Cnc) Machinists on the Tasks of Cnc Machining Technology in Taiwan
PERSPECTIVES OF COMPUTERIZED NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC) MACHINISTS ON THE TASKS OF CNC MACHINING TECHNOLOGY IN TAIWAN
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of the Ohio State University
By
Chuan-Shou Hau, b .Ed ., M.S.
The Ohio State University 1995
Dissertation Committee: Approved by Frank C. Pratzner Paul E. Post Michael L . Scott Adviser ^ College of Education UMI Number: 9533986
OMI Microform 9533986 Copyright 1995, by OMI Company. All rights reserved.
This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, MI 48103 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to express my sincere appreciation to all those individuals who have encouraged me and assisted in the completion of this research study. My particular gratitude goes to my advisor, Dr. Frank C. Pratzner, for his professional guidance, support, and unending patience and time during this study. I also express my deepest thanks to Dr. Paul E. Post and Dr. Michael L. Scott, members of my doctoral committee, for their support and professional guidance. I would like to extend my thanks to Dr. E. Keith Blankenbaker, Dr. Lung Sheng Lee, Dr. James E. Sage, and Dr. Karen F. Zuga for their insight, professional knowledge and advice. I also would like to express a great deal of appreciation for my parents' encouragement, support, and visit; my wife's unconditional support and patience; my children's successful learning and achievement; and my brothers' assistance and encouragement. All the above have contributed immeasurablely to the completion of this study. Finally, special thanks also go to the Ministry of Education in the Republic of China for giving me funding to complete this study.
ii VITA September 6, 1953 Born in Taiwan, Republic of China 1972 The Golden Award for Bench Work of IV National Skills Olympic Competition in Taiwan. 1973 The Silver Award for Bench Work of XXI International Skills Olympic Competition in Munich, West Germany. 1978-1979 Practicing assistant, Department of Industrial Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C. 1979 B. Ed. (Industrial Education), National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan. R.O.C. 1979-1984 Teaching Assistant, Department of Industrial Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan. 1984-present Instructor, Department of Industrial Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan. 1989 MS.. (Technical Education), Pittsburg State University, Pittsburg, Kansas. 1989-1990 Secretary, Technological and Vocational Research Center, National Taiwan Normal University. PUBLICATIONS Hau, C. S. (1983). The optimum roughness of cutting conditions. Taipei: China Vocational Industrial Education Association. Hau, C. S. (1986). Lathe working Taipei: Chuan-hwa Book Company. Hau, C. S. (1986). Bench working Taipei: Chuan-hwa Book Company. Hau, C. S. (1992). Selecting desktop computer-aided manufacturing systems. Journal of Vocational Industrial Education. 1£(3), 41-45.
FIELDS OF STUDY Major field: Education Studies in Technology Education Minor Field: Curriculum and Technical Education TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii VITA ...... iii LIST OF TABLES ...... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...... x CHAPTER PAGE I. INTRODUCTION...... 1 Nature of the Problem ...... 1 Statement of the Problem...... 4 Purpose of the Study ...... 7 Conduct of the Study ...... 8 Significance of the Study .... 11 Definition of Terms ...... 12 Assumptions ...... 14 Delimitations ...... 15 Limitations ...... 16 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 17 Impact of Technology ...... 19 Issues of Vocational Education ...... 31 Curriculum Development Rationales ...... 39 Description of CNC Machining Technology ...... 59 Summary of Literature Review .... 81 III. METHODOLOGY ...... 84 Research Method ...... 84 Procedures of the Study ...... 85 Established Potential Tasks ...... 88 Validated the Potential Tasks ..... 93 Design of the Questionnaire ...... 99 Data Collection ...... 104 Data Treatment ...... 106 Summary ...... 106
v IV. DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS, AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 108 Overview ...... 108 Demographic Information .... 114 Analysis of Current Importance ...... 123 Analysis of Future Importance ...... 133 Discussions of Task Status ...... 143 Summary of the Findings ...... 164 The Results of Analysis ...... 166 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .... 176 Summary ...... 176 Conclusion ...... 180 Recommendations ...... 186 APPENDICES A. The Objectives/Content of the Numerical Control . {NC) Machine Tools Course in Taiwan .... 192 B. Task Inventory for CNC Machining Technology Identified by Document Analysis ...... 195 C. Chinese Language Version of Task inventory for CNC Machining Technology..... 202 D. The instrument of Content Validity for the Expert Panel ...... 217 E. Members of the Expert Panels for Content Validation of the Survey Questionnaire ...... 228 F. English Language Version of the Questionnaire.... 231 G. Chinese Language Version of the Questionnaire ... 246 H. Personnel Assisting in Data Collection ...... 259 REFERENCES ...... 261
vi LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Potential Duty Areas and Duties of CNC Machining Technology ...... 80 2. The Experience of the Five Qualified Experts ... 96 3. Level of Importance Scales and Their Mean Values . 107 4. Survey Response Rate by Each Company ...... 110 5. Usable Questionnaires from Each Company ...... 112 6. Grand Means on the Scales of Current and Future Importance by Means of Total Tasks ...... 113 7. Highest Degree Earned by Respondents ...... 115 8. Where CNC Machining Technology Was Learned ..... 116 9. Programs Attended by the Respondents to Learn CNC Machining Technology ...... 117 10. Number of Years of Work Experience ..... 119 11. Respondent Experience in CNC Machining ...... 120 12. Respondent Experience in CNC Programming...... 121 13. Classification of the Respondents by Experience in CNC Machining Technology ...... 122 14. Respondent Performance of CNC Machining and Programming ...... 123 15. Mean of the Five Duty Areas of CNC Machining Technology on the Scale of Current Importance .... 124 16. Tasks of CNC Machining Technology Ranked in Descending Order of Mean Ratings on the Scale of Current Importance ...... 126 17. Frequency of Tasks by Mean Ratings ..... 132
vii 18. Mean of the Five Duty Areas of CNC Machining Technology on the Scale of Future Importance ... 134 19. Tasks of CNC Machining Technology Ranked in Descending Order of Mean Ratings on the Scale of Future Importance ...... 136 20. Frequency of Tasks by Mean Ratings ...... 142 21. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Preparing Required Data for Programming ...... 144 22. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Selecting a CNC Machine Tool ...... 145 23. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Writing a Manual Program in Word Address Format .. 147 24. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Editing a Program With a Conversational Program Control Unit ..... 148 25. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Generating a Program With CAD/CAM Systems ...... 149 26. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Performing Preventive Maintenance ...... 151 27. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Setting up a Workpiece ...... 152 28. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Setting up Tools and Holding Devices ...... 153 29. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Loading Programs ...... 155 30. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Setting a Control Panel for Manual Data Input .... 156 31. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Performing Required Operations in Response to Message of the Control Monitor ...... 157 32. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Verifying a Program by Dry-Run Machine ...... 158 33. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Machining the First Piece to Verify the Accuracy of Programs and Setup ...... 159
viii 34. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Inspecting the First Part ...... 161 35. Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Machining Parts to Blueprint/Part Tolerance .... 162 36. Core Tasks and Supporting Tasks of CNC Machining Technology...... 169
ix LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE 1. The scheme of the study ...... 9 2 . The scheme of the study results ...... 11 3 . The procedures of the literature review ...... 17 4. An algorithm for curriculum and instructional development ...... 42 5. The universal system model ...... 44 6. Curriculum development in vocational-technical education ...... 46 7. The process of the Delphi technique ...... 54 8. The procedures of the study ...... 86 9. The procedure of job analysis used in this study 89 10. The hierarchy of job analysis of CNC machinists used in this study ...... 93
x CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
Nature of the Problem Automation involved in a variety of computer applications is rapidly becoming a standard strategy in global machining manufacture. Traditional machining is shifting from manual operation to computerized monitor systems resulting in the need for high-level skills. For example, a desktop device for computerized numerical control (CNC) programming eliminates the difficulty of accurately calculating the dimension value for CNC programming and becomes more powerful and efficient to use. The nature of CNC programming, however, has become more cognitive than manipulative. Kranzberg (1991) stated that technology helps people create a lot of powerful and smart machines to serve human beings. These smart machines, such as robots, can do a lot of work. Unfortunately, smart machines require smart workers for their use. Many articles, such as those by Johnson (1992), Marshall and Tucker (1992), and Ryan (1992), pointed out that sophisticated computerized machines will be used in industry and offices so that highly skilled technicians who have computer as well as technical competencies will be 1 employed to maintain and improve production strategies and processes, to enhance the competitive ability of a company in the world market. Obviously, one of the most important things is to develop human resources to deal with the impact of international competition. Human resource development is a process to enhance human labor productivity by means of advances in knowledge, skills, and their applications throughout education and training. Jahn (1990) indicated that only 22% of current jobs in the U.S. require a college education, but more than 50% of the new jobs created by the year 2000 will require education beyond the high school level. The present job market demands a median of 12.8 years of education and tomorrow's job market will require a median of 13.5 years (Marshall & Tucker, 1992; Ryan, 1992). The concept of a higher education is very reasonable, although currently, only about 24% of high school students continue to a higher level of education. With respect to this view, in Taiwan, although about 30% of the students have the opportunity to successfully enter postsecondary colleges or universities, the rate of enrollment in higher education for vocational education graduates will be increasing in the coming years to meet the demand of society and individuals (Lin, 1992). Actually, there is a lack of natural resources for economic development in Taiwan. However, human resources development is an essential policy to support the development of this island. Within the past five decades, Taiwanese economic development has shifted the society from agriculture to a progressively more industrialized nation due to the effective development of human resources. Land (1990) indicated that Taiwan should be coming into the ranks of the developed nations by the end of this century. The productivity of Taiwanese workers, on the other hand, was ranked as the world's second best, due to successful vocational education at the secondary and postsecondary levels. In 1982, the automation policy sponsored by the government of the Republic Of China (R.O.C.) was introduced into five primary production industries—manufacturing, electronics and electricity, textiles, plastics and food. The intent of this policy was to increase production quality and to promote international competitive ability. That is, the attempt was made to shift from a traditional production style, dependent on a low-level labor intensive work force, to a high-level capital-intensive and high-skill production orientation (Ministry of Economic Affairs, 1989). Indeed, industries in Taiwan are becoming more and more automated in order to meet the needs of global competition. Accordingly, it is a fact that technology shifts the nature of occupations and the work force. Workers are required to understand their role in the organization, be able to work in teams, and achieve a higher level of communication and computational skills (Glover & Marshall, 1993; Johnson, 1992; Marshall & Tucker, 1992; Murphy, 1985). In the future, many jobs will need more mental skills than motor skills. These changes in the content and structure of the labor force result in the need for generating, revising, and updating educational systems to provide for the needs of the work force. Consequently, vocational education programs must respond to this change and help students leave school and enter the real work world by enhancing the function of school-to-work transition. Therefore, teachers, principals, superintendents, and policymakers are accountable for providing a highly skilled learning environment to foster students' employability. Modified/innovative curriculum is a primary goal in order to meet the needs of change in a technological society. Jahn (1990) states that the cornerstone of educational reform is a solid core curriculum. Back, Carter, Dede, Gorrett, Markley, and Sullivan (1987), however, indicate that meeting future vocational, technical, and adult education and training needs requires a strategic planning and development approach that will be flexible enough to respond to changing local needs.
Statement of the Problem The cutting edge of technology is challenging us to think more creatively in solving problems, to apply sophisticated techniques and skills, and to update technology and ability in the organization and individual. On the other hand, it would be unlikely or even impossible for a technological program of vocational industrial education to keep current without upgrading and modifying its curriculum periodically. When new and more sophisticated products are made and substituted for out-dated ones, changes are required. Some high technology products such as computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools, computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) packages, and robots have vastly altered our society and will rapidly and continuously change the nature of jobs. Indeed, this has become an unprecedented challenge to senior high vocational industrial education today. It is clear that the nature of machining has changed. CNC machining technology becomes an important and fundamental component of automatic manufacturing and also becomes an important competency for modern machinists (Occupational Outlook Handbook. 1994). Stier (1989) indicated that the benefits of advanced technology caused CNC machining technology to become more important for a machine operator or a computer programmer than for a supervisor. Therefore, CNC machining technology should be a part of the curriculum of vocational industrial high schools because it provides students with fundamental skills and knowledge, and allows them to proceed into other components of automation. In Taiwan, the course on computer numerical control (CNC) machining technology was promulgated by the Ministry of Education and since 1986 has become a required course for students who are majoring in the machinist program. As the trend is toward the decreasing size and cost of computers, we can foresee that CNC controllers would be incorporated with more powerful computers. Today's interactive CNC programming with graphical user interfaces have been utilized on many CNC machines to demonstrate the cutting paths and cutting condition. Obviously, the nature of CNC machining technology has been changed. Moreover, the content of CNC machining technology in Taiwan is limited to the introduction of CNC programming. From the literature review, the curriculum framework of CNC machining technology involves at least five duty areas— planning, setting tooling and machines, programming, operating, and machining. Thus, the current CNC machining technology curriculum is in need of innovation and revision of its contents due to rapid and dynamic technological and societal changes. Deficiencies in the CNC machining technology curriculum need to be identified for the benefit of vocational industrial high school students in order to develop a curriculum that reflects current industrial applications. Finch and Crunkilton (1993) stated that the demand of industry is one primary factor to be included when developing a vocational education curriculum. Traditionally, curriculum development in Taiwan has been an educator-oriented process and has lacked the perspective from the related industry and individuals. Furthermore, the lack of systematic identification and empirical validation of tasks of CNC machining technology required by industry for training qualified novice CNC machinists resulted the need of this study.
