and Alliance for Zero Extinction sites (Eken et al. used in the identifi cation of Evolutionary dissertations) and many key websites 2004; Hoffmann et al. 2008). Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) rely on information from The IUCN Red species, unique animals that are often List to help spread their messages and The Red List also helps to inform the not the focus of signifi cant conservation educate the world about conservation conservation planning of wide-ranging support (http://www.edgeofexistence.org/). issues. Examples include ARKive, species for which site-based approaches Encyclopedia of Life (EOL), Wikipedia, are not suitable strategies. Red List data Red for Danger… Red as a ‘Wake up’ Alliance for Zero Extinction (AZE) and have been used in the identifi cation of Call? many more. IUCN strives to make The global priorities (e.g., Endemic Bird Areas) Biological diversity goes beyond species IUCN Red List an important companion and for setting geographical priorities for and encompasses ecosystems and to other sites, thus increasing their ability conservation funding, for example the genes. However, species remain the well- to have conservation impact. The Red Global Environment Facility (GEF) Resource identifi ed building blocks of biodiversity, List also provides a solid factual basis Allocation Framework, which determine and they are easily understood by the when drafting funding proposals which each country’s GEF funding allocation. public and policy makers alike. By seek support for meaningful conservation enhancing knowledge on the state of work. Informing conservation action for biodiversity, explaining complex species- individual species conservation issues, and highlighting Guiding scientifi c research Red List data (including information on species at risk, The IUCN Red List A signifi cant number of species are listed in habitat requirements, threats that need to is attracting increasing attention to the Data Defi cient Category and could well

11 Wildlife in a Changing World

References Baillie, J.E.M., Collen, B., Amin, R., Akçakaya, H.R., Butchart, S.H.M., Brummit, N., Meagher, T.R., Ram, M., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Mace, G.M. 2008. Toward monitoring global biodiversity. Conservation Letters 1: 18-26. Baillie, J.E.M., Hilton Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N. (Editors). 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. A Global Species Assessment. IUCN Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Brooks, T. and Kennedy, E. 2004. Biodiversity barometers. Nature 431: 1046-1047. Butchart, S.H.M., Statterfi eld, A.J., Bennun, L.A., Shutes, S.M., Akçakaya, H.R., Baillie, J.E.M., Stuart, S.N., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Mace, G.M. 2004. Measuring Global Trends in the Status of Biodiversity: Red List Indices for Birds. PloS Biology 2(12): e383. Butchart, S.H.M., Akçakaya, H.R., Kennedy, E. and Hilton-Taylor, C. 2005a. Biodiversity indicators based on trends in conservation status: strengths of the IUCN Red List Index. Conservation Biology 20(2): 579-581. Butchart, S.H.M., Stattersfi eld, A.J., Baillie, J., Bennun, L.A., Stuart, S.N., Akçakaya, H.R., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Mace, G.M. 2005b. Using Red List indices to measure progress towards the 2010 target and beyond. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 360: 255-268. Butchart, S.H.M., Stattersfi eld, A.J. and Brooks, T.M. 2006. Going or gone: defi ning “Possibly Extinct” species to give a truer picture of recent extinctions. Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club 126A: 7-24. Butchart, S.H.M., Akçakaya, H.R., Chanson, J., The Golden Mantella Mantella aurantiaca - Critically Endangered - has a very restricted distribution in east- Baillie, J.E.M., Collen, B., Quader, S., Turner, central Madagascar. Amphibians are one of the most threatened groups of species worldwide. © Jean- W.R., Amin, R., Stuart, S.N. and Hilton-Taylor, Christophe Vié C. 2007. Improvements to the Red List Index. PLoS ONE 2(1) :e140. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0000140. Callmander, M.W., Schatz, G.E. and Lowry, be threatened. These species represent setting conservation priorities. Red P.P. 2005. IUCN Red List assessment and a priority for future research including List assessments simply measure the the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: taxonomists must act now. Taxon 54(4): species-specifi c survey work and research relative extinction risk faced by species, 1047-1050. into threatening processes across multiple subspecies, or subpopulations. The Red Carpenter, K.E., Abrar, M., Aeby, G., Aronson, species. The Red List is therefore used List Category is not on its own suffi cient to R.B., Banks, S., Bruckner, A., Chiriboga, to identify species-specifi c survey work determine priorities for conservation action. A., Cortés, J., Delbeek, J.C., DeVantier, and ecological studies that need to be To set conservation priorities, additional L., Edgar, G.J., Edwards, A.J., Fenner, D., Guzmán, H.M., Hoeksema, B.W. et al. 2008. done. Using data gaps identifi ed in the information must be taken into account One third of reef-building corals face elevated assessment process helps guide research (Miller et al. 2006) extinction risk from climate change and local and funding opportunities. impacts. Science 321: 560-563. The IUCN Red List is freely available; Colyvan, M., Burgman, M.A., Todd, C.R., The IUCN Red List data also highlight however, it contains copyrighted material Akçakaya, H.R. and Boek, C. 1999. The treatment of uncertainty and the structure general overarching threatening and/or other proprietary information that of the IUCN threatened species categories. processes, such as emerging threats are protected by intellectual property Biological Conservation 89: 245-249. like climate change. The use of these agreements and copyright laws and De Grammont, P.C. and Cuarón, A.D. 2006. data could greatly improve the quality of regulations worldwide. In order to obtain An evaluation of threatened species models predicting the impacts of climate the information, users are requested to categorization systems used on the American continent. Conservation Biology change on biodiversity (Foden et al. this comply with a User Agreement and in 20(1): 14-27. volume). so-doing are granted a license to use, Eken, G., Bennun, L., Brooks, T.M., Darwall, download and print the materials contained W., Fishpool, L.C.D., Foster, M., Knox, D., Guidelines for data use in the Red List solely for conservation or Langhammer, P., Matiku, P., Radford, E., The IUCN Red List is not intended educational purposes, scientifi c analyses, Salaman, P., Sechrest, W., Smith, M.L., Spector, S. and Tordoff, A. 2004. Key to be used alone as a system for and research.

12 The IUCN Red List: a key conservation tool

The Alpine Ibex Capra ibex is endemic to Europe. It was driven very close to extinction in the early 19th century and is now listed as Least Concern. © Jean-Christophe Vié

biodiversity areas as site conservation targets. IUCN Species Survival Commission. IUCN, area network in representing species diversity. BioScience 54: 1110-1118. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Nature 428: 640-643. Fitter, R. and Fitter, M. 1987. The road to Lamoreux, J., Akçakaya, H.R., Bennun, Rodrigues, A.S.L., Pilgrim, J.D., Lamoreux, J.F., extinction: problems of categorizing the status L., Collar, N.J., Boitani, L., Brackett, D., Hoffmann, M. and Brooks, T.M. 2006. The of taxa threatened with extinction. IUCN Bräutigam, A., Brooks, T.M., Fonseca, value of the IUCN Red List for conservation. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. G.A.B., Mittermeier, R.A., Rylands, A.B., Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21(2): 71-76. Gärdenfors, U., Hilton-Taylor, C., Mace, G.M. Gärdenfors, U., Hilton-Taylor, C., Mace, G., Salafsky, N., Salzer, D., Statterfi eld, A.J., and Rodríguez, J.P. 2001. The application Stein, B.A. and Stuart, S. 2003. Value of the Hilton-Taylor, C., Neugarten, R., Butchard, of IUCN Red List Criteria at regional levels. IUCN Red List. Trends in Ecology & Evolution S.H.M., Collen, B., Cox, N., Master, L.L., Conservation Biology 15(5): 1206-1212. 18: 214-215. O’Connor, S. and Wilkie, D. 2008. A standard Hilton-Taylor, C. (Compiler). 2000. 2000 IUCN Mace, G.M., Collar, N.J., Gaston, K.J., Hilton- Lexicon for biodiversity conservation: Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN Gland, Taylor, C., Akçakaya, H.R., Leader-Williams, unifi ed classifi cations of threats and actions. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. N., Milner-Gulland, E.J. and Stuart, S.N. Conservation Biology 22(4): 897-911. Hoffmann, M., Brooks, T.M., da Fonseca, 2008. Quantifi cation of extinction risk: Schipper, J., Chanson, J., Chiozza, F., Cox, G.A.B., Gascon, C., Hawkins, A.F.A., James, IUCN’s system for classifying threatened N., Hoffmann, M., Katariya, V., Lamoreux, J., R.E., Langhammer, P., Mittermeier. R.A., species. Conservation Biology 22(6): 1424- Rodrigues, A.S.L., Stuart, S.N., Temple, H.J., Pilgrim, J.D., Rodrigues, A.S.L. and Silva, 1442. Baillie, J., Boitani, L., Lacher, T.E., Mittermeier, J.M.C. 2008. Conservation planning and Miller, R.M., Rodríguez, J.P., Aniskowicz-Fowler, R.A., Smith, A.T. et al. 2008. The Status of the IUCN Red List. Endangered Species T., Bambaradeniya, C., Boles, R., Eaton, the world’s terrestrial and aquatic mammals. Research doi: 10.3354/esr00087. M.A., Gärdenfors, U., Keller, V., Molur, S., Science 322(5899): 225-230. IUCN. 1994. IUCN Red List Criteria. Prepared Walker, S. and Pollock, C. 2006. Extinction Stuart, S.N., Chanson, J.S., Cox, N.A., by the IUCN Species Survival Commission. risks and conservation priorities. Science Young, B., Rodrigues, A.S.L., Fischman, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 313: 441. D.L. and Waller, R.W. 2004. Status and IUCN. 2001. IUCN Red List Categories and Rodrigues, A.S.L., Andelman, S.J., Bakarr, M.I., trends of amphibian declines and extinctions Criteria: Version 3.1. IUCN Species Survival Boitani, L., Brooks, T.M., Cowling, R.M., worldwide. Science 306: 1783-1786. Commission. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Fishpool, L.D.C., Fonseca, G.A.B., Gaston, Temple, H.J. and Terry, A. 2007. The Status Cambridge, UK. K.J., Hoffmann, M., Long, J.S., Marquet, P.A., and Distribution of European Mammals. IUCN. 2003. Guidelines for Application of IUCN Pilgrim, J.D., Pressey, R.L., Schipper, J. et al. Luxembourg: Offi ce for Offi cial Publications of Red List Criteria at regional levels: Version 3.0. 2004. Effectiveness of the global protected the European Communities.

State of the world’s species

Craig Hilton-Taylor, Caroline M. Pollock, Janice S. Chanson, Stuart H.M. Butchart, Thomasina E.E. Oldﬁ eld and Vineet Katariya

A species rich world List provides a useful snapshot of what is Table 1). However, the conservation status The magnitude and distribution of species happening to species around the world for most of the world’s species remains that exist today is a product of more than today and highlights the urgent need for poorly known, and there is a strong bias 3.5 billion years of evolution, involving conservation action. in those that have been assessed so far speciation, radiation, extinction and, more towards terrestrial vertebrates and plants recently, the impacts of people. Estimates The 2008 IUCN Red List and in particular those species found in of the total number of eukaryotic species There have been some marked increases biologically well-studied parts of the world. in existence on Earth today vary greatly in the taxonomic coverage of The IUCN Efforts are underway to rectify these biases ranging from 2 million to 100 million, but Red List in the last eight years (Vié et al. (Darwall et al., Polidoro et al. and Collen et most commonly falling between 5 million this volume). In 2000, The IUCN Red List al. this volume). and 30 million (May 1992, Mace et al. included assessments for 16,507 species, 2005), with a best working estimate of 11,406 of which were listed as threatened Comprehensive assessments (in which about 8 to 9 million species (Chapman (Hilton-Taylor 2000); in 2004 the list every species has been evaluated) 2006). But of these, just under 1.8 million included 38,047 species, 15,589 of which are now available for an increased are estimated to have been described were threatened (Baillie et al. 2004); and number of taxonomic groups, namely (Groombridge and Jenkins 2002, in 2008 the list includes 44,838 species, amphibians, birds, mammals, cycads Chapman 2006) although it has been 16,928 of which are threatened (Box 1, and conifers, warm water reef-forming argued that the number may be closer to 2 million (Peeters et al. 2003).

While scientists debate how many species exist, there are growing concerns about the status of biodiversity, particularly population declines (e.g., the Living Planet Index which monitors population trends in 1,686 animal species shows an overall decline of 30% for the period 1970 to 2005 (Loh et al. 2008)) and the increasing rates of extinction of both described and undescribed species as a direct and indirect result of human activities. Although only a very small proportion (2.7%; Table 1) of the world’s described species have been assessed so far, The IUCN Red

The Endangered Western Prairie Fringed Orchid Platanthera praeclara is declining across much of its range in North America as a result of habitat loss and degradation owing to agricultural expansion and intensiﬁ cation. © Jim Fowler

15 Wildlife in a Changing World

Box 1. Summary of the 2008 IUCN Red List update

The 2008 update of The IUCN Red List (as released on 6th October • 17,675 species are listed as Least Concern, a listing which 2008) includes conservation assessments for 44,838 species (see generally indicates that these have a low probability of Table 1 for break-down): extinction, but the category is very broad and includes species which may be of conservation concern (e.g., they may have • There are 869 recorded extinctions, with 804 species listed as very restricted ranges but with no perceived threats or their Extinct and 65 listed as Extinct in the Wild; populations may be declining but not fast enough to qualify for a threatened listing). • The number of extinctions increases to 1,159 if the 290 Critically Endangered species tagged as ‘Possibly Extinct’ are included; Note that The IUCN Red List is a biased sample of the world’s species, and for the incompletely assessed groups, there is a • 16,928 species are threatened with extinction (3,246 are Critically a general tendency to assess species that are more likely to be Endangered, 4,770 are Endangered and 8,912 are Vulnerable); threatened. It is therefore not possible to take the Red List as a whole (in which 38% of listed species are threatened), and say that this • 3,796 species are listed as Near Threatened*; means that 38% of all species in the world are likely to be threatened.

• 5,570 species have insufﬁ cient information to determine their threat * Includes species listed as Conservation Dependent (LR/cd), an old Red List status and are listed as Data Deﬁ cient; Category which is now subsumed under the Near Threatened category.

corals, freshwater crabs, and groupers. status of the Data Defi cient dragonfl ies For further discussion of the results In addition, taxonomic coverage is is resolved that group may have a much for those taxonomic groups where a being broadened through a randomized higher proportion of threatened species. randomized sampling approach has sampled approach which provides Currently the two groups with the highest been used (reptiles, freshwater fi shes, representative samples (Collen et al. this proportions of threatened species are the dragonfl ies and freshwater crabs) see volume). Closer examination of some amphibians and cycads. Species in these Collen et al. (this volume); the freshwater of these taxonomic groups reveals that groups generally are less mobile and have taxa are also covered in more detail by the proportions of threatened species smaller ranges and are hence more easily Darwall et al. (this volume); and the warm differ markedly between groups, with impacted by threats e.g., a pathogenic water reef-building corals are discussed the percentage threatened ranging from disease (chytridiomycosis) caused by along with other marine species by 12% for birds to 52% for cycads (Figure the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium Polidoro et al. (this volume). 1). Generally, it seems that the more dendrobatis in the case of amphibians, mobile groups (birds and dragonfl ies) and illegal collection in the case of the In addition to the species level are less threatened, although once the cycads. assessments, the 2008 IUCN Red List also includes 1,804 assessments of infra- specifi c taxa (i.e., taxa below the level of a species) or discrete subpopulations, 1.0 of which 1,197 (66%) are listed as threatened. These assessments are useful, 0.9 particularly in the case of widespread Least 0.8 Concern species, for helping to draw conservation attention to those parts of 0.7 their geographic ranges where they are 0.6 threatened.

0.5 The primary function of The IUCN Red 0.4 List is not to document extinctions, but rather to draw attention to those species 0.3 facing a high risk of extinction in the wild Proportion of CR/EN/VU species Proportion 0.2

0.1 Figure 1. Proportion of species threatened with 0.0 extinction in different taxonomic groups. Asterisks indicate those groups in which estimates are derived from a randomized sampling approach. The estimates assume that Data Defi cient species are equally threatened as non-Data Defi cient species; Birds (9,990) Corals (845) Conifers (620)Cycads (289) error bars show minimum and maximum estimates Mammals (5,488) Reptiles* (8,734) Amphibians (6,260) Dragonfl ies* (5,680) if all Data Defi cient species are Least Concern or threatened, respectively. Numbers on the horizontal Freshwater fi sh* (12,740) Freshwater crabs* (1,281) axis indicate the total number of described species in each group. Corals include only warm water reef- building species.

16 State of the world’s species

Estimated Number Number of Number Number Notes: Number of species threatened threatened, as threatened, as 1. The number of described and evaluated mammals of described evaluated species8 % of species % of species excludes domesticated species like sheep (Ovis species7 described8 evaluated8,9 aries), goats (Capra hircus), Dromedary (Camelus Vertebrates dromedarius), etc. Mammals1 5,488 5,488 1,141 21% 21% 2. It should be noted that for certain amphibian species Birds 9,990 9,990 1,222 12% 12% endemic to Brazil, it has not yet been possible to reach Reptiles 8,734 1,385 423 5% 31% agreement on the Red List Categories between the Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA) Coordinating Amphibians2 6,347 6,260 1,905 30% 30% Team, and the experts on the species in Brazil. The Fishes 30,700 3,481 1,275 4% 37% numbers for Amphibians displayed here include those Subtotal 61,259 26,604 5,966 10% 22% that were agreed at the GAA Brazil workshop in April Invertebrates 2003. However, in the subsequent consistency check Insects 950,000 1,259 626 0% 50% conducted by the GAA Coordinating Team, many of the assessments were found to be inconsistent with Molluscs 81,000 2,212 978 1% 44% the approach adopted elsewhere in the world, and a Crustaceans 40,000 1,735 606 2% 35% “consistent Red List Category” was also assigned to Corals 2,175 856 235 11% 27% these species. The “consistent Red List Categories” are Arachnids 98,000 32 18 0% 56% yet to be accepted by the Brazilian experts; therefore Velvet Worms 165 11 9 5% 82% the original workshop assessments are retained here. However, in order to ensure comparability between Horseshoe Crabs 4 4 0 0% 0% results for amphibians with those for other taxonomic Others 61,040 52 24 0% 46% groups, the data used in various analyses (e.g., Baillie Subtotal 1,232,384 6,161 2,496 0.20% 41% et al. 2004; Stuart et al. 2008; the Global Amphibians Plants3 analysis on the Red List web site) are based on the Mosses4 16,000 95 82 1% 86% “consistent Red List Categories”. Therefore, numbers for Ferns and allies5 12,838 211 139 1% 66% Amphibians in Table 1 above will not completely match numbers that appear in other analyses, including the Gymnosperms 980 910 323 33% 35% analysis later in this chapter. Dicotyledons 199,350 9,624 7,122 4% 74% 59,300 1,155 782 1% 68% 3. The plant numbers do not include species from the Monocotyledons 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants (Walter and Green Algae6 3,962 2 0 0% 0% Gillett 1998) as those were all assessed using the pre- Red Algae6 6,076 58 9 0% 16% 1994 IUCN system of threat categorization. Hence the numbers of threatened plants are very much lower when Subtotal 298,506 12,055 8,457 3% 70% compared to the 1997 results. The results from this Red Others List and the 1997 Plants Red List should be combined Lichens 17,000 2 2 0% 100% together when reporting on threatened plants. Mushrooms 30,000 1 1 0% 100% 4. Mosses include the true mosses (Bryopsida), 6 Brown Algae 3,040 15 6 0% 40% the hornworts (Anthocerotopsida), and liverworts Subtotal 50,040 18 9 0.02% 50% (Marchantiopsida). TOTAL 1,642,189 44,838 16,928 1% 38% 5. Ferns and allies include the club mosses Table 1. Numbers and proportions of species assessed and species assessed as threatened on the 2008 (Lycopodiopsida), spike mosses (Sellaginellopsida), IUCN Red List by major taxonomic group. quillworts (Isoetopsida), and true ferns (Polypodiopsida). 6. Seaweeds are included in the green algae (Chlorophyta), red algae (Rhodophyta), and brown algae (Ochrophyta). 7. The sources used for the numbers of described plant so that appropriate conservation actions Red List (Baillie et al. 2004), the number of and animal species are listed in Appendix 3. can be taken (Mace et al. 2008). Given this extinctions on the Red List is signiﬁ cantly 8. The numbers and percentages of species threatened in each group do not mean that the remainder are all not focus together with the uneven taxonomic under-recorded. In order to record probable threatened (i.e., are Least Concern). There are a number coverage and the fact that it may take many extinctions a ‘Possibly Extinct’ tag has of species in many of the groups that are listed as Near Threatened or Data Deﬁ cient (see Appendices 4-8). years to prove that a species is truly Extinct been introduced which is used only against These numbers also need to be considered in relation and can be listed as such on The IUCN Critically Endangered listings (Butchart et to the number of species evaluated as shown in column two (see note 9). 9. Apart from the mammals, birds, amphibians and gymnosperms (i.e., those groups completely or almost completely evaluated), the numbers in the last column are gross over-estimates of the percentage threatened due to biases in the assessment process towards assessing species that are thought to be threatened, species for which data are readily available, and under- reporting of Least Concern species. The true value for the percentage threatened lies somewhere in the range indicated by the two right-hand columns. In most cases this represents a very broad range; the percentage of threatened insects for example, lies somewhere between 0.07% and 50%. Hence, although 38% of all species on The IUCN Red List are listed as threatened, this percentage needs to be treated with extreme caution given the biases described above.

The Radiated Tortoise Astrochelys radiata is found only on Madagascar. In 2008 its Red List status changed from Vulnerable to Critically Endangered. Wild Radiated Tortoises are collected for the international pet trade, and also for local use (food and pets), which is of greater concern for the species. Habitat loss due to agricultural expansion and invasive plant species also threaten the remaining wild population. © Anders Rhodin

17 Wildlife in a Changing World

The very rare Peacock Parachute Spider Poecilotheria metallica is Critically Endangered. Habitat loss through logging in its only known location (Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh, India) is the main threat to this species. © Sanjay Molur

al. 2006a, IUCN Standards and Petitions which reaffi rms the extinction crisis faced sought after luxury live food fi sh species Working Group 2008). If the species by amphibians; nearly one-third (31%) are threatened with extinction as a result tagged as ‘Possibly Extinct’ are included, are threatened or Extinct and 25% are of unsustainable fi shing; a further 30% then the number of probable extinctions Data Defi cient. are Data Defi cient. recorded on The IUCN Red List increases from 869 to 1,159 species. • A complete reassessment of the world’s • All 1,280 species of freshwater crabs birds indicates that more than one in have been assessed, 16% of which Highlights of the 2008 IUCN eight (13.6%) are considered threatened are listed as threatened with extinction, Red List or Extinct; birds are one of the best- but a further 49% are Data Defi cient Some of the highlights of the 2008 update known groups with less than 1% (Cumberlidge et al. 2009). of The IUCN Red List include the following: being listed as Data Defi cient (BirdLife International 2008a). • 359 freshwater fi shes endemic to • A complete reassessment of the world’s Europe, with 24% listed as threatened mammals showed that nearly one- • For the fi rst time 845 species of warm and only 4% listed as Data Defi cient quarter (22%) of the world’s mammal water reef-building corals have been (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). species are globally threatened or included on the Red List with more than Extinct and 836 (15%) are Data Defi cient one-quarter (27%) listed as threatened The 2008 IUCN Red List also includes a (Schipper et al. 2008). and 17% as Data Defi cient (Carpenter et number of notable new individual species al. 2008). assessments, for example 14 tarantula • The addition of 366 new amphibian assessments from India, 12 threatened species, many listed as threatened, and • All 161 species of groupers are now freshwater fi shes from Lake Dianchi in the confi rmed extinction of two species, assessed; over 12% of these highly China, orchids from the Americas, a

18 State of the world’s species striking Raffl esia species (a close relative of which has the largest single fl ower of any fl owering plant in the world) from the Philippines, and a bumble bee which has undergone dramatic declines in North America and exemplifi es what is happening to other key pollinators world-wide.

The status of amphibians, birds, mammals and plants In previous analyses of the Red List, the general analysis has looked at facts, fi gures and trends across all the major taxonomic groups. However, a more thematic approach has been adopted in this review and hence because freshwater and marine groups are covered in other chapters, the main focus of the rest of this chapter is on the terrestrial groups. In particular an analysis is presented of the three comprehensively assessed vertebrate groups for which we have Raffl esia magnifi ca is among the group of plants that produce the largest single fl owers in the world. Endemic to a relatively rich knowledge, namely the the Philippines, only a few individuals of R. magnifi ca have been recorded, all of them male. The species is listed as Critically Endangered. © H. Calalo amphibians, birds and mammals. Plants are also included, but are not analyzed to the same extent as the vertebrates because much of the supporting threatened at present, with 381 being are the many amphibians that can no documentation for such an analysis is not listed as Near Threatened (NT) and longer be found. Until exhaustive surveys to yet available. The only invertebrate groups 2,316 listed as Least Concern (LC), while confi rm their disappearance can be carried for which there is reasonable assessment suffi cient information was not available to out, these species cannot be classifi ed as coverage are the corals, dragonfl ies and assess the status of an additional 1,533 Extinct, but rather are fl agged as ‘Possibly freshwater crabs, but as these are all species (Data Defi cient (DD)). It is predicted Extinct’ within the Critically Endangered covered in other chapters, they are not that a signifi cant proportion of these Data category. Currently there are 120 such discussed any further here. Defi cient species are likely to be globally ‘Possibly Extinct’ amphibian species. threatened. Amphibians Unfortunately, there is strong evidence Documenting population trends is key that the pace of extinctions is increasing. CURRENT STATUS to assessing species status, and a The fi rst comprehensive assessment of special effort was made to determine the conservation status of all amphibians which amphibians are declining, stable, was completed in 2004, and the results or increasing. The assessment found were included in the 2004 IUCN Red declines to be widespread among 37% 24% List. The amphibian assessment is one amphibians, with 42.5% of species of several initiatives led by IUCN and its reported to be in decline. In contrast, partners with the aim of rapidly expanding 26.6% of species appear to be stable and the geographic and taxonomic coverage of just 0.5% are increasing. Because trend <1% The IUCN Red List. Since 2004 there have information is not available for 30.4% of <1% been two updates of the amphibian data, species, the percentage of amphibians in 8% one in 2006, and the most recent in 2008. decline may be considerably higher.

Ninety-nine per cent of all known Extinctions are often difﬁ cult to conﬁ rm. 6% 13% amphibian species (6,260 species; see Using the most conservative approach to 11% Table 1) have been assessed, and of documenting extinctions, just 38 amphibians these, nearly one-third (32.4%) are globally are known to have become Extinct since the threatened or Extinct, representing 2,030 year 1500. Of greater concern, however, EX VU species (Figure 2, Appendix 4). Thirty- EW NT eight are considered to be Extinct (EX), CR LC EN DD and one Extinct in the Wild (EW). Another Figure 2. IUCN Red List assessment for 6,260 2,697 species are not considered to be amphibian species.

19 Wildlife in a Changing World

Figure 3. Global diversity of amphibian species.

Of the 38 known extinctions, 11 have to be under represented on this map due Number of Rank Country occurred since 1980, including such to lack of adequate surveys. amphibians species as the Golden Toad Incilius 1 Brazil 798 periglenes of Monteverde, Costa Rica. Looking at amphibian diversity from a 2 Colombia 714 Among those amphibians regarded as country perspective, Brazil, with at least 3 Ecuador 467 ‘Possibly Extinct’, most have disappeared 798 species, has the greatest number 4 Peru 461 and have not been seen since 1980. of amphibians of any country on Earth, 5 Mexico 364 Fortunately, a few amphibians that followed by Colombia. Table 2 lists the 6 Indonesia 363 previously were thought to be Extinct 20 most diverse countries and reveals 7 China 333 have been rediscovered. For example, some interesting fi ndings, although, these Atelopus cruciger was not seen in its results must be considered in relation to 8 Venezuela 311 native Venezuela after 1986, until a tiny the level of survey effort and the size of 9 United States 272 population was found in 2003. the countries. Both Colombia and Brazil 10 Papua New Guinea 266 have benefi tted from extensive survey 11 India 252 GEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS efforts in recent decades, and although 12 Madagascar 242 both countries can be expected to add 13 Bolivia 230 Amphibian diversity signifi cantly more species to their totals, 14 Australia 223 Global patterns of amphibian diversity the levels of increase are likely to be less Congo, The Democratic 15 215 are shown in Figure 3. This map clearly than in some of the other highly diverse Republic of the indicates certain areas of high amphibian countries. In South America, Peru in 16 Malaysia 212 diversity, including tropical South America particular is relatively poorly sampled and 17 Cameroon 199 and tropical West Africa. In contrast to is almost certain to rise very substantially 18 Panama 197 the usual pattern of high species diversity in its species total, and can be predicted 19 Costa Rica 186 occurring in the tropics, the southeastern to pass the level of Ecuador before Tanzania, United 20 178 United States is a global centre for too long. The diversity in Ecuador is, Republic of amphibian diversity, being particularly rich however, remarkable for such a small in salamanders. However, the problem of country. * The country and territory names used in Tables 2–10 are based on the short country names specifi ed by uneven survey efforts around the world the International Organization for Standardization complicates interpretation of this map. (ISO) Maintenance Agency for ISO 3166 country codes (see http://www.iso.org/iso/country_codes/ Regions such as Indonesia, New Guinea Table 2. Top twenty countries* with the most iso_3166_code_lists/english_country_names_and_ and the Congo Basin are especially likely amphibian species. code_elements.htm).

20 State of the world’s species

Figure 4. Global distribution of threatened amphibians.

Among the Old World countries, the level of of such species, including well over survey effort is often much lower than in the half of the currently known threatened Number of Rank Country threatened Americas. Indonesia can be predicted to be amphibians, is in a relatively limited area amphibians the richest country outside the Americas, running from southern Mexico south 1 Colombia 214 but it is doubtful if even half of its species to Ecuador and Venezuela, and in the are yet known. After more dedicated survey Greater Antilles. This region is dominated 2 Mexico 211 efforts, Indonesia may prove to have a level by species with small ranges, often living 3 Ecuador 171 of amphibian diversity comparable with in montane areas. Many of these species 4 Brazil 116 Brazil and Colombia. Very large increases have been subjected to severe habitat 5 Peru 96 in species totals can also be predicted for loss and exposure to the fungal disease 6 China 92 Papua New Guinea and The Democratic chytridiomycosis (Stuart et al. 2008). 7 Guatemala 80 Republic of the Congo, the latter country having received almost no amphibian Other important concentrations of 8 Venezuela 72 survey work in the last 40 years. threatened species are in the Atlantic 9 India 65 Forests of southern Brazil, the Upper 10 Madagascar 64 Countries that are likely to pass the 200 Guinea forests of western Africa, the 11 Costa Rica 59 species mark include Cameroon, Panama, forest of western Cameroon and eastern Honduras 59 Costa Rica and the United Republic of Nigeria, the Albertine Rift of central Africa, 13 United States 56 Tanzania. The United States and Australia the Eastern Arc Mountains of the United can be predicted to fall down the ranking Republic of Tanzania, Madagascar, the 14 Cameroon 53 over time, though the United States along Western Ghats of India, Sri Lanka, central Sri Lanka 53 Tanzania, United with Mexico will remain the most important and southern China, the Bornean parts of 16 50 countries for salamander diversity. Indonesia and Malaysia, the Philippines Republic of and eastern Australia. 17 Panama 49 Geography of threatened amphibian Cuba 49 species Table 3 lists the 20 countries with the 19 Australia 48

A map showing the global distribution of highest number of threatened amphibians. Philippines 48 threatened amphibians (Figure 4) reveals These countries are in many cases very different patterns compared with different to those listed in Table 2, the depictions of overall species diversity suggesting that either amphibians in some Table 3. Countries with the largest number of threatened amphibian species. (Figure 3). The greatest concentration countries are more susceptible to threats,

21 Wildlife in a Changing World

Bolitoglossa franklini is an Endangered salamander from Mexico and Guatemala. Its range is becoming severely fragmented as forest habitats are lost to agricultural lands and human settlements. © Gabriela Parra

that threats vary between countries, or would jump from being 14th on the list to % threatened th Rank Country that there are other factors infl uencing the 8 , ahead of several countries with much & Extinct distribution of threatened species. greater amphibian diversity. Sri Lanka is 1 Haiti 92.0 only the 28th most diverse country for 2 Dominican Republic 83.3 The countries listed in Table 3 have a amphibians. particularly great responsibility for protecting 3 Jamaica 81.0 the world’s threatened amphibians. Considering the percentage of a country’s 4 Cuba 80.3 Colombia, the second most diverse amphibian fauna that is threatened or 5 Puerto Rico 73.7 country, has the highest number of Extinct provides a stark contrast to the 6 Sri Lanka 70.5 threatened species. The major threat to previous table, which focuses on the 7 Mexico 58.0 amphibians in Colombia is habitat loss number of threatened species. Table 4 lists 8 Guatemala 57.1 although there have also been many the countries with the highest percentage declines due to chytridiomycosis. The of threatened and Extinct amphibians. 9 Seychelles 54.5 dramatic topography of the Andes means 10 Honduras 48.8 that many of the amphibians found there The top fi ve countries are all in the 11 Philippines 48.0 have very restricted ranges making them Caribbean, and at least 70% of all 12 Ecuador 37.0 more vulnerable to threatening processes. the amphibians in these countries 13 Chile 36.2 Brazil, the most diverse country, is are threatened (no species are listed 14 Japan 35.7 ranked only fourth for number of species as Extinct for these fi ve countries at threatened, most of which are in the Atlantic present, but nine are tagged as ‘Possibly 15 Turkey 34.5 Forest region, and has a signifi cantly lower Extinct’). Compared with other regions, 16 Costa Rica 33.3 percentage of its amphibians threatened the Caribbean stands out with by far 17 El Salvador 31.3 than the global average. the highest percentage of threatened 18 Colombia 30.0 species. This is mostly a result of extensive Taiwan, Province of 19 29.4 In Table 3, only the number of threatened habitat loss as well as some incidence China species is given, and the number of Extinct of chytridiomycosis, particularly in Puerto Tanzania, United 20 28.1 species has been excluded. This is to Rico. Republic of highlight those countries that currently Note: only countries with 10 or more species are have the greatest responsibility towards In Mexico, ranked fi fth for diversity, but included in the analysis. protecting globally threatened species. second for the number of threatened Table 4. Countries with the highest percentage of If we also consider the Extinct species, species, more than 50% of amphibians threatened and Extinct amphibians. Sri Lanka, with 21 Extinct amphibians, are threatened (no species are considered

22 State of the world’s species

Madagascan Mantella Mantella Madagascariensis is a Vulnerable amphibian from Madagascar. This species lays its eggs on the ground. © Jean-Christophe Vié

Extinct at present, but 26 are tagged as ‘Possibly Extinct’). Severe habitat loss and the outbreak of chytridiomycosis in some regions are the main threats. Most of the other countries in Table 4 are in Mesoamerica or South America, with the main causes of threat here also being chytridiomycosis and habitat loss.

Sri Lanka is the highest ranked country outside of Mesoamerica or South America with over 70% of species in this country either threatened or Extinct, primarily as a result of habitat loss.

HABITAT PREFERENCES A summary of the most important habitats for amphibians is shown in Figure 5.

The vast majority of amphibians, almost 5,000, depend on forests. Other terrestrial Species that are associated with ﬂ owing amphibian species. The vast majority of habitats are much less preferred by water are more threatened than those that amphibians depend on tropical forest amphibians, in particular the drier habitats, use still water (indeed, stream-associated habitats, which are the same habitats that such as savannas and deserts. These species are particularly susceptible to are subject to the highest rates of forest results are not surprising, as amphibians chytridiomycosis for reasons that are still loss (Stuart et al. 2008). are well known for their preference for not understood). moist habitats. The next most common threat to THREATS amphibians is pollution, which affects Perhaps a more surprising result is that A summary of the number of species around one ﬁ fth (19%) of amphibian only 4,224 amphibians depend on affected by each threatening process species overall and 29% of threatened freshwater during some stage of their life is shown in Figure 6. Habitat loss and species. These percentages are much cycle. Amphibians are renowned for their degradation are by far the greatest threats higher than those recorded for birds or dual lifestyle, starting off as youngsters to amphibians at present, affecting nearly mammals (see Figures 10 and 15), but this in aquatic habitats then undergoing a 61% of all known amphibians (nearly 4,000 is probably because most amphibians are metamorphosis to become terrestrial species), including 87% of the threatened semi-aquatic (Stuart et al. 2008). adults. However, although this is the most common life history strategy for amphibians, there are also many species Figure 5. Major habitat preferences of amphibians. that develop directly from eggs without

a larval stage (and a few live-bearing Forest species). Many of these species do not rely on freshwater habitats at any stage of Flowing freshwater their lives. Still freshwater

Secondary terrestrial habitats The freshwater habitats preferred by amphibians have been split depending Grassland on whether they are still or ﬂ owing, or Shrubland EX/EW/CR/EN/VU NT/LC/DD swamp/marsh. Flowing freshwater habitats Marsh/swamp for amphibians are usually streams. Still freshwater habitats are often temporary rain Savanna

pools or other small pools of freshwater. Desert This distinction between freshwater habitats has a major inﬂ uence on the 0500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 Number of species likelihood that a species is threatened.

2-state worlds species.indd 23 10/07/2009 11:15:35 Wildlife in a Changing World

Plectrohyla dasypus is a Critically Endangered amphibian from Honduras. The population is undergoing drastic declines as a result of chytridiomycosis. © Silviu Petrovan

Although the disease chytridiomycosis which a species declines due to these the wild; pathogens do not stop at the appears to be a relatively less signiﬁ cant causes is usually much slower than is the boundaries of protected areas. threat for amphibians, for those species case with disease. There are a number of affected, it can cause sudden and strategies and mitigation measures that Birds dramatic population declines resulting in can be adopted, such as the creation of very rapid extinction (Cunningham and protected areas, to counter the threats of CURRENT STATUS Daszak 2008). In comparison, although habitat loss and degradation. By contrast, Birds are probably the best known taxonomic habitat loss and degradation affect a much there is no practical solution available as group. Since 1988, the BirdLife International greater number of species, the rate at yet for dealing with chytridiomycosis in Partnership, working with a global network of experts and organizations, including the IUCN SSC bird Specialist Groups, has

Figure 6. Major threats to amphibians. conducted fi ve comprehensive assessments of birds, with the most recent assessment of All habitat loss all 9,990 known species being completed in Pollution 2008. Less than one per cent of bird species Disease on the 2008 IUCN Red List have insuffi cient Fires information available to be able to assess Invasive species them beyond Data Defi cient. Human disturbance Natural disasters It is clear, however, that being well-studied does not provide immunity from decline Utilization CR/EN/VU Accidental mortality NT/LC/DD and high extinction risk. More than one in Changes in native species dynamics seven bird species (13.6%) are globally threatened or Extinct, representing 1,360 Persecution species (Figure 7, Appendix 4). Of these, Unknown 134 species are Extinct, four species no 0500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 longer occur in the wild, and a further 15 are Number of species Critically Endangered species fl agged as

24 State of the world’s species

Box 2. Summary of results for amphibians

• Nearly one-third (32%) of the world’s amphibian species are known • The largest numbers of threatened species occur in Latin American to be threatened or Extinct, 43% are known not to be threatened, countries such as Colombia (214), Mexico (211), and Ecuador and 25% have insufﬁ cient data to determine their threat status. (171). The highest levels of threat, however, are in the Caribbean, where more than 80% of amphibians are threatened or extinct in • As many as 159 amphibian species may already be Extinct. At the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and Jamaica, and a staggering least 38 amphibian species are known to be Extinct, one is Extinct 92% in Haiti. in the Wild, while at least another 120 species have not been found in recent years and are ‘Possibly Extinct’. • Although habitat loss clearly poses the greatest threat to amphibians, the fungal disease chytridiomycosis is seriously • At least 42% of all species are declining in population, indicating affecting an increasing number of species. Perhaps most that the number of threatened species can be expected to rise disturbing, many species are declining for unknown reasons, in the future. In contrast, less than one per cent of species show complicating efforts to design and implement effective conservation population increases. strategies.

‘Possibly Extinct’, making a probable total of Examining the current population trends for GEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS 153 bird extinctions since the year 1500. birds provides further conﬁ rmation that it is not just the threatened birds that are at Bird diversity Although 8,564 bird species (85.7%) risk as 40.3% of extant birds are recorded Birds occur in all regions of the world, currently are not considered threatened, to be declining. A further 44.4% of bird from the tropics to the poles. They also 835 of these (8.4% of all known birds) are species have stable populations and 6.2% occur in virtually every habitat, from the Near Threatened; the remaining 7,729 are increasing. The population trend for lowest deserts to the highest mountains species are Least Concern. 9.1% of birds is unknown or uncertain. (BirdLife International 2008a). Patterns of bird diversity are driven by fundamental biogeographic factors, with variety and The Philippine Eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi has an extremely small population as a result of rapid declines caused extent of different habitats being particularly by extensive deforestation. The species is listed as Critically Endangered. © Nigel Voaden inﬂ uential. For example, tropical forests are especially rich in species, hence the very high avian diversity found in the equatorial regions (BirdLife International 2008b). Not all bird species have been mapped hence a global map of bird diversity is not included here.

The highest numbers of bird species occur in the Neotropical realm. This concentration of high species richness can

Figure 7. IUCN Red List assessment for 9,990 bird species.

77%

<1% 1% <1% 2% 4%

EX VU EW NT CR LC EN DD

25 Wildlife in a Changing World

Number Table 5. Top twenty countries with the largest Rank Country eastern Madagascar, and the archipelagos of birds number of bird species. of Southeast Asia (BirdLife International 1 Colombia 1,799 2008b). 2 Peru 1,772 Colombia supporting the highest bird 3 Brazil 1,704 diversity in the world. Eighteen per cent of The majority of threatened birds (60%) are 4 Ecuador 1,578 the world’s bird species occur in Colombia single-country endemics (i.e., they occur 5 Indonesia 1,561 (1,799 species), closely followed by Peru in only one country), and most of these 6 Bolivia 1,416 (1,772 species), Brazil (1,704 species) species have small ranges and small 7 Venezuela 1,347 and Ecuador (1,578 species). The other population sizes (BirdLife International 8 China 1,237 regions with high bird species diversity 2008d,e). Not all threatened birds have 9 India 1,178 are Africa and Asia. Six of the top 20 restricted ranges: 14 threatened species Congo, The Democratic countries in Table 5 are in Africa, with The have ranges spanning more than 30 10 1,084 Republic of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya countries, including the Lesser Kestrel 11 Mexico 1,077 and the United Republic of Tanzania having Falco naumanni with a native range that Tanzania, United more than 1,000 bird species each. Within includes 96 countries in Europe, Asia and 12 1,050 Republic of Asia, Indonesia supports the highest bird Africa (BirdLife International 2008b). Hence 13 Kenya 1,019 diversity (1,561 species), followed by the political responsibility for conserving 14 Myanmar 1,003 China (1,237 species) and India (1,178 threatened species rests both nationally 15 Argentina 993 species). and, as a shared effort, internationally. 16 Uganda 988 17 Sudan 919 Geography of threatened bird species Table 6 lists the 20 countries with the 18 Thailand 918 The global distribution of threatened bird highest numbers of globally threatened 19 Panama 913 species is shown in Figure 8. Nearly all birds. Asia and South America emerge as countries and territories of the world (97%) the regions with the highest numbers of 20 Angola 894 hold one or more globally threatened threatened bird species (nine of the top species, which are national priorities for twenty countries are within Asia, and ﬁ ve conservation action (BirdLife International are South American countries). The ten be seen by examining the 20 countries 2008b). Regions that stand out as having countries with the most threatened avifauna with the highest number of birds (Table particularly high densities of threatened include seven of the most important in terms 5). Six of the richest seven countries species include the tropical Andes, Atlantic of absolute numbers of birds, with Brazil and for birds are within South America, with Forests of Brazil, the eastern Himalayas, Indonesia heading the list, holding 122 and

Figure 8. Global distribution of threatened birds. The red shades indicate terrestrial species and the blue shades indicate marine species.

