Integrating Forestry, Sustainable Cattle-Ranching and Landscape Restoration

Integrating forestry, sustainable cattle-ranching and landscape restoration

Z. Calle, E. Murgueitio and J. Chará alle Z. C A proposed new image of tropical he livestock sector occupies about cattle-ranching involves animals grazing This example of natural in a shaded and biologically diverse intensification can simultaneously 30 percent of the land surface of environment, surrounded by high- improve a farming system, our planet through grazing and quality edible biomass. These bulls generate environmental goods and Tfeed-crop production. It is a leading driver graze under a rain tree Albizia saman at the El Hatico Reserve, El Cerrito, services and facilitate the release of deforestation, land degradation, pollu- Valle del Cauca, Colombia of fragile, marginal and strategic tion, climate change, the sedimentation of areas for strict conservation. coastal areas and invasions by alien species the natural dynamics of tropical forest (FAO and LEAD, 2006). The link between ecosystems1 (Wassenaara et al., 2007). livestock production and deforestation is A paradox of cattle-ranching in Latin strongest in Latin America, where cattle- America is that, even though it is currently ranching activities have expanded, mostly at the expense of forests. A simplified form 1 In tropical forest ecosystems, most nutrients Zoraida Calle is Coordinator of Ecological of cattle-ranching based on grass mono- are locked in living plants, animals and Restoration, Enrique Murgueitio is Executive cultures has been practised for centuries microorganisms. Closed nutrient cycles are Director and Julián Chará is Research in Latin America. This type of system has promoted by a highly diverse vegetation with Coordinator at the Centro para la Investigación dense networks of fine roots and mycorrhizal en Sistemas Sostenibles de Producción promoted environmental degradation and associations, coupled with efficient decom- Agropecuaria (CIPAV), Cali, Colombia. climate change because it goes against poser assemblages.

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Cattle can help support complex soil food webs and restore fertility in degraded lands, such as here in the Cesar River valley, Cesar, Colombia olarte L. S

the principal land use, occupying more has become instrumental as a means to protection of water resources by improv- than 550 million hectares (ha), its average consolidate land control (Murgueitio and ing soil properties and reducing pollution stocking and productivity rates are low Ibrahim, 2008). (Chará, 2010). Jobs could be created, and (0.59 animals per ha, and 19.9 kg of beef or However, tropical cattle-ranching high-quality food and other products could 89.7 ℓitres of milk per ha per year, respec- activities can be improved and need not be produced, in a sustainable way. tively; FAO, 2006). With some exceptions, be destructive. Cattle have the potential This article describes ways to harness this land use has minimal per-animal and to act as “mobile sun-powered catalytic the power of the existing tropical per-ha production indexes and makes a converters”, 2 capable of transforming the cattle-ranching systems into intensive meagre contribution to rural employment cellulose in plant biomass into simple car- silvopastoral systems (ISPSs), explores in the region. bohydrates that support complex soil food sustainable timber production in these Despite its inefficiency and its multiple webs and help restore fertility in degraded systems, including how and why certain negative effects on the environment, cattle- lands (Patriquin and Moncayo, 1991). Sus- species are selected, and discusses ranching is not likely to decline any time tainably managed in silvopastoral systems incentives for implementing ISPSs. soon in Latin America. First, this activity and integrated with connectivity corridors is deeply rooted in the Portuguese and and protected areas, cattle-ranching can What are ISPSs? Spanish ancestry of the region. Second, even become a tool for landscape-scale Forest and landscape restoration must go a high and growing demand exists for restoration. The large-scale transition beyond afforestation, reforestation and all cattle products. Third, the activity from input-intensive cattle grazing on even ecological restoration to improve both has often been undertaken as a reaction degraded pastures to environmentally human livelihoods and ecological integrity to agricultural failures that result from friendly silvopastures could enhance (Minnemeyer et al., 2011; Laestadius et al., biophysical constraints (Hernández, 2001; the resilience of soil to degradation and 2011). Landscapes should be restored and Murgueitio, 2005). Finally, over time, it nutrient loss, sequester large amounts of managed for a balanced combination of carbon (1.2 to 6.1 tonnes per ha per year; ecosystem services and goods, not only Ibrahim et al., 2010; Udawatta and Jose, for increased forest cover. 2 Catalytic converters convert the toxic compo- nents of the exhaust of an internal combustion 2011), reduce greenhouse gas emissions It has been suggested that a high level of engine into less toxic substances. (Nair et al., 2011) and contribute to the food production can only be achieved in