Purpose of the Study Accordingly, the purpose of this study was to identify the tasks of CNC machining technology that would serve as a framework for developing a curriculum of CNC machining technology for vocational industrial high schools in Taiwan. In order to accomplish the purpose, two major questions were investigated in this study: 1. What current tasks are performed by CNC machinists and are important for vocational industrial high school students to learn in Taiwan? With respect to this question, the study: A. identified and described the nature of the CNC machini st's j ob; B. identified and validated potential tasks for CNC machining technology recognized to be effective and efficient in Taiwan; and C. validated and determined the potential tasks performed by experts who are currently working CNC machinists in CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan; D. identified tasks for CNC machining technology by CNC machinists through a questionnaire survey in Taiwan. E. established proposed tasks for current CNC machining technology based upon the results of statistical analysis. 2. What is the flexibility of the tasks in CNC machining technology to meet the dynamic technology and for developing the curriculum of CNC machining technology at the level of vocational industrial high schools in 3 to 5 years from now in Taiwan? With respect to this question, the study: A. predicted the status of each CNC machinist task, based upon the perspective of CNC machinists in CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan, and B. established proposed tasks for future CNC machining technology based upon the results of statistical analysis.
Conduct of the Study There were three primary phases to the conduct and completion of this study {see Figure 1). Phase 1, the input phase, based upon the literature review, described: (a) the 9
. -Input. - Process Output
■The nature of the CNC -Established I the core tasks and machining technology Summarized the findings the supporting tasks - The importance of CNC -Recommendation machining technology of implementation curriculum Identified the - The lack of systematic desired tasks identification and empirical validation - The reasons that Validated the support the study task inventory ■ The methodology available for the study Generated the task inventory
Figure 1. The scheme of the study. nature of the CNC machining technology changed by the impact of advanced technology and society, (b) the importance of the CNC machining technology curriculum, (c) the lack of CNC machining technological tasks generated by systematic identification and empirical validation; and sought for Vocational Instructional Materials Laboratory at The Ohio State University (1991). In the development of OCAPs, three priority levels of competencies — core, advancing, and futuring competencies--are used to describe the immediacy and importance of tasks for job performance and for instruction. 11 CNC Machining Technology | Current Tasks Future Tasks Core Tasks Tasks Core TasksSupporting Supporting Tasks Figure 2. The scheme of the study results. The results of the study are useful to educators, teachers, and policymakers as a framework to develop and design The results of the study are useful to educators, teachers, and policymakers as a framework to develop and design educational or training program in CNC machining technology competency. Significance of the Study There are two major aspects to the significance of this study. The first is to enhance school-to-work transition. A task profile for CNC machining technology was established by the study for use in the development of curriculum for students to learn employable skills and smoothly enter the real work world. The task profile was evaluated by experts in the field of CNC machine tool manufacture. Its use should reduce the gap between the actual competencies needed by CNC machinists and the competencies taught in the school program 12 and, therefore, facilitate the transition of students from school to work. The second reason for the importance of the study is its intention to improve articulation for potential technical students to enter a postsecondary college, university and/or a job-site training because CNC machining technology is an advanced technology for computerized-integrated-manufacturing (CIM) technicians. The trend is that machinists will increasingly use CNC machining technology in industry (Occupational Outlook Handbook. 1994). High-performance technicians are the focus of the work force in the coming years. Traditional machinists, on the other hand, must be able to shift their jobs through a CNC machining education or training programs. Definition of Terms 1. CNC machinists are skilled workers who usually graduated from vocational industrial high schools or high schools, who are able to write NC/CNC programs and/or operate CNC machine tools to produce a metal part to meet the dimension required by the blueprint. 2. CNC machining technology involves using metal lathes, millings, and machining centers controlled by numerical control or computerized numerical control methods to do cuttings. 3. Competency is the ability (including knowledge, skills, and/or attitudes) to perform a specific task or duty successfully (Reneau, 1986). 4. Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of a CAD system to generate graphic representations of designs. Also included is how CAD systems provide modeling, testing, simulation, and additional attributes beyond the basic graphics (Barnhart, 1988). 5. Computer-aided desian/manufacturing (CAD/CAM) is the study of how computer-generated designs can be converted into machining code. Topics include the operation of a graphics system, tool selection and path generation, post processor configuration, machining codes, and equipment setup and operation (Biekert, 1993). 6. Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), commonly referred to as integration of the computer, is the use of computer technology to support the integration of all functions of a manufacturing business (Biekert, 1993; Cross, 1991). 7. Distributive Numerical Control (DNC) is a control method in which one or more computers linked to a number of NC machine tools are capable of operating them simultaneously or separately (Biekert, 1993). 8. Duty is one of the distinct, major work activities in an occupational area. A duty is made up of numerous tasks (Carlisle, 1992). 14 9. Task is a unit of work with a beginning and an ending which is measurable and observable (Carlisle, 1992). 10. Manufacturincr is a series of interrelated operations involving the design, material selection, planning, production, quality assurance, management, and marketing of discrete consumers and durable goods (Cross, 1991) 11. Robotics is the study of how re-programmable manipulators are classified and function within the production setting. Topics include controls, program languages, actuators, end- of-arm tooling, and applications (Barnhart, 1988). Assumptions The study was based on the following fundamental assumptions: 1. The Dictionary of Occupational Titles and related documents such as the Occupational Outlook Handbook are sufficient references for both the United States and Taiwan since they are similar industrialized countries and share the products of CNC machine tool manufacturers with each other. 2. As both the United States and Taiwan are industrialized countries, the tasks of CNC machinists in both counties are similar and any differences could be identified through the survey questionnaire used in this study. 15 3. Representatives of CNC machinists (CNC operators, CNC programmers, and CNC machine setup operators) answered questions honestly and to the best of their abilities. 4. Representatives of CNC machinists had sufficient knowledge of CNC machining technology to provide insight into future job competencies. 5. The questionnaire developed for this study provided valid and reliable information for evaluating the task profile of CNC machining technology. 6. The perspective of respondents was effectively conducted and represented by mean ratings and standard deviations in ratings. Use of the grand mean of the ratings was appropriate to distinguish core instructional tasks from supporting instructional tasks. Delimitations The study was based on the following delimitation: 1. The scope of the tasks was limited to an analysis of the task of CNC machining technology for CNC machinists, CNC programmers, CNC machine set-up operators, and CNC operators needed by machining manufacturing factories in industry. 