26 State of the world’s species

Number of % threatened Islands, Saint Helena and Pitcairn all have Rank Country Rank Country threatened & Extinct fewer than 100 bird species, but very birds 1 French Polynesia 47.8 1 Brazil 122 high percentages of their national avifauna 2 Cook Islands 44.4 2 Indonesia 115 are either globally threatened or already 3 Saint Helena 42.2 Extinct (more than 40% for each country). 3 Peru 93 Another striking feature of Table 7 is the 4 Pitcairn 41.7 4 Colombia 86 heavy dominance of oceanic islands with 5 Norfolk Island 39.6 5 China 85 high percentages of threatened and Extinct 6 Mauritius 38.9 6 India 76 Heard Island and species. The majority (88%) of known bird 7 38.5 7 United States 74 extinctions since the year 1500 have been McDonald Islands 8 New Zealand 69 on islands (Butchart et al. 2006), often 8 New Zealand 38.0 Ecuador 69 as a result of introduced invasive species 9 Niue 33.3 10 Philippines 67 such as cats, rats and goats, which 10 Réunion 29.1 French Southern 11 Mexico 54 either preyed upon the native birds or 11 27.5 Territories degraded their habitat (BirdLife International 12 Russian Federation 51 United States Minor 2008c). The extinction rate on islands now 12 27.3 13 Argentina 49 Outlying Islands appears to be slowing thanks to ongoing 13 Wallis and Futuna 25.7 Australia 49 efforts to eradicate established invasive 14 American Samoa 19.5 15 Thailand 44 alien species and to control species 15 Samoa 15.6 16 Malaysia 42 introductions on islands and conservation 16 Madagascar 14.8 17 Myanmar 41 efforts to improve the status of native island 17 Antarctica 14.7 18 Tanzania, United Republic of 40 species (BirdLife International 2008d). 18 Kiribati 13.5 Japan 40 19 Guam 13.1 20 Viet Nam 39 HABITAT PREFERENCES Table 6. Countries with the largest number of A summary of the most important habitats 20 New Caledonia 12.4 threatened bird species. for birds is shown in Figure 9. Note: only countries with 10 or more species are included. Table 7. Countries with the highest percentage of Birds occur in all major habitat types, and threatened and Extinct birds. 115 threatened species respectively. These although some species may use a range two countries also support high numbers of different habitats, many species are of threatened endemic birds: Brazil has 71 specialist to just one. Forests are the most and Indonesia has 67 threatened endemics important habitat, supporting 75% of all or tolerant to such disturbance than (see Appendix 12), which places a particular bird species, with tropical and subtropical amphibians or mammals, the importance responsibility on these countries to protect forests being the richest bird habitats. of these habitats is low for a substantial these species. Grasslands, savanna and inland wetlands proportion of these species. are all important habitats for birds, each In Table 6 only the number of threatened supporting about 20% of species, while Wetlands are very important habitats for species is given, and the number of Extinct shrublands support 39% of birds. Around the many waterbird species that tend to species has been excluded. This is to 45% of birds are found in ‘artiﬁ cial’ habitats congregate in these areas in particular highlight those countries that currently (those that have been modiﬁ ed by humans, seasons for feeding and nesting, often have the greatest responsibility towards such as agricultural land), hence although regularly returning to the same site year protecting globally threatened bird species. birds appear to be more adaptable after year. An example of one such habitat

Combining the numbers of threatened birds (Table 6) and the proportion of Forest threatened and Extinct birds in each Artifi cial landscapes (terrestrial) country (Table 7) highlights those countries Shrubland that are most severely affected by declines Grassland and losses of bird species. Wetlands (inland) Savanna Countries with the highest proportions Coastal of threatened and Extinct birds include Marine offshore territories with low overall avian diversity. Rocky areas For example, French Polynesia, the Cook EX/EW/CR/EN/VU Artifi cial landscapes (aquatic) NT/LC/DD Desert Caves and subterranean Figure 9. Major habitat preferences of birds. habitats (non-aquatic) Occurrence in marginal habitats is included here, 01000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 hence the number of species occurring in artifi cial Number of species terrestrial landscapes is over-emphasized.

27 Wildlife in a Changing World

Fisheries Hybridization Transportation and service corridors Unknown impact Low impact Human disturbance Indirect ecosystem effects High/medium impact Pollution Competition Climate change and severe weather Change in ﬁ re regime Disturbance Energy production and mining Residential and Reduced reproductive commercial development success Hunting and trapping Invasive species Direct mortality

Logging Ecosystem Agriculture conversion/degradation

0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 8001000 1200 b a Number of CR/EN/VU species Number of CR/EN/VU species Note that the threats analysis presented here is not directly comparable to the analyses for amphibians and mammals presented in Figures 6 and 15 respectively. The threats to birds have been recorded using a new threats classiﬁ cation scheme that was recently adopted by IUCN (Salafsky et al. 2008). Under this new scheme the relative importance of threats is determined using an impact coding scheme, and the affects (or stresses) of the direct threats on the species are coded separately.

Figure 10. Main threats (a) and stresses (b) affecting globally threatened bird species worldwide (modiﬁ ed from BirdLife International 2008a).

is Lake Natron in the United Republic degradation and fragmentation. Fisheries 1,219 species (Figure 11, Appendix 4). of Tanzania, where around 2.5 million degrade the marine environment and kill Seventy-six of the 1,219 species are individuals (75% of the global population) seabirds through incidental bycatch. The considered to be Extinct (EX), two are of Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor spread of invasive alien species, pollution Extinct in the Wild (EW), and a further 29 return each year to nest (Koenig 2006, and overexploitation of wild birds are also are fl agged as ‘Possibly Extinct’, making a BirdLife International 2008a). major threats. In the long term, human- total of 107 mammal extinctions since the induced climate change may be the most year 1500. THREATS serious threat of all (BirdLife International The threats leading to population declines 2008a). Although 3,433 mammal species (63%) in birds are many and varied (Figure are not considered to be threatened at 10a; BirdLife International 2008a): but Mammals present, 323 of these (6% of all known agriculture, logging and invasive species mammals) are listed as Near Threatened are the most severe, respectively affecting CURRENT STATUS (NT); the remaining 3,110 species are 1,065 (87%), 668 (55%) and 625 (51%) The mammal data on the 2008 IUCN listed as Least Concern (LC). globally threatened species. These threats Red List includes 5,488 species, 412 affect bird populations in a range of ways subspecies and 21 subpopulations. The Documenting population trends is a key (referred to in Figure 10b as the stresses), primary focus of the current assessment, part of assessing the status of species. the commonest being habitat destruction and hence this analysis, is at the species Looking at current population trends in the and degradation, which affect 1,146 (93%) level. This is the second time that all extant mammal species, 30% are recorded threatened species. mammals have been assessed, the fi rst to be decreasing. In contrast 25% of being in 1996 (Baillie and Groombridge species are said to be stable and only Humans are responsible for most of the 1996). 1.5% are increasing. Trend information is threats to birds. Expanding and intensifying not available for 44% of species, hence the agriculture and forestry, the biggest Nearly one-quarter of species (22%) are percentage of species in decline may be problems, cause habitat destruction, globally threatened or Extinct, representing signifi cantly higher.

Box 3. Summary of results for birds

• Birds are the best-known group of species, with less than 1% • 97% of the world’s countries hold at least one globally threatened having insufﬁ cient data to determine their threat status. More than bird species. The highest numbers of threatened birds occur in Brazil one in seven (14%) bird species are globally threatened or Extinct, (122 threatened species) and Indonesia (115 threatened species). 86% are not threatened. • Although they are much less diverse than tropical countries on the • At least 134 birds have become Extinct since the year 1500, four continents, oceanic island nations hold the highest proportions species have become Extinct in the Wild, and a further 15 species of threatened and extinct species. The majority (88%) of known are ‘Possibly Extinct’. extinctions since the year 1500 have been on islands. • The highest numbers of bird species are found in South America, • Agriculture, logging and invasive species are the most severe with Colombia supporting 18% of the world’s birds (1,799 species). threats driving bird species towards extinction. The most common Africa and Asia are the next most diverse regions for bird species. stress affecting bird populations is habitat loss and degradation.

28 State of the world’s species

which are hard to catch because of their countries are in Mesoamerica or tropical

57% nocturnal habits and diffi cult to identify. South America. Although a large part of sub-Saharan Africa is very rich in mammal 15% GEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS diversity, only fi ve African countries appear in Table 8, and only two of these are among 1% Mammalian diversity the ten most diverse. However, many of the <1% Mammal species are found all across the African countries in this mammal-rich region 3% globe, with the exception of the land mass have a relatively small land area compared 8% of Antarctica. The global pattern of land and with other mammal rich countries on other marine mammal diversity is shown in Figure continents (for example, Brazil, China and 12. Regions with high diversity are clearly Mexico), so the diversity of Kenya with 9% 6% visible as darker patches on the global 376 mammals is impressive when its total EX VU map. For land species, these regions are area is taken into account. There are fi ve EW NT found in Mesoamerica and tropical South Asian countries in Table 8, three of which America, sub-Saharan Africa and South and are among the ten most diverse countries. CR LC Southeast Asia. Marine mammals occur Indonesia’s place at the top of the list is EN DD throughout the world’s oceans but peaks unlikely to be challenged as there are Figure 11. IUCN Red List assessment for 5,488 in diversity are found along all continental undoubtedly many more species remaining mammal species. coastlines, as well as Japan, New Zealand, to be described in this megadiverse country. the Caribbean Sea, and the southern Indian Ocean and the ocean west of Mesoamerica. The United States is highly ranked in There was insuffi cient information available seventh place, but in years to come as to assess the status of 836 species (15%) Looking at mammal diversity from a country survey efforts increase, currently less well- hence these are listed as Data Defi cient perspective (Table 8), the country with surveyed countries such as The Democratic (DD). While a number of these DD listings the highest number of mammal species Republic of the Congo may be expected to are due to taxonomic uncertaintities, in is Indonesia, with 670 species. Close overtake the United States in the rankings. many cases they are due to inadequate behind is Brazil with 648 species; China information on population size, trends, (551) and Mexico (523) are the only Geography of threatened mammal species distribution and/or threats. Most (80%) of other two countries with more than 500 The global distribution of threatened land the Data Defi cient mammals occur in the native mammal species. Four of the top and marine mammals is shown in Figure tropics and 69% are bats and rodents six countries, and seven of the top 20 13. Compared with the distribution of

Figure 12. Global diversity of mammal species. Brown shades indicate terrestrial species and blue shades marine species.

29 Wildlife in a Changing World

Number of Rank Country mammals in Southeast Asia is much higher species than they do for their species mammals than anywhere else. Most of these species diversity, with the exception of China. In 1 Indonesia 670 are threatened by over-utilization (e.g., contrast, the African and South American 2 Brazil 648 hunting) and habitat loss. countries have mostly dropped down the 3 China 551 rankings when comparing the number of 4 Mexico 523 Other regions that have a high number of threatened species with overall species 5 Peru 467 threatened species include: the Western diversity. Madagascar has risen from 6 Colombia 442 Ghats in southern India, Sri Lanka, the being outside of the top twenty countries 7 United States 440 Cameroonian Highlands in West Africa, for diversity, to being number seven in Congo, The Democratic the Albertine Rift in central Africa, parts of the rankings for the number of threatened 8 430 Republic of the Madagascar, and the tropical Andes. The species. 9 India 412 major threat to species in these regions is 10 Kenya 376 habitat loss. In Table 9 only the number of threatened 11 Argentina 374 species is given, and the number of Extinct 12 Ecuador 372 For marine mammals, concentrations of species has been excluded. This is to 13 Bolivia 363 threatened species are found in Southeast highlight those countries that currently Venezuela 363 Asia as well as the North Atlantic and North have the greatest responsibility towards Paciﬁ c. protecting globally threatened mammals. 15 Tanzania 359 16 Australia 349 The 20 countries with the highest number In Table 10 the countries with the highest 17 Malaysia 336 of threatened mammal species are listed in percentage of threatened and Extinct 18 Cameroon 335 Table 9. These countries have a particularly mammals are listed. This list of countries 19 Uganda 319 great responsibility for protecting the is very different to the list of the number of 20 Thailand 311 world’s threatened mammals. Indonesia threatened species (Table 9), as well as the

Table 8. Top twenty countries with the largest again is at the top of the list with 183 list of countries with the highest diversity of number of mammal species. species, many more than the second mammals (Table 8). country on the list, Mexico, with 100 species. Interestingly, there are now The top three countries for the highest all mammal species, there are some ten Asian countries in the top 20 list for percentage of threatened and Extinct similarities and some striking differences. threatened mammals, and these countries mammals are all islands in the southwest Most noticeably, the density of threatened all rank higher for the number of threatened Indian Ocean. Island nations dominate

Figure 13. Global distribution of threatened mammals. Red shades indicate terrestrial species and blue shades marine species.

30 State of the world’s species

The Fishing Cat Prionailurus viverrinus is an Asian species found mainly in wetland habitats. In 2008, this species moved up from Vulnerable to Endangered because of the severe decline throughout much of its range over the last ten years. Over 45% of protected wetlands in Southeast Asia are now considered threatened. In addition, clearance of coastal mangroves over the past decade has been rapid. © Mathieu Ourioux

this list, and there are actually only three Table 9. Countries with the most threatened mammal Table 10. Countries with the highest percentage of mainland countries listed in the top twenty. species. threatened (including Extinct) mammals. This is a stark reminder of the inherent Number of % threatened vulnerability of small range island endemic Rank Country Rank Country threatened & Extinct species to threatening processes. For mammals most of these species, habitat loss is 1 Mauritius 63.6 1 Indonesia 183 the most important threat, but invasive 2 Réunion 42.9 2 Mexico 100 species are also having a signifi cant impact 3 Seychelles 38.5 3 India 96 and have in some instances led to rapid 4 Vanuatu 33.3 extinctions. Not surprisingly, Indonesia, 4 Brazil 82 5 Cuba 30.8 ranked fi rst for diversity as well as the 5 China 74 number of threatened species, is still within 6 Madagascar 28.9 6 Malaysia 70 the top 20 for percentage of threatened 7 Dominican Republic 28.6 species. 7 Madagascar 62 Haiti 28.6 8 Australia 57 9 Bhutan 28.3 ABITAT PREFERENCES H Thailand 57 10 Solomon Islands 27.8 A summary of the most important habitats 10 Viet Nam 54 Faroe Islands 27.8 for mammals is shown in Figure 14. 11 Peru 53 12 Indonesia 27.5 For terrestrial mammals by far the most 12 Colombia 52 13 New Caledonia 27.3 common habitat is forest. Shrublands and Lao People’s 14 Sri Lanka 25.6 13 46 Democratic Republic grasslands are the next most favoured 15 Brunei Darussalam 25.4 natural habitats. Notably rocky areas 14 Myanmar 45 Micronesia, Federated 16 25.0 and caves are quite common habitat 15 Ecuador 43 States of preferences too, especially for bats. The 16 Papua New Guinea 41 Bahrain 25.0 least favoured habitats are those that are Cameroon 41 18 Bangladesh 24.3 arid or semi-arid. Interestingly, almost 1,500 species occur in disturbed or 18 Philippines 39 19 India 23.3 artifi cial (human created) habitats. This 19 Cambodia 37 20 Montserrat 23.1 apparent tolerance of disturbance and United States 37 adaptation to human-created habitats does Note: only countries with 10 or more species are included.

31 Wildlife in a Changing World

a b

Forest All natural inland wetlands

Shrubland Marine neritic Artiﬁ cial terrestrial habitats Marine oceanic Grassland

Savanna Marine coastal/supratidal Caves and subterranean habitats EX/CR/EN/VU Marine intertidal EX/CR/EN/VU Rocky areas NT/LC/DD NT/LC/DD

Arid and semi-arid habitats Artiﬁ cial aquatic habitats

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 Number of species Number of species

Figure 14. Habitat preferences of mammals: (a) terrestrial habitats, and (b) aquatic habitats.

not necessarily guarantee that a species species (50% threatened) affected, taxonomic groups. Of the 12,055 plants will not be threatened; even though the especially in Asia. The impact of invasive evaluated, 70% are listed as threatened impact of habitat loss may be lessened, species is probably a little underestimated (Table 1). This partially refl ects a bias some of these species are still being as only threats to extant species are amongst the botanical community to focus heavily impacted by utilization. included here, and a signifi cant proportion primarily on the threatened species, but of species now considered Extinct were there is also a tendency to not report on For aquatic species, the most common driven to extinction by invasive species. the species that have been assessed as habitat is natural wetlands (mostly inland Least Concern. The focus on threatened systems). Only 134 mammal species Plants are recorded to occur in the marine environment and unsurprisingly occur in The 2008 IUCN Red List includes Box 4. Summary of results for all the major marine habitats except for the assessments for 12,055 species of plants, mammals deep benthic zone. 8,457 of which are listed as threatened. However, as only about 4% of the • Nearly one-quarter (22%) of the world’s mammal species are known to be THREATS estimated 298,506 described plant species globally threatened or Extinct, 63% are A summary of the numbers of mammal have been assessed, it is not possible to known to not be threatened, and 15% species affected by each threatening say that based on The IUCN Red List that have insuffi cient data to determine their process is shown in Figure 15. By far 3% of the world’s fl ora is threatened. threat status. the most signifi cant threat to mammals • There are 76 mammals which have gone is habitat loss with over 2,000 species Since the plant and animal Red Lists were Extinct since 1500, two are Extinct in the (45% of which are listed as threatened) combined in the 2000 IUCN Red List Wild and 29 are ‘Possibly Extinct’. being negatively impacted. The second of Threatened SpeciesTM the number of • The most diverse country for mammals most important threat is utilization (primarily plant assessments on the Red List has is Indonesia (670), followed closely by for food or medicine), with almost 1,000 increased very slowly compared to other Brazil (648). China (551) and Mexico (523) are the only other two other countries with more than 500 species.

Figure 15. Major threats to mammals. • The country with by far the most threatened species is Indonesia (184).

All habitat loss Mexico is the only other country in triple ﬁ gures with 100 threatened species. Utilization Half of the top 20 countries for numbers Invasive species of threatened species are in Asia; for Fires example, India (96), China (74) and Human disturbance Malaysia (70). However, the highest Accidental mortality levels of threat are found in island Persecution nations, and in particular the top three Pollution are islands or island groups in the Indian CR/EN/VU Ocean: Mauritius (64 %), Réunion (43 %) Natural disasters NT/LC/DD and the Seychelles (39%). Changes in native species dynamics Disease • Habitat loss, affecting over 2,000 mammal Unknown species, is the greatest threat globally. None The second greatest threat is utilization which is affecting almost 1,000 mammal 0 500 1000 1500 2000 species, especially those in Asia. Number of species

32 State of the world’s species

Lions Panthera leo in South Africa. The population of this Vulnerable species is declining, mainly because of retaliatory or pre-emptive killing by humans to protect life and livestock from this top predator. © Troy Inman

species is clearly illustrated by the List of Threatened Trees (Oldﬁ eld et al. List (7,977 species), 5,643 of which are assessments of bryophytes (mosses, 1998). That bias has been reduced listed as threatened. liverworts and hornworts), where the slightly through the inclusion of non-tree subset of 95 species was speciﬁ cally assessments. However, the trees still form Many of the recent plant assessments chosen in order to “provide the public with 66% of the plants on the 2008 IUCN Red are now introducing a geographic bias general information as to which bryophytes are threatened with extinction” (Tan et al. 2000). The same is partly true of the assessments for ferns and fern allies (includes club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts and true ferns); in this case, the 211 species assessed (although only 1% of the species) represent a widely distributed geographic sample and so might be more representative of the threats faced by this plant group, but it would be misleading to extrapolate from these results to the whole group.

A strong bias in the plant assessments in the 2000 IUCN Red List was towards threatened tree species because of the inclusion of the 7,388 species (includes species in all categories from Data Deﬁ cient to Extinct) listed in The World

The Endangered Premnanthes amibilis is endemic to the island of Soqotra (Yemen). It has a very small range, being restricted to a very speciﬁ c part of the island where precipitation and mists are caught from monsoons. The trend for lower rainfall in the region is a particular threat to this plant. © Anthony Miller

33 Wildlife in a Changing World as they are single country or sub-country proportion of cycads that are threatened maps of diversity and distribution of endemics (e.g., Cameroon, China, is considerably higher. For the conifers, threatened species for these two groups Ecuador, Madagascar, Mauritius, Namibia, 28% are listed as threatened (21 Critically are not included here. Saint Helena, South Africa, Yemen Endangered, 54 Endangered and 97 (Soqotra), and the United States (Hawaii)). Vulnerable). For cycads, 52% are listed Examination of the countries with highest as threatened (45 Critically Endangered, diversity of conifers and highest numbers The seemingly very large ﬁ gure of 8,457 40 Endangered and 65 Vulnerable). In of threatened species reveals several threatened plant species is proportionally addition, a further 23% of cycad species conifer ‘hotspots’ (Table 11). North America very small relative to the total number are considered Near Threatened. has 98 conifer species, with a particular of described plant species worldwide concentration of threatened species in (Table 1). The proportion threatened At present the cycads are the most California (United States). Mesoamerica is even smaller if the higher estimate threatened plant group known, and are has a rich diversity of conifers (83 species), for the number of described plants is the most threatened taxonomic group on with most of the diversity and threatened used (422,127 as opposed to 298,506 the Red List. The cycads in particular are species occurring in Mexico (80 species, species; see Appendix 3). It is therefore a unique lineage of plants that survived 16 threatened). South America on the premature at this stage to attempt any the last major extinction event and many other hand is relatively species-poor detailed analysis of the plants as the low species are now facing imminent extinction with only 36 species - Guatemala has numbers assessed and the strong biases in the wild as a direct result of human the highest diversity (18 species, 5 towards trees and certain geographic activities. threatened) and Argentina the highest areas misrepresents the overall picture for number of threatened conifers (11 species, plants. For further details on the numbers GEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS IN CONIFERS 7 threatened). Oceania has the second of plants in each category, see Table 1 AND CYCADS highest number of conifers of any region and the detailed order and family results in The conifers although, in many respects, (142 species) with Australia (39 species, Appendices 5 and 7. a relictual group, are widely distributed 10 threatened) and New Caledonia (45 across the globe (Farjon and Page 1999). species, 17 threatened) being the main STATUS OF CONIFERS AND CYCADS They form the dominant elements in almost centres of richness. The main areas for Despite the low numbers of plant all of the world’s temperate rainforests, but conifer richness are in Asia, particularly the assessments and the biases in these, are most notable in the high latitude boreal mountainous regions of western China and some trends are evident. Two classes regions of Europe, Asia and North America of plants have been fully assessed, where conifer forests cover vast areas. The namely the cycads and the conifers. major gaps in distribution are large areas Table 11. Top twenty countries with the most conifer Whether these gymnosperm groups are in Africa and South America, the arid parts species and number of threatened conifers in each. representative of what is happening to of Asia and Australia, and the Arctic and Number of Antarctica. Number of plants generally is doubtful. However, Rank Country threatened conifers both are relatively ancient lineages and conifers clearly illustrate very different threats and The geographic patterns described here 1 China 130 34 trends (Figures 1, 16a and 16b). Although are the result of a preliminary analysis. The 2 United States 98 14 there is not a major difference between cycad distribution maps are not ﬁ nalized 3 Mexico 80 16 the numbers of threatened conifers and and mapping of the conifer distribution 4 Indonesia 54 6 cycads (172 and 150 respectively), the ranges has not yet started, hence global 5 New Caledonia 45 17 6 Malaysia 44 15 7 Australia 39 10 Figure 16. Red List assessment for (a) all known conifers (620 species), and (b) all known cycads (289 species). Japan 39 5 a EW NT (inc. NT, LR/nt, LR/cd) b 9 Canada 34 1 CR LC (inc. LC, LR/lc) Papua New EN DD 10 33 0 Guinea VU 54% 23% 17% 11 India 29 3 Russian 29 0 Federation 13 Viet Nam 27 13 6% Taiwan, Province 4% 14 26 10 of China 1% 3% 15 Philippines 21 5 16 Greece 20 0 9% 22% 16% 17 New Zealand 19 1 Turkey 19 0 14% 19 Guatemala 18 5 16% 14% Myanmar 18 4

34 State of the world’s species

Number Number of Rank Country of threatened cycads cycads 1 Australia 69 18 2 Mexico 44 38 3 South Africa 38 24 4 Viet Nam 25 16 5 China 20 12 6 Colombia 18 9 7 Mozambique 14 10 8 Panama 12 3 9 Swaziland 10 8 10 Guatemala 9 7 Peru 9 6 Thailand 9 5 Congo, The 13 Democratic 72 Republic of the Cuba 7 1 Indonesia 7 0 Papua New 16 60 The native range of the Vulnerable Monkey Puzzle tree Araucaria araucana is from the Coastal Cordillera of Guinea Chile to the Andes in Argentina. The wood from this conifer is very resistant, making it an attractive material Tanzania, for building construction and furniture. Populations have declined and become severely fragmented. © Peter United Republic 62 Hollingsworth of 18 India 5 2 Kenya 5 1 the neighbouring areas in Myanmar and direct exploitation through logging Philippines 5 1 India; China alone has 130 species 34 operations, particularly in the coastal Table 12. Top twenty countries with the most cycad of which are threatened. Other countries forests of the Pacifi c Rim; uncontrolled species and number of threatened cycads in each. in Asia with high conifer diversity include forest fi res and subsequent grazing of Indonesia (54 species, 6 threatened), seedlings and saplings by domestic Malaysia (44 species, 15 threatened) and animals or introduced wild animals; this volume) show that trends in extinction Japan (39 species, 5 threatened). conversion of forest ecosystems to risk are negative for birds, mammals, pasture, arable land and human habitation; amphibians and reef-building corals (Figure The distribution of cycads is much more exploitation of conifers for non-timber 17). Although successful conservation restricted and patchy than the conifers resources e.g., resin, edible seeds and interventions have improved the status with all species being confi ned to the medicines; and destruction or disturbance of some species (Box 5), many more tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world of forests by large scale mining or are moving closer towards extinction, as (Donaldson 2003). A few countries stand hydroelectric projects (Farjon and Page measured by their categories of extinction out as critical centres of cycad diversity 1999). risk on The IUCN Red List. (Table 12), notably Australia (69 species, 18 threatened), Mexico (44 species, 38 The threatened cycad species generally The groups vary in their overall level of threatened), South Africa (38 species, 24 have small and declining populations and/ threat; for example, amphibians have a threatened), Viet Nam (25 species, 16 or small ranges and are frequently targeted higher proportion of species threatened threatened) and China (20 species, 12 by collectors and/or impacted by habitat (i.e., lower RLI values) than mammals threatened). Together these fi ve countries loss and degradation. One exception is or birds. Groups also vary in their rate account for 68% of the world’s cycads. Cycas micronesica, a relatively widespread of deterioration, with the rapid declines species on islands in the Pacifi c, which is in reef-building corals since 1996 being THREATS TO CONIFERS AND CYCADS declining rapidly as a result of the spread driven primarily by the worldwide coral- The conifer and cycad assessments are of an invasive species of scale (Aulacaspis bleaching events in 1998 (Polidoro et not yet fully documented, hence a detailed sp.); infections are fatal. al. this volume, Carpenter et al. 2008). analysis of their threats is not possible. But Whereas the RLI for birds shows that it is possible to draw some generalities Are species becoming more there has been a steady and continuing about the threats. or less threatened with deterioration in the status of the world’s extinction? birds between 1988 and 2008. Over these Conifers are mostly constituents or In those taxonomic groups about which 20 years, 225 bird species have been dominants of forests, hence factors that we know most, species are sliding ever uplisted to a higher category of threat negatively infl uence forests also threaten faster towards extinction. IUCN Red List because of genuine changes in status, conifer species. These factors include: Indices (RLIs; see description in Vié et al. compared to just 32 species downlisted.

35 Wildlife in a Changing World

Figure 17. Red List Index of species survival for Mammals corals, birds, mammals and amphibians, showing 1.00 Birds Amphibians the proportion of species expected to remain extant Corals in the near future without additional conservation 0.95 action. An RLI value of 1.0 equates to all species Better being categorized as Least Concern, and hence that none are expected to go Extinct in the near future. An 0.90 RLI value of zero indicates that all species have gone Extinct. (Number of non-Data Deﬁ cient species = 0.85 9,785 birds, 4,555 mammals, 4,416 amphibians and 704 corals (warm water reef-building species only); data are preliminary for amphibians and corals). 0.80 species survival Red List index of

0.75 species (as reﬂ ected in population trend- Worse 0.70 based indicators), it has global scope 1980198519901995 2000 2005 2010 and coverage, and hence is not biased Year geographically in the way that global population trend-based indicators may be.

What are the geographic patterns in unchanged. An upward trend in the graph Species loss and human declines? line (i.e., increasing RLI values) means that health Species are deteriorating in status there is a decrease in expected future rate The 2008 IUCN Red List clearly shows that worldwide, but some regions have of species extinctions (i.e., a reduction in many species are under threat of extinction undergone steeper declines and have the rate of biodiversity loss). mainly as a direct or indirect result of human more threatened faunas (Figure 18). The activities. But why should humans be Indomalayan realm showed rapid declines While the RLI is not very sensitive to concerned about this and why should we in birds and mammals, driven by the rapid small-scale changes in the status of invest time and money on saving species? increases in the rate of deforestation during the 1990s, particularly in the Sundaic lowlands, combined for mammals with a 0.95 Afrotropical Australasian/Oceania high rates of hunting, particularly among 0.90 Indomalayan Better Nearctic medium- to large-bodied species. 0.85 Neotropical Amphibians are also highly threatened 0.80 Palearctic in the Indomalayan realm. Birds in the 0.75 Oceania realm are substantially more 0.70 species survival

threatened (with lower RLI values) than in Red List index of other realms, largely owing to the impacts 0.65

of invasive alien species. Amphibians are Worse 0.60 most threatened in the Neotropical realm, 198019851990 1995 2000 2005 Year in particular owing to chytridiomycosis. b 0.98 Afrotropical Australasian A downwards trend in the graph line (i.e., 0.96 Indomalayan decreasing RLI values) means that the Better 0.94 Nearctic Neotropical expected rate of species extinctions is 0.92 Palearctic Oceania increasing i.e. that the rate of biodiversity 0.90 loss is increasing. A horizontal graph line 0.88 0.86

(i.e., unchanging RLI values) means that species survival Red List index of 0.84 the expected rate of species extinctions is 0.82

Worse 0.80 198819921996 2000 2004 2008 Year Figure 18. Red List Index of species survival for (a) amphibians, (b) birds, and (c) mammals in different biogeographic realms, showing the proportion of c Afrotropical 0.94 species expected to remain extant in the near future Australasian/Oceania without additional conservation action. An RLI value 0.92 Indomalayan Nearctic

of 1.0 equates to all species being categorized as Better 0.90 Neotropical Least Concern, and hence that none are expected 0.88 Palearctic to go Extinct in the near future. An RLI value of zero 0.86 indicates that all species have gone Extinct. (Number of non-Data Deﬁ cient amphibian/bird/mammal 0.84 species = 395/1,706/776 Palearctic; 746/2,210/1,045 0.82 Afrotropical; 692/2,144/823 Indomalayan; 0.80 species survival 307/991/471 Nearctic; 2,187/3,972/1,335 Red List index of 0.78 Neotropical; 1,765 Australasian birds; 316 Oceania birds; totals for Australasia and Oceania are combined 0.76 Worse for amphibians/mammals = 384/692 species; data for 19941996 19982000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 amphibians are preliminary). Year

2-state worlds species.indd 36 10/07/2009 11:16:15 State of the world’s species

100 100 90 90 80 80

70 70

60 60 50 50 40 40

% of species % of species 30 30 20 20 10 10 0 0 Birds (9852) Mammals (5409) Amphibians (5708)

meds (246) CR/EN/VU Birdsmeds food and(1416) Birds not food Mammals food CR/EN/VU – used for food and/or medicine and meds (892) and meds (1195)Mammalsand meds not food (4214) and meds (5462) NT/LC Amphibians food andAmphibians not food NT/LC – used for food and/or medicine CR/EN/VU DD NT/LC a DD – used for food and/or medicine b DD

Note that for amphibians the data used is from 2004. Figure 19. Proportion of all known birds, mammals and amphibians by threat status (i.e., threatened, not threatened and Data Deﬁ cient) and used for food and medicine (a); and a comparison of threat status of species used for food and medicine against threat status for those species not used in this way (b).

For as long as humans have existed we revenues for herbal treatments in Western is diffi cult to know how many individual birds have used the species around us for our Europe reached US$ 5 billion in 2003– are used, but it is estimated that between own survival and development. Even today, 2004; in China, sales totalled US$ 14 billion half a billion and one billion songbirds are with vast numbers of people living in towns in 2005; and herbal medicine revenue in hunted each year in Europe alone, for sport and cities, seemingly far removed from Brazil was US$ 160 million in 2007 (World and food (BirdLife International 2008f). Forty- nature, we still need plants and animals Health Organization 2008). fi ve bird species are known to be used for for our food, materials, and medicines, medicinal purposes. More than a fi fth (22%) as well as for recreation and inspiration Figure 19 shows the proportions of birds, of mammals, and 4% of amphibian species for everything from the sciences to the mammals and amphibians used for food are used for food and/or medicine (Figure arts. In the developing countries, where and medicine and compares threatened and 19a). Although the proportion of amphibians wild animal and plant species can make non threatened species that are utilized in known to be utilized in this way is small, a signifi cant contribution to human diets this way against species that are not utilized. this represents 218 species used for food and healthcare, maintaining a healthy (ranging from local and national use to the biodiversity is of particular importance. Figure 19a indicates that 14% of the world’s extensive international trade in frog legs) and birds are used for food and/or medicine 75 species used for medicine. At least 212 Biodiversity for food and medicine although this is probably an underestimate. It amphibians are used for subsistence food, It is estimated that 50,000 to 70,000 plant species are used for traditional and modern medicine (Schippmann et al. 2006). These species are vital to traditional healthcare systems in less-developed countries. For example, in some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population depends on traditional medicine for primary health care (World Health Organization 2008). Medicinal plants are also increasingly recognized as effective alternative treatments in developed countries. Herbal treatments, for instance, are highly lucrative in the international marketplace. Annual

Baskets of frog skins from a market in Thailand. At least 218 amphibians are currently used for human consumption, although in some cases such use does not always represent the major threat to the species. © Peter Paul van Dijk/Conservation International

37 Wildlife in a Changing World

0.95 0.95 0.95

0.90 0.90 0.90 Better Better Better 0.85 0.85 0.85

0.80 0.80 0.80

0.75 0.75 0.75 species survival species survival species survival Red List index of Red List index of Red List index of

0.70 0.70 0.70 Worse Worse Worse 0.65 0.65 0.65 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Year Year Year All bird species All mammal species All amphibian species Birds used for food or medicine Mammals used for food or medicine Amphibians used for food or medicine a Birds not used for food or medicine b Mammals not used for food or medicine c Amphibians not used for food or medicine

Figure 20. Red List Indices showing the proportion of species expected to remain extant in the near future without additional conservation action for all species, for species used for food and/or medicine and for species not used for these purposes; broken down by (a) birds, (b) mammals, and (c) amphibians.

but the diversity of species consumed is Trends in status of biodiversity for the rate of biodiversity loss is increasing. probably under-recorded and further studies food and medicine Even a simple examination of the 223 will almost certainly reveal additional species The RLI for birds used for food and medicine species which changed status in 2008 not previously identifi ed as being used in (Figure 20a) indicates that these species for genuine reasons (i.e., become less this way (Stuart et al. 2008). Amphibians are more threatened than those that are not threatened due to conservation efforts or have long been recognized for their value utilized in this way and that the conservation become more threatened due to ongoing in traditional medicines and they are still status of these species is also deteriorating or increased threats), shows that while only collected for this purpose today. The potential at a slightly greater rate. The RLI for 40 of these were species that became value of amphibians to modern medicine mammals shows a similar pattern (Figure less threatened, 183 were listed in a higher is coming under increasing scientifi c study, 20b). In contrast to the birds and mammals, category of threat (Appendix 12). with their diverse skin secretions being of amphibians used for food and medicine particular interest (Stuart et al. 2008). appear overall to be less threatened than The 40 species that showed improved amphibians not used for these purposes conservation status in 2008 do provide a Threat status of species used for (Figure 20c). However, the conservation glimmer of hope. Conservation actions are food and medicine status of these species is declining more being taken for many species around the Figure 19b shows the proportions of rapidly than that of amphibian species not world. These range from species-specifi c threatened species within those bird, used for food and medicine. actions to broad changes in national, mammal and amphibian species that are regional or global policies. Measuring used for food and medicine. Although 12% At present, insuffi cient data are available the effi cacy of these actions in relation of all bird species are globally threatened with to produce a meaningful Red List Index to individual threatened species is just extinction (Table 1), a larger proportion (23%) (RLI) for medicinal plants; only 109 species beginning. But there are many case of those species used for food and medicine (0.7%) of medicinal plants have Red List studies which show that well-focussed and are threatened. Mammals show a similar assessments available for the years 1997 concerted species-centred actions can pattern: 21% of all species are known to be and 2008. Hence an analysis of these succeed in reducing threats and improving threatened (Table 1), but 36% of the species species is not included here. the conservation status of species and used for food and medicine are threatened. their habitats (Box 5). For amphibians, there is little difference The 2008 IUCN Red List – between the proportion of threatened Good News or Bad? Thirty-seven of the recorded improvements species within all known species (30%) (Table The overwhelming message from the in status in 2008 were for mammals, 1) and the proportion of species used for results presented in this chapter and most if not all of these the result of direct food and medicine that are threatened (28%). in other chapters in this volume is that conservation interventions. It is estimated Many of the wild species used for food and the world is losing species and that the that 16 bird species would have gone medicine are threatened, some due to over- rate of loss appears to be accelerating Extinct between 1994 and 2004 were it not exploitation, some to different pressures such in many taxonomic groups (Box 6). The for conservation programmes that tackled as habitat loss, and for others a combination number of threatened species grows with their threats, reduced rates of population of factors. Regardless of the causes, the each update of the Red List. Although decline and/or increased population sizes diminishing availability of these resources this growth is to a large degree the (Butchart et al. 2006b). In addition, during threatens the health and well-being of the result of increased taxonomic coverage, this 10-year period, 49 Critically Endangered people who depend on them directly for food the downward Red List Index trends bird species (28%) benefi ted from and medicine, and on wild collection as a calculated for those groups that have been conservation action such that they declined source of income. completely assessed clearly indicate that less severely or even improved in status.

38 State of the world’s species

Box 5. Success stories show that conservation can work, but more is needed

Over the last 20 years, a number of species have been downlisted to African Elephant has moved from Vulnerable to Near Threatened, lower categories of threat on the IUCN Red List as a consequence of although its status varies considerably across its range. Poaching successful conservation action that has mitigated threats, halted or for ivory and meat has traditionally been the major threat to the reversed declines and hence increased the population and/or range species. Across the continent, the total population is believed to size. Examples include: have suffered a decline of approximately 25% between 1979 and 2007, which falls short of the 30% threshold required for a Vulnerable In Mauritius, the Pink Pigeon and Mauritius Kestrel, Fody and Parakeet listing. It is believed that the change in status refl ects recent and have all improved in status suffi ciently to have been downlisted to ongoing population increases in major populations in southern and lower categories of threat on the IUCN Red List during recent years. East Africa, largely due to the implementation of highly successful Control of alien invasive species, habitat restoration and captive conservation efforts, and which have been of suffi cient magnitude breeding and release have been important actions behind these to outweigh the decreases that are taking place elsewhere across successes, leading to reduced threats, and reducing, halting and their vast range, especially in West and Central Africa. reversing population declines. In some cases, these interventions were only just in time: the Mauritius Kestrel was brought back from Among amphibians, conservation success stories are few, but they the brink of extinction when the population fell to just four individuals do exist. The Mallorcan Midwife Toad occurs on the Balearic Island in 1974. of Mallorca (Spain), where it is confi ned to the Serra de Tramuntana. The major threat to this species has been identifi ed as predation and In Brazil, Lear’s Macaw was until recently classifi ed as Critically competition from introduced species such as green frogs and, more Endangered owing to its population having been reduced to little signifi cantly, the Viperine Snake, a semi-aquatic serpent that preys more than 200 birds by 2001 through unsustainable exploitation for upon both tadpoles and adult toads. In 1985, at the invitation of the the cage bird trade, and habitat loss. Successful conservation actions Mallorcan government and the Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust including control of trade, nest protection and habitat management (DWCT) initiated a species recovery programme for the toad. This have now increased numbers to almost 1,000 individuals, allowing it recovery programme has proven extremely successful in reversing to be downlisted to Endangered. the decline of the toad, and the species is now listed as Vulnerable.

There are also many examples of BirdLife International. 2008b. Threatened birds A., Cortés, J., Delbeek, J.C., DeVantier, constructive policy responses, some occur in nearly all countries and territories. L., Edgar, G.J., Edwards, A.J., Fenner, D., Presented as part of the BirdLife State of the Guzmán, H.M., Hoeksema, B.W. et al. 2008. of which are beginning to address the World’s Birds website. Available from http:// One-third of reef-building corals face elevated underlying causes of threat (see Vié et al. www.biodiversityinfo.org/sowb/casestudy. extinction risk from climate change and local this volume). The analyses of threats in php?r=state&id=92. Accessed: 1st April 2009. impacts. Science 321: 560–563. this chapter, however, show that there is BirdLife International. 2008c. Threatened Chapman, A. 2006 (updated April 2007). a need to monitor threats very carefully, Birds of the World 2008. CD-ROM. BirdLife Numbers of Living Species in Australia and International, Cambridge. the World. Report for the Department of especially new emerging threats like BirdLife International. 2008d. Most threatened the Environment and Heritage, Canberra, diseases and climate change which can birds have small ranges. Presented as part of Australia. Available from: http://www. very rapidly have a marked impact. The the BirdLife State of the World’s Birds website. environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/ new emerging threats are often hard to Available from http://www.biodiversityinfo. publications/other/species-numbers/. detect and address because of several org/sowb/casestudy.php?r=state&id=91. Accessed: 15 May 2009. Accessed: 1st April 2009. Cumberlidge, N., Ng, P.K.L., Yeo, D.C.J., factors operating in synergy. BirdLife International. 2008e. Most threatened Magalhäes, C., Campos, M.R., Alvarez, birds have small populations. Presented F., Naruse, T., Daniels, S.R., Esser, L.J., It is clear that conservation actions do as part of the BirdLife State of the World’s Attipoe, F.Y.K., Clotilde-Ba, F.-L., Darwall, work; but to mitigate the extinction crisis Birds website. Available from http://www. W., McIvor, A., Baillie, J.E.M., Collen, B. and much more needs to be done, and quickly. biodiversityinfo.org/sowb/casestudy. Ram, M. 2009. Freshwater crabs and the php?r=state&id=89. Accessed: 1st April biodiversity crisis: importance, threats, status, Conservation efforts need to be focussed 2009. and conservation challenges. Biological and should make full and better use of the BirdLife International. 2008f. Nearly half of all Conservation 142(8): 1665-1673. constantly improving information provided by bird species are used directly by people. Cunningham, A.A. and Daszak, P. 2008. Essay The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™. Presented as part of the BirdLife State of the 4.5. Chytridiomycosis: driver of amphibian World’s Birds website. Available from http:// declines and extinctions. In: S.N. Stuart, M. References www.biodiversityinfo.org/sowb/casestudy. Hoffmann, J.S. Chanson, N.A. Cox, R.J. php?r=state&id=80. Accessed: 1st April Berridge, P. Ramani and B.E. Young (eds), Baillie, J. and Groombridge, B. (compilers 2009. Threatened Amphibians of the World, pp and editors). 1996. 1996 IUCN Red List Butchart, S.H.M., Stattersfi eld, A.J. and Brooks, 49–50. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain; of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, T.M. 2006a. Going or gone: defi ning ‘Possibly IUCN, Gland, Switzerland; and Conservation Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Extinct’ species to give a truer picture of International, Arlington, Virginia, USA. Baillie, J.E.M., Stuart, S.N. and Hilton-Taylor, recent extinctions. Bulletin of the British Donaldson, J. (ed.) 2003. Cycads. Status C. (eds). 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Ornithology Club. 126A: 7–24. Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/ Threatened Species. A Global Species Butchart, S.H.M., Statterfi eld, A.J. and Collar, SSC Cycad Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Assessment. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and N.J. 2006b. How many bird extinctions have Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Cambridge, UK. we prevented? Oryx 40(3): 266-278. Farjon, A. and Page, C.N. (compilers). 1999. BirdLife International. 2008a. State of the World’s Carpenter, K.E., Abrar, M., Aeby, G., Aronson, Conifers. Status Survey and Conservation Birds: indicators for our changing world. R.B., Banks, S., Bruckner, A., Chiriboga, Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Conifer Specialist BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.