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ISPSs combine the high-density cultivation of fodder shrubs with improved tropical grasses and trees. This ISPS in Finca San Marcos, Tamalameque, Cesar, Colombia, incorporates Brachiaria humidicola (grass), Tithonia diversifolia (fodder shrub) and Acacia mangium (timber tree) chemically intensive and energy-demand- ing modern agriculture, which provides L. S L.

a low-quality habitat for wildlife, while olarte alternative agriculture is doomed to low productivity, even if it is more biodiversity-friendly (Perfecto and Vandermeer, 2010). However, agricultural intensifica- from the same processes that provide profitable and modern farms in Colombia tion and sparing the land do not neces- ecosystem services. and other Latin American countries. sarily constitute a dichotomy; natural ISPSs are a form of agroforestry that Because of their higher stocking density intensification exists on the spectrum. combines the high-density cultivation of (2–5 head per ha), ISPSs allow farmers to This alternative seeks to maximize the fodder shrubs (more than 8 000 plants per concentrate production in the most suitable efficiency of biological processes such as ha) for the direct grazing of livestock with areas of their farms and release fragile photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation and nutri- improved tropical grasses and trees. The lands for soil recovery and biodiversity ent recycling in order to boost biomass top vegetation layer may consist of trees or protection (Chará et al., 2011). Some key production and enhance soil organic matter. palms with densities ranging from 100 to features of ISPSs are high biomass pro- The inputs of naturally intensive systems 600 individuals per ha, in accordance with duction and the high nutritional quality of are biological processes rather than fossil the biophysical and climatic conditions of the fodder; rotational grazing with high fuels and synthetic compounds, and each agroecosystem. Tree products – such stocking rates and brief grazing periods they apply modern scientific knowledge as timber and fruit – may be directed to followed by long periods of plant recovery; to combine and manage species with local markets, agribusiness or the protec- and high per-ha productivity (Figure 1). different traits. ISPSs are a good example tion of biodiversity (Murgueitio et al., 2010). The proper functioning of ISPSs requires: of natural intensification, in which the ISPSs respond to the increasingly urgent • a permanent supply of good-quality productive benefits of the system stem need to transform tropical cattle-ranching water in mobile troughs and mineral- into an environmentally friendly activ- ized salt; ity that can be profitable in the short and • live fences planted at the periphery Land surface (1 000 ha) medium terms and capable of generating and internal divisions of paddocks; more and better rural jobs while provid- • electrical fencing or tape, either fixed 160 148 ing safe, high-quality food (meat, milk or mobile, to concentrate grazing on 140 and fruit), hides and wood. These systems narrow strips; 120 are suitable for beef, milk, dual-purpose • non-violent handling of livestock 100 or specialized cattle farming as well as (Ocampo et al., 2011). 80 buffalo, sheep and goats. ISPSs combine elements of traditional 60 54.8 ISPSs should be based on solid sci- livestock management, fodder banks and 40 entific and technological knowledge timber plantations, but are significantly (Dalzell et al., 2006; Shelton and Dalzell, different from these three land-use systems: 20 12.2 2007; Murgueitio et al., 2011; Murgueitio • Unlike conventional extensive cattle- 0 Extensive Improved ISPSs et al., 2012; Mahecha et al., 2012). ranching, ISPSs require rigorous man- treeless pasture They are being increasingly adopted in agement, administrative control and systems monocultures permanent adjustments based on care- By replacing extensive pastures with improved 1 ful monitoring. Management protocols pasture monocultures or ISPSs, it is possible to Land surface required to achieve an are simple but mandatory; for example, produce the same amount of meat in 36 percent annual production of 10 000 tonnes and 8 percent of the land area, respectively once the system is established, fire and (Murgueitio et al., 2012). of meat in the highly seasonal dry Caribbean region of Colombia herbicides cannot be used. In Mexico,