2. CNC manufacturers were members of the Taiwan Machinery Association in the area of CNC machining technology. Others were not considered for the study. Limitations The study was based on the following limitations: The survey was limited to all CNC machinists who were working in 14 CNC manufacturers in Taiwan. These manufacturers produced a Chinese-Standard-Mark quality of CNC machine tools. The study was limited to the specialty area of CNC machining technology for developing a curriculum for vocational industrial high schools as well as a training program. CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW The review of literature focused on: (a) the impact of technology; (b) social/demographic, economic/technological, and educational changes; (c) vocational education issues; (d) curriculum development rationales; (e) a description of the present forces, rationales, and methods; and (f) the nature of CNC machining technology which drove and supported the study (see Figure 3). The Impact of Technology Three Phases Social/Demographic Economic/T echnological Educational Changes Changes Changes Vocational Education Issues Curriculum Development Rationales Description of CNC Machining Technology Figure 3 . The procedures of the literature review. 17 18 Technology is becoming a primary energizer driving change in today's human environment. The impact of technology changes the order of society, life styles, the structure of the work force, and the structure of social demographics (Wright, 1991). Technological, social, economic, and political changes wholly affect future labor needs and labor markets (Back et al., 1987; Ma, 1994). The human environment has become more intertwined with technology. Pratzner (1992) pointed out that social/demographic, economic/technological, and educational changes have a substantial impact on vocational and technical education. Historically, new technology generates at least 50% to 70% of new business (Boeke, 1987). Automated manufacturing in metal manufacturing should be one area of the greatest number of job openings in 2020 (Ryan, 1992). CNC machining technology is a fundamental technology of automated manufacturing in industry. Obviously, the impact of technological development is inescapable and pervasive, so the challenge is to seek the best way to deal with it. The way to remain competitive in a global market is to develop national human resources to meet the high performance standards set by the global markets. 19 impact of Technology Technological development has reduced the importance of physical resources, changed the nature of production processes, and expanded the competition from domestic markets to international markets (Glover & Marshall, 1993). Indeed, technological developments make it possible to produce large amounts of goods at low prices to consumers through organizing work into few repetitive steps that require little skill and training (Marshall & Tucker, 1992). High-quality products and services are becoming the norm of domestic and international markets as a result of severe competition. Moreover, the criteria of quality is not only determined by the individuals, but also by the needs of markets. With respect to these trends, the nature of manufacturing has also shifted from mass production to batch production (Raju, 1985). Batch production is a highly- flexible production system designed to meet the various purposes of global markets. Consequently, as domestic and international competition becomes more intense, the way for a company, a country, or both to succeed in the competitive international marketplace is determined by the capacity to create new technology and the ability of the workforce to apply known technology underlying the high performance of organizations (Marshall & Tucker, 1992; Vonderembse, 1987). While companies plan to cut wages, lay off workers, increase productivity, or all the above for the sake of 20 keeping a position in the international market, the most essential focus is to promote high quality in products and services through improving the quality of the work force {Glover & Marshall, 1993). Some countries and companies are turning toward foreign countries to seek low-skilled and low- wage labor markets to increase productivity. Most industrialized countries, however, have developed policies to ensure that a majority of their workers have higher-order thinking skills with high performance to generate a competitive system that is highly flexible in adjusting to changing markets and technological conditions (Glover & Marshall, 1993). The attempt is to encourage companies to pursue high-wage strategies and to meet the demand of individuals and the society. The enhancing of competitive ability in the global market depends on the public education system, because today's economic success depends mainly on the quality of human resources to replace the reliance on abundant natural resources (Glover &. Marshall, 1993; Schargel, 1993). Economic/Technological Changes The nature of production systems is shifting from mass- production processes, focused on high productivity supported by Taylorism, to flexible production systems focused on the quality of products and services supported by the principle of meeting the demands of domestic and international markets. Obviously, technology is the key to the future, but people are the key to technology. This means that even a completely-automated factory still needs competent people to apply known technology and to create new technology. Successful preventive maintenance and emergency repair, on the other hand, are critical to sustain safely the smooth operation of automated factories. In fact, while the number of people in an automated factory has been reduced, the role of workers is still critically important, and the level of their skills must be higher. Based on this view, the nature of the economy and technology will be changed and focused on an international interactive economic style with high-order skills to reflect the impact of technology and international competition. Nature of skill and workplace changes. Tremendous changes have occurred and will continue to occur in the workplace because equipment and production processes are becoming more sophisticated due to advanced technology. These changes have also resulted in a change in the nature of the skills needed by workers. For example, conversational programming or desktop programming systems reduce the difficulty of designing CNC programs (Johnson, 1992) . Obviously, there has been a conversion from hands-on tasks to abstract tasks requiring mental skills such as symbolic and abstract thinking (Martin & Beach, 1992; Grubb, 1991; Pratzner, 1984). As the computer in manufacturing is able to quickly perform many operations without using sophisticated conventional skills, Johnson (1992) has stated that workers need to have a broader understanding of their role in an organization, be able to work in teams, and possess higher levels of communication and computational skills. While the computer becomes an invaluable tool for machinists, it does not eliminate the need for understanding and using basic manufacturing concepts. Actually, it does de-emphasize the use of traditional skills and machines. Consequently, the new manufacturing technology integrating computers must be taught in the classroom before its benefits spread to the field. It is very obvious that the emerging economy requires highly-skilled workers. Both their minds and their skills must be highly developed. Vocational industrial education must reflect the changes in technology. Educators are aware that they need to prepare students for careers in the workplace, not just for entry-level jobs. Social/Demographic Changes Investment in human resources is the most essential strategy or policy needed to develop a nation. After World War II, Japan, Germany, and Taiwan depended on their human resources to develop and reconstruct their countries. Although Japan and Taiwan are lacking in natural resources, 23 the former is becoming the technical and economic leader of the world, apd the latter is recognized as one of the four little dragons in the Asian area (Cheng & Huang, 1994) . Being a little dragon means having the prospect of becoming a powerful country. Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, and South Korea have become developed countries based upon GNP, creativity in science and technology, and average life span (Huang, 1995). In the United States, some researchers have indicated that a lot of potential human resources, such as minorities, economically disadvantaged individuals, and women are not fully participating in the work force (Hopkins & Johnston, 1988; Marshall & Tucker, 1992). The impact of dynamic technology, however, brings about change in the nature of the workforce. Indeed, education and training institutes have a responsibility to improve these human resources. From Thinking for A Living (Marshall & Tucker, 1992), Opportunity 2000 (Hopkins & Johnston, 1988), and Workforce 2000 (Johnston & Packer 1987), there appears to be a consensus regarding the nature of the workplace and the demography of the workforce from which the following three facts were abstracted. These facts will likewise affect the 21st century of the workforce and vocational education in Taiwan, although they have been addressed to reflect the background of the United States. Of course, these facts also have been discussed by many studies and articles. Increaainq aging worlc>r». The traditional labor force is rapidly shrinking (Johnson, 1992; Pratzner, 1984). Demographic diversity is increasing as a result both of childbearing between 1965 and 1975, and global competition in the labor market (Hopkins & Johnston, 1988). Based on a statement in Workforce 2000. the number of young workers aged 16 to 24 will drop by almost two million (8%) between now and the year 2000 in the United States. According to Fong's (1990) projections, the youth group from 15 to 29 years of age is decreasing and the group between the ages of 45 and 54 is the fastest-growing group at a 3.5% growth rate before the end of this century in Taiwan. This impact results in the insufficient supply of new entry-level workers. American workers aged 55 to 69 are also lost because of voluntary and involuntary retirement (Marshall & Tucker, 1992; Hopkins & Johnston, 1988). However, older workers are an available source of additional labor supply and they can become a qualified labor force by training and retraining programs. Obviously, training is necessary in new areas of development and retraining is essential to keep up with the pace of advancements (Trivedi, 1986). An eligible individual also requires an appropriate training because she/he lives in a high-technology world of automatic manufacturing (White, 1990). However, because of the aging of the baby boomers and lower birth rates, young workers will become a smaller part of the workforce by the 21st century. 25 Pacraaaing eligible wor)c Increasing women workers. Women will be a potential workforce resulting from changes of life style, increasing consumption of goods and services, and higher levels of individual needs. Two incomes are required by a number of families. Women's willingness to work outside the family is, on the other hand, increasing. Women can do a lot of things as well as or better than their male partners and they will 26 be a major part of new entrants into the labor force between now and the year 2000. of ♦ducat ipmg change Global economic competition has focused on the needs to improve the quality of the work force. Pratzner (1984) noted that continued declines in national economic development, productivity growth, dramatic technological changes, and occupational developments, are affecting the nature and content of many jobs and the skills needed, and require updating of training and education for many workers. Consequently, the eligible workforce is shrinking. Some educators believe these changes emphasize the need to increase work specialization. An attendant need is for highly specialized skill development to meet the needs of high-technology (Hopkins, & Johnston, 1988). Education, especially vocational education and training programs, need to be accountable and provide the workforce with the skill needed by industry and society. Some educators, on the other hand, argue that the curriculum of vocational education is at risk because they believe that the program of vocational education can not meet its goals of helping students enter the real work world. On the contrary, others believe contemporary economic conditions and technological changes require higher levels of basic skills, so the appropriate role of secondary level vocational 27 education should be to strengthen broad educational goals and to emphasize its role in improving broad educational preparation and development of basic and generally applicable skills (Pratzner 1984). Consequently, while these changes suggest the need for a greater emphasis on academic skills, the most important skills may be the ability to think creatively, solve problems, make decisions (Johnson, 1992; Pratzner, 1984; Wonacott, 1992), and know how to learn and reason (Wonacott, 1992). According to the SCANS Report (1991) America 2000— What Work Requires of Schools, these skills are called basic skills, thinking skills, and personal qualities. These skills underlie the following three primary forces driving the need for educational changes. Uneven demand and supply. Dole (1989) indicated that, while there were many unfilled jobs, the unemployment rate among young people is at about 14.4%, and for minority youth it is about 30.8%. In contrast, Doty and Weissman (1991) stated that an essential factor in underemployment was that many would-be workers possess higher levels of education than jobs require. The need is to reduce the rate of youth unemployment, providing young people not only with jobs, but with the ability to be independent and have the employable skills needed for work. Today's salable skills involve high 28 performance and knowledge. A quality workforce is a valuable asset to employers and to the community, and an essential element to meet competition for the sake of survival and growth. Need of hlah education. Meier (1991) has indicated that the most common reason given for students' not enrolling in vocational education courses is their belief that those vocational courses would not help them prepare for college. Actually, students are encouraged by their parents and teachers to prepare for a college education because many studies have indicated that the higher the educational level, the higher the salary or wage earned. Lisack (1986) indicated that there is evidence that, in general, the higher the educational level: (a) the higher the salary or wage earned, (b) the lower the unemployment rate, (c) the better the career progression, and (d) the less time and money it takes to retrain or upgrade, as well as other benefits. Thus, Meier (1991) has indicated that one way of combating this decline in vocational education enrollment is to show parents and students that vocational education courses can be a road to college. Need of basic shill and high performance. Brodhead (1991) has stated that, in the United States, only 10% to 15% of all jobs will be unskilled by the end of this century. All the rest of the jobs {85% to 90%) will require skilled, managerial or professional participators. Most of these jobs will call for a vocational education background and additional postsecondary education, so basic skills are necessary in a technological and socially complex workplace {Cobb, 1992). Pratzner (1985) indicates that "The alternative paradigm of vocational educational is supported by the belief that what is 'known' may change....Thus, vocational programs focus on development of high levels of proficiency in the most fundamental skill areas." (p. 10) . Consequently, many within and outside of vocational education circles have argued that vocational education must play an increasingly important role in the enhancement and reinforcement of a student's basic skills, and must use high- order thinking skills {Marshall, & Tucker, 1992, Pratzner, 1988) . High-performance organizations with higher-order thinking skills develop and use leading-edge technology and so require workers who can analyze data, communicate with precision, deal with ambiguity, learn rapidly, participate in management systems, and work well in teams (Glover & Marshall, 1993; Johnson, 1992; Marshall & Tucker, 1992; Murphy, 1985) . All these abilities are high-order thinking skills. Such high-order skills and knowledge are best learned through realistic hands-on experience and practical application (Pratzner, 1988). To do this, however, there 30 must develop an organized, comprehensive approach to address the challenge in the work world, in the work force, and in national political priorities (Imel, 1993). flnwHiarv Technology intertwines with work and has an impact on it. High performance changes the nature of the workforce. Basic technical skills are proposed as the primary goal of vocational-technical education as the result of a labor market marked by shortages, skill deficiencies, and demographic diversities. Training and retraining are expected to play a role of articulation for improving and enhancing the labor market. Actually, the baby boom has significantly and continuously affected the consistency of the workforce and nearly all other aspects of human environment. All of the factors mentioned previously are significant and efficient forces bringing about change in the human environment. Thus, the 21st-century labor force will not only need to adapt to new technologies, but to a new distribution of jobs as well. The results of the impact cause the need for reform in the education system. Especially, the role of vocational-technical education between secondary and postsecondary level has been seriously questioned. 