39 Wildlife in a Changing World

In Brazil, Lear’s Macaw Anodorhynchus leari has moved from Critically Endangered to Endangered. Named after the English artist and poet Edward Lear, this spectacular blue parrot has increased four-fold in numbers as a result of a joint effort of many national and international non-governmental organizations, the Brazilian government and local landowners. © Andy and Gill Swash; www.worldwildlifeImages.com

Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Loh, J., Collen, B., McRae, L., Carranza, T.T., Threatened Trees. World Conservation Press, Cambridge, UK. Pamplin, F.A., Amin, R. and Baillie, J.E.M. Cambridge. Groombridge, B. and Jenkins, M.D. 2002. 2008. Living Planet Index. In: C. Hails Peeters, M., Franklin, A. and Van Goethem, J.L. World Atlas of Biodiversity. Prepared by the (ed.) Living Planet Report 2008, pp. 6–20. 2003. Biodiversity in Belgium. Royal Belgian UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. WWF International, Gland, Switzerland. Institute of Natural Resources, Brussels, University of California Press, Berkeley, USA. Downloadable from http://assets.panda.org/ Belgium. Hilton-Taylor, C. (compiler). 2000. 2000 IUCN downloads/living_planet_report_2008.pdf. Salafsky, N., Salzer, D., Stattersfi eld, A.J., Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN, Gland, Mace, G.M., Masundire, H., Baillie, J. et al. 2005. Hilton-Taylor, C., Neugarten, R., Butchart, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Biodiversity. In: R. Hassan, R. Scholes and S.H.M., Collen, B., Cox, N., Master, L.L., IUCN Standards and Petitions Working Group. N. Ash (eds), Ecosystems and Human Well- O’Connor, S. and Wilkie, D. 2008. A standard 2008. Guidelines for using the IUCN Red being: Current State and Trends, Volume 1, pp. lexicon for biodiversity conservation: unifi ed List Categories and Criteria. Version 7.0. 77–122. Findings of the Conditions and Trends classifi cations of threats and actions. Prepared by the Standards and Petitions Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Conservation Biology 22(4): 987–911. Working Group of the IUCN SSC Biodiversity Assessment. Island Press, Washington, DC. Schipper, J., Chanson, J.S., Chiozza, F., Cox, Assessment Sub-Committee in August 2008. Mace, G.M., Collar, N.J., Gaston, K.J., Hilton- N.A., Hoffmann, M., Katariya, V., Lamoreux, Downloadable from http://intranet.iucn.org/ Taylor, C., Akçakaya, H.R., Leader-Williams, J., Rodrigues, A.S.L., Stuart, S.N., Temple, webfi les/doc/SSC/RedList/RedListGuidelines. N., Milner-Gulland, E.J. and Stuart, S.N. H.J., Baillie, J.E.M., Boitani, L., Lacher, T.E., pdf. 2008. Quantifi cation of extinction risk: IUCN’s Jr., Mittermeier, R.A., Smith, A.T. et al. 2008. Koenig, R. 2006. The pink death: die-offs of the system for classifying threatened species. The status of the world’s land and marine Lesser Flamingo raise concern. Science 313: Conservation Biology 22(6): 1424–1442. mammals: diversity, threat and knowledge. 1724–1725. May, R.M. 1992. How many species inhabit the Science 322(5899): 225–230. Kottelat, M. and Freyhof, J. 2007. Handbook of earth? Scientifi c American 267(4): 42–48. Schippmann, U., Leaman, D. and Cunningham, European Freshwater Fishes. Kottelat, Cyrnol, Oldfi eld, S., Lusty, C. and MacKinven, A. A.B. 2006. Cultivation and wild collection Switzerland and Freyhof, Berlin, Germany. (compilers). 1998. The World List of of medicinal and aromatic plants under

40 State of the world’s species

Box 6. Key messages

• Not all species groups are equally threatened, but the proportion • The RLI shows that species are deteriorating in status in all of species threatened is substantial in all groups that have been biogeographic realms and ecosystems across the world; comprehensively assessed so far; • For birds, declines have been particularly steep in the Indomalayan • Habitat loss (resulting in particular from agriculture, logging and and Oceania realms, and in the marine ecosystem; residential and commercial development) remains the primary • Among mammals, declines have also been most steep in the threat to most species, with over-exploitation and the impact of Indomalayan realm, as a result of the combined effects of hunting invasive alien species being additional signifi cant threats; and habitat loss; • Assessing the conservation status of the most species-rich and • Amphibians are most threatened, and have deteriorated fastest, less well-known groups remains a signifi cant challenge, but new in the Neotropical realm, in particular owing to chytridiomycosis; approaches are improving our understanding of the status, trends terrestrial amphibians are more threatened than freshwater species; and threats to biodiversity; • Maintaining biodiversity is important to maintain a healthy human • The Red List Index (RLI) shows that all species groups assessed to population as many thousands of species are used by societies all date are deteriorating in status: more species are slipping towards around the world for food and medicine; extinction than are improving in status as a result of successful conservation action; • The bird, mammal and amphibian species used by humans for food and medicine are all showing declining trends in their conservation • The fastest rate of decline of the groups measured so far is seen in status similar to or higher than for species that are not used. The the reef-building corals; loss of these and other food and medicinal species could have a • For those groups with longer term data, the declines started to be signifi cant impact on human health in some parts of the world; documented over 20-30 years ago; • Human use of plants and animals is not always the main threat to • The RLI shows that at a global scale the 2010 Target has not the species used; habitat loss and degradation or combinations been met for the species groups we know most about: the risk of of factors are often the drivers pushing these species towards biodiversity loss is increasing rather than decreasing; extinction.

sustainability aspects. In: R.J. Bogers, L.E. Craker and D. Lange (eds), Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: Agricultural, Commercial, Ecological, Legal, Pharmacological and Social Aspects, pp. 75–95. Wageningen, The Netherlands, Springer, Dordrecht. Stuart, S.N., Hoffmann, M., Chanson, J.S., Cox, N.A., Berridge, R.J., Ramani, P. and Young, B.E. (eds). 2008. Threatened Amphibians of the World. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain; IUCN, Gland, Switzerland; and Conservation International, Arlington, Virginia, USA. Tan, B., Geissler, P., Hallingbäck, T. and Söderström, L. 2000. The 2000 IUCN World Red List of Bryophytes. In: T. Hallingbäck and N. Hodgetts (compilers), Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for Bryophytes, pp. 77–90. IUCN/SSC Bryophyte Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Walter, K.S. and Gillett, H. (eds) 1998. 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened Plants. Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. World Health Organization. 2008. Traditional medicine. Fact sheet No. 134. Revised December 2008. Available from: http://www. who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/ print.html. Accessed: 3rd April 2009.

The Black-and-White Ruffed Lemur Varecia variegata from Madagascar is Critically Endangered because of habitat destruction and over-hunting; it is one of the more expensive and desired meats. © Jean- Christophe Vié

Freshwater biodiversity: a hidden resource under threat

William R.T. Darwall, Kevin G. Smith, David Allen, Mary B. Seddon, Gordon McGregor Reid, Viola Clausnitzer and Vincent J. Kalkman

Biodiversity in hot water species but also enable the storage billion per year (Neiland and Béné 2008). While freshwater habitats cover less than and provision of clean water for human The goods and services provided by the 1% of the world’s surface (Gleick 1996), use. They also provide many important world’s wetlands are valued at $70 billion they provide a home for 7% (126,000 goods and services ranging from food per year (Schuyt and Brander 2004) - a species) of the estimated 1.8 million and building materials, to water fi ltration, fi gure equivalent to the GDP of some described species (Balian et al. 2008), fl ood and erosion control, and are a critical countries ranked within the top third of the including a quarter of the estimated 60,000 resource for the livelihoods of many of the world’s economies (World Bank 2008). vertebrates. world’s poorest communities (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). For The high value and importance of Freshwater ecosystems not only provide example, tropical rivers and inland fi sheries freshwater ecosystems is often overlooked habitat for the survival of their component have been valued globally at US $5.58 such that wetlands are frequently

Harvesting of gastropod snails, Cambodia. © Kong Kim Sreng

43 Wildlife in a Changing World

Box 1: Pro-poor conservation in wetlands

IUCN has produced a toolkit (Springate-Baginski et al. 2009) that will within the proposed exclusion zones. The project’s results are already assist in wetland conservation and development decision-making. It helping to shape the management plan for the Stung Treng Ramsar provides an assessment approach that ensures the links between Site, supporting pro-poor wetland conservation and sustainable biodiversity, economics and livelihoods are captured, with a particular use of the site’s resources to the benefi t of both local livelihoods focus on strengthening pro-poor approaches to wetland management. and biodiversity. In the Rufi ji, the assessment has provided a village community with vital information on the full value of their wetland The toolkit was developed through integrated assessments in resources, informing the development of their Village Environmental Cambodia’s Stung Treng Ramsar Site and on the Rufi ji fl oodplain in Management Plan. Tanzania. These wetlands are vital for the food security and nutrition of local communities. In the case of Stung Treng, previous biodiversity The toolkit is targeted at providing policy-relevant information on assessments had proposed total exclusion zones within the protected individual wetland sites. Integrated assessments present the strongest area, where fi shing and other activities of local communities would be case for conserving wetlands and allow local people to defend their banned. The integrated assessment found that local communities, livelihoods from developers. They can also act as an early warning including migrant settlers, the landless and those depending on fi sh system, highlighting areas of potential confl ict between conservation to provide daily nutrition, relied heavily on the natural resources from and livelihoods.

considered as ‘wastelands’ ripe for simply through lack of conservation over The long-term survival of many wetland- conversion to alternative uses. As a result, the last 50 to 100 years. dependant species is therefore becoming many wetlands have been drained and more precarious as wetlands are converted for ostensibly more ‘proﬁ table’ Globally, rapidly increasing human increasingly exploited for human use. With uses; 60% of Europe’s wetlands have populations are putting ever-greater the number of people living in water-scarce already been lost (UNEP/DEWA 2004) pressure on the goods and services or water-stressed conditions projected to through conversion to alternative use or supplied by freshwater ecosystems. rise from 745 million in 2005 to 3.2 billion by 2025 (Population Action International 2006), it is therefore no surprise that global development objectives are ﬁ rmly focused on the world’s freshwater supply crisis. For example, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) include targets for halving the number of people without access to clean drinking water and sanitation by 2015. However, if we are not careful, the stage could be set for large-scale impacts to freshwater biodiversity. In order to avoid and mitigate major impacts to freshwater species and ecosystems, information on the status, distribution and value of freshwater biodiversity is urgently needed to inform the development planning process.

Data on freshwater species often exist, especially for the more developed catchment areas, but they are frequently widely dispersed in unpublished literature, and are hence effectively inaccessible, particularly in places where the greatest increase in development is taking place. Such data need to be easily and freely accessible, with species distributions available in a digital format, to enable a full understanding of the impact of developments on freshwater systems.

Girl selling ﬁ sh at Stung Treng market, Cambodia. © William Darwall

44 Freshwater biodiversity: a hidden resource under threat

Aponogeton distachyos. An edible aquatic plant native to the Western Cape in South Africa where it is used to prepare a local dish. It is listed as Least Concern. © Craig Hilton-Taylor

The information also needs to be These groups were chosen because groups, the information collated provides more comprehensive (i.e., cover more they represent a wide range of trophic a useful indication of the overall status taxonomic groups), reliable, robust and levels and are amongst the better-known of the associated wetland ecosystems. regularly updated. Without access to this species within freshwater ecosystems. Data on other species groups already information, development projects will not The biodiversity assessments collate assessed through this process, for be able to mitigate or avoid actions that and make available information on each example freshwater-dependent mammals, may have major negative impacts upon species’ taxonomy, ecology, distribution, amphibians and birds, are also used to wetland biodiversity and the predominantly conservation status (according to The provide an increasingly informative picture poor communities dependant on wetland IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria), on the status of freshwater species. resources. use, and value to peoples’ livelihoods. Given the wide range of ecological roles A regional approach (e.g., focussing Filling the information gap encompassed within these fi ve taxonomic on eastern Africa or Europe) has been IUCN is working with a number of partner organisations to fi ll the information gap on freshwater species by providing relevant data in a format suitable for use within development and conservation planning processes. This is being accomplished through conducting assessments of all known species within the following priority groups; freshwater fi shes, freshwater molluscs, dragonfl ies and damselfl ies, crabs and selected aquatic plant families. Complete Ongoing Partially assessed Not assessed Figure 1. The state of progress in completion of comprehensive regional assessments of the worlds’ freshwater fi sh species. Source: IUCN

45 Wildlife in a Changing World

Figure 2. Species richness of freshwater ﬁ shes in Europe.

An estimated 2,000 of these species are currently in the assessment process and should be included in the 2009 Red List. The species still to be assessed are not evenly distributed worldwide, with major gaps including the two regions with the greatest freshwater fi sh species diversity, namely Asia and South America (Lévêque et al. 2008). These regions include some of the major river systems of the world, many of which are subject to substantial modifi cations (e.g. dam construction and canalization) both in place and planned. Species from many of the world’s most extensive and species-rich wetland systems such as the Pantanal, the Mesopotamian marshes, the fl oodplain marshes of the Brahamaputra, and the Mekong Delta are yet to be assessed.

Results The information collated through comprehensive regional assessments, where every described species from a taxonomic group within a region is assessed, has enabled identifi cation adopted. This approach provides a (IUCN 2004), and the Mediterranean basin of those river or lake basins (the logical comprehensive picture of the status (Smith and Darwall 2006) have now been management units for freshwater systems) of freshwater biodiversity in the region assessed. Assessments for freshwater containing the highest levels of species concerned and enables IUCN to meet species in North America, Mexico, Indo- richness, threatened species, restricted the information needs of regional bodies Burma and South Asia are now underway. range species, migratory species and/ in the near term. At the same time the Progress is also being made on the global or species important to the livelihoods of work continues towards completion of the dragonfl y assessment with over 40% of local communities. This information can longer term goal of globally comprehensive the 5,680 dragonfl ies now assessed, be used to help prioritize conservation assessments for each species group. and projects to assess all species of efforts and to inform the development IUCN has so far completed freshwater Europe and parts of Asia are underway. A planning process such that impacts regional assessments for eastern Africa particular strong point in the progress of of development might be minimized or (Darwall et al. 2005) and southern Africa the dragonfl y assessment is the ongoing (Darwall et al. 2009), and ongoing development of a number of large species assessments for the rest of Africa are to be distribution databases storing species point Figure 3. The cumulative total of freshwater species (fi shes, odonates, molluscs, crabs, plants) on The completed in 2009. locality data in particular for Africa, Europe, IUCN Red List over the period 2000 - 2008. Australia and large parts of Asia. Global assessments for each taxonomic group are ongoing and have been IUCN and Conservation International completed for the amphibians (6,267 have recently joined forces to assess the species; http://www.iucnredlist.org/ estimated 27,394 freshwater species amphibians) and freshwater crabs (all 1,281 included in the fi ve species groups species; Collen et al. this volume). Figure mentioned above (Chambers et al. 2008; 1 shows the progress towards achieving a Bogan 2008; Strong et al. 2008; Yeo et al. global assessment of all freshwater fi shes; 2008; Kalkman et al. 2008; Lévêque et al. in addition to the regional assessments 2008). Of these, only 6,000 species have conducted for Africa, all known species so far been assessed on a global scale in Europe (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007; and included in The 2008 IUCN Red List Figure 2), Mongolia (Ocock et al. 2006), of Threatened SpeciesTM (Figure 3), leaving the endemic species of Madagascar over 21,000 species still to be assessed.

46 Freshwater biodiversity: a hidden resource under threat

Figure 4. Distribution patterns of species richness for freshwater fi shes, molluscs, Figure 5. Distribution patterns of regionally threatened species for freshwater odonates (dragonfl ies and damselfl ies) and crabs across eastern and southern fi shes, molluscs, odonates (dragonfl ies and damselfl ies) and crabs across eastern Africa. and southern Africa.

mitigated, and development of critical status for these taxa in eastern and in southern Africa, with 21% of species sites for biodiversity may be avoided. southern Africa respectively. In terms Critically Endangered, Endangered The results from two of the regional of the numbers of species threatened, or Vulnerable in comparison to 8%, assessments are presented to, in brief, freshwater biodiversity is more than respectively. Within taxonomic groups demonstrate the outputs and potential twice as threatened in eastern Africa as there are also regional variations with, for value of this approach.

Eastern and southern Africa Figure 6. Proportion of freshwater fi shes, molluscs, Figure 7. Proportion of freshwater fi shes, molluscs, The assessments completed for eastern odonates (dragonfl ies and damselfl ies) and crabs odonates (dragonfl ies and damselfl ies) and crabs within southern Africa in each Red List Category. within eastern Africa in each Red List Category. A and southern Africa have identifi ed Lakes A total of 8% of species are assessed as regionally total of 21% of species are assessed as regionally Malawi and Tanganyika, and the headwaters threatened. threatened. of the Zambezi river, as containing exceptionally high numbers of freshwater species (Figure 4), whereas Lakes Malawi and Victoria, the lower Malagarasi drainage, Kilombero valley and the Western Cape in South Africa, contain some of the highest numbers of threatened freshwater species (Figure 5).

Where all species of fi sh, molluscs, dragonfl ies, damselfl ies and crabs have been assessed across a region, the overall level of threat to freshwater EX = Extinct, EW = Extinct in the Wild, Threatened = all Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable biodiversity can be better determined. species; NT/LC = Near Threatened and/or Least Concern; DD = Data Defi cient. Figures 6 and 7 show the Red List

47 Wildlife in a Changing World

Figure 8. Proportion of freshwater ﬁ sh species by threat category in each of the regions assessed comprehensively. Only species assessed since 2000 which are endemic to each region are included in the analysis.

Regional variation in threats to freshwater fi shes Madagascar In Madagascar, the two most signifi cant threats to freshwater fi shes are sedimentation, which impacts over 60% of threatened species; and invasive alien species, which impact just under 45% of threatened species. Sedimentation results from the high degree of deforestation and regular burning of grasses on the ‘pseudo-steppe’ (Benstead et al. 2003). Alien invasive fi sh species are prevalent throughout Madagascar with at least 24 non-native freshwater fi sh species example, 23% of all molluscs threatened threats can be identifi ed. Of the regions introduced, mostly tilapiine cichlids, as part and 28% Data Defi cient in eastern Africa assessed so far the Mediterranean and of an ill-conceived plan to replace depleted and only 8% threatened and 31% Data Malagasy endemic freshwater fi shes are native species fi sheries which had declined Defi cient in southern Africa. shown to have the highest proportions of largely as a result of overfi shing (Benstead globally threatened species with more than et al. 2003). Identifying threats to 50% of species threatened in each case, freshwater biodiversity across and southern Africa to have the lowest Eastern Africa the globe proportion with 17% of species threatened In eastern Africa, overharvesting of fi shes Freshwater biodiversity is being threatened (Figure 8). for food is the primary threat, impacting by a number of key impacts including 60% of threatened fi sh species; with water overexploitation, water pollution, fl ow The types of threat acting upon species pollution, mainly in the form of increased modifi cation including water abstraction, can also be analysed (Figure 9) and used sedimentation, affecting just over 40% of destruction or degradation of habitat, and to inform conservation and development threatened species. These fi gures refl ect invasive alien species (Dudgeon et al. planners. In the example of freshwater the reported overexploitation of fi sheries in 2006; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment fi sh, the threats indentifi ed in each region a number of areas within the region (West 2005). Compounding these threats are the largely refl ect the nature and scale of past 2001; UNEP-DEWA 2006). Increasing predicted global impacts of climate change and present development activities, as sedimentation of river and lake systems leading to temperature changes and summarized below for each region. is largely a result of deforestation to make shifts in precipitation and runoff patterns (Dudgeon et al. 2006).

Knowledge of current and predicted threats to species and areas they depend upon is vital to informing conservation action, policy development and the development planning process. The biodiversity assessment process allows for the major threats to species within regions to be identiﬁ ed and mapped.

Using freshwater ﬁ shes as an example, being one of the most widely assessed of the freshwater species groups, the level, nature, and distribution of major

Figure 9. A regional breakdown of the major threats to freshwater ﬁ shes, which have led to species being assessed as threatened according to the IUCN Red List Criteria.

48 Freshwater biodiversity: a hidden resource under threat way for expanding agriculture and as a Southern Africa Mediterranean countries predicted to be supply of fuel wood or charcoal. As an In southern Africa, invasive alien species in ‘water scarcity’ conditions by 2025 example, in Lake Tanganyika increased are the greatest current threat to freshwater (UNECA 1999). sedimentation has led to loss of rocky fi shes, impacting nearly 85% of threatened substrates along the lakeshore that species. Many native species in the Europe provide important habitat for many of the Western Cape, Mpumalanga and the As Europe and the Mediterranean partially endemic cichlid fi shes (Gilbert 2003). Upper Zambesi have been affected by overlap it is no surprise that threats to Invasive alien species are also a major introduced alien fi shes including bass freshwater fi shes in Europe are similar to threat throughout the region in particular Micropterus spp., Sharptooth Catfi sh those in the Mediterranean. The greatest to many of the cichlid species endemic Clarias gariepinus, Bluegill Sunfi sh Lepomis threats in Europe are water pollution, to Lake Victoria where a number of alien macrochirus and tilapia species Tilapia and invasive species and water extraction species, and in particular Nile Perch Lates Oreochromis spp. (Tweddle et al. 2009). which impact 66%, 55% and 55% of niloticus, have been introduced to support Water pollution, primarily from agricultural threatened freshwater fi sh species, fi sheries. These species introductions have sources, is increasing in southern Africa respectively. There are currently 28 signifi cantly changed the native species (UNEP-DEWA 2006) and has become established alien freshwater fi sh species composition of the lake with many species a major threat to more than 60% of in Europe (Kottelat and Freyhof 2007). reported as possibly extinct (Achieng threatened species. The good news, however, is that better 2006). The popularity within aquarium trade waste water treatment, and changes in of many of the cichlid species in Lakes Mediterranean agricultural and industrial practices are Malawi, Tanganyika and Victoria has also Increasing human population combined leading to improvements in water quality resulted in possible overharvesting and with signifi cant levels of tourism and in some parts of the region – hopefully inadvertent impacts from fi sh translocations agricultural intensifi cation has led to high leading to improvements in the status of within the lakes, which again threaten levels of water extraction and pollution associated freshwater species. many species. With more than 20% of throughout the region, which is impacting threatened fi sh species in eastern Africa over 80% of the threatened freshwater Threats to freshwater reported to be impacted by the aquarium fi shes. Drought, already a major threat molluscs trade, either now or predicted, this issue impacting more than 75% of threatened The freshwater molluscs include a high is signifi cantly more important here than in fi shes (Smith and Darwall 2006) is proportion of range-restricted species, any other region assessed to date. expected to increase in severity, with many such as river rapid specialists and

Dense algal mats impacting freshwater biodiversity, ﬁ shing and transport in the Stung Treng Ramsar site in the Mekong, Cambodia – possibly a result of upstream run-off of agro-chemicals. © Alvin Lopez

49 Wildlife in a Changing World

Deepcheek Bream Sargochromis greenwoodi. This species is widespread and fairly common in the Okavango Delta, though rare elsewhere in the Upper Zambezi system. It is listed as Least Concern. © Roger Bills

size and associated loss of mollusc habitat over the last 40 years.

Regional pattern of threats for dragonfl ies and damselfl ies As part of an effort to expand the taxonomic coverage of The IUCN Red List, 1,500 species of dragonfl ies and damselfl ies were assessed through a sampled approach (Collen et al. this volume). This is about one quarter of the known dragonfl ies and damselfl ies spring snails. The river rapid specialists in regions such as Australia, North and so provides a good insight into require highly oxygenated clean water, America and Europe this group is the status and trends of this freshwater and in Africa and South America a disproportionately highly threatened. The group. About one in ten species was number of species are already listed as springs where these species are found found to be threatened, a relatively Extinct, Extinct in the Wild or Critically are typically exploited as water sources, low number compared to some other Endangered. The recent review of their with an emphasis on cleaning the point groups. The centres of species richness status in western Africa and central of water abstraction through actions are the Neotropical and Indo-Malayan Africa (work in progress) has shown that such as concreting over habitats. Other regions which support around two thirds conditions have not improved and their threats include over-abstraction of the of all known species. The main areas habitats are typically targeted for dam groundwaters that feed these artesian of threatened species are in the Indo- construction, with water pollution from spring sources. Malayan and Australian regions. The high mining and increased sedimentation being proportion of threatened species in the secondary threats. Climate change and desertifi cation are Indo-Malayan area is mainly accounted increasingly recognized as important future for by the high number of restricted-range The spring snail group (family threats to water sources of range restricted species in the Indonesian and Philippine Hydrobiidae) is highly diverse with over species on the edge of drylands and archipelagos which are threatened by 1,200 species in the family, representing deserts. For example, the western African large-scale logging of lowland forest. In around 25% of all freshwater molluscs. regional assessment shows that mollusc Australia the main threat is climate change, Currently the Red List has 283 of these species restricted to Lake Chad are all which is already resulting in the loss or species listed (182 threatened), and threatened due to the rapid decline in lake degradation of freshwater ecosystems.

Box 2: Freshwater biodiversity Specialist Groups of the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC)

The following three Specialist Groups have been heavily involved in the used in building the species assessments biodiversity assessments reported on in this Chapter. for The IUCN Red List. The FFSG’s biggest challenge is the development of The Dragonfl y Specialist Group (DSG) a practical global strategy for freshwater The DSG is an active network of experts from over the world who all fi sh conservation in the face of increasing bring together their own regional networks. The group focuses on species extinction and rapidly declining fi sheries worldwide. Since collating information on the 5,700 known damselfl ies and dragonfl ies. May 2008, the FFSG has been producing bi-monthly newsletters and The DSG is currently active in building distribution databases in order to is in the process of developing a dedicated new website to increase facilitate biodiversity assessments and conservation planning. Species communications and the capacity building potential of the group. distribution databases have been developed for Africa, Europe, Australia and large parts of Asia with projects for America underway. Other The Mollusc Specialist Group (MSG) priorities of the group include production of fi eld guides and training The current focus of MSG at present is on fi eldworkers in particular in the tropics. assessment of species status and making information on the success of conservation The Freshwater Fish Specialist Group (FFSG) breeding programmes accessible to others. The FFSG was re-established in 2004. It includes a number of Regional Over the past 10 years the Group has completed 3,000 species Co-ordinators and several Special Advisors. Regional Co-ordinators assessments from the freshwater, terrestrial and marine biomes. The each work with their own expert networks to provide the information MSG newsletter Tentacle is published annually.

50 Freshwater biodiversity: a hidden resource under threat

Global threat to freshwater crabs All species of freshwater crabs have been globally assessed as part of the effort to increase the species diversity of The IUCN Red List; 16% of the species are threatened (Collen et al. this volume).

Key Messages • Freshwater biodiversity is extremely threatened. Findings from the comprehensive assessments undertaken to date show freshwater biodiversity to be highly threatened, possibly more so than species in other systems. This is largely a result of: i) the high degree of connectivity within freshwater systems such that threats like pollution and invasive alien species spread more rapidly and easily than in terrestrial ecosystems, and ii) the Etheria eliptica. An Endangered bivalve mollusc restricted to river rapids which is regionally threatened in rapidly increasing use and development southern Africa due to dam construction. © Daniel Graf and Kevin Cummings of water resources with little regard to the requirements of the freshwater dependant species sharing the functions provided by many freshwater • Protected areas must be better designed resource. species yet this is rarely recognized. A to protect freshwater species. Existing single freshwater bivalve may fi lter more protected areas are rarely designed to • Public awareness of the threat to than seven litres of water a day – without protect freshwater species. Even where freshwater species needs to be keystone species such as these, the species are identifi ed by species driven raised. The level of threat to freshwater quality of water in river systems would legislation, without catchment based biodiversity is extremely high, yet public most likely decline. planning that extends the designated awareness of this situation remains control areas to the edge of the river woefully low. Freshwater species are • Freshwater species are important catchment, impacts such as from water largely unseen by the general public, to peoples’ livelihoods. The value pollution and invasive alien species are not often considered as charismatic, of freshwater species to peoples’ will inevitably lead to species decline. and their values to people not well livelihoods, which is extremely high in Protected areas for freshwater species recognized. Conservation of freshwater many countries, is not fully appreciated must be designed to employ the species needs to be treated on a par and is not often considered when principles of catchment protection. with other more visible and charismatic decisions are taken on the potential species groups, such as birds and development of wetland resources • Support for in-situ conservation actions. large mammals. Freshwater species for alternative uses. We need to The collection of new data is essential need to be treated as being worthy collate and make available the for our increased understanding of conservation in their own right, not relevant information to demonstrate and monitoring of processes taking simply as exploitable resources for these values as a key part of future place within ecosystems, however human consumption. For example, in biodiversity assessments. Europe fi shes are primarily managed as agricultural resources and in many parts • Management of water resources must Afrithelphusa monodosa. An Endangered freshwater of the world molluscs are managed as take account of the requirements of crab which is restricted to a very small area of Guinea where it is threatened by habitat loss and fi sheries resources, not as species of freshwater biodiversity. If we are to degradation. © Poitr Nastrecki conservation signifi cance – this is in conserve and continue to benefi t from stark contrast to the treatment of birds the services provided by freshwater and mammals. species we need to manage water resources as a resource for both • Freshwater species provide important people and freshwater biodiversity. This ecosystem services. Awareness of approach is encapsulated within the the ecosystem services provided by Environmental Flows concept, which freshwater biodiversity needs to be aims to ensure that there is enough raised. For example, the production of water to maintain environmental, clean drinking water depends on the economic and social benefi ts.

51 Wildlife in a Changing World

Box 3: Protected areas for freshwater biodiversity

The majority of protected areas, with the exception of Ramsar Sites, are designed for protection of terrestrial fauna often viewing rivers and lakes as useful park boundaries rather than as targets for inclusion and protection in their own right. For example, an analysis of eastern African freshwater ﬁ shes showed that only 1.7% of threatened species were completely included within a protected area, more than half were not included within any protected area, and for those that were partially included, on average only 13.7% of each species distribution range was included (Darwall et al. 2005).

Freshwater systems are unique in their high levels of connectivity and ability to transport threats rapidly and widely. This means that a freshwater species within a protected area could very easily be threatened by impacts that take place some distance away from and outside the protected area boundary. A protected area boundary will not stop the spread of threats such as pollution, invasive species, sedimentation, and altered ﬂ ow regimes. If protected areas are to provide Candidate Key effective protection to freshwater species they need to be designed Biodiversity Areas speciﬁ cally to protect upper catchments and to include entire wetland Southern Africa systems within their boundaries. region boundary

This major gap in protection of freshwater biodiversity combined with the Source: IUCN need to manage and protect freshwater systems at the basin scale led Figure 10. Candidate freshwater Key Biodiversity Areas for southern Africa IUCN to develop a method for identifying important sites of freshwater (Darwall et al. in prep.). Analysis is based on selection of level 6 river basins as biodiversity (Darwall and Vié 2005) that falls under the umbrella Key derived by the Hydro1 K dataset (USGS EROS). Biodiversity Area (KBA) approach. The criteria used are largely based on the framework of vulnerability and irreplaceability widely used in systematic conservation planning (Langhammer et al. 2007). Of course for effective and potential for rapid spread of external threats as mentioned above. conservation of biodiversity within these sites, management will need to Using this approach IUCN has identiﬁ ed candidate KBAs for southern be at the broader catchment scale to take account of the connectivity Africa’s freshwater biodiversity (Figure 10, Darwall et al. 2009).

Benstead, J.P., De Rham, P.H., Gattoliat, J.- assessments alone do not conserve due to lack of taxonomic expertise to L., Gibon, F.-M., Loiselle, P.V., Sartori, M., species. Increased support of in-situ formally describe new species, and Sparks, J.S. and Stiassny, M.L.J. 2003. conservation initiatives capable of lack of spatial information on species Conserving Madagascar’s freshwater addressing immediate known problems distributions. This situation appears biodiversity. Bioscience 53(11): 1101-1111. is needed. Furthermore, support to be getting worse as the number of Bogan, A.E. 2008. Global diversity of freshwater mussels (Mollusca, Bivalvia) in freshwater. should be given to in-situ conservation qualifi ed taxonomists decreases and as Hydrobiologia 595: 139-147. education programmes which increase opportunities for fi eld survey become Chambers, P.A., Lacoul, P., Murphy, K.J. awareness of the problems among less frequent. For example, the provision and Thomaz, S.M. 2008. Global diversity the local community, highlight potential of new location records for dragonfl ies of aquatic macrophytes in freshwater. ramifi cations for the future, build support has declined dramatically over the last Hydrobiologia 595: 9-26. Darwall, W., Smith, K. and Vié, J.-C. 2005. and identify and develop practical 20 years. With an estimated 35% of The Status and Distribution of Freshwater solutions. the world’s dragonfl ies assessed being Biodiversity in Eastern Africa. IUCN, Gland, classifi ed as Data Defi cient, there is Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. • Environmental Impact Assessments currently little opportunity for of obtaining Darwall, W. and Vié, J.-C. 2005. Identifying (EIAs) need to take better account of better information on these species. important sites for conservation of freshwater biodiversity: extending the species-based impacts to freshwater species. EIA An increase in fi eld survey combined approach. Fisheries Management and guidelines and legislation should aim to with taxonomic training for local experts, Ecology 12: 287–293. highlight potential impacts to freshwater and the publication of fi eld guides are Darwall, W.R.T., Smith, K.G. and Tweddle, D. species. EIA specialists should be recommended. (eds.). 2009. The Status and Distribution of encouraged to consult the information Freshwater Biodiversity in Southern Africa. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. being collated through the biodiversity References Dudgeon, D., Arthington, A.H., Gessner, M.O., Achieng, A.P. 2006. The impact of the assessments conducted by IUCN, its Kawabata, Z.I., Knowler, D.J., Lévêque, C., introduction of Nile perch, Lates niloticus (L.) partners and others. Naiman, R.J., Prieur-Richard, A.-H., Soto, on the fi sheries of Lake Victoria. Journal of D., Stiassny, M.L.J. and Sullivan, C.A. 2006. Fish Biology 37: 17-23. Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, • The lack of existing information for many Balian, E.V., Segers, H., Lévêque, C. and status and conservation challenges. Biological freshwater species needs to be rectifi ed. Martens, K. 2008. The freshwater animal Review 81: 163-182. diversity assessment: an overview of the A signifi cant proportion of freshwater Gilbert, D. 2003. Impact of sediment pollution results. Hydrobiologia 595: 627-637. species remain Data Defi cient, in particular on the littoral zone of Lake Tanganyika: A

52 Freshwater biodiversity: a hidden resource under threat

case study of two cichlid fi sh, Petrochromis Studies and Reviews 1836, 290 pp. The of Freshwater Biodiversity in Southern Africa. polyodon and Tropheus brichardi. The Nyanza WorldFish Center, Penang, Malaysia. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Project, 2003 Annual Report. University of Ocock, J., Baasanjav, G., Baillie, J.E.M., UNECA. 1999. Freshwater stress and scarcity Arizona, pp. 97-104. Chimendsen, O., Erbenebat, M., Kottelat, in Africa by 2025. United Nations Economic Gleick, P.H. 1996. Water resources. In: S.H. M., Mendsaikhan, B. and Smith, K. 2006. Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa; Global Schneider (ed.) Encyclopaedia of Climate Mongolian Red List of Fishes. Regional Red Environment Outlook (GEO) 2000, UNEO, and Weather, pp. 817-823. Oxford University List Series Vol. 3. Zoological Society of Earthscan, London, 1999, Population Action Press, New York, USA. London, London. International. IUCN. 2004. Red List assessment of Population Action International. 2006. People UNEP-DEWA. 2004. Freshwater in Europe. Madagascar’s freshwater fi shes. IUCN, in the Balance - Population and Natural Facts fi gures and maps. Division of Early Gland, Switzerland. Resources at the Turn of the Millennium. Warning and Assessment (DEWA), United Kalkman, V.J., Clausnitzer, V., Dijkstra, K.- Update 2006. Available at: http://www. Nations Environment Programme, Geneva. D.B., Orr, A.G., Paulson, D.R. and van populationaction.org/Publications/Reports/ UNEP-DEWA. 2006. Africa Environment Outlook Tol, J. 2008. Global diversity of dragonfl ies People_in_the_Balance/Summary.shtml. 2. Division of Early Warning and Assessment (Odonata) in freshwater. Hydrobiologia 595: Schuyt, K. and Brander, L. 2004. Living Waters (DEWA), United Nations Environment 351-363. Conserving the source of life. The economic Programme. Available at: http://www. Kottelat, M. and Freyhof, J. 2007. Handbook of value of the world’s wetlands. WWF, Gland, unep.org/dewa/Africa/publications/AEO-2/ European Freshwater Fishes. Kottelat, Cornol, Switzerland. content/001.htm. Switzerland and Freyhof, Berlin, Germany. Smith, K.G. and Darwall, W.R.T. (compilers). U.S. Geological Survey’s Center for Earth Langhammer, P.F., Bakarr, M.I., Bennun, L.A., 2006. The Status and Distribution Resources Observation and Science Brooks, T.M., Clay, R.P., Darwall, W., Silva, of Freshwater Fish Endemic to the (USGS EROS) HYDRO1k Elevation N. de., Edgar, G.J., Eken, G., Fishpool, Mediterranean Basin. IUCN Red List of Derivative Database. Available at: http:// L.D.C., Fonseca, G.A.B. da, Foster, M.N., Threatened Species – Mediterranean edc.usgs.gov/products/elevation/gtopo30/ Knox, D.H., Matiku, P., Radford, E.A.. Regional Assessment No.1. IUCN, Gland, hydro. Salaman, P., Sechrest, W. and Tordoff, A.W. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. West, K. 2001. Lake Tanganyika: results and 2007. Identifi cation and Gap Analysis of Key Springate-Baginski, O., Allen, D. and Darwall, experiences of the UNDP/GEF Conservation Biodiversity Areas: Targets for Comprehensive W.R.T. (eds.). 2009. An Integrated Wetland Initiative (RAF/92/G32) in Burundi, D.R. Protected Area Systems. IUCN, Gland, Assessment Toolkit: A guide to good practice. Congo, Tanzania, and Zambia. Lake Switzerland. IUCN, Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland. Tanganyika Biodiversity Project. UNDP, Lévêque, C., Oberdorff, T., Paugy, D., Stiassny, Strong, E.E., Gargominy, O., Ponder, W.F. UNOPS, GEF. M.L.J. and Tedesco, P.A. 2008. Global and Bouchet, P. 2008. Global diversity World Bank. 2008. Gross domestic product diversity of fi sh (Pisces) in freshwater. of gastropods (Gastropoda, Mollusca) in 2007. World Development Indicators Hydrobiologia 595: 545-567. freshwater. Hydrobiologia 595: 149-166. database. World Bank. Available at: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. 2005. Tweddle D., Bills, R., Swartz, E., Coetzer, W., http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Da Costa, L., Engelbrecht, J., Cambray, J., DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf. Wetlands and Water Synthesis. World Marshall, B., Impson, D., Skelton, P., Darwall, Yeo, D.C.J., Ng, P.K.L., Cumberlidge, N., Resources Institute, Washington, DC. W.R.T. and Smith, K.G. 2009. Chapter 3. Magalhaes, C., Daniels, S.R. and Campos, Neiland, A.E. and C. Béné (eds.). 2008. Tropical The status and distribution of freshwater M.R. 2008. Global diversity of crabs river fi sheries valuation: background papers fi shes. In: W.R.T. Darwall, K.G. Smith and D. (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura) in to a global synthesis. The WorldFish Center Tweddle (eds.). The Status and Distribution freshwater. Hydrobiologia 595: 275-286.

Common Hippos Hippopotamus amphibius are found in many countries throughout sub-Saharan Africa. Recent estimates suggested that over the past 10 years there has been a 7–20% decline of their numbers due to illegal or unregulated hunting for meat and ivory, mainly in areas of civil unrest. This species is listed as Vulnerable. © Jean-Christophe Vié

Status of the world’s marine species

Beth A. Polidoro, Suzanne R. Livingstone, Kent E. Carpenter, Brian Hutchinson, Roderic B. Mast, Nicolas J. Pilcher, Yvonne Sadovy de Mitcheson and Sarah V. Valenti

Introduction their probability of extinction lagged far against the IUCN Red List Categories and The oceans are home to a large behind that of the terrestrial realm; out Criteria. As of 2008, six major groups of percentage of Earth’s biodiversity, of more than 41,500 plants and animals marine species have been completed, and occupying 70 percent of its surface and, currently assessed under the IUCN Red include all the world’s known species of when volume is considered, an even larger List Criteria, only approximately 1,500 were sharks and rays, groupers, reef-building percentage of habitable space. The oceans marine species. In many regions around corals, seabirds, marine mammals, and drive weather, shape planetary chemistry, the world, biodiversity conservation in the marine turtles (Figure 1). generate 70 percent of atmospheric seas is currently taking place without the oxygen, absorb most of the planet’s carbon essential species-specifi c data needed Sharks and their relatives dioxide, and are the ultimate reservoir to inform robust and comprehensive Of the 1,045 species of sharks and for replenishment of fresh water to land conservation actions. their relatives (class Chondrichthyes), a through cloud formation. Trouble for the high proportion (47%) are listed as Data oceans means trouble for humankind. Protection of our rapidly declining ocean ecosystems and species is one of the In recent years, there has been growing greatest challenges we face as stewards concern in the scientifi c community that a of our planet. In 2006, IUCN, Conservation Figure 1. Summary of 2008 Red List Categories for completed clades of marine species. Number of broad range of marine species could be International and Old Dominion University species assessed in each group in parentheses. under threat of extinction and that marine joined forces to address this gap % of biodiversity is experiencing potentially and initiated an ambitious project (the species irreversible loss due to over-fi shing, climate Global Marine Species Assessment) to 100% change, invasive species and coastal complete IUCN Red List assessments development (Dulvy et al. 2003; Roberts for a greatly expanded number of marine 80% and Hawkins 1999). Governmental and species. It is planned to complete Red public interest in marine conservation is List assessments for over 20,000 marine increasing, but the information needed to species by 2012. A great deal of progress 60% guide marine conservation planning and has already been made, and approximately policy is seriously defi cient. The IUCN 1,500 marine species have been added Red List of Threatened Species™ is the to the 2008 Red List, including all of the 40% most commonly used global dataset world’s known species of sharks and rays, for identifying the types of threat, and groupers, and reef-building corals. These 20% the levels of extinction risk to marine groups were completed in collaboration species (Hoffmann et al. 2008; Rodrigues with a number of Red List Partners et al. 2006). It forms the foundation including the IUCN SSC Shark Specialist 0% for determining and validating marine Group, the IUCN SSC Grouper and ds als m

oupers Corals(845) elatives r (161) (349) am conservation priorities, for example Wrasse Specialist Group, the IUCN SSC Seabir (7) G

(134) arine turtles M through the planning and management Marine Turtle Specialist Group. (1045) arine m of protected area systems designed to M Sharks and r reduce extinction risk in the sea (Edgar Results EX LC et al. 2008). However, as of 2007, the For the ﬁ rst time, every species in selected CR/EN/VU DD NT number of marine species assessed for taxonomic groups is being assessed

55 Wildlife in a Changing World

species, such as bony fi shes, crustaceans and squid. The life history characteristics of these species demand a precautionary approach to their exploitation; however, the lack of adequate shark fi sheries management remains an over-whelming problem, exacerbated by largely unreported catches. Historically fi sheries managers have given sharks low priority, but they are now receiving increasing international attention with growing concerns over the sustainability of shark fi sheries.

Some species are affected by a combination of all these factors. For example, all seven species of sawfi sh (family Pristidae) are listed as Critically Endangered. These large unusual rays (sometimes in excess of 7 m long) are slow-growing, and populations are often isolated, with little migration between areas. They have long fl attened snouts (or saws) edged with tooth-like serrations. This saw makes them extremely susceptible to bycatch in almost any fi shing gear and they are also targeted for their very high value saws and fi ns. The 22 species of angel sharks (Squatina spp.) face similar threats and are among the most threatened families of sharks. Of the species of angel sharks with suffi cient data for assessment, 80% are threatened and 20% are Critically Endangered.