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For an ISPS to function the farmers who have achieved the properly, certain best results owe their success to their controls must be in previous experience in agriculture and, place. On El Chaco farm, Pedras, Tolima, in some cases, to their training in pre- Colombia, electrical cision agriculture (Solorio-Sánchez tape allows grazing to et al., 2012). be concentrated on narrow strips. Note • Unlike mixed fodder banks or other the browsed Leucaena cut-and-carry systems, ISPSs are leucocephala shrubs designed to tolerate direct browsing at the front

by cattle. Electric fencing must be han- M M.M. dled properly in order to guarantee the heavy but instantaneous grazing of urgueitio narrow strips of shrubs and grasses in each paddock. These short rotations minimize the negative impact of cattle on the soil and facilitate the recovery in the richness of bird species follow- nutrient cycling, hydrological protection of shrubs and grasses. Once the cattle ing the implementation of the Regional and crop pollination. have moved forward to a fresh fodder Integrated Silvopastoral Approaches strip, dung beetles and earthworms to Ecosystem Management (RISAEM) Introducing trees and timber quickly bury or degrade the dung, project in Quindío, Colombia. After five production into ISPSs thus interrupting the life cycles of years, total bird richness in the project ISPSs can combine the short-term profit various parasites (Giraldo et al., 2011; area increased from 146 to 193 species, from milk and/or meat production with a Murgueitio and Giraldo, 2009). forest-dependent birds increased from 74 long-term investment in timber. • ISPSs differ from tree plantations to 104 species, migratory birds increased Tree species, silvicultural treatments and in their lower planting densities, the from 10 to 19 species and one endangered agroecological factors determine timber spatial arrangement of trees in rows species recolonized the area (Chará et al., production in ISPSs. Timber trees are alternating with strips of pasture or 2011). The diversity of ant species in sil- planted in double or triple lines separated shrubs, the west–east (instead of north– vopastoral systems was equivalent to that by 15–30 m wide grazing strips. The initial south) orientation of tree rows and the recorded in remnant forest. Silvopastoral density of trees in these systems is thus timing and intensity of tree thinning systems with complex vegetation can half or less the density in homogeneous and pruning, both chosen to minimize support significant levels of biodiversity tree plantations. With light interception pasture shading. (Harvey et al., 2005, 2006; Sáenz et al., by timber trees varying between 10 and Silvopastoral systems can enhance bio- 2007) and provide ecosystem services 40 percent, ISPSs permit grazing until the diversity in agricultural landscapes, as such as natural pest management, carbon final harvest of the trees. Controlled graz- revealed by an analysis of the changes sequestration, water and soil conservation, ing is allowed four to eight months after the grasses and fodder shrubs have been planted; however, entrance of the cattle to the timber lines is restricted for up to 18 months by electric fencing. After that period, animals have access to the whole ISPS area. Depending on the species and region, timber thinning or harvest may begin at year 7, with successive harvests up to

ISPSs can enhance biodiversity in agricultural landscapes, such as this 2-year-old ISPS established in degraded soils of the Amazon ivera foothills. Buenos Aires farm,