31 laauts of Vocational Education The impact of technology shifts production orientation. Different production systems need different workforces. The nature of today's jobs requires higher-order thinking (high- performance) skills underlying basic technical skills (basic knowledge) because the philosophy of manufacturing is shifting from a mass-production line, mainly depending on natural resources, to batch production orientation mainly depending on the high quality of the work force and products in the manufacturing industry. With respect to this impact, qualified workers are the vital elements in the new workplace. Education and training institutes will play the role of updating and providing a qualified workforce to enhance the competitive ability of a company or a country in domestic or international markets. Meanwhile, the impact of technology also causes a change in social demography and educational systems. The change of a society drives the needs for rethinking of the role of vocational education. The following suggestions have been proposed by many educators, journal writers, and policymakers. Expanding Program Mlaslon The rational for expanding program mission is based on: (a) the needs of a higher education, (b) the debatable program goal of vocational education, (c) the diversity of 32 individual demands, and (d) the nature of the high- performance workforce required and the belief that postsecondary education will be the mainstream by the end of this century. Many discussions in vocational-technical education have focused on building an articulation between secondary vocational education and postsecondary education to improve enrollments and to meet the needs of individuals and economic society. The primary vision of an expanding program mission is derived from the perception of the public. People argue that the mission of vocational education is limited to teaching specific job skills in preparation for full-time employment. Students' parents and students themselves are no longer willing to accept this narrow goal. The mission of vocational education systems will be to provide the opportunity for students to obtain a higher education, besides helping some students to obtain an employable skill. It is a trend that higher-thinking skills will be required in automated manufacturing as well as in high- performance industry. Postsecondary graduates will be the mainstream of the workforce in the 21st century (Marshall & Tucker, 1992) . Ryan (1992) has pointed out that more than 50% of new jobs by 2020 will call for education beyond secondary school. A median of 13.5 years of education will be required by the end of 2000; compared to a median of 12.8 years currently. Furthermore, at least 70% of new jobs 33 nationwide will not require a traditional four-year university education (Nee, 1994). Three out of four jobs in today’s market require education or technical training beyond the high school level (Scott, 1991). Therefore, future manufacturing will employ students who graduate from postsecondary schools (Kranzberg, 1991; Ryan, 1992) . General Vocational Education The rationale of general vocational education is based on; (a) the needs of flexibility to adapt to the impact of dynamic technology and social changes, (b) the debatable program goal, and (c) the benefits of vocational education only limited to a few graduates who really need jobs in the contemporary world. Cawelti (1993) has indicated that schools should not be focused just on workplace skills, but should also be devoted to providing all students with a strong general education. It is a problem that some vocational programs in the high schools prepare students for specific jobs such as in lathe, milling, woodworking, or automobile body repair. The lack of flexibility caused vocational education to be a dead-end career path (Cawelti, 1993). Boeke (1987) and Nagle (1987) suggested that flexibility to adapt to changing demands is enhanced by basic skills. Nagle pointed out that: 34 the valued employee of the future will be flexible and adaptable. As rapid technological and economic change results in job displacement, multiple careers, and new skill requirements, the ability to learn will be of prime importance. Therefore, many experts believe that a generalist background provides flexibility. Because workers will have to adapt to jobs that will change over their lifetime, they will need the flexibility to learn and explore other options, and that flexibility comes from the broadest possible education, (p. 39) Educational programs should emphasize basic knowledge and skill for the sake of adapting and surviving the tremendous change of technological society (Pratzner, 1988). Traditional vocational education, on the other hand, serves only a small proportion of graduates needing preparation for work. Gray (1991) indicated that 60% of all young workers work for firms that employ fewer than 100 people; 40% of young workers work for firms employing fewer than 20 workers. Gray also has emphasized that smaller employers, particularly those in technical fields, prefer employees who possess a combination of sound academic skills and vocational skills because small firms simply cannot afford the expense of on- the-job training. Indeed, a vocational education system which does not enable students to gain such specific skills and sound academic skills seriously limits their opportunity 35 for equal access to promising occupations and their ability to face the challenge of a changeable technology and society. Therefore, Sarkees {1992) pointed out that vocational education should encourage students to pursue awareness of lifelong learning, and to possess basic workplace skills, academic technical competencies, communication, adaptability, personal management, self esteem, and teamwork. The vocational program should endeavor to serve all youths and all employers to meet the needs of students and individuals. The functions of vocational-technical education at the secondary level are to provide sound academic content, to prepare a salable graduate, and to prepare for a higher education (Glover & Marshall, 1993). Pratzner (1988) indicates that vocational education programs seem to required a broad, integrative and multi-disciplinary curriculum design through a holistic approach to delivery of instruction. SPhPPl-tP-Wggh Transition (SWT) Traditionally, the vocational educational system is designed to meet industrial needs and provide students with practical skills (Marshall & Tucker, 1992). In vocational education programs, learning activities must undertake hands- on experiences because vocational programs have a strong trade orientation (Bensen, 1979). Activities should provide students with an opportunity to learn techniques and skills through equipment and tools. 36 The changing demands of the job market are influenced by the impact of the rapid change of technology and the challenge of global competition. The movement of school-to- work transition (SWT) is to enhance the relationship between schools and the real world to be aware of the primary goal of vocational-technical education. The primary output of a vocational education program is to provide eligible and employable graduate. The quality of eligible graduate, on the other hand, is evaluated by the real world and has been evaluated along with his/her occupational career. This continuous evaluation process indicates the need for vocational education not only to prepare students with entry- level skills, but to be concerned with the flexibility needed for an occupational career. Paulter (1992), however, pointed out that 75% of students leave secondary school and become potential laborers. Obviously, the vocational educational system is accountable to help these graduates to successfully participate in the work market, but the uneven demand and supply indicates some problems existing in today's vocational education systems. It is true that the needs of students and society describe the need for change in the vocational program; the needs of the student and community describe demographic/social trends likely to affect the job market and workplace by the year 2000. 