Endemic sharks and rays with restricted habitats and geographic distributions Millions of sharks are caught each year for their fi ns, which are used to make the Asian delicacy shark fi n soup. also feature prominently among those © John Nightingale most threatened. The endemic Brazilian Guitarfi sh Rhinobatos horkelii, Maltese Skate Leucoraja melitensis and Harrison’s Defi cient compared to the fi ve other late, produce few young and have low rates Dogfi sh Centrophorus harrissoni are all marine groups shown. As many sharks of population increase, making them highly listed as Critically Endangered. All have and rays are deep-water pelagic species, vulnerable to depletion with a low capacity undergone signifi cant population declines they are harder to study in the wild, and for recovery from over-exploitation. Shark as a result of bycatch and target fi sheries. less is known about their ecology and fi sheries have proliferated around the world Although unsustainable exploitation population status, including the impact during recent decades, in response to appears to be the greatest threat to most of known and potentially unknown major increasing demand for shark products and sharks globally, endemic species with threats. Approximately 17% of shark and as traditional fi sheries come under stronger specifi c habitat preferences are also ray species are in threatened categories management. Millions of sharks are caught threatened by localized habitat degradation (Critically Endangered, Endangered, and each year for their fi ns which are used to and destruction. For example, several Vulnerable), and 13% are considered Near make the Asian delicacy shark fi n soup. inshore stingrays endemic to areas of Threatened and may reach the thresholds Sharks are being increasingly targeted for Southeast Asia are being impacted by for a threatened category in the near future this purpose. Mortality from accidental catch large-scale degradation and removal of if current threats are not reduced. (or ‘bycatch’) in fi sheries targeting other mangroves, acting in combination with species is just as much of a threat, if not threats from fi sheries activities. Much of what is currently known about more so, for many species. Populations of sharks and rays comes from their capture intrinsically threatened sharks can be driven Many wide-ranging oceanic species are also in nets from both targeted and accidental to collapse un-noticed, whilst fi sheries threatened. Both the Short-fi n Mako Isurus catch, which is the primary threat to this continue to be supported economically oxyrinchus and the Long-fi n Mako Isurus species group. Sharks grow slowly, mature by more productive and plentiful target paucus, as well as the 3 species of thresher

56 Status of the world’s marine species sharks (Alopias spp.) and the Porbeagle Shark Lamna nasus are all classifi ed as Vulnerable, with some subpopulations of these species at even greater risk. Oceanic sharks are taken in large numbers in international waters. It is clear that wide- ranging, highly migratory sharks need international precautionary collaborative management, but very few countries have set catch limits for sharks and there are none in place on the High Seas. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations has urged countries and regional fi shing bodies to develop and adopt Shark Management Plans, but only few have done so to date. The adoption of fi nning bans by fi shing states, regional bodies and fi sheries organizations is accelerating, which should increasingly prevent the fi shing of sharks for their fi ns alone, but further coordinated measures are needed. A major obstacle The wide-ranging Short-fi n Mako Isurus oxyrinchus is listed as Vulnerable. © Jeremy Stafford-Deitsch to the formulation and implementation of management measures is the lack of data on a large proportion of species. Catches are largely unreported in many areas and results from this fi rst complete assessment Groupers improved monitoring systems are needed. for the IUCN Red List, which can be used Groupers (family Serranidae) are found in to inform decision makers; and secondly by rocky and coral reefs of the tropics and The IUCN/SSC Shark Specialist Group continuing to advise on the development sub-tropics around the world, and are also will continue to raise awareness about the and implementation of Shark Plans and subject to threats from over-exploitation plight of sharks and promote their effective the application of conservation instruments from fi shing, especially for the live fi sh trade, management at national, regional and such as the Convention on Migratory given their high commercial value. According international levels. This will be done fi rstly, Species (CMS) and the Convention on to the Food and Agriculture Organization, through the wide dissemination of the Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). about 250 thousand tonnes of groupers are

The Square-tailed Coral Grouper Plectropomus areolatus is listed as Vulnerable. It is heavily targeted for the live reef ﬁ sh food trade. © J.E. Randall

57 Wildlife in a Changing World

Southern Elephant Seal pup Mirounga leonina. The species is listed as Least Concern, as many populations are considered to be stable. However, the effects of climate change and the development of new ﬁ sheries could have a signiﬁ cant impact on their populations in the future. © Jean-Christophe Vié

harvested annually, with 80% from Asia. In Completion and updating of all 161 grouper species on multiple life history phases, from 1996, when the fi rst Red List assessments Red List assessments has been ongoing small juveniles to adults. For example, in were conducted on commercially important since then, and was fi nalized in February Southeast Asia juveniles are sometimes the marine fi shes, the groupers emerged as 2007 at a workshop organized and held in major fi shery target, as they are taken at a particularly vulnerable group of fi shes. Hong Kong by the IUCN SSC Grouper and sub-market size and grown-out in captivity Wrasse Specialist Group. (a practice often referred to as mariculture) until they reach a larger market size. As for At least 12.4% of the world’s 161 grouper other marine fi shes, the most susceptible 35% species are now listed in threatened groupers to these threats are generally categories (Critically Endangered, the longest-lived and largest species. 17% Endangered, or Vulnerable), another In some cases, little is known about the 14% are Near Threatened, and 30% are species biology or impact of fi shing on its considered to be Data Defi cient. Given population, including several species of <1% their long life span, with some species considerable economic importance that are 3% living up to 40 years, and late sexual traded for the live seafood restaurant trade maturation combined with specializations in Southeast Asia and are widely sourced such as adult sex change (‘protogyny’) in the Indian and Pacifi c Oceans. As a and aggregation-spawning, groupers consequence, many populations are likely 21% are very vulnerable to fi shing pressure to be biologically over-fi shed, some of them 24% and over-exploitation. In particular, major very seriously, and several of these species threats from over-fi shing include targeting are also considered to be threatened with of spawning aggregations and uncontrolled extinction unless action is taken. CR fi shing throughout the entire range of the EN The Square-tailed Coral Grouper VU Plectropomus areolatus, along with such NT Figure 2. Summary of 2008 Red List Categories for relatives as the Camoufl age Grouper LC all 845 species of reef-building corals. Including Data Defi cient species, approximately 27% of species are Epinephelus polyphekadion, are examples DD in threatened Categories, primarily due to climate of Indo-Pacifi c groupers that form part of change and anthropogenic impacts. the live reef food fi sh trade (LRFFT) and

58 Status of the world’s marine species are taken in massive numbers from their populations of many preferred groupers are landings of Caribbean islands, is now spawning aggregations and maintained alive limited and already beginning to show the considered Endangered. Living for several during shipment to Hong Kong, the global strain in some areas, with several species in decades and taking about fi ve years to trade centre for live marine fi sh. The demand the trade now listed in threatened categories become sexually mature and spawning for live fi sh for the luxury restaurant trade in or as Near Threatened. in aggregations, this species has proven China is massive and expected to grow in biologically unable to withstand decades tandem with increasing wealth in the region. In the tropical western Atlantic, the Nassau of heavy and uncontrolled fi shing and is As much as 20% of groupers landed globally Grouper Epinephelus striatus, once the severely reduced throughout most of its are destined for the LRFFT. However, the most important of all groupers in the range. Regional discussions are now being

Figure 3. The Indo-Malay-Philippine Archipelago or the “Coral Triangle” region has the highest coral species richness (a) and proportion of species in threatened categories (b).

59 Wildlife in a Changing World

The loss of coral reef ecosystems will have devastating effects on a wide spectrum of marine species, as well as for people and nations that depend on reef resources for their livelihoods and economic security. © Jerker Tamelander

conducted to seek proper protection of the be highlighted, as many grouper species are in the family Acroporidae, which species and to introduce much-needed are highly mobile as adults and all have a is characterized by species with high monitoring and management measures. widely dispersive pelagic larval phase. susceptibility to bleaching and disease. More than anything, a greater awareness is Primary threats to these reef-building needed on the plight of this species. Corals corals are increased frequency and The world’s known 845 species of reef- duration of bleaching and disease events The objectives of the IUCN SSC Grouper building zooxanthellate corals (order that have been linked to the increase in and Wrasse Specialist Group’s work, Scleractinia plus the families Helioporidae, sea temperatures, a symptom of global after determining the conservation status Tubiporidae, and Milleporidae) have also climate change. The impacts of these of each grouper species, is to focus on been assessed for the fi rst time (Carpenter oceanographic environmental changes those species that are most threatened, et al. 2008).These reef-building corals are are also compounded by anthropogenic address major threatening factors, fi ll gaps essential habitat for many species of fi sh threats including coastal development, in information and raise awareness of the and invertebrates making them the most coral extraction, sedimentation and problems these species face. In addition biologically diverse ecosystems in the pollution. A further sinister threat to to Red List assessments, ongoing projects ocean. More than one-quarter of these corals is ocean acidifi cation as a result of provide support and information to enable corals (27%) have been listed in threatened increasing levels of atmospheric carbon spawning aggregations to be managed categories, representing an elevated risk of dioxide. This is reducing ocean carbonate and considered in protected marine area extinction (Figure 2). Over 20% of species ion concentrations and the ability of corals planning, and seek sustainable practices are listed as Near Threatened, and are to build skeletons. in the LRFFT and grouper mariculture in expected to join a threatened category in Southeast Asia. The need for regional as the near future. Although approximately Globally, the Indo-Malay-Philippine opposed to national-level management and 17% of reef-building corals are listed as Archipelago or the “Coral Triangle” has the conservation initiatives for groupers should Data Defi cient, more than half of these highest number of species in threatened

60 Status of the world’s marine species

Magellanic Penguins Spheniscus magellanicus at Punta Tumbo (Argentina). This colony has decreased by nearly 30% since 1987. The species is globally listed as Near Threatened. © Jean-Christophe Vié

categories. This region is also known as Marine mammals management, and intensive hunting both the epicenter of marine biodiversity, and Marine mammals represent a diverse historically and in place today. The Polar has the highest coral species richness group of species and include whales, Bear Ursus maritimus currently listed as (Figure 3). Coral reefs in the Caribbean dolphins, porpoises (order Cetartiodactyla), Vulnerable, is primarily threatened by region have been impacted by recent, seals (family Phocidae), Sea Otter (family the accelerated loss of habitat and food rapid population declines of two key Mustelidae), Polar Bear (family Ursidae), resources that have been associated with species: Staghorn Coral Acropora Walrus (family Odobenidae), manatees and climate change as large tracts of ice within cervicornis and Elkhorn Coral Acropora the Dugong (order Sirenia). Almost 35% of the Arctic zone are rapidly disappearing. palmata, both of which have been listed marine mammal species are listed as Data Two marine mammals have gone extinct in as Critically Endangered. Although they Defi cient, most of which are Cetaceans the past 50 years, the Japanese Sea Lion have been impacted by localized warming that are mainly known from individuals Zalophus japonicus, and the Caribbean events, coastal development, and other that have been stranded on beaches, or Monk Seal Monachus tropicalis, both human activities, coral reefs in the South have been captured in fi shing nets. One- primarily due to intensive persecution. and Eastern Pacifi c have lower numbers quarter of marine mammal species are of threatened species, but have relatively in threatened categories. Major threats Seabirds higher levels of endemism in some areas to these species include entanglement With less than 1% of species listed as Data such as the Hawaiian Islands. In any in fi shing gear, directed harvesting, the Defi cient, seabirds (class Aves) are one of region, the potential loss of these coral effects of noise pollution from military the best known groups of marine species. ecosystems will have huge cascading and seismic sonar, and boat strikes. In However, almost one-third of these species effects for reef-dependent species, and many regions, marine mammals are also (27.5%) are threatened, and four species on the large number of people and nations threatened by water pollution, habitat loss have gone Extinct in the past 500 years. that depend on coral reef resources for from coastal development, loss of prey or Major threats to seabirds include mortality economic and food security. other food sources due to poor fi sheries in long-line fi sheries and gill-nets, oil spills,

61 The Sulawesi Coelacanth Latimeria menadoensis: A Living Fossil

A new addition to the 2008 Red List is the Sulawesi Coelacanth Latimeria menadoensis. Coelacanths are considered to be “living fossils,” as they were thought to be extinct since the end of the Cretaceous period, until a specimen was found off the coast of South Africa in 1938. The Sulawesi Coelacanth was ﬁ rst recorded in 1997 when it was captured off the coast of Manado, Indonesia in the Sulawesi Sea. It is a relative of the Critically Endangered African Coelacanth Latimeria chalumnae which occurs in the Indian Ocean, and is known from Grand Comoro and Anjouan islands, the coast of South Africa, Madagascar, and Mozambique. Although the two Coelacanths from the two regions are outwardly identical, genetics show that they are actually separate species. The Sulawesi Coelacanth is only currently known from three locations and a small number of specimens, the most recent being caught in May 2007. Although the population status and trends of this species is unknown, it is believed to be a naturally small population. The Coelacanth in both regions live in caves and rocky slopes between 150 and 200 meters deep, is rarely captured, and very difﬁ cult to observe in its natural habitat.

Not much is speciﬁ cally known about the biology and ecology of the Sulawesi Coelacanth, but what is known suggests that its life history traits are similar to the African coelacanth. Coelacanths are at high risk for extinction when subjected to threats because they are slow- growing and late to mature, and long-lived. They also typically produce a small number of eggs The Sulawesi Coelacanth lives in deep-water caves and rocky slopes, and is only known from a few locations along the northern Sulawesi coast, Indonesia. at one time. The Sulawesi Coelacanth that was caught in May 2007 in Bunaken National Marine Park was a pregnant female and had a number of large, orange-sized eggs. These large eggs Although the Sulawesi Coelacanth is poorly snapper. The Coelacanth is also sought are thought to hatch within the oviduct before known, it is listed as Vulnerable given its life after for large aquarium display, although no the female gives birth to live young. Scientists history, predicted small population size, and specimen has ever been successfully kept in Indonesia, France and Japan are currently susceptibility to several threats, including alive for this purpose. The African Coelacanth conducting research to better understand their capture as bycatch in deep shark nets, and by assessment is in need of updating due to new reproductive biology. hook and line ﬁ sheries that target deepwater information since the last assessment made in 2000.

As awareness of the Sulawesi Coelacanth is increasing, more information is being collected about these mysterious fi sh. Now that the fi shermen know that these fi sh are unique, there is a better chance of a catch being reported, and specimens being kept for further investigation. Better reporting may also give more insight into the size of the population, and the effects that bycatch may be having on the population of the Sulawesi Coelacanth. This Coelacanth is currently protected locally by Indonesian fi shing regulations, and also internationally by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES Appendix I).

The Sulawesi Coelacanth Latimeria menadoensis is considered a “living fossil,” and has recently been added to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as Vulnerable. © Mark Erdmann

62 Status of the world’s marine species

The Critically Endangered Balearic Shearwater Pufﬁ nus mauretanicus only breeds in the Balearic Islands, Spain where it is threatened by predation by introduced cats and rats, incidental capture in long-line ﬁ sheries, loss of habitat from urbanization and coastal development, and water pollution. © Ben Lascelles / BirdLife

refl ect improved data and new thinking on how to apply the IUCN Red List Criteria most effectively. An Assessment Steering Committee (ASC) was established in 2006 to take on an ambitious plan for completing this mandate. Since the birth of the ASC, two species have been re-assessed. A status of Vulnerable for the Olive Ridley Lepidochelys olivacea has been approved at the end of a long process that included responding to a 2006 petition against the former Endangered listing. The assessment for the Hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata was approved in May, 2008 with a status of and the impact of invasive alien species in the past to apply the criteria. Threats to Critically Endangered. A draft assessment (in particular predation by rodents and marine turtles occur at all stages of their for the currently Data Defi cient Flatback cats) at the breeding colonies. Additional life cycle. Marine turtles lay their eggs on Natator depressus is currently under review threats to breeding sites of seabirds are beaches, which are subject to threats such by the ASC, and will be included on the habitat loss and degradation from coastal as coastal development and sand mining. 2009 Red List. Updated assessments for development, logging and pollution. In The eggs and hatchlings are threatened the Loggerhead Caretta caretta, currently many cases, seabirds are subjected to by pollution and predation by introduced listed as Endangered, the Leatherback a number of these different threats at the predators such as pigs and dogs, and eggs Dermochelys coriacea, currently listed as same time. The Critically Endangered are collected by humans for food in many Critically Endangered, and the Kemp’s Balearic Shearwater Puffi nus mauretanicus parts of the world. Once at sea, marine Ridley Lepidochelys kempii, currently listed for example, only breeds in the Balearic turtles are faced with threats from targeted as Critically Endangered, are forthcoming. Islands, Spain, where it is threatened by capture in small-scale subsistence fi sheries, The Green Turtle Chelonia mydas predation by introduced cats and rats, bycatch largely by long-line and trawling assessment of Endangered was accepted incidental capture in long-line fi sheries, loss activities, entanglement in marine debris, and by the IUCN in 2004, and will be up for of habitat from urbanization and coastal boat strikes. Their life history characteristics review again in 2009. development, and water pollution from of being long-lived, late to mature and with a high hydrocarbon and mercury levels in long juvenile stage, combined with the many nearby areas. Albatrosses belong to one of threats from human activities in the sea and the most threatened families of birds with on land that affect at all stages of their life 200 86% (19 species) facing extinction. Among cycle are among the reasons for their high these, the Tristan Albatross Diomedea risk of extinction. In addition, global climate dabbenena was uplisted to Critically change is now considered to be a serious, if 150 Endangered in 2008 owing to its extremely not entirely understood threat. small breeding range and a projected population decline. Modeled population Given their long generation times, global 100 declines of at least 80% over three distributions, and the paucity of long-term generations (70 years) are a consequence data, assessing the risk of extinction for

Number of species of very low adult survival owing to incidental marine turtle species is challenging. In mortality in longline fi sheries, compounded light of these complexities, the IUCN SSC 50 by low fl edging success caused by Marine Turtle Specialist Group has pledged predation of chicks by introduced mice. to complete global assessments for every species as one of its principle outcomes, 0 Fish Molluscs Seaweeds Echinoderms Marine turtles and to renew them every fi ve years to (204) (99) (75) (1) As of 2008, six of the seven species of marine turtle (Order Testudines) are listed EX CR/EN/VU in threatened categories. Only the Flatback Figure 4. Summary of 2008 Red List Categories for NT Natator depressus is currently listed as Data uncompleted clades of marine species. Number of LC DD Defi cient, as there has been insuffi cient data species assessed in each group in parentheses.

63 Wildlife in a Changing World

Short-beaked Common Dolphins Delphinus delphis around the island of Kalamos, in western Greece. These animals used to be abundant until the mid 1990s. Prey depletion caused by overﬁ shing resulted in a decline from 150 to only 15 animals in ten years. The species is globally listed as Least Concern but Endangered at the Mediterranean level. © Giovanni Bearzi / Tethys Research Institute

Members of the IUCN SSC Marine Turtle Key Messages for monitoring the impact of threats to Specialist Group are also discussing the • The preservation and protection of our the ocean’s health and survival. It is potential for regional-scale assessments, as ocean resources, not only for the marine only in the last 20 years that scientists has been done with other taxonomic groups species they contain, but also for the have begun to worry seriously about like sharks, and have recently completed food, products, and ecosystem services the effects that human activities have regional assessments for Mediterranean that they provide for billions of people on the marine realm, and they are and Hawaiian Islands turtles. The IUCN around the globe needs to become an discovering that the loss of biodiversity SSC Marine Turtle Specialist Group also urgent priority. Many of the threats listed in the oceans is taking place at a similar continues to pioneer new methods for for marine species are overlapping. rate to that of terrestrial areas. Climate fi ner scale conservation priority setting for The development of sustainable change, in fact, may prove to have a marine turtles through regular meetings fi sheries, including the elimination of more serious affect on marine species that since 2003 have generated a number harmful fi shing or harvesting practices, than those on land. of useful priority setting tools including the the enforcement of current fi shery Hazards List of the anthropogenic pressures regulations, and implementation of • The conservation status of the vast that prevent marine turtle recovery; a Top improved fi shery technology, are majority of marine species has not yet Ten List of most threatened marine turtle essential for reducing the extinction been investigated on a global scale. populations worldwide; and a list of the risks for marine species. Similarly, more Other than the completed groups Unsolved Mysteries of Marine Turtles or attention needs to be aimed at reducing described here, there are fewer than 400 great unknowns that answers to which pollution and destructive development other marine species that have been will vastly improve the ability to conserve of coastal areas. The need to slow assessed for The IUCN Red List (Figure marine turtles. The IUCN SSC Marine or reverse global climate change is 4). Of these, approximately 200 are Turtle Specialist Group is also a founding becoming more important to protect marine fi shes, 100 are marine molluscs, member of the State of the World’s Marine our planet’s resources and quality of and 75 are seaweeds. Only one species Turtles Initiative (SWOT), a network of global- life, not only for the survival of the plants of echinoderm, the edible European Sea scale date providers that is perfecting a and animals living in the ocean, but for Urchin Echinus esculentus has been mechanism for collecting, managing and those that live on land or in freshwater assessed, although in many parts of the disseminating information on marine turtle as well. The continued assessment of world there have been huge declines in abundance and conservation status. the status of marine species is essential population for commercially important

64 Status of the world’s marine species

Dulvy, N.K., Sadovy, Y. and Reynolds, J.D. echinoderms such as sea cucumbers mangroves, seagrasses and certain 2003. Extinction and vulnerability in marine and sea urchins. The marine species seaweeds. The conservation status of populations. Fish and Fisheries 4: 25-64. that have been assessed so far are species in several important invertebrate Edgar, G.J., Banks, S., Bensted-Smith, R., very unlikely to be representative of the groups such as gastropod molluscs, Calvopiña, M., Chiriboga, A., Garske, L.E., overall risk of extinction in the marine bivalve molluscs and echinoderms Henderson, S., Miller, K.A. and Salazar, S. 2008. Conservation of threatened species environment, as they have not been (such as starfi shes, sea urchins and in the Galapagos Marine Reserve through done in any systematic way. Completing sea cucumbers) will also be assessed. identifi cation and protection of marine Key entire groups of species gives a much It is the largest effort to compile marine Biodiversity Areas. Aquatic Conservation: clearer view of the status of marine species threat data ever attempted, Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems doi: species. and will provide essential information for 10.1002/aqc. Hoffmann, M., Brooks, T.M., da Fonseca, the protection and conservation of the G.A.B., Gascon, C., Hawkins, A.F.A., James, • To address the marine gap on the world’s vital marine resources. R.E., Langhammer, P., Mittermeier, R.A., Red List, plans to compile data on Pilgrim, J.D., Rodrigues, A.S.L. and Silva, geographic distributions, ecology, References J.M.C. 2008. Conservation planning and population numbers and trends, and Carpenter, K.E., Abrar, M., Aeby, G., Aronson, the IUCN Red List. Endangered Species Research doi: 10.3354/esr00087. threats for the world’s marine species are R.B., Banks, S., Bruckner, A., Chiriboga, A., Cortés, J., Delbeek, J.C., DeVantier, Roberts, C.M. and Hawkins, J.P. 1999. well underway. Priority groups include L., Edgar, G.J., Edwards, A.J., Fenner, D., Extinction risk in the sea. Trends in Ecology all marine vertebrates (approximately Guzmán, H.M., Hoeksema, B.W. et al. 2008. and Evolution 14: 241-246. 15,000 marine fi shes and reptiles), as One-third of reef-building corals face elevated Rodrigues, A.S.L., Pilgrim, J.D., Lamoreux, J.F., well as important habitat-forming primary extinction risk from climate change and local Hoffmann, M. and Brooks, T.M. 2006. The value of the IUCN Red List for conservation. producers such as the remaining corals, impacts. Science 321: 560-563. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 21: 71-76.

Newly hatched Leatherback Turtles Dermochelys coriacea that survive predation and pollution on their way to the sea will then face a myriad of other threats, including capture in ﬁ sheries, entanglement in marine debris, and boat strikes. The Leatherback Turtle is listed as Critically Endangered. © Suzanne Livingstone

Broadening the coverage of biodiversity assessments

Ben Collen, Mala Ram, Nadia Dewhurst, Viola Clausnitzer, Vincent J. Kalkman, Neil Cumberlidge and Jonathan E.M. Baillie

While species coverage in The IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM has increased in number each year since the inception of the Red Data Book in the 1960s, assessments have in general been restricted to the better known taxonomic groups. The number of described species still lags a long way behind the estimated global total species richness; even describing biodiversity remains a signifi cant challenge, and so defi ning its status is larger still (Hilton-Taylor et al. this volume; Vié et al. this volume). However, a new initiative is being employed to broaden the taxonomic coverage of The IUCN Red List in order to better represent biodiversity, provide increased data coverage, enable a better understanding of biodiversity status, and to identify key regions and taxa that require greater conservation attention. Importantly, this will supply a The Usambara Eyelash Viper Atheris ceratophora (Vulnerable) pictured here eating a frog (Afrixalus sp.) gets its name from the Usambara Mountains, part of the Eastern Arc range where it is found in Tanzania. This species broader range of species groups whose is threatened by high rates of deforestation and habitat degradation due to agriculture and increasing human conservation status can be tracked over population, which is occurring throughout the Eastern Arc range. © Michele Menegon time. This will enhance the accuracy of key indicators of biodiversity change, and improve the breadth of information provided to inform key targets like Convention on organisms, a comprehensive survey of than others (Baillie et al. 2004, Purvis et al. Biological Diversity 2010 target and the UN extinction risk for the whole group is not 2000). Determining the reasons for these Millennium Development Goals. feasible. To illustrate the problem, consider differences is one of the key actions needed the estimated 298,506 plant species of for proactive conservation. As a fi rst step, A broader view of biodiversity which roughly 85% have been described increased coverage of baseline data is The conservation status of about 2.7% of but of those around 4% have had their required for The IUCN Red List. A truly global the world’s described biodiversity is currently conservation status assessed (Hilton-Taylor picture of biodiversity requires coverage of all known. Clearly this limits understanding of et al. this volume). Producing conservation major taxonomic groups. We can no longer the impact of humans on biodiversity, and assessments for the remaining 96% within afford to base conservation decisions on a with it the ability to make informed decisions a reasonable timeframe is not possible. restricted and non-representative subset of on conservation planning and action. One of However, the need for a broader view of species. the major challenges for The IUCN Red List the status of biodiversity is urgent. It has is assessing the larger groups that represent become increasingly clear that taxa differ A new approach has been developed the majority of the world’s biodiversity. With in the relative level of threat they face, with (Baillie et al. 2008) that takes a large random these larger groups of less well-known certain groups at higher risk of extinction sample of species groups – just as when

67 Wildlife in a Changing World

Figure 1. Groups being assessed using the sampled approach and comprehensively. Biodiversity 1 = Comprehensive assessment complete; 2 = Comprehensive assessment underway; 3 = Sample of Freshwater ﬁ sh complete, marine ﬁ sh underway; 4 = sampled approach group. Blue are phase 1 groups (2007-2009), orange are phase 2 groups (2008-2010). Vertebrates Invertebrates Plants

Mammals1 Butterfl ies4 Monocotyledons4 Defi cient categories are threatened with extinction (Figure 2a). The exact threat Birds1 Cephalopods2 Gymnosperms2 level is unknown, as the status of 2,601 Reptiles2 Crayfi sh & Lobsters2 Data Defi cient species is undetermined, Amphibians1 Dragonfl ies4 but ranges between 21% (assuming no 2,3 4 Fish Dung Beetles Data Defi cient species threatened) and 1 Freshwater Crabs 32% (assuming all Data Defi cient species Freshwater Molluscs4 threatened). Reef-building Corals1 Terrestrial vertebrates play a key role in the provisioning of many ecosystem services. Terrestrial ecosystems supply humans with forecasting election results, a poll of voters us to better evaluate human impact on raw materials, food and support livelihoods, is taken. Using a random sample of 1,500 biodiversity. Previously, the true proportion so their healthy function is of great species from a group, this approach allows of threatened species amongst the under- importance. Terrestrial vertebrates face for the identifi cation of the general level studied vertebrate classes (reptiles and fi sh) several major threats that must be tackled of threat to each group, the mapping of has only been partially known. Combining in order to maintain terrestrial systems. The areas likely to contain the most threatened the new assessments of reptiles with overwhelming threat to terrestrial species species, the identifi cation of the main drivers the new global mammal assessment is loss and degradation of habitat, primarily of threat and helps pinpoint what key actions data (Schipper et al. 2008), and updated through conversion of land to agriculture are required to address declines in the datasets on amphibians (IUCN 2008) and and the impact of logging (Figure 2b - group. Results from this new approach are birds (BirdLife International 2008), a more note that birds are excluded from this set to revolutionize our understanding of the accurate picture of globally threatened analysis, see fi gure legend). Of secondary status of the world’s species. It has enabled terrestrial vertebrates can be drawn. These importance is the impact of pollution and an understanding of the conservation status new data will aid in the efforts to move intrinsic factors such as limited dispersal of reptiles for the fi rst time and the status of from monitoring, to prediction and pre- and restricted ranges faced by small the world’s terrestrial vertebrates (mammals, emptive action. Almost one in four (24%) populations, particularly on islands. It is birds, amphibians, and reptiles) can be terrestrial vertebrates within non Data diffi cult to estimate the impact that climate defi ned. In addition, it is now possible to describe and therefore address the threat faced by a number of the megadiverse Figure 2. Proportion of terrestrial vertebrates in each Red List Category (a) and major threats to globally groups of invertebrates. In turn, a greatly threatened terrestrial vertebrates (b). Note that birds are excluded from this analysis as they are coded against expanded understanding of the impact the new threat classifi cation scheme (Salafsky et al. 2008). that humans are having on the world’s species will be used to feed information into internationally important agreements aiming to address biodiversity loss.

The ﬁ rst results of this new approach to IUCN Red Listing, presented here, provides new insights into our understanding of the status of the world’s species, and attempts to do so in a systematic way that can be built upon in time. Further assessments will be delivered in 2009 and 2010 (Figure 1).

Status of the world’s terrestrial vertebrates Understanding where threatened species are found aids conservation action, informs key biodiversity targets and allows

68 Broadening the coverage of biodiversity assessments

The Lyre Head Lizard Lyriocephalus scutatus (Vulnerable) is endemic to the southwest wet zone of Sri Lanka. Habitat degradation caused by human activities including the clearing of land for agriculture, conversion to plantations, logging, mining, and the pressures linked with human settlements, have resulted in severe deforestation. It is estimated that only 5% of the original wet zone rainforest remains in Sri Lanka. The international pet trade may also pose a threat as individuals are harvested from the wild. © Ruchira Somaweera

change has already had, but it is clear that in the future this will be a dominant driver of extinction (Foden et al. this volume).

Neither species richness, nor threats to these species are evenly distributed across the planet (Sanderson et al. 2002). Threats to vertebrates vary across realms, according to the intensity and history of the threats. Unfortunately the regions that maintain the highest diversity also tend to be the most threatened, and usually the least well understood (Collen et al. 2008; Mace et al. 2005). The Indo-Malayan and Neotropical realms are consistently home to the greatest proportion of threatened species of terrestrial vertebrates. Oceanic islands also contain very high proportions response to anthropogenic manipulation lizards. Broad species level differences are of threatened species, for example of habitat worldwide. The principle threats likely to refl ect differences in geography, Oceania, while having a comparatively low to reptile species are habitat loss and range size, habitat specifi city and biology, species richness maintains a highly at risk degradation. Additionally, overexploitation, as well as threat intensity. Identifying the terrestrial vertebrate fauna (Figure 3). The principally through uncontrolled pet trade is reasons for these differences among fi nal step in evaluating vertebrates is to a problem in certain families (Figure 4b). groups is a major goal for conservation produce assessments for fi shes. This will biology. It is important to understand where be completed in the spring of 2009. This The proportion of species threatened threat impact is most intense, and work to will enable, for the fi rst time, the status of varies across reptile groups. For example, reverse the process. This, in combination the world’s fi shes, and the status of the 43% of crocodilians are threatened. This with identifying those attributes that world’s vertebrates to be reported. contrasts with 12% of snakes, and 20% of predispose species to a higher risk of

The geography of reptile threat Reptiles are an ancient, diverse and versatile group, present on all continents except Antarctica, having colonized many of the earth’s habitats. The fi rst evaluation of a representative sample of reptiles shows that over one in fi ve (22%) reptiles in non Data Defi cient categories are threatened with extinction (Figure 4a). The exact threat level is unknown, as the status of 284 Data Defi cient species is undetermined, but ranges between 18% (assuming no Data Defi cient species threatened) and 37% (assuming all Data Defi cient species threatened). The great majority of species show a negative

Figure 3. Threatened species richness map for terrestrial vertebrates (n = 9,606 species).

69 Wildlife in a Changing World

Pollution 58% Persecution 19% Natural disasters

Invasive species

2% Intrinsic factors

Human disturbance 7% Harvesting

9% Habitat loss

5% Changes in native species dynamics

CR NT Accidental mortality EN LC VU DD 0 10203040506070 80 90 ab% of species

Figure 4. Proportion of reptiles in each Red List Category (a) and the major threats to globally threatened reptiles (b).

extinction will help predict outcomes of is restricted to islands. Therefore, in the However, a number of species are listed different future scenarios and therefore presence of threats, these island species in threatened categories, principally due to facilitate proactive conservation efforts. are at a higher risk of extinction. having restricted distributions in threatened This will help to minimize human impact on habitats. Time will tell whether those biodiversity. Although not all reptile species have been classifi ed as Data Defi cient (DD) turn out to assessed, a random sample reveals new be threatened or not. Indo-Malaya is the most species rich details about the threats faced by reptiles. biogeographic realm for reptiles, as Others have been updated from old 1996 Assessments of species in nine families it is for many other species groups. assessments. In the well-known crocodile that have never before been red listed The Indo-Malayan realm also has the group, the Cuban Crocodile Crocodylus allow a more confi dent appraisal of the greatest density of threatened (CR, EN, rhombifer has been uplisted to Critically status of the world’s reptiles. The threats and VU) species (Figure 5). High levels Endangered (Box 1). New assessments to reptiles and regions where threatened of deforestation and over-exploitation of the IUCN Red List status for some of species are concentrated that have been are prevalent throughout the area, and the more poorly known groups have also identifi ed in this random sample pave the are thought to be responsible for these been possible. For example, amphisbaena way for a comprehensive assessment of elevated levels of threat. However, it is (worm lizards) are little studied, due to their all reptile species, while providing timely in the Neotropical realm where the most burrowing lifestyle (Box 2). Many of the status information for the CBD 2010 target. species with an extremely high risk of group that can be assigned a category This approach allows identifi cation of key extinction can be found. Almost half of the are Least Concern, protected from attributes from which comprehensive Critically Endangered reptiles are endemic human impact by their burrowing habits. coverage will allow fi ner scale analysis. to the Caribbean, Central or South America (43%), a percentage more than double that for any other realm. While the threats to reptiles in the Neotropical realm are not unique, predation by introduced mammals and habitat loss (primarily due to conversion of land for agriculture, urban development and tourism) are common problems. Approximately one in fi ve Neotropical species are distributed in the Caribbean. These species are more likely to have narrower ranges, smaller populations, and limited genetic diversity because the distribution of these species

Figure 5. Threatened species richness map for reptiles (n = 244 species).

70 Broadening the coverage of biodiversity assessments

Box 1: Uplisting the Cuban Crocodile Crocodylus rhombifer (Cuvier, 1807)

The Cuban Crocodile is a species of freshwater crocodile renowned for in Lanier Swamp on the Isla de la Juventud off the southwest coast its leaping ability, allowing it to prey on arboreal mammals. This species of Cuba. Like many other threatened species, the Cuban Crocodile is is a relict from the Pleistocene Era and has the narrowest distribution of negatively impacted by habitat degradation. In the past, intensive charcoal any extant crocodilian due to its preference of peat swamp habitats. This burning was the main cause of habitat loss, but now development of unusual crocodile once had a wider distribution in the Caribbean but is the tourism industry, land transportation, and agriculture are degrading now conﬁ ned to the Zapata Swamp in Cuba with a smaller subpopulation the areas in which this species inhabits. Possible sea level rise because of global warming in the future could also degrade its swamp habitat. As well as these environmental threats to the Cuban Crocodile, this species is directly threatened by poaching for its meat. In 1996, the Cuban Crocodile was assessed as Endangered. However, recent genetic analysis has shown that extensive hybridization with the American Crocodile Crocodylus acutus (Cuvier, 1807) has taken place, probably over many centuries. Hybridization is a newly recognized major threat to the Cuban Crocodile because it is decreasing the genetic purity of this highly threatened species, which has just a small natural distribution remaining. A reassessment of the conservation status of the Cuban Crocodile has now listed this species as Critically Endangered.

The Cuban Crocodile Crocodylus rhombifer (Critically Endangered) is a species of freshwater crocodile renowned for its leaping ability, allowing it to prey on arboreal mammals. Hybridization with the American Crocodile, Crocodylus acutus is a newly recognized major threat to the Cuban Crocodile because it is decreasing the genetic purity of this highly threatened species, which has just a small natural distribution remaining. © John White

First globally representative expected to be suffered by invertebrates al. 2008). The main message drawn from groups of invertebrates on (Dunn 2005, Thomas et al. 2004). These these invertebrate assessments is that The IUCN Red List fi rst invertebrate group assessments current data suggest invertebrates may Existing biodiversity information is show a great range in extinction risk, with be just as threatened as vertebrates, strongly biased toward the terrestrial dragonfl ies and damselfl ies (Odonata) and in certain taxa, more so. The megafauna and megafl ora, and to that could be assigned a conservation status of different invertebrate groups is temperate rather than tropical areas. status the least threatened (14%) and extremely variable; therefore generalising However the highest extinction risk and corals the most threatened (32.8%) across invertebrates is not particularly therefore greatest loss of biodiversity is (Polidoro et al. this volume, Carpenter et meaningful.

Box 2: The secret lives of fossorial reptiles

There are two main groups of burrowing reptiles – Amphisbaenia and Scolecophidia. Amphisbaenia, known as worm lizards, are mostly limbless species, uniquely adapted to a burrowing habitat, and occur on both sides of the Atlantic. The blind snakes belonging to the infraorder Scolecophidia, consist of snakes in the Typhlopidae, Leptotyphlopidae, and Anomalepididae families. These burrowing snakes are distributed in tropical and subtropical areas around the world. Burrowing reptiles are ecologically important because they aerate soil and help regulate the populations of insects such as ants and termites. There are over 600 species of burrowing reptiles within these two groups and an estimated half of these species are Data Defi cient. Clearly, the fossorial nature of these species means that surveying is more problematic than for ground-dwelling or even arboreal species. Even though ranges are often narrow, the distribution of these species is still not fully understood, and this further highlights that too little effort is being put into researching The Speckled Worm Lizard Amphisbaena fuliginosa (Not Evaluated) is a these unusual and important reptiles. This situation is more worrying as burrowing reptile. This species was thought to be restricted to the rainforests of it has been shown that habitat loss and degradation have a negative northern South America but has recently been discovered in Brazilian Cerrado, impact on burrowing reptiles because they are unlikely to occupy or a dry savanna habitat. © Laurie Vitt re-colonize fragmented landscapes. Ground compaction is also a threat because it reduces the burrowing ability of these species. One in fi ve of burrowing reptiles within non Data Defi cient categories are considered species to better understand, not only the conservation status of them, threatened. Therefore more research is urgently needed into these but also their biology and ecology.

71 Wildlife in a Changing World

35% 49% exist between system and habitat, regardless of whether the species is a vertebrate or not. Freshwater groups are consistently at higher risk than their terrestrial counterparts, yet it is a system 2% 3% about which we still know very little. 3% Restricted-range species tied to particular 4% 5% CR habitats are at greater risk in all systems EN (Box 4a) in comparison to wide ranging 4% 10% 51% VU species with more generalist ecological NT 1% requirements. While some of the major LC 33% DD threatening processes differ between taxa ab(e.g., broadly speaking, over-exploitation Figure 6. Proportion of dragonfl ies and damselfl ies (a) and proportion of freshwater crabs in each Red List is less of a threat for Odonata and crabs Category (b). than for terrestrial vertebrates, particularly mammals), habitat loss and degradation represent major threats across all groups. Freshwater ecosystems provide raw A total of 32% of freshwater crabs in non materials, food and support livelihoods; Data Defi cient categories are threatened In situations where habitat loss is the primary they perform many important environmental with extinction (Figure 6b) (Cumberlidge et cause of decline, it is reasonable to assume functions and contribute to general human al. 2009). The exact threat level is unknown, that there might be a positive correlation well-being. In spite of only covering about as the status of 629 Data Defi cient species between declines in vertebrate and non- 1% of the total land surface, inland waters is undetermined, but ranges between vertebrate populations. However, where are home to around 126,000 aquatic 16% (assuming no Data Defi cient species threats such as exploitation or pollution are species (Darwall et al. this volume). The threatened) and 65% (assuming all Data the cause of a decline, the expectation results from the fi rst freshwater invertebrate Defi cient species threatened). The majority of might be that trends observed in one set group assessed, the Odonata, show that the threatened species have highly restricted of species will not necessarily be indicative 14% of species in non Data Defi cient ranges. This exposes them to the impacts of population trends in other species in categories are threatened with extinction of human disturbance from habitat loss, the same ecosystem. The impacts of (Figure 6a). The exact threat level is particularly in forested regions, with alteration climate change remain complex, though unknown, as the status of 526 Data Defi cient of water regimes and pollution being most an increased understanding of species species is undetermined, but ranges frequently cited as cause of threat. biology may provide some clues (Box 4b) between 9% (assuming no Data Defi cient (Foden et al. this volume). Addressing the species threatened) and 44% (assuming all A map of the distribution of threatened Data Defi cient species threatened). However, species from the crabs and dragonfl ies Odonata only comprise a small invertebrate reveals some centres of threat for Box 3: Sri Lankan freshwater order, with above average dispersal ability freshwater systems (Figure 7). Marked crabs under threat and wide distribution ranges, so results concentrations of threatened species exist are likely not to be indicative of many other in Viet Nam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia Sri Lanka is rich in freshwater crabs, invertebrate groups. The majority of the and the Philippines in Southeast Asia; with 49 out of its 50 species endemic to the island. The biodiversity assessment threatened species in this group inhabit lotic Sri Lanka (Box 3) and the Indian Western presented in this chapter listed 80% (fl owing) waters (Clausnitzer et al. 2009). A Ghats in South Asia; and Colombia and of all Sri Lankan freshwater crabs as combination of a more specialised ecology Mexico in central and South America. threatened (Critically Endangered, and the higher environmental pressure on These patterns are heavily infl uenced by Endangered, or Vulnerable), with a these waters may provide the explanation the distribution of restricted-range species. shocking 50% of all species CR, and possibly on the brink of extinction. The for the increased risk to species in these Healthy freshwater invertebrate populations elevated levels of endemism and threat in habitats. are indicative of freshwater systems that Sri Lanka are surprisingly high considering are able to provide critical services, such the moderate size of the island (<65, Almost one fi fth of the world’s crabs are as fl ood control, economic and livelihood 000 km2) and its close proximity to the restricted to freshwater, a total of 1,281 benefi ts. However, river basin and wetland Asian continental mainland. Threats to the Sri Lankan freshwater crabs include species. Overlooked in comparison to their management is complex, as they are open deforestation, pollution from excessive more speciose marine counterparts, they are systems with ill-defi ned boundaries. pesticide use, and the impact of alien distributed throughout almost all freshwater invasive species on native species. Many habitats in tropical regions. Traits such as Comparing invertebrates to of the threatened species of freshwater low reproductive output in combination vertebrates crabs have a limited distribution in the rainforests of the wet zone in the with fragmentation caused of human Rather than differences between southwest part of the island, where they impact to freshwater habitats has resulted vertebrates and invertebrates per se, are increasingly under pressure from the in relatively high threat levels in this group the assessments highlighted in this rising human population density. that is defi ned by high levels of endemism. chapter, suggest that key differences

72 Broadening the coverage of biodiversity assessments

Johora singaporensis (Critically Endangered) is a freshwater crab that is endemic to Singapore. It was previously known from two locations, one of which is a nature reserve. However, despite intensive surveys this species has not been sighted in the nature reserve since the early 1990s, suggesting that it no longer exists in this location. Acidiﬁ cation of water is suspected to be the cause of this extirpation. The surviving population of this species is under severe threat due to recent development of the land, which has lowered the water table, and continuing decline in the quality of its habitat. © Peter Ng

lack of invertebrate coverage on the IUCN IUCN and its partners are working towards intervals, changes in the threat status Red List to date, is particularly pressing in this by evaluating change in conservation of species in a taxonomic group can be view of the ecosystem services that they status with The IUCN Red List Index used to monitor trends in extinction risk. provide; therefore, it is important that they (RLI) (Butchart et al. 2004, 2005, 2007, As exempliﬁ ed by the RLIs calculated for be assessed, inventoried, monitored, and Vié et al. this volume). By conducting birds (Butchart et al. 2004), amphibians protected (Rohr et al. 2007). conservation assessments at regular (Baillie et al. 2004), mammals and corals

Evaluating trends in biodiversity Figure 7. Threatened species richness map for freshwater crabs (n = 210 species) and dragonfl ies and In order to mitigate biodiversity loss damselfl ies (n = 136 species). effectively, greater investment of conservation attention is required in tropical regions where there is the most to lose in terms of species richness, and where species groups have to date been largely ignored (Collen et al. 2008). Broad-reaching global legislation may provide an impetus for such investment. One important example is the CBD, under which the 190 signatory nations have ambitiously committed themselves to actions to “achieve, by 2010, a signifi cant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional and national levels” (UNEP 2002). Assessing progress towards this important goal requires data on the status and trends in biodiversity for a given group, country or region.