J.E. R J.E. El Doncello, Caquetá, Colombia

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year 20–25. The total volume of wood is Transition from open pastures to ISPSs institutions focus on improving “miracle estimated to be 30 percent lower than in is often accompanied by a greater appre- grasses” and promoting the large-scale conventional plantations, but this reduction ciation of biodiversity within the farming cultivation of a few species of Brachiaria, is offset by the increased price of timber system. For example, some dairy farms in rather than on developing more complex at final harvest. In these systems, thin- the central and eastern Andes of Colom- and natural systems. ning and pruning are designed to maxi- bia have replaced their Pennisetum A few exotic fast-growing timber trees mize diameters above 30 cm (for pine clandestinum (kikuyu grass) monocul- have proved useful in weakening such and eucalyptus, in 15–16 years), increas- tures with ISPSs that combine caespitose barriers. Some early adopters of ISPSs ing the volume of high-priced timber by and stoloniferous grasses, creeping chose to plant familiar species such as 50 percent (Esquivel et al., 2010). legumes, a middle layer of Sambucus Eucalyptus species, Pinus species, Acacia species and Tithonia diversifolia fod- mangium, Gmelina arborea and T. grandis. Selection of species der shrubs, and the nitrogen-fixing However, some native timber trees are The livestock component of ISPSs biases Andean alder Alnus acuminata in the gradually emerging as protagonists of the selection of trees toward nitrogen- upper canopy. Once herbicides are sup- ISPSs in different regions. fixing species, fruit trees that can supple- pressed, some weedy herbs colonize the ment cattle nutrition and timber sources system. However, farmers have learned Successful selection of native species for farm use, local markets and industry. to value “weeds” such as Sida acuta Introducing new species in ISPSs, as in Crown architecture is another important and Sida rhombifolia, both of which are reforestation, involves risks. Projects may aspect of tree selection. In general, species readily eaten by cattle. fail because of inappropriate species choice, with straight trunks and small crowns a consequence of insufficient knowledge and that are self-pruning, such as Cordia Barriers to introducing trees about the performance of native trees in gerascanthus, are preferred to highly Tropical cattle ranchers will often admit different site conditions. Nevertheless, branched trees with twisted stems. However, that they have a bias against trees in an important pool of knowledge has large nitrogen-fixing trees with edible seeds pasture-lands. Grass monocultures are developed on native trees. More than such as Albizia saman, Albizia guachapele favoured in Latin America, at least partly 130 neotropical species have been screened and Enterolobium cyclocarpum (all in the for aesthetic reasons. Herbicide manu- by various national projects and several Fabaceae family) are usually kept within facturers have helped to strengthen this have shown good early growth and survival ISPSs at a low density. taste for open pastures, and some research in degraded areas (van Bruegel et al., 2011; Species with open crowns that allow enough sunlight to reach the ground are used instead of trees with dense canopies that block sunlight. Mango trees are an exception because the benefits provided by their large crops of nutritious fruit and the increased nutrient recycling compen- sate for the reduced fodder production beneath their crowns. Species with small and rapidly decomposing leaflets are preferred to those with large, thick leaves that form persistent litter. Tectona grandis is an exception because the cattle eat some fallen leaves, while the combination of trampling and urine accelerates the decom- position of remaining leaves.

Crown architecture is an important aspect of tree selection. Cordia gerascanthus is a native species of U F. global conservation concern with ribe the ideal architecture for ISPSs

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Hall et al., 2011; Montagnini and Finney, is browsed by the cattle. It is not only an Incentives for the adoption 2011, and references therein). excellent fodder shrub, it is also a fast- of ISPSs A pioneer farmer in the Andean foothills growing timber tree that forms straight Those who have an interest in implement- of Meta department in Colombia chose to poles that are useful for construction. ing ISPSs face two main classes of barrier: test the endemic and rare Mimosa trianae Thus, P. discolor provides fodder and 1. Financial. The high initial costs of on his farm, together with A. mangium, timber and has the ideal tree architecture establishing most ISPSs challenge G. arborea and other species. This for live fences and silvopastoral systems the traditional view of tropical cattle- virtually unknown native tree species (Hurtado et al., 2011). ranching as a low-investment activity. outperformed its exotic competitors and Some ISPSs combine two or more native Even though the investment can be has shown impressive growth. Collected timber tree species. An area of Colombia’s recovered in a relatively short period by botanists only eight times since 1856, dry Caribbean region has some seasonal (3–4 years), most farmers, techni- this nitrogen-fixing species will probably limitations because of insufficient drain- cians and banks have not assimilated become one of the key elements of ISPSs in age. One ISPS for dual-purpose cattle this relatively new thinking about the Andean foothills, where, paradoxically, combines improved pastures, a middle cattle-ranching. cattle-ranching could contribute to saving layer formed by the native tree Guazuma 2. Knowledge. The complexity of ISPSs it from extinction. ulmifolia planted at high density for demands specialized knowledge and Another example is the silvopastoral direct browsing and managed as a fodder technical assistance (Calle, 2008; system based on the managed succession shrub, and a canopy layer that combines Chará et al., 2011). of Piptocoma discolor in the Amazon strips of the native timber species Cordia Nevertheless, Latin American cattle- foothills of Caquetá, Colombia. Once gerascanthus and Tabebuia rosea and the ranchers must quickly adapt to a changing herbicides are eliminated as a tool for endangered Pachira quinata (Galindo climate and to the challenges of recent maintaining pastures in this moist region, et al., 2010; Galindo, Galindo and Blanco, free-trade agreements that will demand this species regenerates vigorously and 2010; Calle et al., 2012). producing high-quality beef and dairy