37 Hudson (1994), while president of the American Vocational Association (AVA), stated that the perspective of the movement of SWT is an affirmation of learning by doing. Primarily, SWT underlies students' employability throughout their lives. SWT is a process of coordinating and articulating instruction, support services, and experience necessary for students to: (a) succeed in school, Curriculum Development Rationales A curriculum reflects a contemporary social purpose (DeVore, 1980) so it is an interactive process to have discussions between people with different ideologies about what students should learn to do in school (Finch & Crunkilton, 1993). Actually, a curriculum is a systematic procedure which is expected to describe what is to be taught (Tyler, 1950) in order to meet the needs of a community, a society, and individuals in the discipline (DeVore, 1980). In view of social rationales, the primary goal of curriculum development is to meet the needs of the society. Maley (1982) stated that curriculum consists of three primary elements—the area, the societal framework in which the program functioned, and the needs of human beings. Zuga (1984) has stated that curriculum is a plan used to describe 40 four questions, which are: (a) What is studied in school, (b) what is learned as the curriculum is completed, (c) how a sound educational curriculum can be developed, and (d) what forces influence curriculum. Briefly, any new curriculum is to adapt and respond to a specific problem (Finch & Crunkilton, 1993). The purpose of curriculum change is to improve the output quality of an educational system. Within this change, the teacher's concept and belief should have been changed previously (Zuga, 1984). Model fif Development A number of curriculum innovators and curriculum development educators believe that curriculum development should be traced back to Tyler's (1950) model, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (Herschbach, 1992a; Posner, 1992; Zuga, 1987). Within this model, curriculum development was expected to answer the following four questions: 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to \ attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? (pp. 1-2) 41 Tyler's work is a fundamental and essential model employed to identify, define, and develop curriculum and instruction. Herschbach (1992a) has stated that a study of Tyler's work will develop an understanding of the basic concepts of curriculum development, as Tyler advocated a functional scheme which described the procedure of curriculum design. Tyler's rationale has profoundly influenced the field of curriculum development from the 1950s (Herschbach, 1992a; Posner, 1992). Tyler mentioned that the first step of instructional design was to design what is to be taught because it is the objective and the criteria or standard for what follows. That is, Tyler's work provided four primary questions to identify the curriculum. In the first step, Posner (1992) stated that three areas—the learner, the community, and the subject matter/content—should be systematically analyzed to identify the school's underlying philosophy and learning psychology. The outcome of this step will be the objectives, called the desired output of the system. It is also a criteria or standard to evaluate the implementation of the new curriculum. In the second step, the designer will use the output of the first step to identify and select the appropriate strategy and educational experiences to facilitate the curriculum development and implementation. In the third step, the strategy and educational experiences will be organized and integrated into a sequence of learning 42 activities for the sake of facilitation of teaching, learning, and evaluation. Finally, the designer needs to evaluate the program based on the expected procedure and standards for the sake of determining whether the actual outcome is the expected outcome. Despite differences in curriculum rationales, system processes have been used to depict the development of a new curriculum for a long time. A system analysis algorithm was recommended by Witherspoon (1976) and basically consisted of five phases: (a) define the system and mission, (b) develop performance and activities, (c) identify constraints in the system, (d) develop alternative approaches, and (e) implement the system (see Figure 4). Define System Develop Identify Develop & Missions Performance .... 'W Constraints Alternative Approaches I Implement Determine EstimateI Establish the System Tasks Conditions Standards Figure 4 . An algorithm for curriculum and instructional development. From: Witherspoon (1976) . Witherspoon has stated that the decision-making in a system analysis is a goal-oriented procedure. If a system 43 involves a feedback phase, it is able to ensure the quality of its products through a continuous feedback effort. Indeed, a feedback element must be included as a part of a new curriculum development procedure, an instructional system and implementation. Meanwhile, it should be considered at the beginning of the design process. Of course, some subsystems may be required within a main system and each subsystem has its own specific function, which can perform individually and contribute to the main system. Each subsystem, however, has its unique objectives or purposes. All objectives or purposes are designed to effect or facilitate the main system. Moreover, Ritz (1980) used a three-stage systems model to state the procedure of curriculum development. The three stages were curriculum foundations, curriculum content, and curriculum evaluation. The curriculum foundation stage included a definition of the program area, rationales for the program area, content sources, content structures, program aims, and program goals. The primary purpose in this stage was to determine why the new curriculum should be developed and what should be taught in the new curriculum. The curriculum content stage described the scope (e.g., magnitude of content and objectives in a curriculum), sequence, and unit specifications (e.g., goal, rationale, objectives, activities, references) of the curriculum. Thus, it described the knowledge, skills, and values. The curriculum 44 evaluation stage described strategies and methods of student evaluation and document validation. The system analysis algorithm used by such educators as Ray (1980), Hales and Snyder (1982), and Savage and Sterry, (1990) to develop curriculum involved four phases—input, process, output, and feedback, currently called a universal systems model (see Figure 5). Input Process Output Feedback Figure 5 . The universal systems model. Basically, the systems model is a closed-loop system so it provides evaluated, revised, and modified functions. That is, the feedback phase in the system yields the data needed to revise the curriculum. There are many variables involved in the systematic process of curriculum development. These variables will influence curriculum development and implementation. Witherspoon (1976) has described how the input phase involves educational and school philosophy, the pre-required behavior, the resources, and properties which are available for the system process. The output phase describes the expected outcomes and the strategy of assessment which is used to 45 evaluate whether students possess the desired knowledge, attitudes, and skills provided by the system. Consequently, these variables will lead to the failure or the success of the new curriculum. Ray (1980) described how the input phase included all needed resources to accomplish the goals of a system, such as people, knowledge, materials, energy, capital, and finance. The process enables us to deal with the system goal. The output phase allows us to check what expectation is accomplished through the system. Indeed, there are two primary purposes which exist in curriculum evaluation. One attempts to measure whether learners achieve the content objectives set forth in the curriculum. The other is whether the curriculum is doing what it is supposed to do. Furthermore, Finch and Crunkilton (1993) describe how curriculum development in vocational-technical education involves three stages which are: (a) planning the curriculum, (b) establishing curriculum content, and (c) implementing the curriculum. Each stage includes some variables needing to be determined, identified, analyzed, and organized (see Figure 6 ) - In this curriculum development model, four essential foci are: (a) identifying and selecting the education purposes, (b) determining the educational experience for learning, (c) organizing and integrating the educational 46 experiences into a learning sequence, and (d) evaluating the outcome and revision (Finch & Crunkilton, 1993). Obviously, there is no significant difference between Finch and Crunkilton's rationale and Tyler's rationale. The determination of the curriculum content, however, is the Planning the Curriculum ’""‘Establish decision making processes. """Collect & access school-related data. **Collect & access community-related data. Establishing Curriculum Content """Utilize strategies to determine content. """Make curriculum content decision. """Develop curriculum goals & objectives. Implementing The Curriculum """Identify & select materials. """Develop materials. """Initiate competency based education. "“"Evaluate the curriculum. Figure 6. Curriculum development in vocational-technical education. From: Finch & Crunkilton (1993). 