73 Wildlife in a Changing World

Viridithemis viridula (Data Deﬁ cient) is a dragonﬂ y endemic to western Madagascar. Only the female of this species is known to science and its habitat preferences have not yet been determined. Further research is needed before a more accurate assessment can be made. © Klemens Karkow

(Hilton-Taylor et al. this volume), robust species-based biodiversity indicator that is Butchart, S.H.M., Stattersfi eld, A.J., Baillie, trends in change in conservation status considerably more broadly representative J.E.M., Bennun, L.A., Stuart, S.N., Akçakaya, is achievable with regular assessment, of all biodiversity than anything hitherto H.R., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Mace, G.M. 2005. Using Red List Indices to measure progress and with retrospective assessment. available. Finally it will provide a data set towards the 2010 target and beyond. Assessments can realistically take place that will enable a broad range of trend Philosophical Transactions of the Royal every four to fi ve years for the vertebrates indices to be generated ranging from Society of London 360: 255-268. and some plant groups, and at least every specifi c taxonomic groups, to functional Butchart, S.H.M., Stattersfi eld, A.J., Bennun, 10 years for all other groups (Baillie et al. groups, to species trends in biomes, or L.A., Shutes, S.M., Akçakaya, H.R., Baillie, J.E.M., Stuart, S.N., Hilton-Taylor, C. and 2008). biogeographic regions. Mace, G.M. 2004. Measuring global trends in the status of biodiversity: Red List Indices for Delivery by 2010 References birds. PLoS Biology 2: e383. The choice of groups for which this Baillie, J.E.M., Collen, B., Amin, R., Akçakaya, Carpenter, K.E., Abrar, M., Aeby, A., Aronson, approach is being applied is currently H.R., Butchart, S.H.M., Brummitt, N., R.B., Banks, S., Bruckner, A., Chiriboga, Meagher, T.R., Ram, M., Hilton-Taylor, C. and A., Cortes, J., Delbeek, J.C., DeVantier, limited by the presence of active networks Mace, G.M. 2008. Towards monitoring global L., Edgar, G.J., Edwards, A.J., Fenner, D., of specialists, up-to-date species lists, biodiversity. Conservation Letters 1: 18-26. Guzman, H.M., Hoeksema, B.W. et al.. 2008. and available data. However, by the Baillie, J.E.M., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, One-third of reef-building corals face elevated year 2010, the coverage of the IUCN S.N. (editors). 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List risk from climate change and local impacts. Red List will have expanded to include of Threatened Species: a Global Species Science 321: 560-563. Assessment. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Clausnitzer, V., Kalkman, V.J., Ram, M., Collen, eight groups of invertebrates, doubling Cambridge, UK. B., Baillie, J.E.M., Bedjani, M., Darwall, invertebrate coverage on the Red List in BirdLife International. 2008. State of the World’s W.R.T., Dijkstra, K.-D.B, Dow, R., Hawking, a systematic manner (Figure 1). Using the Birds: Indicators for our Changing World. J., Karube, H., Malikova, E., Paulson, D., approach outlined here, this will not only BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. Schütte, K., Suhling, F., Villanueva, R., von provide insight into the conservation status Butchart, S.H.M., Akçakaya, H.R., Chanson, Ellenrieder, N. and Wilson, K. 2009. Odonata J.S., Baillie, J.E.M., Collen, B., Quader, S., enter the biodiversity crisis debate: the of invertebrates, but also plant groups Turner, W.R., Amin, R., Stuart, S.N. and fi rst global assessment of an insect group. such as the monocots and other groups Hilton-Taylor, C. 2007. Improvements to Biological Conservation 142(8): 1864-1869. such as fungi. The results, when used to the Red List Index. PLoS ONE 2: e140. Collen, B., Ram., M, Zamin, T. and McRae, calculate the Red List Index, will provide a doi:110.1371/journal.pone.0000140. L. 2008. The tropical biodiversity data

74 Broadening the coverage of biodiversity assessments

Box 4: Threats to dragonﬂ ies and damselﬂ ies

a. Restricted range damselfl ies b. Climate change impact on the Ancient Greenling Hemiphlebia mirabilis The Pemba Featherleg Platycnemis pembipes, a fragile black-and- white damselfl y was fi rst discovered in 2001 on the island of Pemba The Australian endemic damselfl y Hemiphlebia mirabilis (Endangered), off the Tanzanian coast. Remarkably its nearest relatives occur on the Ancient Greenling, is notable for its apparent archaic characters, Madagascar, separated by 1,000 km of ocean. Although the species its male mating displays and its biogeography. Originally thought to might have reached Pemba aided by strong monsoon winds, recent have been a Victorian endemic, the species was subsequently found studies suggest it may be the survivor of an ancient African fauna in northeastern Tasmania and then on Flinders Island. This suggests that is now largely confi ned to Madagascar. The species only inhabits that the species would have occupied the Bassian Ridge when it was the single stream fl owing through Pemba’s last remnant of forest exposed during glacial times and this may have been a dispersal route and is listed as Critically Endangered. The Pemba Featherleg shares at some time. The species is cryptic within its reed habitat except when this fate with two other East African damselfl ies of unknown origin. the males in particular display by waving their expanded, white anal Amanipodagrion gilliesi (Critically Endangered) survives on a single appendages. The species breeds in open, sedge marshes with a low stream in Tanzania’s Usambara Mountains. It shares no similarities water level and seems to be capable of recolonizing habitats when they with any other known species. Equally unique is Oreocnemis phoenix have become dry, probably surviving in the egg stage. In recent times, (Critically Endangered), named for its bright red males. Streams on the however, dry spells are longer and more frequent due to climate change high plateau of Mount Mulanje in Malawi, known aptly as ‘the island and they pose a severe threat to this already rare species. The Ancient in the sky’ and a mere 24 km across, are its only known habitat. The Greenling is not the only Australian dragonfl y to be affected by climate plateau is made up of bauxite deposits: mining these would signifi cantly change and it seems likely that dry spells will become a major driver for impact the habitat. decline in the near future.

gap: addressing disparity in global Schipper, J., Chanson, J., Chiozza, F., Cox, Y.C., Erasmus, B.F.N., Siqueira, M.F.D., monitoring. Tropical Conservation N., Hoffmann, M., Katariya, V., Lamoreux, Grainger, A., Hannah, L., Hughes, L., Huntley, Science 1: 75-88. Available online: http:// J., Rodrigues, A., Stuart, S.N., Temple, B., Jaarsveld, A.S.V., Midgley, G.F., Miles, tropicalconservationscience.mongabay. H.J., Baillie, J.E.M., Boitani, L., Lacher, T.E., L. et al. 2004. Extinction risk from climate com/content/v1/08-06-09-Ben_Collen_et_ Mittermeier, R.A., Smith, A.T., et al. 2008. change. Nature 427: 145-148. al.pdf. The status of the world’s land and marine UNEP. 2002. Report on the sixth meeting Cumberlidge, N., Ng, P.K., Yeo, D.C.J., mammals: diversity, threat and knowledge. of the Conference of the Parties to the Magalhães, C., Campos, M.R., Alvarez, Science 322(5899): 225-230. Convention on Biological Diversity (UNEP/ F., Naruse, T., Daniel, S.R., Esser, L.J., Thomas, C.D., Cameron, A., Green, R.E., CBD/COP/20/Part 2) Strategic Plan Attipoe, F.Y.K., Clotilde-Ba, F.-L., Darwall, Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L.J., Collingham, Decision VI/26. W., Mcivor, A., Baillie, J.E.M., Collen, B. and Ram, M. 2009. Freshwater crabs and the biodiversity crisis: importance, threats, status, and conservation challenges. Biological Geothelphusa ancylophallus (Least Concern) is a freshwater crab that is endemic to Taiwan. Although localized Conservation 142(8): 1665-1673. habitat loss and degradation, as well as problems associated with pollution are occurring in parts of its range, the current rate of decline that this species is experiencing is not signifi cant enough to warrant listing Dunn, R.R. 2005. Modern insect extinctions, the in a threatened category. However, if the quality of this species’ habitat continues to decline, this species will neglected majority. Conservation Biology 19: become threatened in the future. © Hsi-Te Shih 1030-1036. IUCN. 2008. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available online at: www.iucnredlist. org. Mace, G.M., Masundire, H. and Baillie, J.E.M. 2005. Ecosystems and human well- being: Biodiversity. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Island Press, Washington DC. Purvis, A., Agapow, P.-M., Gittleman, J.L. and Mace, G.M. 2000. Nonrandom extinction and the loss of evolutionary history. Science 288: 328-330. Rohr, J.R., Mahan, C.G. and Kim, K.C. 2007. Developing a monitoring program for invertebrates: guidelines and a case study. Conservation Biology 21: 422-433. Salafsky, N., Salzer, D., Stattersfi eld, A.J., Hilton-Taylor, C., Neugarten, R., Butchart, S.H.M., Collen, B., Cox, N., Master, L.L., O’Connor, S. and Wilkie, D.. 2008. A standard lexicon for biodiversity conservation: unifi ed classifi cations of threats and actions. Conservation Biology 22: 897-911. Sanderson, E.W., Jaiteh, M., Levy, M.A., Redford, K.H., Wannebo, A.V. and Woolmer, G. 2002. The human footprint and the last of the wild. BioScience 52: 891-904.

Species susceptibility to climate change impacts

Wendy B. Foden, Georgina M. Mace, Jean-Christophe Vié, Ariadne Angulo, Stuart H.M. Butchart, Lyndon DeVantier, Holly T. Dublin, Alexander Gutsche, Simon N. Stuart and Emre Turak

Background study predicts 15-37% ‘commitment to between species. As a result, meaningful There is growing evidence that climate extinction’ by 2050 of the wide range of information that could contribute to change will become one of the major regionally endemic and near-endemic conservation planning at both ﬁ ne and drivers of extinction in the 21st century. species examined (Thomas et al. 2004). broad spatial scales is limited. Conservation An increasing number of published How can we predict which species will be decision-makers, planners and practitioners studies have documented a variety of most threatened by climate change, and currently have few tools and little technical changes attributable to climate change, how best can we mitigate the impacts? guidance on how to incorporate the for example changes in species breeding differential impacts of climate change into times and shifts in distributions (Figure 1). To date, most assessments of species their plans and actions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate extinctions under climate change have Change concludes that approximately 20- been based on either isolated case IUCN is developing assessment tools to 30% of plant and animal species are likely studies or large-scale modelling of identify the potential effects of climate to be at increasingly high risk of extinction species’ distributions. These methods change on species. The IUCN Red List as global mean temperatures exceed depend on broad and possibly inaccurate Categories and Criteria were developed warming of 2-3oC above preindustrial levels assumptions, and generally do not take before climate change impacts on species (Fischlin et al. 2007). Another synthesis account of the biological differences were widely recognized, and although they

Figure 1. A summary of some of the predicted aspects of climate change and examples of the effects that these are likely to have on species.

Predicted change Effects on species

spring arrival Desycnhronization of migration or dispersal events Phenology autumn arrival growing season length Uncoupling of mutualisms ()incl. pollinator loss and coral bleaching

means Uncoupling of predator-prey relationships extremes Temperature variability Uncoupling of parasite-host relationships seasonality sea level rises Interactions with new pathogens and invasives

means Changes in distribution ranges Rainfall extremes variability Loss of habitat seasonality Increased physiological stress causing direct mortality and increased disease susceptibility storms Extreme events floods Changes in fecundity leading to changing population structures droughts fires Changes in sex ratios

atmospheric Changes in competitive ability

CO2 concentrations ocean ocean pH Inability to form calcareous structures and dissolving of aragonite

77 Wildlife in a Changing World

Climate change is causing population declines of the Quiver Tree Aloe dichotoma, a long-lived giant tree aloe from the Namib Desert region. Growing evidence suggests that desert ecosystems may be more sensitive to climate change than previously suspected. © Wendy Foden

remain effective for identifying species all species will respond in the same way, species) and warm-water reef-building that are undergoing declines in ranges or even to similar levels of climatic change. A corals (799 species), we examined the population sizes, they may need further species’ individual susceptibility to climate taxonomic and geographical distributions refi nement in order to identify the full suite change depends on a variety of biological of the species most susceptible to of species at risk from climate change. A traits, including its life history, ecology, climate change and compared these to new initiative aimed at examining how the behaviour, physiology and genetic makeup. the existing assessments of threatened IUCN Red List Criteria can be used for Species exposed to large climatic changes species in The 2008 IUCN Red List of identifying the species most at risk from in combination with intrinsic susceptibility Threatened Species™ (herein The IUCN climate change is underway. This study, to climate change face the greatest risk of Red List; IUCN 2008). Specifi cally we although it forms part of the overall project extinction due to climate change (Figure 2). address the following questions: looking at the impacts of climate change on species, is not discussed further here. We assessed susceptibility to climate • What are the biological traits that make change according to taxon-specifi c species potentially susceptible to climate Methodological approach biological traits and present an analysis of change? General Circulation Models (GCMs) predict the potential impacts of climate change that climate change will affect different on species based on an analysis of these • How common are these traits in birds, areas of the world to different degrees. traits. Using expert assessments for amphibians and warm-water reef- But it is also widely recognized that not birds (9,856 species), amphibians (6,222 building corals?

• Are the species that are potentially susceptible to climate change the same as those already identiﬁ ed as threatened on The IUCN Red List?

Figure 2. Increased risk of extinction due to climate change occurs when species possess biological traits or characteristics that make them particularly susceptible to change, and simultaneously occur in areas where climatic changes are most extreme.

78 Species susceptibility to climate change impacts

• How do taxonomic and geographic combinations were developed for each of this analysis we defi ned “susceptible concentrations of species that are the three taxonomic groups covered in this species” to be those that were recorded potentially susceptible to climate change study. Table 1 shows the groups, traits and as having any one or more susceptibility compare with those of threatened the number of bird, amphibian and coral traits. While this method allows for very species? species that met each of them either singly broad comparability between taxonomic or in combination. groups, accurate quantifi cation of the What are the biological contribution of each trait to extinction risk traits that make species There were a number of challenges in is necessary before cross-taxonomic most susceptible to climate selecting traits. These included the scarcity group comparisons can be made with change? of key species-level data (e.g., population confi dence. Our approach to assessing Through detailed consultations with a wide sizes, temperature-tolerance thresholds, species’ susceptibility to climate change range of experts, we identifi ed over 90 prey species), as well as defi ning traits in assesses relative susceptibility within each biological traits that may be associated with quantifi able, objective and replicable ways. taxonomic group only. enhanced susceptibility to climate change. Although not always possible, we aimed to These were consolidated into fi ve groups represent each of the trait groups with at The IUCN Red List and BirdLife of traits (Table 1 and Box), and each trait least one specifi c trait for each taxonomic International’s World Bird Database within these groups, was assessed using a group. Even though many species provided essential information such as range of biological information. Specifi c trait possess multiple susceptibility traits, for taxonomy, distribution maps, habitats and

Which traits or characteristics make species susceptible to climate change?

In October 2007, Imperial College London, IUCN and the Zoological other essential processes. While some cues such as day length and Society of London hosted a four-day workshop to identify the traits lunar cycles will be unaffected by climate change, others such as associated with elevated extinction risk, particularly due to climate rainfall and temperature (including their interacting and cumulative change. Thirty-one biologists, whose expertise spanned a broad range effects) will be heavily impacted upon by climate change. Species of taxonomic groups and geographic regions, identifi ed, discussed become vulnerable to changes in the magnitude and timing of and eventually reached consensus on a list of over 90 traits that are these cues when they lead to an uncoupling with resources or other generally indicative of species’ vulnerability to extinction across most essential ecological processes e.g., early spring warming causes taxonomic groups. These traits were subsequently refi ned and form the the emergence of a species before their food sources are available. basis of IUCN’s ongoing assessment of species susceptibility to climate Climate change susceptibility is compounded when different stages change. The traits fall into the following fi ve trait groups: of a species’ life history or different sexes rely on different cues.

A. Specialized habitat and/or microhabitat requirements. Species with D. Dependence on interspecifi c interactions that are likely to be disrupted generalized and unspecialized habitat requirements are likely to be by climate change. Many species’ interactions with prey, hosts, able to tolerate a greater level of climatic and ecosystem change than symbionts, pathogens and competitors will be affected by climate specialized species. Where such species are able to disperse to new change either due to the decline or loss of these resource species climatically suitable areas, the chances of fulfi llment of all their habitat from the dependent species’ ranges or loss of synchronization in requirements are low (e.g., plants confi ned to limestone outcrops; phenology. Species dependent on interactions that are susceptible cave-roosting bats). Susceptibility is exacerbated where a species to disruption by climate change are at risk of extinction, particularly has several life stages, each with different habitat or microhabitat where they have high degree of specialization for the particular requirements (e.g., water-dependent larval-developing amphibians), or resource species and are unlikely to be able to switch to or substitute when the habitat or microhabitat to which the species is specialized other species. is particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts (e.g., mangroves, cloud forests or polar habitats). In some cases (e.g., deep sea fi sh), E. Poor ability to disperse to or to colonise a new or more suitable range. extreme specialization may allow species to escape the full impacts In general, the particular set of environmental conditions to which of competition from native or invading species so the interaction of each species is adapted (its ‘bioclimatic envelope’) will shift polewards such traits with climate change must be considered carefully for each and to increasing altitudes in response to climate change. Species species group assessed. with low rates or short distances of dispersal (e.g., land snails, ant and rain drop splash dispersed plants) are unlikely to migrate fast B. Narrow environmental tolerances or thresholds that are likely to enough to keep up with these shifting climatic envelopes and will be exceeded due to climate change at any stage in the life cycle. face increasing extinction risk as their habitats become exposed to The physiology and ecology of many species is tightly coupled progressively greater climatic changes. to very specifi c ranges of climatic variables such as temperature, precipitation, pH and carbon dioxide levels, and those with narrow Even where species could disperse to newly suitable bioclimatic areas, tolerance ranges are particularly vulnerable to climate change. Even several other factors may affect colonization success. Species’ phenotypic species with broad environmental tolerances and unspecialized plasticity and genetic diversity will determine the likelihood of adaptation habitat requirements may already be close to thresholds beyond over different time scales. Where they exist, direct measures of genetic which ecological or physiological function quickly breaks down (e.g., variability can be supplemented with information on naturalization outside photosynthesis in plants, protein and enzyme function in animals). species’ native ranges and on the success of any past translocation efforts. Extrinsic factors likely to decrease dispersal success include the C. Dependence on specifi c environmental triggers or cues that are presence of any geographic barriers such as mountain ranges, oceans, likely to be disrupted by climate change. Many species rely on rivers, and for marine species, ocean currents and temperature gradients. environmental triggers or cues for migration, breeding, egg laying, Anthropogenic transformation of migration routes or destination habitats seed germination, hibernation, spring emergence and a range of increases species’ susceptibility to negative impacts from climate change.

79 Wildlife in a Changing World

Number of species qualifying Trait Group Biological Trait Birds Amphibians Corals Altitudinal range narrow and at high elevation 224 A. Specialized habitat and/or microhabitat Restricted to habitats susceptible to climate change 820 757 15 requirements High degree of habitat specialization 693 28 Dependence on a particular microhabitat 438 889 Contribution of trait group 46% 42% 5% Global temperature tolerances likely to be exceeded 61 B. Narrow environmental tolerances or Larvae particularly susceptible to heat stress 108 thresholds that are likely to be exceeded due to Sensitive to increased sedimentation 143 climate change at any stage in the life cycle Vulnerable to physical damage from storms and cyclones 183 Contribution of trait group 0% 0% 68% C. Dependence on specifi c environmental triggers or cues that are likely to be disrupted Environmental trigger/cue disruption observed or likely 316 315 by climate change Contribution of trait group 9% 10% 0% Dependent on very few prey or host species 27 Dependent on an interspecifi c interaction that is likely to D. Dependence on interspecifi c interactions 44 be impacted by climate change which are likely to be disrupted by climate Susceptible to chytridiomycosis and/or enigmatic decline 1,034 change Susceptible to breakdown of coral-zooxanthellae 144 interaction Contribution of trait group 2% 32% 25% Low maximum dispersal distances 1,500 73 E. Poor ability or limited opportunity to Geographic barriers limit dispersal opportunity 709 744 117 disperse to or colonize a new or more suitable Limited opportunity to establish at new locations 769 602 55 range Low genetic diversity or known genetic bottleneck 63 Contribution of trait group 69% 40% 40% Number of climate change susceptible species 3,438 3,217 566

Number of species assessed 9,856 6,222 799

Climate change susceptible species (%) 35% 52% 71%

Table 1. A summary of the trait groups, biological traits and numbers of bird, amphibian and warm-water reef-building coral species that qualify as having the trait in question. Trait group summary rows (italic) show the relative contribution of each trait group to the total number of climate change susceptible species for each taxonomic group. The sum of these values is >100% because many qualifying species have multiple traits. Detailed descriptions of trait groups are given in the Box. threats, and additional information was of species qualifying due to specialized fi nches and munias, 12%), Cuculidae gathered from published and unpublished habitat and microhabitat requirements, (cuckoos, 15%), Picidae (woodpeckers, data, online resources, literature and and poor or limited opportunity to establish 21%) and Columbidae (doves and expert knowledge. While we attempted to at new locations, particularly due to low pigeons, 27%). address data gaps with experts’ inferences maximum dispersal distances. We also and assumptions, numerous uncertainties examined any evidence of impacts of Amphibians remain. In summary, our results are changing seasonal cues, confi nement to We found that 3,217 of the 6,222 global based on the following assumptions: that narrow altitudinal ranges at high elevations, amphibian species (52%) are potentially species’ susceptibility to climate change is and dependence on fi ve or fewer prey or susceptible to climate change, and 962 associated with the possession of specifi c host species. species possess two to four climate biological traits that we have identifi ed; that change susceptibility traits. Within the possession of any one of these traits Susceptibility to climate change three small families in order Caudata increases the susceptibility of a species to in birds shows strong taxonomic (salamanders), namely the Amphiumidae climate change; and that our classifi cation and geographic patterns with all (amphiumas, three species), Sirenidae of each species according to these traits is species considered susceptible (sirens, four species) and Proteidae accurate. within the Diomedeidae (albatross), (mudpuppies and waterdogs, six Spheniscidae (penguin), Procellariidae, species), all species are “climate- How common are these traits Pelecanoididae and Hydrobatidae change-susceptible”. The low numbers in the amphibians, birds and (petrel and shearwater) families. Large of susceptible species in the order warm-water reef-building families with particularly high levels of Gymnophiona (caecilians) (18%), might be corals? susceptibility include Turdidae (thrushes, due to the scarcity of global knowledge of 60%), Thamnophilidae (antbirds, 69%), the group. The Sooglossidae (Seychelles Birds Scolopacidae (sandpipers and allies, frogs and Indian Burrowing Frog), Eleven traits were selected for this 70%), Formicariidae (antthrushes and Myobatrachidae and Limnodynastidae relatively information-rich group. 3,438 antpittas, 78%) and Pipridae (manakins, (Australian ground frogs), Ceratophryidae of the world’s 9,856 extant bird species 81%). In contrast, large families showing (horned toads), and Centrolenidae (35%) possess traits that make them low levels of climate change susceptibility (glassfrogs) families have 80-100% of potentially susceptible to climate change. include Ardeidae (herons and egrets, 3%), species assessed as “climate-change- Of these, 1,288 species have between Accipitridae (osprey, kites, hawks and susceptible”. Large families with more than two and seven such traits with the majority eagles, 10%), Estrildidae (waxbills, grass 50% “climate-change-susceptible” species

80 Species susceptibility to climate change impacts include Strabomantidae, Bufonidae (toads and true toads), Hylidae (treefrogs) and Plethodontidae (lungless salamanders).

Of the six traits used to assess amphibian susceptibility to climate change, those relating to specialized habitat requirements, poor dispersal and colonization ability, and disruption of interspeciﬁ c interactions identiﬁ ed the majority of susceptible species. These included species occurring exclusively in habitats vulnerable to climate change; those with water-dependant larvae occurring exclusively in unbuffered habitats; those unable to disperse due to barriers such as large water bodies or unsuitable habitat; and those with small ranges in combination with very low population densities.

Emerging infectious diseases, such as chytridiomycosis, caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, and ‘enigmatic’ or unexplained declines play an increasingly large role in driving amphibians towards extinction (Bosch and Rincon 2008; Corey and Waite 2008; Lips et al. 2003; Navas and Otani 2007; Pounds et al. 2006; Stuart et al. 2004). While the direct contribution of climate change to these threats remains disputed, at best, species particularly susceptible to or already experiencing such declines are more likely to fare poorly in the face of increasing climate change.

Under the trait group covering ‘dependence on interspecifi c interactions that are likely to be disrupted by climate change’, amphibians were regarded as “climate-change-susceptible” where chytrid infection has been recorded in wild Restricted to a very small range in north-west Ecuador, the Black-breasted Puffl eg Eriocnemis nigrivestis has been populations, where experts have deemed assessed as both Critically Endangered according to The IUCN Red List and “climate-change-susceptible” based on its biological traits. These “climate-change-susceptibility” traits include its habitat specialization, restriction to a infection highly likely, or where enigmatic climate change susceptible habitat, a narrow and high altitude range, very short typical dispersal distances and an declines have been recorded but not extremely small population size. The species is suffering ongoing declines from deforestation. © Francisco Enriquez directly linked to chytridiomycosis. In many cases, susceptibility to chytrid infection shows a taxonomic and ecological bias Corals pipe coral). Due to insuffi cient information (Corey and Waite 2008; Stuart et al. 2004), To date, most climate change studies have and taxonomic uncertainties, we were so we have provisionally included in this focussed on reef-level impacts and few unable to assess the 46 other species in trait group all species in genera containing have attempted to distinguish individual the group. infected members (e.g., members of species’ responses to climate change genus Atelopus) that also occur exclusively impacts. Here we assess only the warm- We found that 566 of 799 global in subtropical or tropical montane water reef-building corals, including 789 warm-water reef-forming coral species environments and are dependent on water species (those either zooxanthellate or (71%) are potentially susceptible to the bodies. Species with chytrid presence hermatypic) of order Scleractinia (stony impacts of climate change, while 253 but no symptoms of clinical disease (e.g., corals), eight Milleporina species (fi re or species possess between two and six members of genus Xenopus) did not stinging corals), one Helioporaceae (blue susceptibility traits. Families Acroporidae qualify as susceptible under this trait. coral) and one Stolonifera species (organ (including staghorn corals), Agariciidae

81 Wildlife in a Changing World

and Dendrophylliidae had particularly high different challenges in response to climate of all warm-water reef-building coral numbers of susceptible species, while change. At 32%, the amphibians already species could be at risk of extinction. Fungiidae (including mushroom corals), have a very high number of threatened Mussidae (including some brain corals) species. Seventy-fi ve percent of these The large overlap between threatened and and Pocilloporidae (including caulifl ower are also susceptible to climate change, “climate-change-susceptible” amphibian corals) possess relatively few. greatly exacerbating their extinction risk. In and bird species means that, ideally, they addition, 41% of currently non-threatened may already be included in conservation Coral susceptibility assessments were species are “climate-change-susceptible”. prioritization strategies. However, the based on 10 traits and most species question above has more complex qualifi ed due to their sensitivity to increases The overall percentage of threatened birds implications. Species that already face a in temperature both by adult polyps as is lower than those of the other groups high risk of extinction, irrespective of the well as free-living larvae; sedimentation; assessed (12%), but most threatened birds threat type, are far less likely to be resilient and physical damage from storms and (80%) are also susceptible to the impacts to environmental and climatic changes. cyclones. Poor dispersal ability and of climate change. In addition, a quarter A large overlap between threatened and colonization potential proved a further of all bird species and nearly 30% of all “climate-change-susceptible” species important trait group and included larval non-threatened species are susceptible to may therefore mean that climate change longevity (as a proxy for maximum climate change. may cause a sharp rise in both the dispersal distance) and the presence of extinction risk and extinction rate of already currents or temperatures as barriers to At 51%, corals have the greatest threatened species. It is also important dispersal. Although climate change related proportion of not threatened but “climate- to identify susceptible species which, ocean acidifi cation is likely to become change-susceptible” species of the while currently not threatened, are likely to a serious threat to coral survival in the groups assessed, while a further 19% become so in the future as climate change future (Kleypas et al. 1999; Royal Society of species are both susceptible and impacts intensify. By highlighting such 2005), we did not include it in susceptibility threatened. Corals are the only group in species before they decline, we hope to assessments due to sparse information which non-threatened but susceptible promote preemptive and more effective about differentiation in species’ aragonite species outnumber those that are neither conservation actions. decalcifi cation rates. We plan, however, to threatened nor susceptible (21%), and include acidifi cation impacts in the climate they do so by more than two-fold. This Data Defi cient Species change exposure component of overall suggests that if climate change becomes While Data Defi cient species (i.e., those climate change vulnerability assessments. extreme globally, more than three quarters with insuffi cient information to conduct

Are the “climate-change- susceptible” species the same Birds Threatened as those already identiﬁ ed as YES NO TOTAL threatened on The IUCN Red 976 2,462 YES 35% List, or are they different? 10% 25% For each taxonomic group, we assigned all 246 6,172 Susceptible NO 65%

species into the following four categories: Climate Change (i) threatened (according to The IUCN Red 2% 63% List) and “climate-change-susceptible”; TOTAL 12% 88% 9,856 (ii) threatened but not “climate-change- susceptible”; (iii) not threatened but Amphibians Threatened “climate-change-susceptible”; and (iv) YES NO TOTAL neither threatened nor “climate-change- 1,488 1,729 susceptible”. A summary of the results is YES 24% 28% 52% shown in Table 2. 503 2,502 Susceptible NO Climate Change The summaries in Table 2 and Figure 3 8% 40% 48%

show that each taxonomic group faces TOTAL 32% 68% 6,222

Corals Threatened Table 2. The numbers and percentages of species YES NO TOTAL assessed for “climate-change-susceptibility” and in 155 411 the 2008 IUCN Red List for birds, amphibians and YES warm-water reef-building corals. These values fall into categories: (i) threatened and “climate-change- 19% 51% 71% susceptible” (red); (ii) threatened but not “climate- 68 165 change-susceptible” (orange); (iii) not threatened Susceptible NO Climate Change but “climate-change-susceptible” (yellow); and (iv) 9% 21% 29% neither threatened nor “climate-change-susceptible” (green). TOTAL 28% 72% 799

6-climate_change.indd 82 10/07/2009 12:51:24 Species susceptibility to climate change impacts

With a small range in Southern Africa, the Spotted Snout Burrower Hemisus guttatus is already considered Vulnerable due to habitat loss from afforestation, agriculture, the introduction of alien ﬁ shes and lowering of the water table by invasive alien plants. The species’ reliance on seasonal rainfall events to break periods of hibernation, as well as tadpoles’ dependence on temporary water bodies, make it particularly vulnerable to negative impacts due to climate change. © Marius Burger

Red List assessments) represent only one per cent of bird species, 25% and 14% 14% Threatened 26% Threatened & susceptible of amphibians and corals respectively Amphibians Susceptible Data Defi cient & susceptible fall into this Red List Category. Because Data Defi cient None of the above a trait-based assessment of species 11% susceptibility to climate change requires different information to Red List assessments, we were able to infer 8% that 38 (58%), 679 (44%) and 94 (81%) of Data Defi cient bird, amphibian and 17% coral species respectively are potentially susceptible to climate change. For 24% corals, these susceptibility assessments 12% Corals Birds 62% were based on traits inferred from 6% knowledge of close taxonomic relatives (e.g., similar reproductive modes), while 15%

Figure 3. The proportion of bird, amphibian and coral 3% species falling in one of the 6 following categories: 39% (i) threatened (according to The 2008 IUCN Red 9% List) (orange); (ii) threatened and “climate-change- 10% susceptible” (red); (iii) not threatened but “climate- change-susceptible” (yellow); (iv) Data Defi cient < 1% and “climate-change-susceptible” (grey); (v) Data < 1% Defi cient and not “climate-change-susceptible” (dark 19% green); and (vi) neither threatened, Data Defi cient nor 25% “climate-change-susceptible” (light green).

83 Wildlife in a Changing World inferences were made based largely Amphibians and the southeastern USA. While each of on habitats (e.g., disease susceptibility) We identifi ed high concentration areas these areas has moderate to high species for amphibians. Due to particularly poor by selecting areas with the top 10%, 5% richness and many threatened species, distribution information for most Data and 2.5% of species richness (or nearest they did not meet the thresholds for Defi cient species, they were not included appropriate percentages when these inclusion as high concentration areas. in the geographic analyses. were not distinguishable). For amphibians assessed as threatened and “climate- High concentration areas for amphibians Where are the areas of change-susceptible” (Figure 4a), the areas assessed as not threatened but “climate- highest concentrations of of greatest richness span Mesoamerica change-susceptible” complement “climate-change-susceptible” and northwestern South America. Smaller the threatened and “climate-change- species? areas of high richness include various susceptible” species’ coverage of the Although birds are generally a data rich Caribbean Islands; south-eastern Brazil; Sri regions of overall species richness. group, range maps are not currently Lanka, the Western Ghats of India; northern The largest and most dominant high available for many of the non-threatened Borneo (Malaysia); and the eastern coast of concentration areas are southern Brazil species, making meaningful analysis of Australia. As expected, this shows strong and its neighbouring countries, and a large global geographic trends in “climate- correspondence with areas of both overall region from east to central and southern change–susceptible” species impossible. and threatened species richness (Stuart et Africa. We also identifi ed smaller high For this reason we are only able to present al. 2004), although interesting exceptions concentration areas in West Africa, New global geographical trends for amphibians are the lower levels of susceptibility in the Guinea and eastern and northern Australia. and corals. Amazon Basin; central to southern Africa; High concentration areas of not threatened and susceptible species co-occur with those of threatened and susceptible species in Mesoamerica, northwestern South America and western Australia.

High concentration areas for threatened and “climate-change-susceptible” amphibians cover a relatively small geographic extent. This is due to the typically extremely small ranges of most threatened amphibians, particularly in Mesoamerica, the northern Andes and the Caribbean, where threatened species richness is greatest. That relatively small areas contain such high amphibian richness, particularly of priority species, further highlights their extreme importance for amphibian conservation. In contrast with threatened and “climate- change-susceptible” species, several that a are not threatened but susceptible have much larger ranges. In combination with the larger number of these species, this results in much larger high concentration areas for this group.

In order to identify areas of disproportionately high threat or susceptibility, we compared

Figure 4. Areas of high concentration of amphibian species assessed as (a) threatened and “climate- change-susceptible” (reds), and not threatened but “climate-change-susceptible” (yellows). (b) Shows areas containing high proportions of threatened and “climate-change-susceptible” (reds), and not threatened and “climate-change-susceptible” amphibian species (yellows) (expressed as the percentage of species in these categories relative to the total number of species occurring there). High concentration areas indicate those with the top 10%, 5% and 2.5% of values, and when these were not distinguishable, the nearest b appropriate percentages were used.

84 Species susceptibility to climate change impacts the number of threatened and susceptible Mexico; the arid region extending from susceptible” coral species (Figure 5b) species relative to the total number of the Western Sahara through the Red Sea also highlights the ‘Coral Triangle’, though species in any one area (expressed as the basin, south to the Horn of Africa and additional high concentration areas percentage of species of interest relative to along the coastal regions of the Arabian include the northern parts of the Great the total species number). This information Peninsula; and the foothills surrounding the Barrier Reef; the south-western coast of complements high concentration areas of northern Himalayan Plateau. Australia; the Yellow Sea; the East China overall species richness and is particularly Sea and the Sea of Japan; and various important for conservation planning at Corals areas along the coastlines of Pakistan, regional and global scales. Based on high concentration area analysis, India and Bangladesh. Although not a single high concentration area is identiﬁ ed particularly species rich on a global scale For amphibians, mapping the relative for warm-water reef-building corals based and therefore not appearing as high richness of threatened and “climate- on all assessment categories and their concentration areas in Figure 5a, these change-susceptible” species (Figure 4b) combinations, namely the ‘Coral Triangle’ regions clearly face an extremely high level once again highlights Mesoamerica, the bordered by the Philippines, Malaysia of threat. northern Andes and the Caribbean, but for and Indonesia (Figure 5a). This is the this group, the area of high concentration high concentration area of threatened Areas with high concentrations of continues intermittently through and “climate-change-susceptible”, non-threatened but “climate-change- southwestern North America and the Andes not threatened but “climate-change- susceptible” corals show a markedly as far south as central Chile. Additional susceptible”, as well as for overall coral different pattern to those of other coral areas of high concentration include several species richness and threatened coral groups (Figure 5b). The species-rich Mediterranean islands and south-western species richness (Carpenter et al. 2008). ‘Coral Triangle’ is not highlighted, but in Turkey; the Seychelles; the southern The ‘Coral Triangle’ is already being several areas of generally low species Japanese islands; New Zealand’s North negatively impacted by climate change richness, more than 90% of all species Island; and Fiji. Areas of high concentration (Carpenter et al. 2008) and our results are not threatened but “climate-change- of relative numbers of species assessed reinforce the extreme importance of susceptible”. High concentration areas of as not threatened but “climate-change- effective conservation in this region. these species include the Mediterranean susceptible” include western and central and extending to north-west Africa; the Australia; the Solomon Islands; south Mapping areas with high proportions east coast of the United States; the eastern South America; north-western of threatened and “climate-change- southern United States coast; north-

Emperor Penguin Aptenodytes forsteri and man meet in front of Mount Discovery (McMurdo Sound, Antarctica). Although currently listed as Least Concern, Emperor Penguins’ poor dispersal potential and low reproductive rate make them likely to be susceptible to negative impacts of climate change. © Colin Harris

85 Wildlife in a Changing World

Figure 5. Areas of high concentration of warm- water reef-building coral species assessed as (a) threatened and “climate-change-susceptible” (reds), and not threatened but “climate-change- susceptible” (yellows). (b) Shows areas containing high proportions of threatened and “climate- change-susceptible”, and not threatened and “climate-change-susceptible” coral species (yellows) (expressed as the percentage of species in these categories relative to the total number of species occurring there). High concentration areas indicate those with the top 10%, 5% and 2.5% of values, and when these were not distinguishable, the nearest appropriate percentages were used.

are reliable predictors within and across species groups.

Key messages • Some species are much more susceptible to climate change impacts than others due to inherent biological traits related to their life history, ecology, behaviour, physiology and genetics.

• High risks of extinction occur when a species experience both high susceptibility to climate change and large climatic changes.

• IUCN has conducted assessments of susceptibility to climate change for the world’s birds, amphibians and warm- water reef-building coral species. Based on a range of taxon-speciﬁ c traits, we found that 35%, 52% and 71% of these groups respectively have traits that render them particularly susceptible to climate change impacts.

• 70-80% of birds, amphibians and corals that are already threatened are also “climate-change-susceptible”. Given exposure to large climatic changes, b these species which also have least resilience to further threat, already face the greatest risk of extinction. Of species that are not considered western Mexico; the east and south-east taxonomic groups and areas where threatened, 28-71% are “climate- of Brazil; the East China Sea; and smaller species potentially face the highest risk change-susceptible”. We identify the areas around Australia. These areas are of extinction due to climate change. taxonomic groups and geographic likely to be subject to rapid coral declines However, ﬁ rst we propose to examine regions harbouring the greatest if they are exposed to large climatic the traits and their distribution across concentrations of the above species changes. species in order to evaluate the extent to and recommend that they are given high which they can be shown to be predictive conservation priority. In the long term we plan to compare of climate change impacts, as well as the distribution of “climate-change- to examine the inter-relationships and • Assessments of “climate-change- susceptible” species with areas of large possible redundancies in the trait set. This susceptibility” complement IUCN Red climatic change exposure, based on process will contribute to the validation List assessments of extinction risk and General Circulation Model projections, and testing of our methods in order to serve as a ‘warning ﬂ ag’ highlighting which will allow us to identify species, provide reassurance that the traits used the need for intensive monitoring and

86 Species susceptibility to climate change impacts

These corals of the Solomon Islands are healthy and none is currently threatened, yet 4 of the 5 species photographed have traits that are likely to make them susceptible to climate change impacts. These susceptible corals include Acropora digitifera (Near Threatened), A. gemmifera (Least Concern), A. robusta (Least Concern) and Pocillopora eydouxi (Near Threatened), which are more vulnerable to bleaching because their symbiont algae have low temperature tolerances, while those of the pink coral shown (Pocillopora verrucosa – Least Concern) may be more robust. © Emre Turak

potentially conservation action for A.A. 2007. Ecosystems, their properties, Pounds, J.A., Bustamante, M.R., Coloma, affected species. goods, and services. In: M.L. Parry, O.F. L.A., Consuegra, J.A., Fogden, M.P.L., Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden Foster, P.N., La Marca, E., Masters, K.L., and C.E. Hanson (eds). Climate Change Merino-Viteri, A., Puschendorf, R., Ron, S.R., References 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Sanchez-Azofeifa, G.A., Still, C.J. and Young Bosch, J. and Rincon, P.A. 2008. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth B.E. 2006. Widespread amphibian extinctions Chytridiomycosis-mediated expansion of Bufo Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental from epidemic disease driven by global bufo in a montane area of Central Spain: an Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge warming. Nature 439(7073): 161-167. indirect effect of the disease. Diversity and University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp 211- Royal Society 2005. Ocean acidiﬁ cation due Distributions 14(4): 637-643. 272. to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. Carpenter, K.E., Abrar, M., Aeby, G., Aronson, IUCN 2008. 2008 Red List of Threatened Report nr 12/05. R.B., Banks, S., Bruckner, A., Chiriboga, A., Species. Available at: http://www.iucnredlist. Stuart, S.N., Chanson, J.S., Cox, N.A., Young, Cortes, J., Delbeek, J.C., DeVantier, L., Edgar, org. B.E., Rodrigues, A.S.L., Fischman, D.L. G.J., Edwards, A.J., Fenner, D., Guzman, Kleypas, J.A., Buddemeier, R.W., Archer, D., and Waller, R.W. 2004. Status and trends H.M., Hoeksema, B.W. et al. 2008. One-Third Gattuso, J.P., Langdon, C. and Opdyke, of amphibian declines and extinctions of reef-building corals face elevated extinction B.N. 1999. Geochemical consequences of worldwide. Science 306(5702): 1783-1786. risk from climate change and local impacts. increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on Thomas, C.D., Cameron, A., Green, R.E., Science 321(5888): 560-563. coral reefs. Science 284(5411): 118-120. Bakkenes, M., Beaumont, L.J., Collingham, Corey, S.J. and Waite, T.A. 2008. Phylogenetic Lips, K.R., Reeve, J.D. and Witters L.R. Y.C., Erasmus, B.F.N., de Siqueira, M.F., autocorrelation of extinction threat in 2003. Ecological traits predicting amphibian Grainger, A., Hannah, L., Hughes, L., Huntley, globally imperilled amphibians. Diversity and population declines in Central America. B., van Jaarsveld, A.S., Midgley, G.F., Miles, Distributions 14: 614-629. Conservation Biology 17(4): 1078-1088. L., Ortega-Huerta, M.A., Townsend Peterson Fischlin, A., Midgley, G.F., Price, J.T., Leemans, Navas, C.A. and Otani, L. 2007. Physiology, A., Phillips, O.L. and Williams, S.E. 2004. R., Gopal, B., Turley, C., Rounsevell, M.D.A., environmental change, and anuran Extinction risk from climate change. Nature Dube, O.P., Tarazona, J. and Velichko, conservation. Phyllomedusa 6(2): 83-103. 427(6970): 145-148.

The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat

Annabelle Cuttelod, Nieves García, Dania Abdul Malak, Helen J. Temple and Vineet Katariya

The diverse Mediterranean presents. The Mediterranean is particularly the reptiles, a quarter of mammals, 14% The Mediterranean Basin is one of the noted for the diversity of its plants – of dragonfl ies, 6% of sharks and rays world’s richest places in terms of animal about 25,000 species are native to the and 3% of the birds. The Mediterranean and plant diversity. This diverse region, region, and more than half of these are is also hosting 253 species of endemic with its lofty mountains, ancient rivers, endemic – in other words, they are found freshwater fi sh. Although the Mediterranean deserts, forests, and many thousands of nowhere else on earth. This has led to the Sea makes up less than 1% of the global islands, is a mosaic of natural and cultural Mediterranean being recognized as one ocean surface, up to 18% of the world’s landscapes, where human civilization and of the fi rst 25 Global Biodiversity Hotspots macroscopic marine species are found wild nature have coexisted for centuries (Myers et al. 2000). there, of which 25 to 30% are endemic (Figure 1). The unique conjunction of – an incredibly rich biodiversity for such a geography, history, and climate has led Besides this great richness of plants, a small area (Bianchi and Morri 2000). The to a remarkable evolutionary radiation that high proportion of Mediterranean animals Mediterranean’s importance for wildlife is continues to the present day, as animals are unique to the region: 2 out of 3 not limited to the richness or uniqueness and plants have adapted to the myriad amphibian species are endemic, as well of its resident fauna and fl ora: millions of opportunities for life that the region as half of the crabs and crayfi sh, 48% of of migratory birds from the far reaches

Figure 1. Map of the Mediterranean Sea and surrounding countries.

89 Wildlife in a Changing World

Box 1: Why is species conservation important?

Species provide us with essential services: not only food, fuel, cultural, aesthetic and spiritual values. Consequently the loss of clothes and medicine, but also purifi cation of water and air, prevention species diminishes the quality of our lives and our basic economic of soil erosion, regulation of climate, pollination of crops by insects, security. From an ethical point of view, species are part of our natural and many more. In the Mediterranean, they provide a vital resource heritage and we owe it to future generations to preserve and protect for the tourism and fi shing industries, as well as having signifi cant them.

of Europe and Africa use Mediterranean 31% of all international tourists – visited instruments such as the Convention for the wetlands and other habitats as stopover or the Mediterranean, particularly its coastal Protection of the Marine Environment and breeding sites. areas (Blue Plan 2008). Many visitors the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean to the region are drawn by its natural or Barcelona Convention. It gives a timely The Human Factor beauty, but heavy pressure from visitors overview of the status of biodiversity, and In addition to its thousands of species of and residents alike is causing severe provides sound scientifi c data to decision- fauna and fl ora, the Mediterranean region environmental degradation. Urbanization, makers for policy development and is home to some 455 million human coastal development, pollution, and management of natural resources. These inhabitants, from a wide variety of countries unsustainable exploitation of natural assessments will help Mediterranean and cultures. Considerable economic resources such as marine fi sh are just countries to determine whether or not they disparities exist within the region, with the have met their obligations, commitments GNI per capita of the Mediterranean EU “An outstanding centre of and targets under international countries (USD 20,800) being ten times biodiversity but also one of agreements, such as the target to reduce that of the North African ones (USD 2,100) the most threatened, mainly the rate of biodiversity loss by 2010 under (World Bank 2006). Poor people depend by human activity” the Convention on Biological Diversity heavily on natural resources and the loss of (CBD 2002). Hence IUCN is coordinating biodiversity is undermining the potential for a process to evaluate the conservation economic growth, affecting the security of some of the many human activities that are status of all vertebrates and selected populations (food, health, etc.) and limiting leading to an ever-increasing number of invertebrate and plant groups in the their options. On the other hand, economic Mediterranean species to be facing a high Mediterranean region, including terrestrial, development increases the pressures on risk of extinction. freshwater and marine species. In total, the environment and hence conservation 1,912 species have been assessed to challenges and options in the region are Assessing Mediterranean date (Table 1). Some taxonomic groups driven by these economic inequities. Species have been assessed at the global level Assessing the conservation status of (amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles), The region also receives a large number species at the Mediterranean regional level while others have been evaluated regionally of visitors: in 2005, 246 million people – is particularly relevant to regional policy (cartilaginous fi shes, cetaceans, crabs

Table 1. Numbers of species from Mediterranean countries assigned to each IUCN Red List category, by taxonomic group. Assessments carried out between 2004 and 2008 by IUCN and its partners. Data Deﬁ cient means that there is not enough information to assign the species to one of the other Categories, and it does not imply that the species is not threatened.