An important pool of knowledge has been developed on the success rate of native trees in ISPSs. Mimosa trianae Benth (Fabaceae) is an endemic and virtually “unknown” tree that has outperformed its exotic competitors in silvopastoral systems in the Andean foothills. Andorra farm,

alle Cubarral, Meta,

Z. C Colombia

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TABLE 1. Types of incentives used to promote the transition of conventional unsustainable practices to silvopastoral systems and other sustainable land uses

Incentive Socio-economic context and scale Constraints of application Donation of trees, Small and local groups of farmers Only multipurpose trees that offer a direct economic benefit without supplies and equipment competing with cash crops are attractive to farmers

Risks: Paternalism, limited adoption and lack of tree care when projects end Processing of land All scales (small to large landowners), post- This incentive should be the final step in closing an agricultural property documents conflict areas and settlements in the agricultural frontier once zero deforestation has been achieved. Certification of a frontier property must be based on clear environmental standards to protect conservation areas

Risks: Corruption, perverse incentives for deforestation, land concentration and land acquisition by international buyers Land tax exemption Fertile lands and high-priced lands near cities Up-to-date information on land property must be available. The and infrastructure such as water-supply sys - incentive should be consistent with the opportunity cost of the land; tems, dams and roads it is insufficiently attractive in areas with profitable and unsustainable activities such as mining and commercial monocultures Local scale (municipality), but often related to a national policy Financing of technical Necessary at all scales Requires specialized training for extension workers and technicians assistance (TA) and silvopastoral extension The cost of TA must be appropriate for every scale of production. TA should be neither fully subsidized nor very expensive. It demands the permanent availability of financial resources Credit for establishing Necessary at all scales, but must be adjusted to The main limitations are the lack of access of small farmers to credit, ISPSs each group of stakeholders and bureaucratic obstacles. The financial system poses barriers (raising interest rates or requesting more guarantees)

A risk of failure exists if the technology is not appropriate for a given ecosystem

Credit schemes must be designed so that the flow of payments is synchronized with the biological aspects of the system Special incentives National policy with application at all scales Technological development is needed to ensure the adequate linked to silvopastoral investment of incentives. The technology must be adapted to special credit (such as the Rural conditions such as tropical mountain ecosystems, areas subject to Capitalization Incentive flooding, acid soils and low-fertility areas in Colombia) Limited by available funding. Faces the same limitations as access to credit. Group loans must be developed. National funds to achieve landscape-scale changes are not yet available Application of forestry Should be applicable at all scales but, in practice, More knowledge on native species is required. Technology for the incentives to livestock incentives are concentrated in high-timber- introduction of forest species in ranchlands is nonexistent systems (such as the production areas. Forestry Incentive Development of silvicultural practices, markets and wood-processing Certificate in Colombia) Can reach national or regional scales. With techniques for timber produced in silvopastoral systems are further technological development, benefits insufficient available for livestock systems could become equivalent to those of forest plantations Payments for Water may provide opportunities for small Requires baseline knowledge and monitoring of the ecosystem ecosystem services landowners in focal watersheds; biodiversity service being offered applies at different scales; carbon is attractive mostly to large landowners or large-scale projects Funding is very limited (i.e. under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). Most countries have no specific Local scale for water, regional scale for carbon funds and depend on international cooperation and biodiversity. National-scale incentives exist only in specific countries Differentiation of short- and long-term payments is very important. Native trees require an additional stimulus Specialized market Necessary at all scales. Small farmers need Requirements include: traceability and certification of milk, meat and incentives (included access to markets and subsidies throughout the wood; certification protocols; impartial certifiers; someone paying for in the prices paid for certification process. Larger and entrepreneurial the cost of certification, and a demand for the certified products in products of ISPSs) producers need incentives and promotion to enter specialized markets (biodiversity friendly, carbon neutral, low water marketing chains footprint or fair trade products)