Endemic IUCN Red List Cartilaginous Crabs and Amphibians1 Birds1 Cetaceans2,3 Freshwater Mammals1 Dragonfl ies2,4 Reptiles1 TOTAL Categories fi shes2 Crayfi sh 2,3 fi shes1,4 Extinct5 110 0 0 8 2 4 016 Critically 4 6 13 1 0 45 5 5 14 93 Endangered Endangered 13 9 8 2 3 46 15 13 22 131 Vulnerable 16 13 9 2 2 51 27 13 11 144 Near Threatened 17 29 13 0 4 10 20 27 36 156 Least Concern 63 543 10 0 5 52 231 96 253 1253 Data Defi cient 1 0 18 4 0 41 30 6 19 119 TOTAL 115 601 71 9 14 253 330 164 355 1912 Endemic 71 (62%) 16 (3%) 4 (6%) 0 (0%) 7 (50%) 253 (100%) 87 (26%) 23 (14%) 170 (48%) 631 (33%)

1 Species assessed at the global level. 2 Species assessed at the regional level. 3 Preliminary data; still to be conﬁ rmed by the IUCN Red List Authority. 4 Only the species occurring in river basins ﬂ owing into the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent Atlantic waters were included in the assessment (Smith and Darwall 2006). 5 “Extinct” includes the categories Extinct, Extinct in the Wild and Regionally Extinct.

90 The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat

Birds2 Reptiles2

Mammals2

1 Odonata EX 2 CR/EN/VU Amphibians LC/NT Crabs and crayfish1 DD

Cartilaginous fishes1

Cetaceans1

Endemic freshwater fishes2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % of species

1 Species assessed at the regional level 2 Species assessed at the global level

Figure 2. Percentages of Extinct, threatened, non-threatened and Data Deﬁ cient species in each major taxonomic group assessed.

and crayfi sh, endemic freshwater fi shes A closer look at the different groups shows threatened species in the Mediterranean and Odonata (dragonfl ies and damselfl ies, that at least 56% of endemic freshwater (those classifi ed as Critically Endangered, later referred to collectively as dragonfl ies)). fi shes, 56% of dolphins and whales, 42% of Endangered or Vulnerable), either at the Although the global and regional sharks and rays, 36% of crabs and crayfi sh, global or at the regional level, is about one assessments are not directly comparable 29% of amphibians, 19% of dragonfl ies fi fth (19%) and about 1% of the species with each other, they do give an indication and damselfl ies, 14% of mammals, 13% is already extinct in the region. These of the different levels of threat faced by of reptiles and 5% of birds are threatened percentages will be higher if some of the each taxonomic group. with extinction. Overall, the proportion of currently Data Defi cient species prove

Figure 3. Species richness of amphibians in the Mediterranean basin (a) and species richness of globally threatened amphibians in the Mediterranean basin (b).

Figure 4. Species richness of globally threatened birds in the Mediterranean basin. (Map of bird species richness is not available).

91 Wildlife in a Changing World

a b

Figure 5. Species richness of crabs in the Mediterranean basin (a) and species richness of regionally threatened crabs in the Mediterranean basin (b).

a b

Figure 6. Species richness of endemic freshwater ﬁ sh in the Mediterranean basin (a) and species richness of threatened endemic freshwater ﬁ sh in the Mediterranean basin (b).

a b

Figure 7. Species richness of mammals (including cetaceans) in the Mediterranean basin (a) and species richness of globally threatened mammals (including cetaceans) in the Mediterranean basin (b).

to be threatened. Sixteen species are signify the defi nitive loss of an important part Freshwater habitats already extinct in the region, including some of the world’s biological heritage. In addition to invaluable “ecosystem services” endemics such as the Hula Painted Frog such as food, water purifi cation, fl ood Discoglossus nigriventer, the Canary Islands The geographic distribution of species and pollution control, and fertile sediment Oystercatcher Haematopus meadewaldoi richness and threatened species for agriculture, rivers and wetlands also and seven endemic freshwater fi shes: richness, highlighting regions with greater provide irreplaceable habitats for thousands Tristramella intermedia, Tristramella concentrations of species at risk that of species. But freshwater habitats are magdelainae, Alburnus akili, Chondrostoma should be given particular attention, is facing major threats: Mediterranean rivers scodrense, Mirogrex hulensis, Telestes presented for each taxonomic group in contain more than 3,500 dams, sediment ukliva and Salmo pallaryi. These extinctions Figures 3 to 9. discharge is drastically reduced and water

92 The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat

a b

Figure 8. Species richness of dragonﬂ ies in the Mediterranean basin (a) and species richness of regionally threatened dragonﬂ ies in the Mediterranean basin (b).

a b

Figure 9. Species richness of reptiles in the Mediterranean basin (a) and species richness of globally threatened reptiles in the Mediterranean basin (b).

is diverted for energy production, irrigation or “Freshwater species worrying status of Mediterranean wetlands water supply, reducing therefore the original contribute signifi cantly to the and rivers. Freshwater species have been basin drainage area by about 78% (Poulos economy, environment and mapped based on river basins fl owing and Collins 2002). In most Mediterranean livelihoods of Mediterranean into the Mediterranean Sea and adjacent countries, water-use is approaching the limit societies” Atlantic Ocean river basins. Figure 10a of available resources (Blue Plan 2005) and provides an indication of patterns of high several rivers are now seasonally dry. reptiles and mammals are dependant of freshwater species richness, based on the freshwater habitat for at least some part of species assessed to date, while Figure Of the species assessed, 547 amphibians, their life cycle. The fact that 38% of them 10b indicates concentrations of species at crabs, freshwater fi shes, dragonfl ies, are threatened gives an indication of the risk, in particular in the Iberian Peninsula,

Figure 10. Species richness of freshwater amphibians, crabs, endemic fi shes, mammals, dragonfl ies and reptiles in the Mediterranean basin (a) and species richness of freshwater threatened amphibians, crabs, endemic fi shes, mammals, dragonfl ies and reptiles in the Mediterranean basin (b). a b

93 Wildlife in a Changing World

Mediterranean freshwater-dependent species: Green Gomphid Ophiogomphus cecilia – Least Concern © Jean-Pierre Boudot. Pond Water-crowfoot Ranunculus peltatus – Not Evaluated © Serge Müller. Economidichthys pygmaeus – Least Concern © Ioannis Rousopoulos. Pyrenean Frog Rana pyrenaica – Endangered © Lars Bergendorf

the Balkans, the western part of Greece of these freshwater species is therefore a these groups being endemic. There is also and the area from Turkey down to Israel. key tool in the conservation of important a high diversity of birds, invertebrates and More information about the conservation Mediterranean wetlands. plants. The initial results show that about status of amphibians and endemic 16% of the assessed terrestrial species are freshwater fi sh are detailed in Cox et al. Terrestrial habitats threatened with extinction. (2006) and Smith and Darwall (2006). The Mediterranean region is made up of a mosaic of different terrestrial habitats, Based on these results, terrestrial species Some species, such as various containing a diverse range of species, richness is shown in Figure 11a. It’s amphibians and dragonfl ies, are particularly including 355 species of reptiles (Cox et interesting to note the Hoggar mountain sensitive to water quality and considered al. 2006), 330 species of mammals, 106 region, in the south of Algeria, which is an to be good indicators of the health of species of amphibians, 158 species of important refuge for numerous species. freshwater systems. Monitoring the status dragonfl ies, about half of the species in However, this map is only indicative, as

Figure 11. Species richness of terrestrial amphibians, mammals, dragonﬂ ies and reptiles in the Mediterranean basin (a) and species richness of threatened terrestrial amphibians, mammals, dragonﬂ ies and reptiles in the Mediterranean basin (b).

94 The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat

Box 2: Mediterranean island plants

With almost 5,000 islands and islets, the Mediterranean comprises one are conﬁ ned to single small locations, they are extremely vulnerable of the largest groups of islands in the world. Mediterranean islands display to habitat destruction, overgrazing, and urban expansion. The Top 50 extraordinary features, with high rates of endemism, and act as a natural Mediterranean Island Plants highlights some of the most threatened plant laboratory for evolutionary studies. Their particularities give rise to speciﬁ c species of the Mediterranean islands, stressing particular situations and conservation challenges. Thus many of the endemic island plant species conservation needs (Montmollin and Strahm 2005).

Box 3: Medicinal plants: Biodiversity that saves lives

North African people have ancient and rich traditions associated with the Mediterranean are known to be of potential value in ﬁ elds such the use of medicinal plants. Plant-derived products are used in the as medicine, biotechnology and crop improvements (UNEP 2006). production of traditional medicines, cosmetics and perfumes. They are Increased demand, coupled with unsustainable collection from the wild particularly important for people of the region, as they are sometimes has led a number of important plant species to become scarce in areas the only source of medicine readily available. Mediterranean plants have where they were previously abundant. The regulation of their collection been used in the development of modern pharmaceutical products is therefore essential, to ensure that these valuable species continue to and crop varieties, and about 70% of the North African wild plants in be available in future.

plants and invertebrates, which account small area. Of the world’s 85 cetacean Cartilaginous ﬁ shes (sharks, rays and for most of the terrestrial species, have not species, 23 are known to occur in the chimaeras) are also present, with 71 yet been assessed. Figure 11b indicates Mediterranean and the Black Seas. species living and breeding in the some areas of particular concern, due to Some are just visitors, but nine species Mediterranean Sea (Cavanagh and Gibson the high numbers of threatened species, in are known to be year-round residents 2007). particular Morocco, the eastern rim of the in the Mediterranean (Reeves and Mediterranean basin and Turkey. Notarbartolo 2006). An additional marine Despite the general impression of mammal species is encountered in the homogeneity, under-sea ecosystems are Marine habitats Mediterranean Sea: the Mediterranean very diverse, with submarine mountains, The Mediterranean Sea contains an Monk Seal Monachus monachus – the canyons and other speciﬁ c hydrological immense diversity of life despite its world’s most endangered pinniped. features. As a consequence, marine species are not evenly distributed (Figures 12a and 12b) and some areas are of critical importance for the conservation of these species as they provide unique nursery and feeding sites.

Sharks are the top predators of the Mediterranean Sea food chain: they regulate species abundance, distribution and diversity, and they help maintain the marine ecosystem’s health and limit disease dispersal by taking sick or weak prey. Nonetheless, they are facing a particularly high risk of extinction. Accidental killing, intensive ﬁ shing activities and pollution are severe threats for these species, and the situation in the Mediterranean Sea is much bleaker than it is worldwide: 42% of the shark species are threatened in the region in comparison with 17% globally (Polidoro et al. this volume), which has led to the Mediterranean being described as the most dangerous

Mediterranean terrestrial species: Kythrean Sage Salvia veneris – Critically Endangered © Yiannis Christoﬁ des. Desert Horned Viper Cerastes cerastes – Least Concern © Wolfgang Böhme. Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus – Endangered © Pedro Regato. Spanish Ibex Capra pyrenaica – Least Concern © Pedro Regato

95 Wildlife in a Changing World

Mediterranean marine species: Short-Beaked Common Dolphin Delphinus delphis – Endangered © Giovanni Bearzi/Tethys. Long-snouted Seahorse Hippocampus guttulatus – Data Deﬁ cient © TUDAV. Goose Foot Star Peltaster placenta – Not Evaluated © TUDAV. Giant Devilray Mobula mobular – Endangered © Maurizio Würtz

Figure 12. Species richness of marine mammals in the Mediterranean Sea (a) and species richness of threatened marine mammals in the Mediterranean Sea (b).

sea in the world for cartilaginous fi shes means that the real number of threatened Box 4: The most important (Cavanagh and Gibson 2007). species could well be much higher and causes of threat for that species could be declining or perhaps Mediterranean species The analysis of marine mammals and even disappearing from our waters without (by order of importance): shark species, as well as the fi rst results us even noticing. for other marine fi sh species, displays a • Habitat loss and degradation particularly striking feature of the marine The main causes of threat: • Pollution ecosystem: about one third of species why are so many species in • Overexploitation (unsustainable are assessed as Data Defi cient; in other peril? harvesting, hunting and fi shing) words, there is insuffi cient information Habitat Loss and Degradation • Natural disasters to determine which Red List Category a As Figure 13 clearly shows, the loss, • Invasive alien species species should be placed in. Research at fragmentation and degradation of • Human disturbance sea is logistically more diffi cult and more habitats as a direct or indirect result of • Bycatch expensive than on dry land, even in a sea human activities is the main threat to as much used as the Mediterranean. This Mediterranean species. This applies to

96 The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat

Habitat loss/degradation

Pollution Mammals (incl. marine) Birds Overexploitation Odonata Crabs and crayfish Cartilaginous fishes Natural disasters Amphibians Reptiles Alien invasive species FW endemic fishes

Human disturbance

Bycatch

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 % of species

Figure 13. Breakdown of the major threats to amphibians, birds, cartilaginous fi shes, crabs and crayfi sh, dragonfl ies, endemic freshwater fi shes, mammals (including marine mammals) and reptiles in the Mediterranean.

all taxonomic groups and to all parts of the Mediterranean region. Changes in land-use patterns, such as intensiﬁ cation or abandonment of agricultural practices, urbanization, industrialization or tourism development are some of the main causes of this degradation.

Infrastructure development is strongly affecting some of the most fragile habitats. For example, 32% of freshwater ﬁ shes are threatened by dam construction (Smith and Darwall 2006), which drastically alters hydrological processes, reduces the amount of water available downstream, blocks migratory routes and can impair reproduction (McAllister et al. 2001).

Pollution For the groups of species assessed so far, the second most important cause of threat is pollution. For example, chemical pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are well known to affect the immune system, increasing sensitivity to illness, and causing increased mortality and impaired reproductive success. Mediterranean populations of Striped Dolphins Stenella coeruleoalba have suffered population declines due to

Dam in Northern Spain. © Kevin Smith

97 Wildlife in a Changing World morbillivirus infection, and it is believed et al. 2008), which will have an impact on human needs (food, pest control) or that PCBs played an important role by the distribution and survival of species. accidental (often as a result of increased compromising the immune system of the Information collected during the Red globalization of transport). These invasive affected animals. List assessment process shows that species can cause enormous damage populations of North African freshwater to ecosystems, livelihoods and human Another type of pollution is noise pollution: species such as molluscs and dragonfl ies health, and they are one of the most in the Mediterranean Sea, the increasing are already shifting their ranges northwards important causes of biodiversity loss, levels of noise due to marine traffi c are in response to rising temperatures and especially on Mediterranean islands. Due harming cetaceans by impairing their decreasing availability of water – and to a lack of information and awareness, ability to communicate and to locate their there is a limit as to how far north they the issue of invasive species and their prey. can move, given that the Mediterranean effects is often underestimated and Sea presents a major barrier to dispersal. adequate prevention and mitigation Solid waste is also a serious problem: Through a combination of climate change, measures are lacking. discarded plastic bags have caused the increased water abstraction, and the death of many marine animals such as construction of dams, some rivers in North Human Disturbance turtles, birds or dolphins that mistake the Africa are now completely dry for parts of The Mediterranean is a densely populated bags for jellyfi sh and die from ingesting the year when previously they fl owed year- region that receives large numbers of them. Runoff of agricultural fertilizers round, and some springs have completely visitors each year, and direct disturbance causes eutrophication of coastal waters dried out. A number of range-restricted by humans is an important threat to some and can result in the formation of “dead molluscs are already feared to have gone animals and plants, including iconic zones”, where no oxygen is available and extinct. Mediterranean species such as the fi sh and crustaceans cannot survive (Diaz Northern Bald Ibis Geronticus eremita and and Rosenberg 2008). Invasive Alien Species the Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus Invasive alien species are alien species monachus, both listed as Critically Overexploitation (Unsustainable which become established in natural or Endangered. Disturbance at breeding sites Harvesting, Hunting and Fishing) semi-natural ecosystems or habitat, are can be particularly problematic, as species Overexploitation is a serious problem an agent of change, and threaten native may abandon their young. for Mediterranean species, affecting biological diversity (IUCN 2000). Their many threatened plants, reptiles, fi shes, introduction can be deliberate, to satisfy Bycatch and other species. Overexploitation is Most of the Mediterranean marine driven by several causes: for example, species assessed so far are affected by demand for traditional medicines is Box 5: The Water Hyacinth accidental capture in fi shing gear, also threatening some plants, seahorses and called “bycatch”. This is considered to be mammals species. Illegal trade is also of The Water Hyacinth Eichornia crassipes, a major threat for sharks, rays, dolphins major concern in the Mediterranean: the originally from the Amazon basin in South and marine turtles. All shark species are Critically Endangered Egyptian Tortoise America and introduced for ornamental use considered to be threatened by bycatch, Testudo kleinmanni is, for example, in garden ponds, is now widely distributed heavily affected by the illegal national and in the Mediterranean basin. Doubling its population every two weeks, it cover Box 6: The Mediterranean Monk Seal international pet trade. Increased fi shing quickly rivers and water bodies, impeding activities and more effi cient fi shing boats boat traffi c, competing with endemic The Mediterranean Monk Seal Monachus and gear have resulted in the overfi shing aquatic plants and, by reducing the light monachus is classifi ed as Critically available under the water, threatening and consequent decline of some fi sh Endangered and is the most threatened the whole ecosystem (Lowe et al. 2000). species. Overexploitation is likely to be of pinniped species in the world. Only 350- Its control costs millions of Euros each 450 animals survive, with the largest major importance for some Mediterranean year just in the European Mediterranean remaining population sited in the eastern species groups (e.g., marine fi shes and countries. Mediterranean, in Greece, western Turkey medicinal plants) for which comprehensive and some islands in the Ionian and assessments have not yet been © Geoffrey Howard Aegean Seas. Remnant populations are completed. fragmented and declining. The main threats are linked to human activities and include Natural Disasters exploitation, bycatch and persecution. More recently, tourism has grown to Many Mediterranean species are become one of the most signifi cant hazards threatened by natural disasters or extreme faced by monk seals, particularly in the climatic events, notably forest fi res and eastern Mediterranean: as well as causing droughts. The frequency of such events signifi cant disturbance to individuals is expected to increase as a result of and breeding colonies, tourist activities increase the risk of vessel accidents, spills, global climate change. Climate change transmission of disease, and the discharge models indicate that the Mediterranean of pollutants and waste near the seals region will experience decreasing rainfall (IUCN 2007). and increasing sea temperatures (Bates

98 The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat

A Loggerhead Turtle Caretta caretta trapped in a swordﬁ sh driftnet. This species is listed as Endangered. © TUDAV

has signiﬁ cantly improved the status of some Mediterranean species, such as the Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus crispus (Nagy and Crockford 2004). The Barcelona Convention (1976) deﬁ ned action plans for key Mediterranean threatened species (such as the Monk Seal, the sharks or the marine vegetation). Mediterranean assessments can support this process by providing crucial information on threatened species.

The primary goal of species conservation is the preservation of viable populations of wild species in their original native range. However, in certain circumstances, in but the large coastal species, which example, little more than a quarter (27%) of particular for the most threatened species, are more exposed to intensive fi shing threatened sharks benefi t from any form of intensive management such as captive pressure, are thought to be the most protective legislation. breeding may be necessary to ensure seriously affected (Cavanagh and Gibson the survival of species that are close to 2007). Species Action Plans can be an extinction. effective means of determining specifi c Conservation actions to conservation actions that are needed Site protection prevent extinction and for promoting coordinated activities. Site protection, for example through the Numerous national, regional and The implementation of action plans designation of protected areas, is one international actions have been put in of the most effective means of reducing place to enhance species survival in the global biodiversity loss. However, the goal Mediterranean. Through the Mediterranean Box 8: The Mallorcan Midwife Toad of protecting at least 10% of each of the Species Assessment process participating world’s ecological regions by 2010 is still scientists propose recommendations The Mallorcan Midwife Toad Alytes far out of reach, especially the commitment muletensis is a very rare species endemic for targeted conservation actions that to create and sustain a coherent network to the island of Mallorca (Spain). It is are needed to reduce species extinction threatened by predation by the introduced of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) by risk and which can help Mediterranean Viperine Snake Natrix maura, and 2012 (Word Sustainable Development states to monitor whether or not they are competition for space with Perez´s Frog Summit, Johannesburg 2002). In order meeting their obligations under the regional Pelophylax perezi, as well as by habitat to effectively safeguard all threatened loss owing to the development of tourism and global conventions and multi-lateral species, especially threatened endemics, and human settlements. A conservation agreements. and recovery plan is being undertaken by protected areas need to be designed as the Species Conservation Service of the representative networks and to integrate Species protection Conselleria de Medi Ambient in Mallorca, a gap analysis assessing the adequacy Improvement and enforcement of legal with captive breeding and reintroductions of species coverage. In this respect, taking place. Thanks to these measures, protection for threatened species and their Mediterranean marine protected areas are the species, initially assessed as Critically habitats is the most urgent conservation Endangered, has now been downlisted to notably under-developed and the southern action to be taken at both regional and Vulnerable. and eastern parts of the area, despite their national levels. Many threatened species importance for the marine biodiversity, are currently have no legal protection: for Male Mallorcan Midwife Toad carrying eggs. insuffi ciently protected. © Richard Griffi ths “Integrating species data Box 7: Main conservation actions and spatial distributions into for Mediterranean species: the planning and designation of protected areas allows • Species protection • Site protection the establishment of more • Conservation of the wider environment effi cient and representative • Communication and education • Monitoring and research networks.”

7-Mediterranean.indd 99 10/07/2009 12:59:26 Wildlife in a Changing World

Conservation of the wider environment Although protected areas are a key tool for protecting species, many plants and animals live outside these areas, often in semi-natural or man-made environments where coexistence with humans is the only option for survival, and where wildlife conservation is just one of many competing land-uses. For species to prosper in the wider environment, it is essential that biodiversity conservation is integrated into public policy in other sectors that impact on species and their habitats, notably agriculture, ﬁ sheries, forestry, urban planning, transport, water management, and so on.

Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) takes an ecosystem approach to the management of rivers, associated wetlands and groundwater systems. River basins are dynamic systems, and Tajo National Park (Guadalajara, Spain). © Pedro Regato any single management intervention has implications for the system as a whole. IRBM is the process of coordination, through stakeholder participation, of actions that could be taken to mitigate Key fi ndings biodiversity conservation, management them is an essential part of sustainable • The regional assessments confi rm and water resource allocation decisions development. The species assessments the high diversity and endemism of across the river basin as a whole to ensure provide timely and reliable information Mediterranean plants and animals, but that freshwater ecosystems are maintained on which such communication can be also underline the severe threats that whilst ensuring that human development based. They promote synergies and these species face. Nine species groups needs are equitably met. collaboration between regional actors have been comprehensively assessed to enhance conservation efforts to halt to date (amphibians, birds, cartilaginous Communication and Education biodiversity loss, as exemplifi ed by the fi shes, cetaceans, crabs and crayfi sh, Effective conservation cannot be establishment of the fi rst Intercontinental endemic freshwater fi shes, mammals, achieved without the support of those Biosphere Reserve between Spain and dragonfl ies and reptiles), and almost a people dependent on natural resources. Morocco. fi fth of these species are threatened with Communicating about the status of extinction, with 5% Critically Endangered, their environment, its importance for Monitoring and research 7% Endangered and 7% Vulnerable. humans, the main threats and the A solid evidence base is necessary to determine conservation priorities and take • Freshwater ecosystems are under appropriate action. The Mediterranean particularly severe pressure - over 56% Box 9: The Gizani assessments provide a baseline against of endemic freshwater fi sh species are which future progress can be assessed, threatened with extinction. The Gizani Ladigesocypris ghigii is a fi sh species endemic to Rhodes, Greece, and provide a wealth of information on which is threatened by water abstraction species status, population size and • The marine ecosystem is poorly and is classifi ed as Vulnerable. It has trends, distribution, habitat requirements, known, with around one third of marine been the subject of a LIFE-Nature project threats, conservation actions in place species assessed to date listed as Data involving the study of its geographic and needed, and other factors that will Defi cient. range, life history, reproduction, nutrition, habitat preferences, genetics and threats. be of use to policymakers, conservation Conservation actions designed include an practitioners, natural resource managers • Assessment of additional groups of Action Plan focusing on the sustainable and others. However, scientifi c species in this biodiversity hotspot management of the island’s water information, especially in the marine is ongoing, and results will soon be resources. This project has helped to ecosystem, is still lacking and research available for marine fi shes, freshwater ensure the future survival of this species, showing that good conservation practices programmes are crucial to further develop molluscs, butterfl ies and endemic plants. can reduce a species’ risk of extinction the understanding and knowledge (Stoumboudi 2000). needed to underpin sound natural • Mediterranean species are threatened resource management. with extinction as a result of human

100 The Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat

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Frostick droughts in this already arid region, is set Blue Plan. 2005. A Sustainable Future for the (eds), Sediment Flux to Basins: Causes, to be an increasingly signifi cant threat in Mediterranean. The Blue Plan’s Environment Controls and Consequences, pp. 227-245. the future. and Development Outlook. UNEP Blue Plan Geological Society (Special Publications), Activity Centre, Sophia Antipolis, France. London. Reeves, R. and Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. • Urgent action is needed to preserve the Blue Plan. 2008. The Blue Plan´s Sustainable Development Outlook for the Mediterranean. (compilers and editors). 2006. The Status future of the Mediterranean. Sustainable UNEP Blue Plan Activity Centre, Sophia and Distribution of Cetaceans in the Black management and legal protection of Antipolis, France. Sea and Mediterranean Sea. IUCN Centre species and their habitats are the key Cavanagh, R.D. and Gibson, C. 2007. for Mediterranean Cooperation, Malaga, conservation actions to be promoted in Overview of the Conservation Status of Spain. Smith, K.G. and Darwall, W.R.T. (compilers). the Mediterranean region, but education Cartilaginous Fishes (Chondrichthyans) in the Mediterranean Sea. IUCN, Gland, 2006. The Status and Distribution and research are also needed. Switzerland and Malaga, Spain. of Freshwater Fish Endemic to the CBD Secretariat. 2002. Strategic Plan for Mediterranean Basin. IUCN, Gland, • Conservation actions applied to date the Convention on Biological Diversity. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. have had positive results and some Publication of the Decision VI/26. Sixth Stoumboudi, M.T. 2000. Conservation measures for the endangered fi sh species have already been saved from meeting of the Convention on Biological Diversity 2002. Ladigesocypris ghigii. A Life-Nature extinction. However, in a region like Cox, N., Chanson, J. and Stuart, S. project. Symposium on “Freshwater Fish the Mediterranean, where biodiversity (compilers). 2006. The Status and Conservation - Options for the future”. is so strongly infl uenced by human Distribution of Reptiles and Amphibians Algarve, Portugal. activities, biodiversity loss is a constant of the Mediterranean Basin. IUCN, Gland, UNEP. 2006. Africa Environment Outlook 2 - Our Environment, Our Wealth. United reality that will only be stopped when Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Diaz, R.J. and Rosenberg, R. 2008. Spreading Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, humans realize how much their present dead zones and consequences for marine Kenya. and future health and prosperity can be ecosystems. Science 321: 926-929. World Bank. 2006. Key development data and damaged when species disappear. IUCN. 2000. IUCN Guidelines for the statistics. Downloaded on August 25, 2008, Prevention of Biodiversity Loss Caused from http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/ by Alien Invasive Species. IUCN, Gland, EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,content References MDK:20535285~menuPK:1192694~pag Bates, B.C., Kundzewicz, Z.W., Wu, S. Switzerland. ePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSite and Palutikof, J.P. (eds.). 2008. Climate IUCN. 2007. Monachus monachus. In: IUCN. PK:239419,00.html. Change and Water. Technical Paper of 2007. European Mammal Assessment.

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Appendices

appendices.indd 103 10/07/2009 13:49:48 appendices.indd 104 10/07/2009 13:49:53 Appendix 1: Summary of the ﬁ ve criteria (A–E) used to evaluate if a taxon belongs in a threatened category (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable)

Use any of the criteria A–E Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable A. Population reduction Declines measured over the longer of 10 years or 3 generations A1 90% 70% 50% A2, A3 & A4 80% 50% 30% A1. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND have ceased, based on and specifying any of the following: (a) direct observation (b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon (c) a decline in area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) and/or habitat quality (d) actual or potential levels of exploitation (e) effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites. A2. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under A1. A3. Population reduction projected or suspected to be met in the future (up to a maximum of 100 years) based on (b) to (e) under A1. A4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population reduction (up to a maximum of 100 years) where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under A1. B. Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) AND/OR B2 (area of occupancy) B1. Extent of occurrence (EOO) < 100 km² < 5,000 km² < 20,000 km2 B2. Area of occupancy (AOO) < 10 km² < 500 km² < 2,000 km2

AND at least 2 of the following: (a) Severely fragmented, OR Number of locations = 1 5 10 (b) Continuing decline in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat; (iv) number of locations or subpopulations; (v) number of mature individuals. (c) Extreme ﬂ uctuations in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) number of locations or subpopulations; (iv) number of mature individuals. C. Small population size and decline Number of mature individuals < 250 < 2,500 < 10,000 AND either C1 or C2: C1. An estimated continuing 25% in 3 years or 20% in 5 years or 2 10% in 10 years or 3 generations decline of at least: 1 generation generations (up to a max. of 100 years in future) C2. A continuing decline AND (a) and/or (b): (a i) Number of mature individuals in each < 50 < 250 < 1,000 subpopulation: or (a ii) % individuals in one 90–100% 95–100% 100% subpopulation = (b) Extreme ﬂ uctuations in the number of mature individuals. D. Very small or restricted population Either: Number of mature < 50 < 250 D1. < 1,000 individuals AND/OR D2. typically: Restricted area of occupancy AOO < 20 km² or number of locations 5 E. Quantitative Analysis Indicating the probability of 50% in 10 years or 3 20% in 20 years or 5 10% in 100 years extinction in the wild to be: generations (100 years max.) generations (100 years max.)

105

appendices.indd 105 10/07/2009 13:49:53 Wildlife in a Changing World Appendix 2. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ threat categories scale

The IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria are the world’s most widely used system for gauging the extinction risk faced by species. Each species assessed is assigned to one of eight different Categories (Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened and Data Deﬁ cient), based on a series of quantitative criteria.

Species classiﬁ ed as Vulnerable, Endangered and Critically Endangered are regarded as ‘threatened’.

The threat category scales are an easy to use graphic element that clearly identiﬁ es the threat category of a species.

The scales can be used on signage, posters, in publications, etc. They can only be used in relation to a species that has been assessed and appears on The IUCN Red List. The scale must always be placed next to the name of the species.

There are alternative versions of the scale depending on usage. The preferred option is to use the long scale however where space is limited, the short scale, or a single button can be used. If the short scale or single button is used, then an explanation of the Threat Categories must appear nearby to ensure a clear understanding of the scale or button.

If you are interested in using the threat category scales please email [email protected]

106

appendices.indd 106 10/07/2009 13:49:53 Appendices Appendix 3. Sources for numbers of described species used in Table 1 of the chapter State of the World’s Species

Taxonomic Group Data source used References Vertebrates Bouchet, P. 2007. Inventorying the molluscan fauna of the world: how far to go? In: K. Jordaens, N. van Mammals From Wilson and Reeder (2005; see http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/), with deviations Houtte, J. van Goethem and T. Backlejau (eds), based on new revisions and published papers that have appeared since the accounts Abstracts of the World Congress of Malacology. in Wilson and Reeder (2005) were compiled and largely up until 31 December 2007, Antwerp, Belgium. but there are a few exceptions where new species published early in 2008 were included. In cases where there are alternative taxonomic treatments, the Global Mammal Bramwell, D. 2002. How many plant species are Assessment coordinating team working with the relevant IUCN SSC Specialist Group there? Plant Talk 28: 32–34. has advised on which treatment to follow. Cairns, S.D. 1999. Species richness of recent Birds BirdLife International. 2008. The BirdLife checklist of the birds of the world, with Scleractinia. Atoll Research Bulletin 459: 1–46. conservation status and taxonomic sources. Version 1. Available from http://www. Chapman, A. 2005 (updated April 2007). Numbers birdlife.org/datazone/species/downloads/BirdLife_Checklist_Version_1.zip [.xls zipped 1 of Living Species in Australia and the World. MB]. Accessed: 28 September 2008. Available at: http://www.environment.gov.au/ Reptiles Based on the fi gures (as of February 2008) provided by The Reptile Database compiled biodiversity/abrs/publications/other/species- by Peter Uetz and Jakob Hallermann. Available at: http://www.reptile-database.org. numbers/03-04-groups-others.html#lichens. Accessed: 28 September 2008. Accessed: 28 September 2008. Amphibians From Frost (2008). Donaldson, J. (ed.) 2003. Cycads. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Cycad Fishes Based on Froese and Pauly (2008). Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Invertebrates Cambridge, UK. Insects Estimates of the number of insects in the world vary from about 751,000 to more than Farjon, A. 2001. World Checklist and Bibliography 1 million, but the most commonly cited fi gure is 950,000 (see discussion in Chapman of Conifers. 2nd edition. World Checklists and (2005)). Bibliographies, 3. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Molluscs From Bouchet (2007). (For further discussion on the numbers of molluscs, see Chapman Froese, R. and Pauly, D. (eds). 2008. FishBase. (2005)). World Wide Web electronic publication. www. Crustaceans The estimated number of described species of Crustacea in the world varies from fi shbase.org. version (07/2008). Accessed: 28 30,000 to 67,000 but the best estimate is 40,000 (see discussion in Chapman (2005)). September 2008. Corals Corals fall under the Phylum Cnidaria and are primarily in the Class Anthozoa, although Frost, D.R. 2008. Amphibian Species of the World: there are some in the Class Hydrozoa. The number of described species reported here an Online Reference. Version 5.2 (15 July, 2008). are for species typically regarded as ‘corals’ and are largely based on Spalding et al. Available at: http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/ (2001) (Alcyonarian corals); and Cairns (1999) (Scleractinian corals). The remainder of the amphibia/index.php. Accessed: 28 September cnidarians, anemones, jellyfi sh, etc., are treated under “Others”. 2008. Arachnids (spiders, Estimates of the number of described arachnids vary from 60,000 to 96,711, but the Govaerts, R. 2001. How many species of seed plants scorpions, etc.) best estimate of 98,000 is higher than these fi gures (see discussion in Chapman (2005)). are there? Taxon 50: 1085–1090. Velvet Worms The number of described species of Onychophora (velvet worms) would appear to be Govaerts, R. 2003. How many species of seed plants around 165 (for further details see discussion in Chapman (2005)). are there? – a response. Taxon 52: 583–584. Horseshoe Crabs Horseshoe crabs are placed on the Red List under the traditional class “Merostomata” Groombridge, B. and Jenkins, M.D. 2002. World which excludes the fossil sea scorpions; only four species are extant today (see http:// Atlas of Biodiversity. Prepared by the UNEP World en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merostomata for further details). Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA. Others This is a miscellaneous group of invertebrate species that have been assessed for the IUCN Red List. The total number of described species is based on the estimated totals Guiry, M.D. and Guiry, G.M. 2008. AlgaeBase. World- from the following groups from which the assessed species come: Annelida - segmented wide electronic publication, National University worms (15,000), Cnidaria - anemones, jellyfi sh, etc. but excluding the corals which of Ireland, Galway. http://www.algaebase.org. are treated separately (6,825), Echinodermata -starfi sh (7,000 species), Myriapoda - Accessed: 28 September 2008. centipedes and millipedes (12,215) and Platyhelminthes - fl at worms (20,000). For further Kirk P.M., Cannon P.F., David J.C. and Stalpers J.A. details on the numbers in these groups see: Chapman (2005). 2001. Ainsworth and Bisby’s Dictionary of the Plants Fungi. 9th edition. Cambridge, United Kingdom: CAB International University Press. Mosses Based on information provided by Chapman (2005). Mabberley, D.J. 1997. The Plant-Book. A portable Ferns and allies Based on information provided by Chapman (2005). dictionary of the higher plants. Second edition. Gymnosperms Based on Donaldson (2003), Farjon (2001) and Mabberley (1997). Chapman (2005) also Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. follows this fi gure, for discussion see http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/ Schmid, R. 1998. Statistics for numbers of extant publications/other/species-numbers/03-03-groups-plants.html#gymnosperms. taxa of major groups in Mabberley. Taxon 47: 245. Dicotyledons and Based on Thorne (2002), but see Mabberley (1997); Schmid (1998); Govaerts (2001, Scotland, R.W. and Wortley, A.H. 2003. How many Monocotyledons 2003); Bramwell (2002); and Scotland and Wortley (2003) for alternative views on the species of seed plants are there? Taxon 52: numbers of seed plant species. 101–104. Green and Red Numbers of green (Chlorophyta) and red (Rhodophyta) algae are from Guiry and Guiry Spalding, M.D., Ravilious, C. and Green, E.P. 2001. Algae (2008). World Atlas of Coral Reefs. Prepared at the UNEP Others World Conservation Monitoring Centre. University of Lichens The fi gure of 10,000 from Groombridge and Jenkins (2002) appears to be too low, so California Press, Berkley, USA. the number described is now based on information provided by Chapman (2005) . Thorne, R.F. 2002. How many species of seed plants are there? Taxon 51: 511–512. Mushrooms Number of mushroom-forming fungi is based on Kirk et al. (2001) (see Tree of Life web site: http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html. Accessed: 28 September 2008). Wilson, D.E. and Reeder, D.M. (eds) 2005. Mammal Species of the World. A Taxonomic Brown Algae The number of brown algae (Ochrophyta) is taken from Guiry and Guiry (2008). and Geographic Reference. Third edition. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.

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appendices.indd 107 10/07/2009 13:49:53 Wildlife in a Changing World Appendix 4. Summary of number of animal species in each Red List Category in each taxonomic class

IUCN Red List Categories: EX - Extinct, EW - Extinct in the Wild, CR - Critically Endangered, EN - Endangered, VU - Vulnerable, LR/cd - Lower Risk/conservation dependent, NT - Near Threatened (includes LR/nt - Lower Risk/near threatened), DD - Data Deﬁ cient, LC - Least Concern (includes LR/lc - Lower Risk/least concern).

Class* EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Mammalia 76 2 78 188 448 505 1,141 0 323 836 3,110 5,488 Aves 134 4 138 190 361 671 1,222 0 835 66 7,729 9,990 Reptilia 21 1 22 86 134 203 423 3 123 180 634 1,385 Amphibia** 38 1 39 475 755 675 1,905 0 381 1,578 2,357 6,260 Cephalaspidomorphi 1 0 1 1012 0231018 Chondrichthyes 0 0 0 22 29 75 126 1 107 205 152 591 Actinopterygii 90 13 103 265 240 640 1,145 10 135 426 1,051 2,870 Sarcopterygii 0 0 0 1012 00002 Echinoidea 0 0 0 0000 01001 Arachnida 0 0 0 251118 029332 Chilopoda 0 0 0 0011 00001 Diplopoda 0 0 0 16714 0071031 Crustacea 7 1 8 84 127 395 606 9 19 663 430 1,735 Insecta 60 1 61 70 132 424 626 3 93 129 347 1,259 Merostomata 0 0 0 0000 01304 Onychophora 0 0 0 3249 011011 Hirudinoidea 0 0 0 0000 01001 Oligochaeta 1 0 1 1045 01007 Polychaeta 0 0 0 1001 00102 Bivalvia 31 0 31 52 28 15 95 5 601413218 Gastropoda 257 14 271 216 196 471 883 14 186 557 83 1,994 Enopla 0 0 0 0022 01306 Turbellaria 1 0 1 0000 00001 Anthozoa 0 0 0 6 23 202 231 0 175 147 289 842 Hydrozoa 0 0 0 1225 012816 Total 717 37 754 1,665 2,488 4,309 8,462 45 2,448 4,830 16,226 32,765

* Mammalia (mammals), Aves (birds), Reptilia (reptiles), Amphibia (amphibians), Cephalaspidomorphi (lampreys and hag fi sh), Chondrichthyes (sharks, skates, rays and chimaeras), Actinopterygii (bony fi shes), Sarcopterygii (coelacanth), Echinoidea (sea urchins, starfi sh, etc), Arachnida (spiders and scorpions), Chilopoda (centipedes), Diplopoda (millipedes), Crustacea (crustaceans), Insecta (insects), Merostomata (horshoe crabs), Onychopora (velvet worms), Hirudinoidea (leeches), Oligochaeta (earthworms), Polychaeta (marine bristle worms), Bivalvia (mussels and clams), Gastropoda (snails, etc), Enopla (nemertine worms), Turbellaria (fl atworms), Anthozoa (sea anemones and corals), Hydrozoa (corals).

** It should be noted that for certain species endemic to Brazil, it has not yet been possible to reach agreement on the Red List Categories between the Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA) Coordinating Team, and the experts on the species in Brazil. The 2004-2008 fi gures for Amphibians displayed here are those that were agreed at the GAA Brazil workshop in April 2003. However, in the subsequent consistency check conducted by the GAA Coordinating Team, many of the assessments were found to be inconsistent with the approach adopted elsewhere in the world, and a “consistent Red List Category” was also assigned to these species. The “consistent Red List Categories” are yet to be accepted by the Brazilian experts; therefore the original workshop assessments are retained here. However, in order to ensure comparability between results for amphibians with those for other taxonomic groups, the data used in various analyses (e.g. Hilton-Taylor et al. (this volume); the amphibian analysis at www.iucnredlist.org/amphibians) are based on the “consistent Red List Categories”. Therefore, fi gures for Amphibians in the Table above will not completely match fi gures that appear in other analyses. This note also applies to Appendices 6, 8, 9 and 11.

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appendices.indd 108 10/07/2009 13:49:54 Appendices Appendix 5. Summary of number of plant species in each Red List Category in each taxonomic class

Class* EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Bryopsida 2 0 2 11 15 11 37 000140 Anthocerotopsida 0 0 0 0112 00002 Marchantiopsida 1 0 1 12 16 15 43 000953 Lycopodiopsida 0 0 0 12811 010113 Sellaginellopsida 0 0 0 0011 01002 Isoetopsida 0 0 0 2013 00003 Polypodiopsida 3 0 3 29 37 58 124 014457193 Coniferopsida 0 0 0 21 54 97 172 25 63 26 334 620 Cycadopsida 0 4 4 45 40 65 150 0 671850289 Ginkgoopsida 0 0 0 0101 00001 Magnoliopsida 78 22 100 1,299 1,847 3,976 7,122 196 810 458 938 9,624 Liliopsida 2 2 4 149 267 366 782 17 109 138 105 1,155 Chlorophyceae 0 0 0 0000 00101 Ulvophyceae 0 0 0 0000 00101 Florideophyceae 1 0 1 6039 0 0 44 4 58 Total 87 28 115 1,575 2,280 4,602 8,457 238 1,065 731 1,449 12,055

Status category summary by major taxonomic group (other groups)

Class* EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Basidiomycetes 0 0 0 1001 00001 Lecanoromycetes 0 0 0 1102 00002 Phaeophyceae 0 0 0 4116 009015 Total 0006219009018

* Plants: Bryopsida (true mosses); Anthocerotopsida (hornworts); Marchantiopsida (liverworts); Lycopodiopsida (club mosses); Sellaginellopsida (spike mosses); Isoetopsida (quillworts); Polypodiopsida (true ferns); Coniferopsida (conifers); Cycadopsida (cycads); Ginkgoopsida (ginkgo); Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons); Liliopsida (monocotyledons); Chlorophyceae and Ulvophyceae (green algae); Florideophyceae (red algae). Other groups: Lecanoromyctes (discolichens); Basidiomycetes (club fungi); Phaeophyceae (brown algae).

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appendices.indd 109 10/07/2009 13:49:54 Wildlife in a Changing World Appendix 6. Number of species in each Red List Category in each major animal taxonomic group (Class, Order)

Class MAMMALIA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Afrosoricida 0 0 0 17917 0343054 Carnivora 5 0 5 8243971 0 27 19 163 285 Cetartiodactyla 7 2 9 14 46 49 109 0 26 62 123 329 Chiroptera 5 0 5 25 53 99 177 0 77 204 687 1,150 Cingulata 0 0 0 0044 053921 Dasyuromorphia 1 0 1 16512 01044774 Dermoptera 0 0 0 0000 00022 Didelphimorphia 1 0 1 1078 0 2 17 67 95 Diprotodontia 7 0 7 14 15 16 45 016276146 Eulipotyphla 7 0 7 12 41 31 84 0 13 77 269 450 Hyracoidea 0 0 0 0000 00055 Lagomorpha 1 0 1 210517 0686193 Macroscelidea 0 0 0 0123 013916 Microbiotheria 0 0 0 0000 01001 Monotremata 0 0 0 3003 00025 Notoryctemorphia 0 0 0 0000 00202 Paucituberculata 0 0 0 0022 02026 Peramelemorphia 3 0 3 0426 013922 Perissodactyla 0 0 0 55313 010216 Pholidota 0 0 0 0202 04028 Pilosa 0 0 0 1102 010710 Primates 2 0 2 37 86 78 201 0 23 56 133 415 Proboscidea 0 0 0 0101 01002 Rodentia 36 0 36 64 144 150 358 0 103 369 1,389 2,255 Scandentia 0 0 0 0202 0031520 Sirenia 1 0 1 0044 00005 Tubulidentata 0 0 0 0000 00011 Subtotal (Mammalia) 76 2 78 188 448 505 1,141 0 323 836 3,110 5,488

Class AVES Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Anseriformes 6 0 6 6101228 090124167 Apodiformes 2 0 2 9151135 0248374443 Caprimulgiformes 0 0 0 3238 0104100122 Charadriiformes 4 0 4 10 11 17 38 0340278354 Ciconiiformes 5 0 5 511521 05090121

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Class AVES Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Coliiformes 0 0 0 0000 00066 Columbiformes 15 1 16 9153559 0411219336 Coraciiformes 1 0 1 331925 0283164221 Cuculiformes 2 0 2 22711 0110143167 Falconiformes 2 0 2 1093049 0371225314 Galliformes 2 1 3 5214672 0380175288 Gaviiformes 0 0 0 0000 00055 Gruiformes 22 1 23 5183255 0205126229 Passeriformes 42 1 43 77 168 328 573 0 436 34 4,803 5,889 Pelecaniformes 2 0 2 241016 0704267 Phoenicopteriformes 0 0 0 0011 03026 Piciformes 0 0 0 421117 0302360409 Podicipediformes 2 0 2 2125 0101422 Procellariiformes 2 0 2 15 18 25 58 018448130 Psittaciformes 19 0 19 17 34 45 96 0400219374 Sphenisciformes 0 0 0 04711 020518 Strigiformes 4 0 4 6111633 0244137202 Struthioniformes 202 0145 040213 Tinamiformes 0 0 0 0055 0303947 Trogoniformes 0 0 0 0101 01002940 Subtotal (Aves) 134 4 138 190 361 671 1,222 0 835 66 7,729 9,990

Class REPTILIA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Crocodylia 0 0 0 61310 2011023 Rhynchocephalia 0 0 0 0011 00012 Squamata 14 0 14 49 91 140 280 0 81 169 604 1,148 Testudines 7 1 8 31 42 59 132 1 421019212 Subtotal (Reptilia) 21 1 22 86 134 203 423 3 123 180 634 1,385

Class AMPHIBIA* Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Anura 36 1 37 398 650 578 1,626 0 320 1,403 2,146 5,532 Caudata 2 0 2 76 104 93 273 0 61 57 159 552 Gymnophiona 0 0 0 1146 0 0 118 52 176 Subtotal (Amphibia) 38 1 39 475 755 675 1,905 0 381 1,578 2,357 6,260

Class CEPHALASPIDOMORPHI Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Petromyzontiformes 1 0 1 1012 0231018 Subtotal (Cephalaspidomorphi) 10110120231018

Class CHONDRICHTHYES Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Carcharhiniformes 0 0 0 651425 1 376143167 Chimaeriformes 0 0 0 0000 0 3 20 12 35

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Class CHONDRICHTHYES Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Heterodontiformes 0 0 0 0000 00437 Hexanchiformes 0 0 0 0000 03104 Lamniformes 0 0 0 0055 025113 Orectolobiformes 0 0 0 0077 082825 Pristiophoriformes 0 0 0 0000 02125 Rajiformes 0 0 0 11 20 38 69 0 396155224 Squaliformes 0 0 0 1045 0 9 38 25 77 Squatiniformes 0 0 0 3418 013214 Torpediniformes 0 0 0 1067 039120 Subtotal (Chondrichthyes) 0 0 0 22 29 75 126 1 107 205 152 591

Class ACTINOPTERYGII Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Acipenseriformes 0 0 0 611623 020227 Anguilliformes 0 0 0 1001 00001 Atheriniformes 0 0 0 974460 0 9 27 14 110 Batrachoidiformes 0 0 0 0066 00006 Beloniformes 0 0 0 23813 012117 Characiformes 0 0 0 2215 0092034 Clupeiformes 0 0 0 33410 0051429 Cypriniformes 21 2 23 82 93 161 336 6 34 87 238 724 Cyprinodontiformes 12 5 17 26 19 48 93 0 3 22 35 170 Esociformes 0 0 0 0011 01013 Gadiformes 0 0 0 1023 00014 Gasterosteiformes 1 0 1 1012 004613 Gonorynchiformes 0 0 0 1034 004614 Lophiiformes 0 0 0 1001 00001 Mugiliformes 0 0 0 0101 00078 Ophidiiformes 0 0 0 0077 00108 Osmeriformes 0 0 0 0101 00135 Osteoglossiformes 0 0 0 0224 0271427 Perciformes 40 5 45 94 72 254 420 4 69 141 554 1,233 Percopsiformes 0 0 0 1034 00004 Pleuronectiformes 0 0 0 0112 00035 Salmoniformes 14 1 15 18 10 42 70 0 6 25 38 154 Scorpaeniformes 1 0 1 32712 0051028 Siluriformes 1 0 1 13 11 29 53 0 6 41 70 171 Synbranchiformes 0 0 0 0101 0051319 Syngnathiformes 0 0 0 1179 0 2 35 1 47 Tetraodontiformes 0 0 0 0033 00508 Subtotal (Actinopterygii) 90 13 103 265 240 640 1,145 10 135 426 1,051 2,870

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Class SARCOPTERYGII Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Coelacanthiformes 0 0 0 1012 00002 Subtotal (Sarcopterygii) 000101200002

Class ECHINOIDEA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Echinoida 0 0 0 0000 01001 Subtotal (Echinoidea) 000000001001

Class ARACHNIDA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Araneae 0 0 0 25916 028329 Opiliones 0 0 0 0011 00001 Pseudoscorpionida 0 0 0 0011 00102 Subtotal (Arachnida) 000251118029332

Class CHILOPODA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Scolopendromorpha 0 0 0 0011 00001 Subtotal (Chilopoda) 000001100001

Class DIPLOPODA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Spirostreptida 0 0 0 16714 0071031 Subtotal (Diplopoda) 000167140071031

Class CRUSTACEA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Amphipoda 2 0 2 765669 000071 Anaspidacea 0 0 0 0044 00004 Anomopoda 0 0 0 0088 00008 Anostraca 0 0 0 691025 111129 Calanoida 1 0 1 404751 0 0 19 0 71 Conchostraca 0 0 0 0044 00004 Cyclopoida 1 0 1 1067 500013 Decapoda 1 0 1 52 102 211 365 0 18 638 428 1,450 Halocyprida 0 0 0 1001 00001 Harpacticoida 0 0 0 001818 301022 Isopoda 0 1 1 792238 002142 Mictacea 0 0 0 1001 00001 Misophrioida 0 0 0 2002 00002 Myodocopida 0 0 0 0011 00001 Mysidacea 0 0 0 2002 00002 Notostraca 0 0 0 0101 00001 Podocopida 2 0 2 1089 000011 Thoracica 0 0 0 0000 00202 Subtotal (Crustacea) 7 1 8 84 127 395 606 9 19 663 430 1,735

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Class INSECTA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Anoplura 0 0 0 1001 00001 Coleoptera 16 0 16 10 16 27 53 030072 Dermaptera 0 0 0 1001 00001 Diptera 3 0 3 1214 00007 Ephemeroptera 2 0 2 0011 00003 Grylloblattaria 0 0 0 0011 00001 Homoptera 2 0 2 0000 03005 Hymenoptera 0 0 0 4 0 139 143 0711152 Lepidoptera 27 0 27 8 39 130 177 0 453519303 Mantodea 0 0 0 0000 01001 Odonata 2 0 2 36 67 73 176 0 34 90 327 629 Orthoptera 2 1 3 885066 302074 Phasmida 1 0 1 1001 00002 Plecoptera 1 0 1 0022 00104 Trichoptera 4 0 4 0000 00004 Subtotal (Insecta) 60 1 61 70 132 424 626 3 93 129 347 1,259

Class MEROSTOMATA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Xiphosura 0 0 0 0000 01304 Subtotal (Merostomata) 000000001304

Class ONYCHOPHORA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Onychophora 0 0 0 3249 011011 Subtotal (Onychophora) 0003249011011

Class HIRUDINOIDEA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Arhynchobdellae 0 0 0 0000 01001 Subtotal (Hirudinoidea) 000000001001

Class OLIGOCHAETA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Haplotaxida 1 0 1 1045 01007 Subtotal (Oligochaeta) 101104501007

Class POLYCHAETA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Eunicida 0 0 0 0000 00101 Nerillida 0 0 0 1001 00001 Subtotal (Polychaeta) 000100100102

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Class BIVALVIA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Ostreoida 0 0 0 0000 00101 Unionoida 31 0 31 52 28 10 90 1 591011202 Veneroida 0 0 0 0055 413215 Subtotal (Bivalvia) 31 0 31 52 28 15 95 5 60 14 13 218

Class GASTROPODA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Archaeogastropoda 2 0 2 72312 0 1 25 1 41 Basommatophora 7 0 7 851932 0 8 32 9 88 Mesogastropoda 57 3 60 56 76 204 336 3 38 182 43 662 Neogastropoda 0 0 0 0044 0 3 22 0 29 Stylommatophora 191 11 202 145 113 241 499 11 136 296 30 1,174 Subtotal (Gastropoda) 257 14 271 216 196 471 883 14 186 557 83 1,994

Class ENOPLA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Hoplonemertea 0 0 0 0022 01306 Subtotal (Enopla) 000002201306

Class TURBELLARIA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Tricladida 1 0 1 0000 00001 Subtotal (Turbellaria) 101000000001

Class ANTHOZOA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Actinaria 0 0 0 0011 00102 Gorgonacea 0 0 0 0011 00001 Helioporacea 0 0 0 0011 00001 Scleractinia 0 0 0 6 23 199 228 0 174 146 289 837 Stolonifera 0 0 0 0000 01001 Subtotal (Anthozoa) 0006232022310175147289842

Class HYDROZOA Order EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Milleporina 0 0 0 1225 012816 Subtotal (Hydrozoa) 0001225012816

EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Total Fauna 717 37 754 1,665 2,488 4,309 8,462 45 2,448 4,830 16,226 32,765

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Appendix 7. Number of species in each Red List Category in each major plant taxonomic group (Class, Family)

Class BRYOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Amblystegiaceae 0 0 0 0123 00003 Archidiaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Brachytheciaceae 1 0 1 0000 00001 Bryaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Bryoxiphiaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Daltoniaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Dicranaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Ditrichaceae 0 0 0 0202 00002 Echinodiaceae 0 0 0 0022 00002 Fabroniaceae 0 0 0 1102 00002 Fissidentaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Grimmiaceae 0 0 0 0112 00002 Hookeriaceae 0 0 0 1102 00002 Hypnobartlettiaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Leskeaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Neckeraceae 1 0 1 3104 00005 Orthotrichaceae 0 0 0 0112 00002 Pottiaceae 0 0 0 2013 00014 Pterobryaceae 0 0 0 1102 00002 Rhachitheciaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Sematophyllaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Sphagnaceae 0 0 0 0022 00002 Takakiaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Subtotal (Bryopsida) 2 0 2 11 15 11 37 000140

Class ANTHOCEROTOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Anthocerotaceae 0 0 0 0112 00002 Subtotal (Anthocerotopsida) 000011200002

Class MARCHANTIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Aitchinsoniellaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Calypogeiaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001

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Class MARCHANTIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Cephaloziaceae 0 0 0 0022 00002 Cleveaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Exormothecaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Fossombroniaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Geocalycaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Gymnomitriaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Herbertaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Jubulaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Jungermanniaceae 0 0 0 0246 00017 Lejeuneaceae 0 0 0 67316 000218 Lepidoziaceae 0 0 0 2002 00013 Personiellaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Phycolepidoziaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Plagiochilaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Pleuroziaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Radulaceae 1 0 1 0101 00002 Ricciaceae 0 0 0 0022 00002 Scapaniaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Schistochilaceae 0 0 0 1102 00002 Sphaerocarpaceae 0 0 0 0202 00002 Vandiemeniaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Subtotal (Marchantiopsida) 1 0 1 12 16 15 43 000953

Class LYCOPODIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Lycopodiaceae 0 0 0 12811 010113 Subtotal (Lycopodiopsida) 00012811010113

Class SELLAGINELLOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Selaginellaceae 0 0 0 0011 01002 Subtotal (Sellaginellopsida) 000001101002

Class ISOETOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Isoetaceae 0 0 0 2013 00003 Subtotal (Isoetopsida) 000201300003

Class POLYPODIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Adiantaceae 2 0 2 0415 00108 Aspleniaceae 0 0 0 0112 03218 Blechnaceae 0 0 0 0235 005010 Cyatheaceae 0 0 0 0347 01109 Dennstaedtiaceae 0 0 0 0235 00005

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Class POLYPODIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Dryopteridaceae 1 0 1 35311 015018 Grammitidaceae 0 0 0 0336 01108 Hymenophyllaceae 0 0 0 3227 016115 Lomariopsidaceae 0 0 0 1851235 0 1 15 0 51 Marattiaceae 0 0 0 0000 01001 Oleandraceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Plagiogyriaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Polypodiaceae 0 0 0 2248 016217 Pteridaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Thelypteridaceae 0 0 0 131216 010118 Vittariaceae 0 0 0 0011 00102 Woodsiaceae 0 0 0 13913 032220 Subtotal (Polypodiopsida) 3 0 3 29 37 58 124 0 14 45 7 193

Class CONIFEROPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Araucariaceae 0 0 0 331218 1150640 Cephalotaxaceae 0 0 0 0235 010410 Cupressaceae 0 0 0 4163252 214364135 Phyllocladaceae 0 0 0 0000 00044 Pinaceae 0 0 0 6122442 4214154225 Podocarpaceae 0 0 0 5172143 7 191895182 Sciadopityaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Taxaceae 0 0 0 34411 131723 Subtotal (Coniferopsida) 0 0 0 21 54 97 172 25 63 26 334 620

Class CYCADOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Cycadaceae 0 0 0 7102138 0 30101492 Stangeriaceae 0 0 0 0000 01023 Zamiaceae 0 4 4 38 30 44 112 036834194 Subtotal (Cycadopsida) 0 4 4 45 40 65 150 0 67 18 50 289

Class GINKGOOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Ginkgoaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Subtotal (Ginkoopsida) 000010100001

Class MAGNOLIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Acanthaceae 0 0 0 7213967 1581495 Aceraceae 0 0 0 2125 03008 Actinidiaceae 0 0 0 271827 260742 Adoxaceae 0 0 0 0112 00002 Aextoxicaceae 0 0 0 0000 00101

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Class MAGNOLIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Aizoaceae 0 0 0 211013 0202237 Alangiaceae 0 0 0 0033 00036 Amaranthaceae 2 0 2 231520 012429 Anacardiaceae 0 2 2 10 17 50 77 1 9 16 16 121 Ancistrocladaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Anisophylleaceae 0 0 0 001313 000417 Annonaceae 1 0 1 20 43 101 164 627828234 Apocynaceae 4 0 4 10 25 37 72 28513104 Aquifoliaceae 2 0 2 8263165 5240197 Araliaceae 0 0 0 27 30 78 135 5 101214176 Aristolochiaceae 0 0 0 341017 000017 Asclepiadaceae 0 0 0 14 10 34 58 0242084 Asteropeiaceae 0 0 0 1416 01018 Avicenniaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Balanopaceae 0 0 0 0000 10001 Balsaminaceae 0 0 0 0639 001111 Begoniaceae 1 0 1 3113044 040150 Berberidaceae 0 0 0 232328 0 2 13 2 45 Betulaceae 0 1 1 5229 130216 Bignoniaceae 0 0 0 392234 110339 Bombacaceae 0 0 0 3151836 146047 Boraginaceae 0 0 0 1173048 0661272 Bretschneideraceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Brunelliaceae 0 0 0 09817 110019 Buddlejaceae 0 0 0 1135 01006 Burseraceae 0 0 0 144853 32031291 Buxaceae 0 0 0 1225 02007 Byblidaceae 0 0 0 1001 00045 Cactaceae 0 2 2 33 27 51 111 0 141020157 Callitrichaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Calyceraceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Campanulaceae 10 4 14 31 58 34 123 0815151 Canellaceae 0 0 0 1326 00006 Capparaceae 0 0 0 54514 017123 Caprifoliaceae 0 0 0 51410 122116 Caricaceae 0 0 0 0235 02007 Caryocaraceae 0 0 0 0325 00005 Caryophyllaceae 0 0 0 13 6 5 24 000529 Cecropiaceae 0 0 0 0279 041115 Celastraceae 0 0 0 11 12 39 62 2811487 Cephalotaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Cercidiphyllaceae 0 0 0 0000 01001 Chenopodiaceae 0 0 0 2002 00013 Chloranthaceae 0 0 0 0224 00004 Chrysobalanaceae 1 0 1 9121738 011445

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Class MAGNOLIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Cistaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Clethraceae 0 0 0 1023 12118 Cobaeaceae 0 0 0 0202 00002 Cochlospermaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Combretaceae 0 1 1 2111629 062038 Compositae 4 2 6 65 92 177 334 0 582655479 Connaraceae 0 0 0 2237 021010 Convolvulaceae 0 0 0 2169 001313 Cornaceae 0 0 0 20810 000111 Corylaceae 0 0 0 2103 00014 Crassulaceae 0 0 0 0011 02058 Cruciferae 0 0 0 741223 020126 Crypteroniaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Cucurbitaceae 0 0 0 0044 00015 Cunoniaceae 1 0 1 261321 420432 Datiscaceae 0 0 0 0000 00022 Degeneriaceae 0 0 0 0011 01002 Dichapetalaceae 0 0 0 001111 010012 Didiereaceae 0 0 0 0000 01001 Dilleniaceae 0 0 0 2068 00008 Dipentodontaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Dipsacaceae 0 0 0 0112 01003 Dipterocarpaceae 3 0 3 255 102 12 369 0 0 10 12 394 Dirachmaceae 0 0 0 0112 00002 Droseraceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Ebenaceae 0 0 0 15 15 46 76 31421105 Elaeagnaceae 0 0 0 0022 00002 Elaeocarpaceae 0 0 0 432330 821243 Ericaceae 0 1 1 131519 330329 Erythroxylaceae 0 1 1 0279 000010 Escalloniaceae 0 0 0 0000 11002 Eucommiaceae 0 0 0 0000 01001 Eucryphiaceae 0 0 0 0000 02002 Euphorbiaceae 2 1 3 67 74 219 360 12 37 16 41 469 Eupteleaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Fagaceae 0 0 0 8144163 4 5 19 17 108 Flacourtiaceae 2 0 2 9264782 5676108 Frankeniaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Gentianaceae 0 0 0 1101223 020833 Geraniaceae 0 0 0 2169 00009 Gesneriaceae 0 1 1 9293977 0105497 Goetzeaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Gomortegaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Goodeniaceae 0 0 0 0134 00015 Greyiaceae 0 0 0 0000 00101

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Class MAGNOLIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Grossulariaceae 0 0 0 2024 00015 Gunneraceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Guttiferae 0 0 0 91984112 4 2 12 41 171 Hamamelidaceae 0 0 0 1168 021213 Hernandiaceae 1 0 1 2226 042114 Hippocastanaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Hoplestigmataceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Huaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Humiriaceae 0 0 0 0325 00005 Icacinaceae 0 0 0 221014 000115 Illecebraceae 0 0 0 0022 00013 Illiciaceae 0 0 0 0022 20004 Irvingiaceae 0 0 0 0000 01012 Ixonanthaceae 0 0 0 0022 00002 Juglandaceae 0 0 0 04913 020419 Labiatae 0 0 0 861832 0421048 Lacistemataceae 0 0 0 0000 00112 Lauraceae 0 0 0 24 50 125 199 12 21 11 34 277 Lecythidaceae 0 0 0 11 15 53 79 562597 Leeaceae 0 0 0 0000 01001 Leguminosae 6 1 7 59 159 376 594 9 743954777 Leitneriaceae 0 0 0 0000 01001 Linaceae 0 0 0 1023 00003 Loasaceae 0 0 0 14914 020016 Loganiaceae 0 0 0 34916 063530 Loranthaceae 0 0 0 0123 01004 Lythraceae 0 0 0 2259 000312 Magnoliaceae 0 0 0 9272056 032162 Malpighiaceae 0 0 0 25916 004121 Malvaceae 4 1 5 14 11 11 36 023551 Marcgraviaceae 0 0 0 0213 00205 Medusagynaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Medusandraceae 0 0 0 0112 00002 Melanophyllaceae 0 0 0 2114 01027 Melastomataceae 0 0 0 25 96 148 269 128820326 Meliaceae 0 0 0 14 19 114 147 245216212 Melianthaceae 0 0 0 0112 00002 Meliosmaceae 0 0 0 0224 00105 Menispermaceae 0 0 0 2338 020010 Molluginaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Monimiaceae 0 0 0 75719 030224 Moraceae 0 0 0 7152446 0312575 Moringaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Myoporaceae 0 0 0 1001 00113 Myricaceae 0 0 0 1113 00014

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Class MAGNOLIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Myristicaceae 0 0 0 4 8 142 154 527732225 Myrsinaceae 0 0 0 17 19 43 79 0 141810121 Myrtaceae 6 0 6 51 73 132 256 10 20 13 36 341 Nepenthaceae 0 0 0 5113551 7381685 Nyctaginaceae 0 0 0 1629 021315 Ochnaceae 0 0 0 221014 023322 Olacaceae 0 0 0 1359 031114 Oleaceae 0 0 0 75820 222127 Onagraceae 0 0 0 0268 010312 Opiliaceae 0 0 0 0022 00002 Oxalidaceae 0 0 0 1337 010412 Passiﬂ oraceae 0 0 0 011920 021528 Pedaliaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Piperaceae 0 0 0 34 47 20 101 0772117 Pittosporaceae 0 0 0 591125 120432 Plantaginaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Platanaceae 0 0 0 0011 00012 Plumbaginaceae 0 0 0 1023 00036 Podostemaceae 0 0 0 2316 00006 Polygalaceae 0 0 0 42814 210017 Polygonaceae 0 0 0 66618 031022 Portulacaceae 0 0 0 0213 10004 Primulaceae 0 1 1 0000 00001 Proteaceae 1 0 1 482436 440146 Quiinaceae 0 0 0 0213 01004 Rafﬂ esiaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Ranunculaceae 0 0 0 4105 01006 Resedaceae 0 0 0 0000 00022 Rhamnaceae 1 0 1 651223 132333 Rhizophoraceae 0 0 0 33612 022218 Rhoipteleaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Rhynchocalycaceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Rosaceae 0 0 0 15 15 50 80 2 7 12 17 118 Rubiaceae 5 0 5 56 80 234 370 335 33 18 464 Rutaceae 6 0 6 16 41 49 106 5942132 Salicaceae 0 0 0 2248 010211 Salvadoraceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Santalaceae 1 0 1 0235 01018 Sapindaceae 2 0 2 11 24 62 97 3866122 Sapotaceae 6 0 6 28 64 146 238 15 44 5 21 329 Sarcolaenaceae 0 0 0 64010 010516 Sarraceniaceae 0 0 0 1012 01047 Scrophulariaceae 0 0 0 1132034 0401351 Scytopetalaceae 0 0 0 0123 01015 Simaroubaceae 0 0 0 02911 000314 Solanaceae 0 0 0 9132648 61213685 Staphyleaceae 0 0 0 0033 00003 Sterculiaceae 3 2 5 14 16 37 67 133584

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Class MAGNOLIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Styracaceae 0 0 0 101617 010119 Symplocaceae 0 0 0 2142036 211040 Tamaricaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Theaceae 0 1 1 16 10 51 77 751192 Theophrastaceae 0 0 0 1045 01006 Thymelaeaceae 2 0 2 222529 123340 Ticodendraceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Tiliaceae 0 0 0 271827 626142 Tropaeolaceae 0 0 0 1168 00109 Turneraceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Ulmaceae 0 0 0 22711 030216 Umbelliferae 0 0 0 93820 030427 Urticaceae 0 0 0 73515 071023 Valerianaceae 1 0 1 2136 010210 Verbenaceae 0 0 0 10 10 40 60 152876 Violaceae 0 0 0 4101125 060132 Viscaceae 0 0 0 18615 000116 Vitaceae 0 0 0 0000 00066 Vochysiaceae 0 0 0 1124 00004 Winteraceae 0 0 0 0235 00005 Zygophyllaceae 0 0 0 2305 202211 Subtotal (Magnoliopsida) 78 22 100 1,299 1,847 3,976 7,122 196 810 458 938 9,624

Class LILIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Alismataceae 0 0 0 0011 00001 Alliaceae 0 0 0 1001 00102 Aloaceae 0 0 0 3339 032721 Alstroemeriaceae 0 0 0 53412 021015 Amaryllidaceae 0 0 0 010515 000520 Anthericaceae 0 0 0 1102 00013 Aponogetonaceae 0 0 0 0000 00101 Araceae 0 0 0 12 15 40 67 0 147710168 Asparagaceae 0 0 0 0000 00101 Asphodelaceae 0 0 0 0123 00036 Asteliaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Bromeliaceae 0 0 0 74665118 021210151 Burmanniaceae 0 0 0 3014 00004 Colchicaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Commelinaceae 0 0 0 0123 00003 Costaceae 0 0 0 0022 00002 Cyclanthaceae 0 0 0 25916 030120 Cyperaceae 0 0 0 55515 011219 Dioscoreaceae 0 0 0 0213 01015 Dracaenaceae 1 0 1 07512 001014 Eriocaulaceae 0 0 0 0044 00015 Eriospermaceae 0 0 0 0011 00045

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Class LILIOPSIDA Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Gramineae 1 0 1 3142542 0 10111377 Heliconiaceae 0 0 0 001515 012018 Hyacinthaceae 0 0 0 2114 001914 Iridaceae 0 0 0 0011 00056 Juncaceae 0 0 0 0000 01102 Lemnaceae 0 0 0 0101 00001 Marantaceae 0 0 0 29920 060026 Orchidaceae 0 0 0 30 71 46 147 0501153 Palmae 0 2 2 65 71 102 238 16 38 34 29 357 Pandanaceae 0 0 0 511622 112127 Triuridaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Xyridaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Zingiberaceae 0 0 0 0011 02014 Subtotal (Liliopsida) 2 2 4 149 267 366 782 17 109 138 105 1,155

Class CHLOROPHYCEAE Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Chaetophoraceae 0 0 0 0000 00101 Subtotal (Chlorophyceae) 000000000101

Class ULVOPHYCEAE Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Cladophoraceae 0 0 0 0000 00101 Subtotal (Ulvophyceae) 000000000101

Class FLORIDEOPHYCEAE Family EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Bonnemaisoniaceae 0 0 0 0000 00101 Ceramiaceae 0 0 0 0000 00718 Corallinaceae 0 0 0 0000 0 0 11 0 11 Delesseriaceae 1 0 1 2035 00208 Galaxauraceae 0 0 0 1001 00102 Gigartinaceae 0 0 0 0000 00202 Gracilariaceae 0 0 0 1001 00102 Halymeniaceae 0 0 0 0000 00314 Hapalidiaceae 0 0 0 0000 00303 Kallymeniaceae 0 0 0 0000 00213 Phyllophoraceae 0 0 0 0000 00101 Rhizophyllidaceae 0 0 0 0000 00011 Rhodomelaceae 0 0 0 1001 00708 Rhodymeniaceae 0 0 0 0000 00202 Schizymeniaceae 0 0 0 1001 00001 Sebdeniaceae 0 0 0 0000 00101 Subtotal (Liliopsida) 10160390044458

EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC TOTAL Total plants 87 28 115 1,575 2,280 4,602 8,457 238 1,065 731 1,449 12,055

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appendices.indd 124 10/07/2009 13:49:56 Appendices Appendix 8. Number of threatened species in each major group of organisms in each country (Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable categories only)

The country and territory names used below are based on the short country names speciﬁ ed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Maintenance Agency for ISO 3166 country codes (see http://www.iso.org/iso/country_codes/iso_3166_code_lists/english_country_names_ and_code_elements.htm).

The ﬁ gures for each country exclude species recorded as being introduced, vagrant or that have uncertain occurrences in that country. This note also applies to Appendices 9, 10 and 11.

AFRICA North Africa Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Algeria 14 11 7 3 23 0 14 3 75 Egypt 17 10 11 0 24 0 46 2 110 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 12 4 5 0 14 0 0 1 36 Morocco 18 10 10 2 31 0 9 2 82 Tunisia 14 8 4 1 20 0 7 0 54 Western Sahara 11 1 0 0 19 0 1 0 32 Sub-Saharan Africa Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Angola 14 18 4 0 22 4 1 26 89 Benin 10 4 4 0 15 0 0 14 47 Botswana 6 700200015 Burkina Faso 8510000216 Burundi 98061814248 Cameroon 41 15 3 53 43 1 3 355 514 Cape Verde 34101800228 Central African Republic 7 5100001528 Chad 12 7 10010223 Comoros 58207062589 Congo 11 3 2 0 15 1 3 35 70 Congo, The Democratic 29313 1325131165190 Republic of the Côte d’Ivoire 24 14 4 13 19 1 0 105 180 Djibouti 870014050281 Equatorial Guinea 18 5 4 4 13 0 0 63 107 Eritrea 996014050391 Ethiopia 31 22 1 9 2 3 11 22 101 Gabon 13 5 3 3 21 0 0 108 153 Gambia 95201600436 Ghana 17 8 4 10 17 0 1 117 174 Guinea 22 12 2 5 19 0 4 22 86 Guinea-Bissau 11 2 2 0 18 0 0 4 37 Kenya 27 27 5 7 71 16 55 103 311 Lesotho 2500102111 Liberia 20 11 4 4 19 1 6 46 111 Madagascar 62 35 19 64 75 24 76 281 636 Malawi 6 12 0 5 101 9 7 14 154

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Sub-Saharan Africa Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Mali 11 610100625 Mauritania 14 8 3 0 23 0 1 0 49 Mauritius 6 11 7 0 11 27 69 88 219 Mayotte 13203059068 Mozambique 11 21 5 3 45 4 54 46 189 Namibia 11 21 4 1 21 0 0 24 82 Niger 11 5 0 0 201221 Nigeria 27 12 4 13 21 0 3 171 251 Réunion 56006145815104 Rwanda 19 10 08903352 Saint Helena 2 18 1 0 11 0 2 26 60 Sao Tomé and Principe 5 10 338113566 Senegal 15 8 6 0 28 0 0 7 64 Seychelles 5 10 10 6 14 2 63 45 155 Sierra Leone 16 10 3 2 16 0 0 47 94 Somalia 14 12 3 0 26 1 50 17 123 South Africa 23 35 19 21 65 24 137 74 398 Sudan 14 13 3 0 13 0 45 17 105 Swaziland 47003001125 Tanzania, 34 40 5 49 138 17 66 240 589 United Republic of Togo 102 3 316001044 Uganda 21 18 0 6 54 10 12 38 159 Zambia 8 12 0 1 10 3 1 8 43 Zimbabwe 8 11 0 63041749

ANTARCTIC Antarctic Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Antarctica 150000006 Bouvet Island 010010002 French Southern 31320300021 Territories (the) Heard Island and 01000100011 McDonald Islands South Georgia and the 3700000010 South Sandwich Islands

ASIA East Asia Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total China 74 85 30 90 70 1 20 446 816 Hong Kong 2 16 1 5 13 1 4 6 48 Japan 27 40 12 20 40 25 133 12 309 Korea, Democratic 92001802343 People’s Republic of Korea, Republic of 9 30 0 2 14 0 3 0 58 Macao 0400600010 Mongolia 11 21 0 0103036 Taiwan, 10 22 8 10 37 1 120 78 286 Province of China

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North Asia Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Belarus 4400108017 Moldova 4910904027 Russian Federation 33 51 6 0 32 1 28 7 158 Ukraine 11 12 2 0 20 0 14 1 60 South & Southeast Asia Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Bangladesh 34 28 20 1 12 0 2 12 109 Bhutan 28 17 1 1 001755 British Indian 00209065177 Ocean Territory Brunei Darussalam 35 21 5 380099171 Cambodia 37 25 12 3 18 0 67 31 193 Disputed Territory 000010001 (Spratly Islands) India 96 76 25 65 40 2 109 246 659 Indonesia 183 115 27 33 111 3 229 386 1,087 Lao People’s 46 23 11 5 6 0 3 21 115 Democratic Republic Malaysia 70 42 21 47 49 19 207 686 1,141 Maldives 203012038055 Myanmar 45 41 22 0 17 1 63 38 227 Nepal 32 32 7 3000781 Philippines 39 67 9 48 60 3 199 216 641 Singapore 12 14 4 0 22 0 161 54 267 Sri Lanka 30 13 8 53 31 0 119 280 534 Thailand 57 44 22 4 50 1 179 86 443 Timor-Leste 4510500015 Viet Nam 54 39 27 17 33 0 91 147 408 West & Central Asia Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Afghanistan 11 13 1 1301232 Armenia 9 12 5 0406137 Azerbaijan 7 15 5 0904040 Bahrain 34406013030 Cyprus 55401200733 Georgia 10 10 7 1 12 0 9 0 49 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 16 20 9 4 21 0 19 1 90 Iraq 13 18 2 1 6 0 15 0 55 Israel 15 13 10 1 31 5 52 0 127 Jordan 13 8 5 0 14 0 49 0 89 Kazakhstan 16 21 2 1 13 0 4 16 73 Kuwait 682010013039 Kyrgyzstan 6 12 2 03031440 Lebanon 10 6 6 0 15 0 3 0 40 Oman 994020026674 Pakistan 23 27 10 0 22 0 15 2 99 Palestinian Territory, 3741101017 Occupied Qatar 24107013027 Saudi Arabia 9 142 016053397

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West & Central Asia Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Syrian Arab Republic 16 13 6 0 27 0 6 0 68 Tajikistan 89108021442 Turkey 17 15 13 10 60 0 13 3 131 Turkmenistan 9 15 1 0 12 0 5 3 45 United Arab Emirates 78209016042 Uzbekistan 11 15 208011552 Yemen 9 13 3 1 18 2 61 159 266

EUROPE Europe Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Albania 36423304052 Andorra 201021309 Austria 491092221470 Belgium 3200948127 Bosnia and Herzegovina 462127010151 Bulgaria 7 12 2 0 17 0 7 0 45 Croatia 7 11 2 2 46 0 15 1 84 Czech Republic 26005216435 Denmark 220013110331 Estonia 1300404012 Faroe Islands 5000900014 Finland 1400519121 France 96523134408135 Germany 6600209211274 Gibraltar 53001020020 Greece 10 11 5 5 62 1 13 11 118 Greenland 6000600113 Guernsey 000030003 Holy See 100010002 (Vatican City State) Hungary 29109125148 Iceland 50001200017 Ireland 51001612126 Isle of Man 000030003 Italy 785833164219138 Jersey 000030003 Latvia 1400619021 Liechtenstein 000000404 Lithuania 3400606019 Luxembourg 000012205 Macedonia, the former 510201405 036 Yugoslav Republic of Malta 33001330325 Monaco 20001200014 Montenegro 6 11 2 1 21 0 11 0 52 Netherlands 42001115023 Norway 72001418234

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Europe Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Poland 56006115437 Portugal 11 8 2 1 38 67 16 16 159 Romania 7 12 2 0 16 0 22 1 60 San Marino 000010001 Serbia 6 11 0 1 8 0 16 1 43 Slovakia 37107613239 Slovenia 441224042077 Spain 16 15 18 6 52 27 35 49 218 Svalbard and Jan Mayen 100020003 Sweden 130012112332 Switzerland 220111029348 United Kingdom 520034281465

NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Mesoamerica Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Belize 7356220123085 Costa Rica 8 17 8 59 19 0 28 111 250 El Salvador 5 3 7 10 7 0 6 26 64 Guatemala 16 11 13 80 16 2 7 83 228 Honduras 6 7 11 59 19 0 18 110 230 Mexico 100 54 95 211 114 5 57 261 897 Nicaragua 5 9 8 10 21 2 17 39 111 Panama 14 17 7 49 19 0 20 194 320 Caribbean Islands Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Anguilla 103014010331 Antigua and Barbuda 216014011438 Aruba 31201501022 Bahamas 756020011554 Barbados 314015010235 Bermuda 412012028451 Cayman Islands 114014110233 Cuba 14 17 8 49 28 0 15 163 294 Dominica 3332150111148 Dominican Republic 6 14 11 30 15 0 18 30 124 Grenada 314115010337 Guadeloupe 515314115751 Haiti 5 13 8 46 15 0 14 29 130 Jamaica 5 10 9 17 15 0 15 209 280 Martinique 22621010831 Montserrat 322114011336 Netherlands Antilles 416015011239 Puerto Rico 3 8 9 14 13 0 1 53 101 Saint Barthélemy 102010026 Saint Kitts and Nevis 215114010235 Saint Lucia 255015011644 Saint Martin (French part) 102010026

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Caribbean Islands Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Saint Vincent and the 223116010438 Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago 225919010148 Turks and Caicos Islands 224014010234 Virgin Islands, British 1162120101042 Virgin Islands, U.S. 214211001131 North America Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Canada 12 16 3 1 26 2 10 2 72 Saint Pierre and 310010005 Miquelon United States 37 74 32 56 164 273 312 244 1,192

SOUTH AMERICA South America Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total Argentina 35 49 5 29 31 0 10 44 203 Bolivia 19 29 2 39 0 0 1 71 161 Brazil 82 122 22 30 64 21 15 382 738 Chile 21 32 1 21 18 0 8 40 141 Colombia 52 86 15 214 31 0 31 223 652 Ecuador 43 69 11 171 15 48 12 1,839 2,208 Falkland Islands 41000500524 (Malvinas) French Guiana 606321001652 Guyana 835722012268 Paraguay 8 27 2 00001047 Peru 53 93 6 96 10 0 3 275 536 Suriname 705120002659 Uruguay 10 24 4 4 28 0 1 1 72 Venezuela 32 26 13 71 29 0 19 69 259

OCEANIA Oceania Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total American Samoa 18208552177 Australia 57 49 38 48 84 175 282 55 788 Christmas Island 15305016131 Cocos (Keeling) Islands 20107017027 Cook Islands 1 15 1 0 7 0 25 1 50 Fiji 6 10 6 1 11 3 87 66 190 French Polynesia 1 32 1 0 13 29 26 47 149 Guam 2 12 2 0960435 Kiribati 15107172087 Marshall Islands 251010166085 Micronesia, Federated 69301341045144 States of Nauru 12008062073 New Caledonia 9 14 2 0 17 11 84 218 355 New Zealand 8 69 12 4 14 5 10 21 143 Niue 28107023041

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Oceania Mammals Birds Reptiles Amphibians Fishes Molluscs Other Inverts Plants Total

Norfolk Island 0 15 2 0 2 12 9 1 41 Northern Mariana Islands 5 14 1 0 9 4 47 5 85 Palau 4220125974126 Papua New Guinea 41 36 9 11 38 2 167 142 446 Pitcairn 2 10 0 0 6 5 10 7 40 Samoa 2 7 1 0 8 1 52 2 73 Solomon Islands 17 20 4 2 12 2 138 16 211 Tokelau 0 1107031040 Tonga 2 4209233456 Tuvalu 21108170083 United States Minor 0111012044068 Outlying Islands Vanuatu 88201117810118 Wallis and Futuna 09006057173

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AFRICA North Africa EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Algeria 011 13 20 39 72 1 49 31 444 598 Egypt 0 1 1 81486108 2 134 53 671 969 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 0 1 1 7101835 0 30 20 351 437 Morocco 1 1 2 15 20 45 80 1 62 43 489 677 Tunisia 0 1 1 11 16 27 54 0 40 22 388 505 Western Sahara 011 8101432 0 19 25 213 290 Sub-Saharan Africa EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Angola 000 9193563 0 50 114 1,384 1,611 Benin 0 0 0 582033 0 31 30 698 792 Botswana 0 0 0 111315 0 21 12 847 895 Burkina Faso 0 1 1 031114 0184605642 Burundi 0 0 0 2152946 0 37 18 899 1,000 Cameroon 0 0 0 27 61 71 159 0 59 80 1,334 1,632 Cape Verde 1 0 1 3111226 0 16 25 103 171 Central African Republic 0 0 0 121013 0 25 24 993 1,055 Chad 0 1 1 331521 0227649700 Comoros 0 0 0 5116884 0 105 38 297 524 Congo 0 0 0 711 17 35 0 30 42 889 996 Congo, The Democratic 000 10 45 70 125 0 71 152 1,909 2,257 Republic of the Côte d’Ivoire 0 0 0 9214575 0 69 58 1,018 1,220 Djibouti 0 0 0 167279 0 130 43 504 756 Equatorial Guinea 0 0 0 8162044 0 27 33 704 808 Eritrea 0 0 0 577688 0 139 36 778 1,041 Ethiopia 0 0 0 5274779 0 41 27 1,106 1,253 Gabon 0 0 0 8122545 0 31 49 879 1,004 Gambia 0 0 0 482032 0 30 27 651 740 Ghana 0 0 0 6173457 0 56 49 1,038 1,200 Guinea 0 0 0 8213564 0 61 51 921 1,097 Guinea-Bissau 0 0 0 492033 0 34 25 599 691 Kenya 34 4 38 39 44 125 208 2 174 108 1,729 2,259 Lesotho 0 0 0 02810 0121317340 Liberia 000 10 18 37 65 0 53 49 781 948

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Sub-Saharan Africa EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Madagascar 10 0 10 40 106 209 355 2 182 203 640 1,392 Malawi 0 0 0 2 25 113 140 0 36 39 1,238 1,453 Mali 0 1 1 241319 0236717766 Mauritania 0 1 1 11 10 28 49 0 40 35 555 680 Mauritius 40 0 40 10 26 95 131 2 116 49 242 580 Mayotte 5 0 5 156268 0 96 25 267 461 Mozambique 0 0 0 8 28 107 143 2 174 101 1,407 1,827 Namibia 1 0 1 7143758 0 43 40 953 1,095 Niger 0 1 1 331319 0173557597 Nigeria 0 1 1 9215080 0 56 48 1,289 1,474 Réunion 16 0 16 3137389 0 100 40 229 474 Rwanda 1 0 1 6142949 0308806894 Saint Helena 29 0 29 772034 0 7 16 45 131 Sao Tomé and Principe 0 0 0 791531 0 15 43 118 207 Senegal 0 1 1 9143457 0 46 44 781 929 Seychelles 4 0 4 61985110 2 119 34 296 565 Sierra Leone 0 0 0 4152847 0 56 48 845 996 Somalia 0 0 0 81187106 0 147 61 937 1,251 South Africa 5 0 5 43 87 194 324 3 159 133 1,322 1,946 Sudan 0 1 1 4107488 0 137 54 1,386 1,666 Swaziland 0 0 0 121114 0173628662 Tanzania, United Republic of 33 5 38 51 101 197 349 0 191 162 2,132 2,872 Togo 0 0 0 6111734 0 32 30 789 885 Uganda 34 4 38 28 37 56 121 0 56 39 1,534 1,788 Zambia 0 0 0 382435 0 39 61 1,412 1,547 Zimbabwe 000 3101932 0 31 11 1,045 1,119

ANTARCTIC Antarctic EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Antarctica 000 0156 06432 48 Bouvet Island 0 0 0 0022 0121621 French Southern Territories (the) 1 0 1 310821 0693976 Heard Island and McDonald 000 04711 0361838 Islands South Georgia and the South 000 05510 06791114 Sandwich Islands

ASIA East Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total China 415 54 111 205 370 1 184 350 1,797 2,707 Hong Kong 0 0 0 3142542 1 32 22 248 345 Japan 13 0 13 25 82 190 297 3 216 188 781 1,498 Korea, Democratic People’s 101 3112640 0 23 17 382 463 Republic of Korea, Republic of 1 0 1 6153758 0 22 30 411 522 Macao 0 0 0 12710 01401539 Mongolia 0 0 0 4102236 0193454512 Taiwan, Province of China 000 8 36 164 208 2 205 97 676 1,188

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North Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Belarus 000 221317 2292366416 Moldova 1 0 1 271827 0327353420 Russian Federation 4 1 5 16 44 91 151 3 76 28 995 1,258 Ukraine 202 9153559 2 40 12 517 632 South & Southeast Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Bangladesh 011 15 27 55 97 0 49 14 687 848 Bhutan 0 0 0 5133048 0275642722 British Indian Ocean Territory 0 0 0 157076 2 105 33 224 440 Brunei Darussalam 0 0 0 4125672 0 127 28 436 663 Cambodia 0 0 0 17 34 111 162 0 153 38 796 1,149 Disputed Territory (Spratly 000 0101 005511 Islands) India 1 0 1 51 105 257 413 2 252 231 1,631 2,530 Indonesia 1 0 1 63 157 481 701 4 513 455 2,008 3,682 Lao People’s Democratic 000 15 31 48 94 0 42 42 840 1,018 Republic Malaysia 0 0 0 38 81 336 455 3 363 172 1,129 2,122 Maldives 0 0 0 154955 2 92 34 251 434 Myanmar 0 0 0 18 39 132 189 3 223 104 1,344 1,863 Nepal 0 0 0 9214474 0 44 15 932 1,065 Philippines 0 0 0 42 65 318 425 5 284 192 807 1,713 Singapore 1 0 1 8 15 190 213 3 228 66 581 1,092 Sri Lanka 21 0 21 62 83 109 254 10 154 57 590 1,086 Thailand 1 1 2 25 67 265 357 2 318 172 1,349 2,200 Timor-Leste 0 0 0 26715 0 22 23 259 319 Viet Nam 000 27 59 175 261 2 227 148 1,228 1,866 West & Central Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Afghanistan 000 381930 0145478527 Armenia 0 0 0 392436 1318367443 Azerbaijan 0 1 1 3132440 2 32 10 461 546 Bahrain 0 0 0 232530 0528287377 Cyprus 0 0 0 3111226 0 27 12 308 373 Georgia 0 0 0 7132949 2376397491 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 0 1 1 7226089 0 91 53 708 942 Iraq 1 0 1 3124055 0598477600 Israel 4 1 5 17 28 82 127 0 134 45 640 951 Jordan 0 0 0 3137389 0 119 30 551 789 Kazakhstan 0 1 1 7183257 0 33 12 605 708 Kuwait 1 0 1 173139 0558323426 Kyrgyzstan 0 0 0 271726 0183377424 Lebanon 0 0 0 4152140 0 33 15 342 430 Oman 0 0 0 5105368 0 96 45 472 681 Pakistan 0 0 0 8206997 0 83 28 801 1,009 Palestinian Territory, Occupied 0 0 0 44917 093100129 Qatar 0 0 0 112527 0557284373 Saudi Arabia 1 0 1 388394 2 136 42 590 865 Syrian Arab Republic 101 7263568 0 32 23 373 497