Strong and prolonged campaigns for consumers play an important role in increasing the demand for ISPS products

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Providing incentives to invest in ISPSs can lead to enhancing productivity of farming systems and the generation of ecosystem goods and services while helping to conserve and restore degraded lands. El Chaco farm, Piedras, Tolima, Colombia

was considered. The five-fold increase in farmer income and the doubling of farm expenses have boosted the local economy. Additionally, ISPSs have increased local land value by 33 percent (González-Pérez and Solorio-Sánchez, 2012).

Conclusion In some parts of Latin America, ecological restoration is untenable unless it manifestly bolsters the ecological base for

E. M urgueitio E. human survival (Society for Ecological Restoration International Science and products, at a lower cost and adhering to area. During the establishment phase, Policy Working Group, 2004). Restoration rigorous environmental standards. There- ISPSs can provide as much as one job must complement and enhance food pro- fore, incentives and financial instruments per 3 ha (Centro para la investigación duction (Minnemeyer et al., 2011). ISPSs are needed to promote the large-scale en sistemas sostenibles de producción are a good example of a land use that can adoption of ISPSs. In the past, private, agropecuaria [CIPAV], unpublished data). increase the productivity and profitability public and international cooperation pro- This statistic applies to small-, medium- of a farming system, enhance the genera- grammes have used incentives to promote and large-scale cattle farms, as ISPSs tion of ecosystem goods and services, and the adoption of silvopastoral systems and are suitable for all scales, provided that facilitate the release of fragile, marginal other agroecological practices. The main the financial and knowledge barriers can and strategic areas for strict conservation, tools for scaling-up ISPSs are financial be overcome. all at the same time. However, it will only incentives, payments for ecosystem ser- ISPSs can improve the carrying capac- be possible to scale up these systems in vices, specialized technical assistance, ity from as few as 0.5 animals per ha to Latin America with national and interna- innovation awards for farmers and market 3 per ha. One ha of ISPS can increase farm tional support through government policy, preferences. Table 1 presents incentives income by at least US$440 per ha per year. market preferences and payments for eco- that have been used, the scale of their Therefore, these systems have a substantial system services. application and their constraints. potential to contribute to the reduction of The average cost per ha of implement- rural poverty (CIPAV, unpublished data). Acknowledgements ing ISPSs in the dry Caribbean region In 2006, dual-purpose farms of the dry The authors are deeply grateful to the of Colombia is US$2 500, one-fourth of Tepalpatepec and Apatzingán valleys in following people for implementing or which (US$625) corresponds to labour Michoacán, Mexico, began replacing their improving the silvopastoral systems (Solarte et al., 2011). For the RISAEM treeless cattle-ranching systems, which mentioned in this article: Fernando Uribe, project, the average income per ha from used abundant feed and chemical inputs, Carlos Hernando Molina, Enrique José cattle-ranching increased from US$237 with intensive silvopastoral systems. So Molina, Luis Solarte, Adolfo Galindo, to US$888 in Colombia, Costa Rica and far, more than 4 000 ha of ISPSs have Jorge Esquivel and Oscar Tafur. Stefano Nicaragua as a result of the adoption of been established. A recent evaluation of Pagiola, The World Bank, Fundación silvopastoral practices (not exclusively the social and economic impacts of this Produce Michoacán (Mexico) and Fedegán ISPSs) (The World Bank, 2008). On aver- project revealed that the internal rate of (Federación Colombiana de Ganaderos) age, conventional pastures provide one return of such systems increased from have made important contributions to the rural job per 100 ha, while consolidated 5–11 percent to 33.5 percent when the prof- development of incentives for promoting ISPSs provide five jobs in the same land itability of milk, meat and leucaena seed intensive silvopastoral systems. u

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