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West & Central Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Tajikistan 000 3101528 0153368414 Turkey 1 0 1 26 48 54 128 0 60 55 590 834 Turkmenistan 0 1 1 5122542 0197400469 United Arab Emirates 0 0 0 173442 0 59 24 370 495 Uzbekistan 0 0 0 5112137 0205395457 Yemen 202 4895107 0 146 55 541 851

EUROPE Europe EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Åland Islands 000 0000 00011 Albania 1 0 1 9113252 0 33 20 430 536 Andorra 0 0 0 1179 070193209 Austria 4 0 4 11 17 38 66 3 39 17 463 592 Belgium 1 0 1 531826 2 29 11 388 457 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0 0 0 5113450 0264430510 Bulgaria 0 0 0 6132645 0 44 15 502 606 Croatia 1 0 1 15 21 47 83 0 38 10 477 609 Czech Republic 0 0 0 352331 3328434508 Denmark 0 0 0 461828 3 27 12 392 462 Estonia 0 0 0 21912 2193361397 Faroe Islands 1 0 1 15814 065143169 Finland 0 0 0 321520 4223374423 France 6 0 6 16 23 88 127 2 82 50 615 882 Germany 4 0 4 9104362 4 46 25 491 632 Gibraltar 0 0 0 56920 0 21 15 204 260 Greece 1 0 1 22 32 53 107 0 62 35 504 709 Greenland 1 0 1 05712 056102126 Guernsey 0 0 0 1023 0422029 Holy See (Vatican City State) 0 0 0 1012 0401925 Hungary 0 0 0 293647 2 36 10 417 512 Iceland 1 0 1 36817 0 8 11 140 177 Ireland 1 0 1 871025 3 20 17 281 347 Isle of Man 0 0 0 1023 0311825 Italy 1 0 1 17 20 82 119 2 68 31 555 776 Jersey 0 0 0 1023 0422433 Latvia 0 0 0 231621 4254382436 Liechtenstein 0 0 0 0044 1130258276 Lithuania 0 0 0 311519 3235357407 Luxembourg 0 0 0 2125 0161281303 Macedonia, the former 202 352836 0 25 13 454 530 Yugoslav Republic of Malta 0 0 0 471122 0 25 17 224 288 Monaco 0 0 0 15814 0 151176116 Montenegro 1 0 1 715 30 52 0 40 13 469 575 Netherlands 1 0 1 541423 2 27 16 405 474 Norway 000 472132 4 25 13 376 450

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Europe EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Poland 101 452433 4396450533 Portugal 2 0 2 25 28 90 143 5 68 37 422 677 Romania 2 0 2 8114059 3 44 12 491 611 San Marino 0 0 0 1001 0505258 Serbia 0 0 0 283242 0337478560 Slovakia 0 0 0 163037 3397441527 Slovenia 0 0 0 5145877 0289459573 Spain 1 0 1 27 50 92 169 6 121 48 558 903 Svalbard and Jan Mayen 0 0 0 0033 0336473 Sweden 0 0 0 442129 4 30 10 411 484 Switzerland 6 0 6 333945 4 39 13 446 553 United Kingdom 202 9142851 4 32 25 378 492

NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Mesoamerica EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Belize 000 816 31 55 1 48 34 771 909 Costa Rica 3 0 3 30 49 60 139 0 71 72 1,205 1,490 El Salvador 0 0 0 8111938 0 42 26 676 782 Guatemala 1 0 1 39 49 57 145 1 73 57 966 1,243 Honduras 4 0 4 42 37 41 120 0 65 48 1,018 1,255 Mexico 22 6 28 179 222 235 636 3 158 299 1,998 3,122 Nicaragua 0 0 0 11 20 41 72 0 60 50 968 1,150 Panama 000 34 37 55 126 0 76 105 1,280 1,587 Caribbean Islands EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Anguilla 000 361928 0 12 16 277 333 Antigua and Barbuda 0 0 0 662234 0 17 19 287 357 Aruba 0 0 0 431522 0 12 14 243 291 Bahamas 2 0 2 8113049 0 26 30 344 451 Barbados 0 0 0 652233 0 15 22 286 356 Bermuda 0 0 0 2771347 0 17 16 180 260 Cayman Islands 1 0 1 661931 0 16 20 296 364 Cuba 7 0 7 33 43 55 131 0 46 40 398 622 Dominica 1 0 1 5824 37 0 13 19 287 357 Dominican Republic 9 0 9 20 33 41 94 0 34 23 314 474 Grenada 0 0 0 682034 0 14 22 189 259 Guadeloupe 7 0 7 683044 0 21 18 316 406 Haiti 10 0 10 39 24 38 101 0 33 23 321 488 Jamaica 6 0 6 19 18 34 71 0 31 34 257 399 Martinique 8 0 8 431623 0 12 11 234 288 Montserrat 0 0 0 662133 0126269320 Netherlands Antilles 0 0 0 592337 0 15 24 309 385 Puerto Rico 2 0 2 13 11 24 48 0 23 15 303 391 Saint Barthélemy 0 0 0 0224 00004 Saint Kitts and Nevis 0 0 0 662133 0 14 18 282 347 Saint Lucia 1 0 1 6102238 0 16 16 286 357 Saint Martin (French part) 000 0224 00004

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Caribbean Islands EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Saint Vincent and the 101 672134 0 15 19 286 355 Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago 0 0 0 1092847 1 27 30 607 712 Turks and Caicos Islands 0 0 0 681832 0 17 11 302 362 Virgin Islands, British 0 0 0 861832 0 17 14 211 274 Virgin Islands, U.S. 202 441220 0 17 13 175 227 North America EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Canada 606 7164770 0 35 32 783 926 Saint Pierre and Miquelon 0 0 0 0325 046205220 United States 229 4 233 193 200 555 948 7 278 294 1,634 3,394

SOUTH AMERICA South America EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Argentina 235 17 46 96 159 0 120 123 1,234 1,641 Bolivia 0 0 0 9245790 2 72 51 1,823 2,038 Brazil 9 1 10 65 98 193 356 9 181 404 2,493 3,453 Chile 0 0 0 17 21 63 101 0 70 138 521 830 Colombia 3 0 3 79 133 217 429 2 160 271 2,433 3,298 Ecuador 6 0 6 78 108 183 369 2 129 172 1,966 2,644 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) 1 0 1 071219 0 13 16 129 178 French Guiana 0 0 0 652536 1 31 44 989 1,101 Guyana 0 0 0 683246 2 35 59 1,099 1,241 Paraguay 0 3 3 592337 0 49 18 842 949 Peru 3 0 3 33 84 144 261 2 124 231 2,197 2,818 Suriname 0 0 0 652233 0 31 42 989 1,095 Uruguay 0 0 0 7234171 0 40 37 480 628 Venezuela 202 34 54 102 190 1 76 181 1,803 2,253

OCEANIA Oceania EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total American Samoa 101 3964 76 3 87 33 217 417 Australia 40 0 40 66 148 519 733 3 373 224 1,325 2,698 Christmas Island 0 0 0 232530 0 24 16 128 198 Cocos (Keeling) Islands 0 0 0 032427 0 27 18 118 190 Cook Islands 15 0 15 154349 1 53 23 158 299 Fiji 1 0 1 6 8 110 124 3 149 45 308 630 French Polynesia 68 11 79 26 20 56 102 2 62 27 184 456 Guam 3 1 4 6121331 2 11 64 102 214 Kiribati 0 0 0 058287 3 118 33 238 479 Marshall Islands 0 0 0 048185 3 119 36 251 494 Micronesia, Federated States of 2 0 2 6 10 123 139 3 140 97 328 709 Nauru 0 0 0 017273 0 110 24 206 413 New Caledonia 4 0 4 7 17 113 137 3 146 47 330 667 New Zealand 19 0 19 14 31 77 122 0 46 59 175 421 Niue 0 0 0 143641 0 48 23 161 273 Norfolk Island 10 0 10 183140 024472150

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Oceania EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Northern Mariana Islands 101 6155980 3 84 43 265 476 Palau 1 0 1 4 9 109 122 4 141 95 346 709 Papua New Guinea 1 0 1 21 33 250 304 3 250 269 1,208 2,035 Pitcairn 0 0 0 082533 1 241066134 Samoa 0 0 0 266371 3 87 37 221 419 Solomon Islands 2 0 2 7 19 169 195 3 182 70 470 922 Tokelau 0 0 0 023840 2 55 15 153 265 Tonga 1 0 1 064652 3 65 28 202 351 Tuvalu 0 0 0 038083 3 117 24 213 440 United States Minor Outlying 101 475768 1 71 23 237 401 Islands Vanuatu 1 0 1 1 7 100 108 3 132 33 295 572 Wallis and Futuna 000 126972 0 93 22 218 405

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AFRICA North Africa EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Algeria 0 0 0 1113 010812 Egypt 0 0 0 1102 00013 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 0 0 0 0011 00034 Morocco 0 0 0 0112 030813 Tunisia 0 0 0 0000 00044 Sub-Saharan Africa EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Angola 0 0 0 022426 061639 Benin 0 0 0 001414 020218 Botswana 0 0 0 0000 03036 Burkina Faso 0 0 0 0022 01014 Burundi 0 0 0 0022 11026 Cameroon 1 0 1 66 69 220 355 23747406 Cape Verde 0 0 0 0022 00002 Central African Republic 0 0 0 121215 133224 Chad 0 0 0 0022 01003 Comoros 0 0 0 2215 00038 Congo 0 0 0 172735 140343 Congo, The Democratic 000 012 53 65 31421397 Republic of the Côte d’Ivoire 2 0 2 21885105 11015124 Djibouti 0 0 0 0112 01003 Equatorial Guinea 0 0 0 3134763 0130379 Eritrea 0 0 0 0033 02005 Ethiopia 0 0 0 012122 1301458 Gabon 0 0 0 41490108 11634132 Gambia 0 0 0 0044 00015 Ghana 0 0 0 31995117 11015134 Guinea 0 0 0 002222 130329 Guinea-Bissau 0 0 0 0044 00015 Kenya 0 0 0 51484103 126115146 Lesotho 0 0 0 0011 00012 Liberia 0 0 0 044246 020452 Madagascar 0 0 0 62 102 117 281 0 301239362 Malawi 0 0 0 031114 130624

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Sub-Saharan Africa EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Mali 0 0 0 0246 01018 Mauritius 2 0 2 65 14 9 88 000090 Mayotte 0 0 0 0000 00011 Mozambique 0 0 0 263846 0 10231493 Namibia 0 0 0 222024 0123122161 Niger 0 0 0 0022 00002 Nigeria 0 0 0 16 18 137 171 21416194 Réunion 0 0 0 95115 000015 Rwanda 0 0 0 0033 120410 Saint Helena 7 2 9 11 8 7 26 035750 Sao Tomé and Principe 0 0 0 023335 0100146 Senegal 0 0 0 0077 020110 Seychelles 0 0 0 743445 130150 Sierra Leone 0 0 0 144247 140355 Somalia 0 0 0 031417 0420261 South Africa 0 3 3 16 16 42 74 421921132 Sudan 0 0 0 111517 152429 Swaziland 0 1 1 22711 122825 Tanzania, United Republic of 2 0 2 8 33 199 240 217717285 Togo 0 0 0 001010 020113 Uganda 0 0 0 243238 191958 Zambia 0 0 0 0088 040719 Zimbabwe 0 0 0 061117 080732

ASIA East Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total China 3 1 4 74 174 198 446 5 51 19 116 641 Hong Kong 0 0 0 2136 01018 Japan 0 0 0 03912 0663155 Korea, Democratic People’s 000 0033 0111419 Republic of Korea, Republic of 0 0 0 0000 0211215 Mongolia 0 0 0 0000 0021113 Taiwan, Province of China 0 1 1 12 39 27 78 19723119 North Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Moldova 0 0 0 0000 00033 Russian Federation 0 0 0 0257 0433549 Ukraine 0 0 0 0011 0001415 South & Southeast Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Bangladesh 0 0 0 42612 010518 Bhutan 0 0 0 1247 0311728 British Indian Ocean Territory 0 0 0 0011 00023 Brunei Darussalam 0 0 0 38 23 38 99 416248169 Cambodia 0 0 0 913931 0543373 India 7 2 9 45 112 89 246 1 221870366 Indonesia 1 1 2 113 69 204 386 9 80 38 171 686

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South & Southeast Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Lao People’s Democratic 000 57921 0552455 Republic Malaysia 2 1 3 186 99 401 686 113 70 27 281 1,180 Myanmar 0 0 0 13 12 13 38 010854110 Nepal 0 0 0 0257 0212434 Philippines 0 0 0 52 34 130 216 3 241266321 Singapore 0 0 0 11 13 30 54 8202109193 Sri Lanka 1 0 1 78 73 129 280 51315305 Thailand 0 0 0 29 21 36 86 3 251375202 Timor-Leste 0 0 0 0000 00022 Viet Nam 0 0 0 25 39 83 147 1 321465259 West & Central Asia EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Afghanistan 0 0 0 0112 0421422 Armenia 0 0 0 0011 0101113 Azerbaijan 0 0 0 0000 0201214 Cyprus 0 0 0 6017 000714 Georgia 0 0 0 0000 1301115 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 0 0 0 0011 0511118 Iraq 0 0 0 0000 00033 Israel 0 0 0 0000 00011 Jordan 0 0 0 0000 00011 Kazakhstan 0 0 0 77216 0 2 11 23 52 Kyrgyzstan 0 0 0 66214 0352244 Lebanon 0 0 0 0000 0001111 Oman 0 0 0 0156 050112 Pakistan 0 0 0 0022 0331119 Palestinian Territory, Occupied 0 0 0 0000 00011 Saudi Arabia 0 0 0 0213 01026 Syrian Arab Republic 0 0 0 0000 00099 Tajikistan 0 0 0 73414 0421434 Turkey 0 0 0 0123 11012540 Turkmenistan 0 0 0 0123 030612 Uzbekistan 0 0 0 47415 0331940 Yemen 3 0 3 3 28 128 159 0 23 28 113 326

EUROPE Europe EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Albania 0 0 0 0000 0101718 Andorra 0 0 0 0000 00066 Austria 0 0 0 0224 0001115 Belgium 0 0 0 0011 00034 Bosnia and Herzegovina 0 0 0 0011 00124 Bulgaria 0 0 0 0000 0101415 Croatia 0 0 0 0011 00225 Czech Republic 0 0 0 0134 0001014 Denmark 0 0 0 0033 00036

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Europe EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Estonia 0 0 0 0000 00033 Faroe Islands 0 0 0 0000 00011 Finland 0 0 0 0011 00056 France 0 0 0 6028 0001725 Germany 0 0 0 23712 0001022 Gibraltar 0 0 0 0000 00055 Greece 0 0 0 90211 0512037 Greenland 0 0 0 0011 00012 Guernsey 0 0 0 0000 00011 Hungary 0 0 0 0011 00067 Iceland 0 0 0 0000 00011 Ireland 0 0 0 0011 00034 Isle of Man 0 0 0 0000 00011 Italy 1 0 1 16 2 1 19 0001737 Jersey 0 0 0 0000 00011 Latvia 0 0 0 0000 00033 Liechtenstein 0 0 0 0000 00022 Luxembourg 0 0 0 0000 00011 Macedonia, the former 000 0000 00022 Yugoslav Republic of Malta 0 0 0 3003 01048 Monaco 0 0 0 0000 00066 Montenegro 0 0 0 0000 0101314 Netherlands 0 0 0 0000 00033 Norway 0 0 0 0022 00068 Poland 0 1 1 0134 0001015 Portugal 0 0 0 26816 3401740 Romania 0 0 0 0011 0001213 San Marino 0 0 0 0000 00011 Serbia 0 0 0 0011 0101113 Slovakia 0 0 0 1012 00024 Spain 1 1 2 21 17 11 49 6702084 Sweden 0 0 0 0033 00058 Switzerland 0 0 0 0123 0001013 United Kingdom 0 0 0 52714 010722

NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Mesoamerica EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Belize 0 0 0 1111830 050338 Costa Rica 0 0 0 43374111 337718176 El Salvador 0 0 0 161926 246644 Guatemala 0 0 0 5294983 411717122 Honduras 0 1 1 42 38 30 110 25112131 Mexico 0 2 2 40 75 146 261 8 251888402 Nicaragua 0 0 0 3162039 2171766 Panama 0 0 0 19 71 104 194 2 474025308

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Caribbean Islands EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Anguilla 0 0 0 0213 00003 Antigua and Barbuda 0 0 0 0314 00004 Bahamas 0 0 0 0325 023111 Barbados 0 0 0 0112 00002 Bermuda 0 0 0 1124 00004 Cayman Islands 0 0 0 0112 01003 Cuba 4 1 5 23 57 83 163 0346181 Dominica 0 0 0 14611 002013 Dominican Republic 0 0 0 282030 022135 Grenada 0 0 0 0213 00003 Guadeloupe 0 0 0 0437 001210 Haiti 0 0 0 561829 012032 Jamaica 2 0 2 40 53 116 209 07351290 Martinique 0 0 0 0448 001211 Montserrat 0 0 0 0213 00014 Netherlands Antilles 0 0 0 0202 00002 Puerto Rico 0 0 0 22 16 15 53 023159 Saint Barthélemy 0 0 0 0202 00002 Saint Kitts and Nevis 0 0 0 0112 00114 Saint Lucia 0 0 0 0246 00118 Saint Martin (French part) 0 0 0 0202 00002 Saint Vincent and the 000 0224 00105 Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago 0 0 0 0101 02137 Turks and Caicos Islands 0 0 0 0202 00114 Virgin Islands, British 0 0 0 64010 000010 Virgin Islands, U.S. 0 0 0 37111 000011 North America EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Canada 1 0 1 0112 0103640 United States 23 7 30 104 65 75 244 423383387

SOUTH AMERICA South America EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total Argentina 0 1 1 1113244 1 13112191 Bolivia 1 0 1 4105771 210917110 Brazil 5 1 6 46 117 219 382 22 69 34 86 599 Chile 1 1 2 1542140 1103359 Colombia 3 0 3 31 85 107 223 4 421148331 Ecuador 1 0 1 246 668 925 1,839 1 263 285 153 2,542 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) 0 0 0 0145 010612 French Guiana 0 0 0 321116 1201635 Guyana 0 0 0 131822 1822356 Paraguay 0 0 0 15410 1571437 Peru 1 0 1 9 15 251 275 4 371838373 Suriname 0 0 0 122326 0351347 Uruguay 0 0 0 0101 01327 Venezuela 0 0 0 375969 270050191

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OCEANIA Oceania EX EW Subtotal CR EN VU Subtotal LR/cd NT DD LC Total American Samoa 0 0 0 0011 01035 Australia 1 0 1 4143755 720088171 Christmas Island 0 0 0 0011 00001 Cocos (Keeling) Islands 0 0 0 0000 00022 Cook Islands 0 0 0 0011 00001 Fiji 1 0 1 21 13 32 66 019343132 French Polynesia 6 0 6 2641747 0 183450155 Guam 0 0 0 1124 00116 Micronesia, Federated States of 0 0 0 0145 00027 New Caledonia 3 0 3 28 65 125 218 37 4 0 17 279 New Zealand 0 0 0 271221 31511656 Norfolk Island 1 0 1 0011 00002 Northern Mariana Islands 0 0 0 2125 00005 Palau 0 0 0 0134 01005 Papua New Guinea 0 0 0 14 15 113 142 0 331970264 Pitcairn 0 0 0 1157 00029 Samoa 0 0 0 1102 01025 Solomon Islands 0 0 0 011516 0 10142060 Tonga 0 0 0 1034 00015 Tuvalu 0 0 0 0000 00022 Vanuatu 0 0 0 12710 150824 Wallis and Futuna 0 0 0 0011 01002

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Appendix 11. Number of endemic and threatened endemic species per country for completely assessed taxonomic groups (mammals, birds, amphibians, freshwater crabs, reef-forming corals, conifers, cycads)

AFRICA Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals North Africa Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Algeria 20111100001100 Egypt 4 0 001000000000 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya 3 0 000000000000 Morocco 5 2 001000000000 Tunisia 1 0 000000000000 Western Sahara 0 0 000000000000 Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals Sub-Saharan Africa Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Angola 8 0 10 6 19 030000000 Benin 00000000000000 Botswana 00000000000000 Burkina Faso 00000000000000 Burundi 00002000000000 Cameroon 15 14 7 6 51 33 52000000 Cape Verde 00420000000000 Central African 20002010000000 Republic Chad 00001000000000 Comoros 42860000000000 Congo 30000000000000 Congo, The Democratic Republic 254106413121000031 of the Côte d’Ivoire 11003100000000 Djibouti 00110000000000 Equatorial Guinea 2 2 321000000000 Eritrea 00001000000000 Ethiopia 32 18 16 11 24 921000000 Gabon 21003100000000 Gambia 00000000000000 Ghana 10004111000000

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Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Sub-Saharan Africa Corals Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Guinea 22004021000000 Guinea-Bissau 00000000000000 Kenya 12 7 7 6 13 460000021 Lesotho 00000000000000 Liberia 00110033000000 Madagascar 181 56 104 25 241 64 14 2326400 Malawi 20113322001100 Mali 10002000000000 Mauritania 00000000000000 Mauritius 1 1 24 80000000000 Mayotte 00110000000000 Mozambique 21100000000032 Namibia 10103000000000 Niger 00000000000000 Nigeria 42421131000000 Réunion 0 0 13 20000000000 Rwanda 11001010000000 Saint Helena 0 0 16 60000000000 Sao Tomé and Principe 5 3 26 9 7 3 20001100 Senegal 00000010000000 Seychelles 2 2 14 7 11 610000000 Sierra Leone 00002120000000 Somalia 8 0 10 53000000000 South Africa 29 10 15 3 41 16 7100322918 Sudan 80101000000000 Swaziland 00000000000010 Tanzania, United 22182115704753000032 Republic of Togo 00001000000000 Uganda 10100041000033 Zambia 52212010000000 Zimbabwe 00000000000011

ANTARCTIC Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals Antarctic Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Antarctica 00000000000000 Bouvet Island 00000000000000 French Southern 00100000000000 Territories (the) Heard Island and 00000000000000 McDonald Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich 00100000000000 Islands

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ASIA Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals East Asia Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics China 82 17 51 17 173 76 216 4 0 0 56 26 12 8 Hong Kong 0 0 003242000000 Japan 40 16 15 6 44 18 21 2 4 2 22 5 0 0 Korea, Democratic 00000000000000 People’s Republic of Korea, Republic of 0 0 003100000000 Macao 00000000000000 Mongolia 0 0 000000000000 Taiwan, Province of 1401311683611001061 1 China Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals North Asia Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Belarus 00000000000000 Moldova 0 0 000000000000 Russian Federation 21 1 100000002000 Ukraine 2 2 000000000000 Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads South & Corals Southeast Asia Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Bangladesh 00001000000000 Bhutan 00001010000000 British Indian Ocean 00000000000000 Territory Brunei Darussalam 0 0 000010000000 Cambodia 1 0 103010000000 Disputed Territory 0 0 000000000000 India 43 29 50 15 153 60 63 3 0 02131 Indonesia 258 114 369 67 170 22 76 11 4 26120 Lao People’s 630060133000000 Democratic Republic Malaysia 19 3 6 0 44 22 78 28 0 0 14 11 0 0 Maldives 00000000000000 Myanmar 404190261001000 Nepal 21003000000000 Philippines 110 24 194 56 79 48 42 4003251 Singapore 10001033000000 Sri Lanka 17 15 21 7 89 52 50 40 100010 Thailand 41111418617000033 Timor-Leste 10000000000000 Viet Nam 939533436400441210 Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals West & Central Asia Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Afghanistan 00001110000000 Armenia 2 2 000000000000

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Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads West & Central Asia Corals Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Azerbaijan 00000000000000 Bahrain 00000000000000 Cyprus 10000000001100 Georgia 00000000000000 Iran, Islamic Republic 50004230000000 of Iraq 00000000000000 Israel 10001000000000 Jordan 00000000000000 Kazakhstan 40000000000000 Kuwait 00000000000000 Kyrgyzstan 10000000000000 Lebanon 00000000000000 Oman 10000000200000 Pakistan 21000010000000 Palestinian Territory, 00000000000000 Occupied Qatar 00000000000000 Saudi Arabia 10000000100000 Syrian Arab Republic 10000000000000 Tajikistan 00000000000000 Turkey 60009721000000 Turkmenistan 00000000000000 United Arab Emirates 00000000000000 Uzbekistan 00000000000000 Yemen 20711130000000

EUROPE Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals Europe Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Åland Islands 00000000000000 Albania 00000000000000 Andorra 00000000000000 Austria 00000000000000 Belgium 00000000000000 Bosnia and 00000000001100 Herzegovina Bulgaria 00000000000000 Croatia 00000000000000 Czech Republic 00000000000000 Denmark 00000000000000 Estonia 00000000000000 Faroe Islands 00000000000000 Finland 00000000000000 France 00003000000000 Germany 00000000000000

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Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Europe Corals Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Gibraltar 00000000000000 Greece 2 1 003300001000 Greenland 0 0 000000000000 Guernsey 00000000000000 Holy See (Vatican City 00000000000000 State) Hungary 0 0 000000000000 Iceland 0 0 000000000000 Ireland 0 0 000000000000 Isle of Man 0 0 000000000000 Italy 410013500001100 Jersey 0 0 000000000000 Latvia 0 0 000000000000 Liechtenstein 0 0 000000000000 Lithuania 0 0 000000000000 Luxembourg 0 0 000000000000 Macedonia, the former 00000000000000 Yugoslav Republic of Malta 0 0 000000000000 Monaco 0 0 000000000000 Montenegro 0 0 000000000000 Netherlands 0 0 000000000000 Norway 0 0 000000000000 Poland 1 0 000000000000 Portugal 1 1 210000001100 Romania 0 0 000000000000 San Marino 0 0 000000000000 Serbia 0 0 000000000000 Slovakia 0 0 000000000000 Slovenia 0 0 000000000000 Spain 3 3 524300001000 Svalbard and Jan 00000000000000 Mayen Sweden 0 0 000000000000 Switzerland 0 0 000000000000 United Kingdom 0 0 100000000000

NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals Mesoamerica Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Belize 00000020000011 Costa Rica 5065392391003100 El Salvador 0 0 000031000000 Guatemala 3110322461000021 Honduras 3111413711000011 Mexico 157 80 86 21 245 171 54 6 2 1 30 10 36 32 Nicaragua 20003330000000 Panama 13 4 8 3 26 12 11 0110053

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Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals Caribbean Islands Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Anguilla 00000000000000 Antigua and Barbuda 00100000000000 Aruba 00000000000000 Bahamas 21201000000010 Barbados 00100000000000 Bermuda 00000000001100 Cayman Islands 00100000000000 Cuba 21 12 21 8 59 49 20004231 Dominica 00321100000000 Dominican Republic 100010900001100 Grenada 00111100000000 Guadeloupe 11302200000000 Haiti 2000262600000000 Jamaica 7 3 32 6 21 17 00002100 Martinique 10211100000000 Montserrat 00110000000000 Netherlands Antilles 10000000000000 Puerto Rico 1084141300000011 Saint Barthélemy 00000000000000 Saint Kitts and Nevis 00000000000000 Saint Lucia 10530000000000 Saint Martin (French 00000000000000 part) Saint Vincent and the 10221100000000 Grenadines Trinidad and Tobago 10117710001000 Turks and Caicos 00000000000000 Islands Virgin Islands, British 00000000000000 Virgin Islands, U.S. 00001100000000 Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals North America Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Canada 51000000000000 Saint Pierre and 00000000000000 Miquelon United States 106 20 62 32 178 49 0093391200

SOUTH AMERICA Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals South America Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Argentina 82 13 12 0 37 21 00000000 Bolivia 22 4 15 5 63 32 10002010 Brazil 183 55 197 71 496 26 13 1804000 Chile 17 5 11 3 29 12 00001100 Colombia 37 9 65 40 333 158 77 10 000066 Ecuador 29 11 32 17 155 100 13 2000011

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Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads South America Corals Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics Falkland Islands 10110000000000 (Malvinas) French Guiana 1 0 106200000000 Guyana 000019420000000 Paraguay 2 1 101000000000 Peru 55 19 106 36 217 69 8 0 0 00022 Suriname 0 0 004010000000 Uruguay 1 1 001100000000 Venezuela 19 6 38 14 139 62 19 3 0 05100

OCEANIA Reef-forming Mammals Birds Amphibians FW Crabs Conifers Cycads Corals Oceania Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened Total Threatened endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics endemics American Samoa 00000000000000 Australia 243 50 299 24 206 46 725037106918 Christmas Island 1 1 330000000000 Cocos (Keeling) Islands 00000000000000 Cook Islands 0 0 750000000000 Fiji 1 1 27 82110004300 French Polynesia 0 0 34 16 0000000000 Guam 10100000000000 Kiribati 0 0 100000000000 Marshall Islands 0 0 000000000000 Micronesia, Federated 431740000000000 States of Nauru 0 0 110000000000 New Caledonia 6 6 25 7000000441700 New Zealand 4 4 74 41 44000018100 Niue 0 0 000000000000 Norfolk Island 0 0 640000001100 Northern Mariana 00330000000000 Islands Palau 2 0 10 01000000000 Papua New Guinea 70 23 83 17 174 9 12 0 0 04020 Pitcairn 0 0 550000000000 Samoa 0 0 940000000000 Solomon Islands 19 13 45 81000001000 Tokelau 0 0 000000000000 Tonga 0 0 210000001100 Tuvalu 0 0 000000000000 United States Minor 00000000110000 Outlying Islands Vanuatu 2 2 10 50000001100 Wallis and Futuna 0 0 000000000000

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appendices.indd 151 10/07/2009 13:50:00 Wildlife in a Changing World Appendix 12. Species changing IUCN Red List Category for genuine reasons

Species may move between categories for a variety of reasons, including genuine improvement or deterioration in status, new information being available about the species that was not known at the time of the previous assessment, taxonomic changes, or mistakes being made in previous assessments (e.g., incorrect information used previously, missapplication of the IUCN Red List Criteria, etc.). To help Red List users interpret the changes between the current and the previous Red List, a summary of species that have changed category for genuine reasons only in 2008 is provided in the table below. These genuine re-categorizations are used to calculate the Red List Index (see chapters 1 and 2). Note, however, that the list of genuine changes used in the RLI calculation for a particular group may not match exactly the list of genuine changes published here. For example, a species may have had the same category published for multiple Red List assessments, but information has subsequently come to light showing that it ought to have qualiﬁ ed for a lower or higher category in one or more previous assessments owing to a genuine change in status. This retrospective recalculation is included in the RLI calculation but is not reﬂ ected in the published history of Red List assessments.

MAMMALS 2007 IUCN Red List 2008 IUCN Red List Scientifi c name Common name Category Category Genuine Improvements Gulo gulo Wolverine VU NT Mustela nigripes Black-footed Ferret EW EN Arctocephalus philippii Juan Fernández Fur Seal VU NT Arctocephalus townsendi Guadalupe Fur Seal VU NT Balaena mysticetus Bowhead Whale LR/cd LC Eubalaena australis Southern Right Whale LR/cd LC Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback Whale VU LC Bison bonasus European Bison EN VU Capra pyrenaica Spanish Ibex LR/nt LC Capra walie Walia Ibex CR EN Procapra przewalskii Przewalski’s Gazelle CR EN Rupicapra pyrenaica Pyrenean Chamoix LR/cd LC Eschrichtius robustus Gray Whale LR/cd LC Pteropus dasymallus Ryukyu Flying Fox EN NT Pteropus molossinus Pohnpei Flying Fox CR VU Pteropus samoensis Samoan Flying Fox VU NT Corynorhinus rafi nesquii Rafi nesque’s Big-eared Bat VU LC Corynorhinus townsendii Townsend’s Big-eared Bat VU LC Myotis emarginatus Geoffroy’s Bat VU LC Myotis grisescens Gray Myotis EN NT Dasyurus geoffroii Western Quoll VU NT Dendrolagus lumholtzi Lumholtz’s Tree Kangaroo LR/nt LC Macropus irma Western Brush Wallaby LR/nt LC Bettongia lesueur Burrowing Bettong VU NT Pseudochirulus cinereus Daintree River Ringtail Possum LR/nt LC Pseudochirulus herbertensis Herbert River Ringtail Possum LR/nt LC Equus ferus Wild Horse EW CR Equus zebra Mountain Zebra EN VU Rhinoceros unicornis Indian Rhinoceros EN VU Leontopithecus chrysopygus Black Lion Tamarin CR EN

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Genuine Improvements Loxodonta africana African Elephant VU NT Castor ﬁ ber Eurasian Beaver NT LC Leporillus conditor Greater Stick-nest Rat EN VU Pseudomys ﬁ eldi Shark Bay Mouse CR VU Pseudomys occidentalis Western Mouse EN LC Spermophilus suslicus Speckled Ground Squirrel VU NT Spermophilus washingtoni Washington Ground Squirrel VU NT Genuine deteriorations Panthera pardus Leopard LC NT Prionailurus planiceps Flat-headed Cat VU EN Prionailurus viverrinus Fishing Cat VU EN Spilogale pygmaea Pygmy Spotted Skunk LR/lc VU Aonyx cinerea Asian Small-Clawed Otter NT VU Mustela altaica Altai Weasel LR/lc NT Vormela peregusna Marbled Polecat LR/lc VU Arctocephalus galapagoensis Galápagos Fur Seal VU EN Neophoca cinerea Australian Sea Lion LR/lc EN Zalophus wollebaeki Galápagos Sea Lion VU EN Monachus schauinslandi Hawaiian Monk Seal EN CR Hemigalus derbyanus Banded Civet LR/lc VU Paradoxurus zeylonensis Golden Palm Civet LR/lc VU Cephalophus jentinki Jentink’s Duiker VU EN Kobus megaceros Nile Lechwe LR/nt EN Axis kuhlii Bawean Deer EN CR Hydropotes inermis Chinese Water Deer LR/nt VU Rucervus eldii Eld’s Deer VU EN Rusa timorensis Javan Rusa LR/lc VU Rusa unicolor Sambar LR/lc VU Sus barbatus Bearded Pig LR/lc VU Sus celebensis Sulawesi Warty Pig LR/lc NT Tayassu pecari White-Lipped Peccary LR/lc NT Amorphochilus schnablii Smoky Bat VU EN Coelops robinsoni Malayan Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat LR/nt VU Tadarida johorensis Northern Free-tailed Bat LR/nt VU Tadarida mops Malayan Free-tailed Bat LR/lc NT Nycteris tragata Malayan Slit-faced Bat LR/lc NT Lonchorhina fernandezi Fernandez’s Sword-Nosed Bat VU EN Lonchorhina orinocensis Orinoco Sword-Nosed Bat LR/nt VU Platyrrhinus chocoensis Choco Broad-Nosed Bat VU EN Acerodon mackloti Sunda Fruit Bat LR/lc VU Eidolon helvum Straw-Coloured Fruit Bat LC NT Megaerops wetmorei White-collared Fruit Bat LR/lc VU Pteropus caniceps North Moluccan Flying Fox LR/lc NT Pteropus lylei Lyle’s Flying Fox LR/lc VU Pteropus melanopogon Black-bearded Flying Fox LR/lc EN Pteropus niger Mauritan Flying Fox VU EN

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Genuine deteriorations Pteropus temminckii Temminck’s Flying Fox LR/nt VU Pteropus vampyrus Large Flying-fox LR/lc NT Pteropus woodfordi Dwarf Flying Fox LR/lc VU Rousettus bidens Manado Rousette LR/nt VU Styloctenium wallacei Stripe-faced Fruit Bat LR/nt VU Rhinolophus cognatus Andaman Horseshoe Bat VU EN Rhinolophus sedulus Lesser Wooly Horseshoe Bat LR/lc NT Corynorhinus mexicanus Mexican Big-eared Bat LR/lc NT Hesperoptenus tomesi Large False Serotine LR/lc VU Kerivoula pellucida Clear-winged Woolly Bat LR/lc NT Murina aenea Bronze Tube-nosed Bat LR/nt VU Murina rozendaali Gilded Tube-nosed Bat LR/nt VU Phoniscus atrox Groove-toothed Trumpet-eared Bat LR/lc NT Rhogeessa minutilla Tiny Yellow Bat LR/nt VU Dasyurus hallucatus Northern Quoll LR/nt EN Pseudantechinus bilarni Sandstone Pseudantechinus LR/lc NT Sarcophilus harrisii Tasmanian Devil LR/lc EN Myrmecobius fasciatus Numbat VU EN Burramys parvus Mountain Pygmy Possum EN CR Dendrolagus mbaiso Dingiso VU CR Dendrolagus scottae Tenkile EN CR Dorcopsis luctuosa Grey Dorcopsis LR/lc VU Dorcopsulus vanheurni Small Dorcopsis LR/lc NT Petaurus abidi Northern Glider VU CR Phalanger lullulae Woodlark Cuscus LR/lc EN Phalanger matanim Telefomin Cuscus EN CR Spilocuscus kraemeri Admiralty Cuscus LR/lc NT Spilocuscus rufoniger Black-spotted Cuscus EN CR Bettongia penicillata Woylie LR/cd CR Pseudochirops coronatus Reclusive Ringtail LR/lc VU Ochotona iliensis Ili Pika VU EN Equus hemionus Asiatic Wild Ass VU EN Manis javanica Sunda Pangolin LR/nt EN Manis pentadactyla Chinese Pangolin LR/nt EN Saguinus niger Black-handed Tamarin LC VU Macaca hecki Heck’s Macaque LR/nt VU Macaca nigra Celebes Crested Macaque EN CR Macaca tonkeana Tonkean Macaque LR/nt VU Presbytis melalophos Sumatran Surili LR/nt EN Presbytis thomasi Thomas’s Langur LR/nt VU Pygathrix cinerea Grey-shanked Douc Langur EN CR Trachypithecus obscurus Dusky Leaf-monkey LR/lc NT Hylobates agilis Agile Gibbon LR/nt EN Hylobates albibarbis Bornean White-bearded Gibbon LR/nt EN Hylobates klossii Kloss’s Gibbon VU EN Hylobates lar Lar Gibbon LR/nt EN

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Genuine deteriorations Hylobates muelleri Müller’s Bornean Gibbon LR/nt EN Nomascus concolor Black Crested Gibbon EN CR Symphalangus syndactylus Siamang LR/nt EN Nycticebus coucang Greater Slow Loris LR/lc VU Tarsius bancanus Horsfi eld’s Tarsier LR/lc VU Abrothrix illuteus Gray Grass Mouse LR/lc NT Abrothrix sanborni Sanborn’s Grass Mouse LR/lc NT Akodon latebricola Ecuadorean Grass Mouse LR/lc VU Akodon surdus Silent Grass Mouse LR/lc VU Arborimus longicaudus Red Tree Vole LR/lc NT Arvicola sapidus Southern Water Vole LR/nt VU Calomys hummelincki Hummelinck’s Vesper Mouse LR/lc VU Mesocricetus brandti Brandt’s Hamster LR/lc NT Microtus oaxacensis Tarabundi Vole LR/nt EN Microtus quasiater Japalapan Pine Vole LR/lc NT Microtus umbrosus Zepoal Tepec Vole LR/lc EN Neotoma palatina Bolano’s Woodrat LR/nt VU Reithrodontomys microdon Small-toothed Harvest Mouse LR/nt VU Reithrodontomys spectabilis Cozumel Harvest Mouse EN CR Sigmodon alleni Allen’s Cotton Rat LR/lc VU Thomasomys hylophilus Woodland Oldfi eld Mouse LR/lc EN Wilfredomys oenax Greater Wilfred’s Mouse LR/lc EN Xenomys nelsoni Magedelena Wood Rat LR/nt EN Ctenomys australis Southern Tuco-tuco LR/lc EN Allactaga vinogradovi Vinogradov’s Jerboa LR/lc NT Pappogeomys alcorni Alcorn’s Pocket Gopher VU CR Chaetodipus goldmani Goldman’s Pocket Mouse LR/lc VU Dipodomys nitratoides Fresno Kangaroo Rat LR/nt VU Gerbillus gleadowi Little Hairy-footed Gerbil LR/lc NT Maxomys rajah Rajah Sundaic Maxomys LR/lc VU Maxomys whiteheadi Whitehead’s Sundaic Maxomys LR/lc VU Nesokia bunnii Bunn’s Short-Tailed Bandicoot Rat LR/nt EN Niviventer cremoriventer Sundaic Arboreal Niviventer LR/lc VU Pseudomys fumeus Smoky Mouse VU EN Pseudomys novaehollandiae New Holland Mouse LR/lc VU Rattus richardsoni Glacier Rat LR/lc VU Solomys ponceleti Poncelet’s Giant Rat EN CR Solomys salebrosus Bougainville Giant Rat LR/nt EN Solomys sapientis Isabel Giant Rat VU EN Uromys neobritannicus Bismarck Giant Rat LR/lc EN Zyzomys maini Arnhem Land Rock Rat LR/lc NT Octodon bridgesi Bridges’s Degu LR/lc VU Octodon pacifi cus VU CR Callosciurus adamsi Ear-spot Squirrel LR/lc VU Callosciurus melanogaster Mentawai Squirrel LR/lc VU Marmota sibirica Mongolian marmot LR/lc EN

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Genuine deteriorations Marmota vancouverensis Vancouver Island Marmot EN CR Petaurista nobilis Bhutan Giant Flying Squirrel LR/nt VU Petinomys genibarbis Whiskered Flying Squirrel LR/lc VU Petinomys lugens Siberut Flying Squirrel LR/nt EN Petinomys setosus Temminck’s Flying Squirrel LR/lc VU Petinomys vordermanni Vordermann’s Flying Squirrel LR/lc VU Pteromyscus pulverulentus Smoky Flying Squirrel LR/nt EN Ratufa bicolor Black Giant Squirrel LR/lc NT Rhinosciurus laticaudatus Shrew-faced Squirrel LR/lc NT Rubrisciurus rubriventer Sulawesi Giant Squirrel LR/lc VU Spermophilus perotensis Perote Ground Squirrel LR/nt EN Spermophilus xanthoprymnus Asia Minor Ground Squirrel LR/lc NT Spalax arenarius Sandy Mole Rate VU EN Spalax zemni Podolian Mole Rat LR/lc VU

BIRDS 2007 IUCN Red List 2008 IUCN Red List Scientiﬁ c name Common name Category Category Genuine improvements Ducula galeata Marquesan Imperial-pigeon CR EN Apteryx owenii Little Spotted Kiwi VU NT Genuine deteriorations Aythya baeri Baer’s Pochard VU EN Sterna nereis Fairy Tern LC VU Eurynorhynchus pygmeus Spoon-billed Sandpiper EN CR Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew LC NT Ducula ﬁ nschii Finsch’s Imperial-pigeon LC NT Ducula rubricera Red-knobbed Imperial-pigeon LC NT Reinwardtoena browni Pied Cuckoo-dove LC NT Centropus violaceus Violaceous Coucal LC NT Accipiter princeps New Britain Goshawk NT VU Pauxi pauxi Helmeted Curassow VU EN Tetrao mlokosiewiczi Caucasian Grouse DD NT Atrichornis rufescens Rufous Scrub-bird NT VU Coracina newtoni Réunion Cuckooshrike EN CR Corvus kubaryi Mariana Crow EN CR Loxops caeruleirostris Akekee EN CR Stipiturus mallee Mallee Emuwren VU EN Melidectes whitemanensis Bismarck Melidectes LC NT Mimus trifasciatus Floreana Mockingbird EN CR Megalurulus grosvenori Bismarck Thicketbird DD VU Sylvia undata Dartford Warbler LC NT Diomedea dabbenena Tristan Albatross EN CR Cacatua ophthalmica Blue-eyed Cockatoo LC VU Ninox odiosa Russet Hawk-owl LC VU Tyto aurantia Bismarck Masked-owl DD VU

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REPTILES 2007 IUCN Red List 2008 IUCN Red List Scientiﬁ c name Common name Category Category Genuine deteriorations Crocodylus rhombifer Cuban Crocodile EN CR Erymnochelys madagascariensis Madagascar Big-headed Turtle EN CR Astrochelys radiata Radiated Tortoise VU CR Astrochelys yniphora Ploughshare Tortoise EN CR Pyxis arachnoides Spider Tortoise VU CR Pyxis planicauda Flat-tailed Tortoise EN CR

AMPHIBIANS 2007 IUCN Red List 2008 IUCN Red List Scientiﬁ c name Common name Category Category Genuine improvement Thorius macdougalli EN VU Genuine deteriorations Incilius holdridgei CR EX Centrolene buckleyi NT VU Craugastor escoces CR EX Parvimolge townsendi EN CR Pseudoeurycea gigantea EN CR Pseudoeurycea juarezi EN CR Thorius muniﬁ cus EN CR

INVERTEBRATES 2007 IUCN Red List 2008 IUCN Red List Scientiﬁ c name Common name Category Category Genuine deterioration Hemiphlebia mirabilis Ancient Greenling VU EN

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