47 primary question within these rationales. Although there are many variables that will influence curriculum development, the primary product of curriculum development is to identify the content/subject matter and organize this content into a set of learning activities supported by an educational philosophy, personal ideology, the needs of students and the needs of society. According to Bensen (1979), there were at least three forces: (a) the needs of the student, (b) the needs of the society within which the student lives, and (c) the dynamic subject matter base, which influenced the determination of the curriculum content. Zuga (1989) stated that there were five categories of curriculum designs used to determine and organize the content, subject matter, or elements of a new curriculum which were: (a) academic curriculum design, (b) personal curriculum design, (c) intellectual-process curriculum design, (d) social-oriented curriculum design, and (e) technical-oriented curriculum design. Each design pattern is supported by a rationale. Description af Curriculum Designs Accordingly, the following descriptions of curriculum designs were derived from the works of Zuga (1989), Eisner (1985), Erekson (1992), Hershbach (1992b), and Johnson (1992) . 48 Academic curriculum design. The academic curriculum design basically focuses on a taxonomy of knowledge which is grouped into disciplines, subject matter, or broad fields. Academic rationalists believe that the major function of the school is to foster the intellectual growth of the students in those subject matters. Intcllectual-pgocaaa curriculum fleffjgUt The intellectual-process curriculum design focuses on the development of cognitive processes. The goal of this design is to seek the development of the capacity of creative thinking, problem solving and decision making independently. Dick and Carey (1990) divided cognitive skills into four types discriminations, concepts, rules, and problem solving. gpciel-crlantcd curriculum design. Social-oriented curriculum design emphasizes the application of knowledge in the real would. Basically, there are two distinct and opposite sides involved in social-oriented curriculum design, which are social reconstruction and social adaptation. The social reconstruction design focuses on providing students with opportunities to work on social projects for the purpose of changing their environment. The social adaptation design assumes that students are the raw materials of the society, so they need to be educated to adapt to the society. 49 In this orientation, schools are believed to be essential institutes created to serve the interest of the society. Therefore, their mission is to locate social needs, or at least to respond to those needs, and to provide the kinds of programs that are relevant to meeting the needs that have been identified (Eisner, 1985). Personal curriculum desIon. The personal curriculum design is a learner-centered plan with a focus on the needs and interests of the student (Zuga, 1989). Teachers serve as diagnosticians and facilitators for this effort. The teacher’s role is to help students identify their interests and guide them to appropriate resources and combine other knowledge. The rationale of personal curriculum design is found in theories of humanistic psychology and philosophy (Herschbach, 1992b). The school should be able to offer the opportunity for the student to choose in terms of the needs of individuals (Eisner, 1985). Needs can be regarded as the gap between what is and what ought to be (Eisner, 1985) . Technlcftl-prl»nt*a curriculum design. The technical-oriented curriculum design is based upon an analysis of performance or processes by the method of job and task analysis for creating the curriculum. It is an objective-oriented or performance-oriented strategy. Measurable outcomes consist of the designed curriculum rather 50 than the taxonomy of knowledge in the curriculum of academic design. The technical curriculum design is highly structured, derived from either task analysis or system analysis (input, process, output) and based on an activity-based curriculum plan. Allen (1917), Selvidge (1923), Fryklund (1946), and Tyler (1949) were excellent pioneers of the technical curriculum design in the field of vocational education (Zuga, 1989; Hershbach, 1992b). Zuga (1989) has stated that the technical curriculum design process is based on job and task analysis or the identification and sequence of behavioral outcomes. Efficiency and objectivity have been emphasized within the curriculum development. Herschbach (1992a), on the other hand, has noted that technical curriculum design focused on measurable outcomes, so one of the most notable features was described by performance. Moreover, the vocational education curriculum often involved social adaptation by preparing students for an occupation (Zuga, 1989). gf Analysis Task analysis is a traditional and efficient method for technical curriculum design because the content generally derives from task analysis or system analysis (Herschbach, 1992a; Zuga 1989). The technique of task analysis describes what operators do when following set operating procedures 51 (Carlisle, 1992). Jonassen, Hannum, and Tessmer (1989) indicated that, "Task analysis means different things to different people." (p. 5). Carlisle stated that all the terms of job analysis, task analysis, or work analysis are to do an analysis of human performance. The purpose of job analysis is to describe what the job is, how the job is done, how the job could be improved, and how the job should be learned systematically. Basically, there are five skills used to conduct the analysis; interview, group work, observation, questionnaire, and documentation. Carlisle states that a job can be described by its actions. An action is described with a short sentence containing the action performed and the object involved in the performance. This sentence is called a task statement. All of the task statements describing a job can be grouped into what is called a task inventory. If a task statement describes a single activity, it is called a task. A duty is made of one or more tasks. The distinction between duty and task, however, is not really important to the process of writing a task statement. The duties of some jobs are tasks for other jobs, and task elements may be the important tasks of very detailed specific jobs. However, in all cases, a task statement is written in the same way and each task statement describes an action and an object acted upon. 52 Method* of Data Collection and Conaolidation In the study of curriculum development, questionnaire surveys, Delphi surveys, and Developing A Curriculum (DACUM) workshops are three popular methods currently used to collect and evaluate job data. Each method has been based on sound theoretical and practical values. However, they also have some limitations besides their unique metrics. Questionnaire surveys. The questionnaire usually is a formal or informal instrument used to collect a group of people's opinions in a survey. Sometimes, the questionnaire is generated by the researcher. The benefits of a questionnaire survey are the ability to collect a number of people's opinions relating to a topic of interest in a short period of time. That is, it is a very economical and objective way to collect data for research. However, it also has some limitation resulting from the design of the questionnaire, the respondent rate (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1993), and the proper samples and wording. Obviously, the researcher is unavailable to talk with the respondents face-to-face, so the wording of the questionnaire determines the validity of the study. Basically, the following limitations should be noted before a questionnaire is mailed to each representative: 1. The response rate should be high enough to respond to the study question(s) or problem(s). Although the 53 target and accessible population will reflect the size of the sample and the rate of response, the larger the sample size, or the respondent rate, the better the validity of a study. 2. The questionnaire should be designed and written very concisely and understandably to state the question and the topic. 3. The questionnaire should have enough valid questions to state or probe the research question(s) or problem(s). 4. The respondents should have complete understanding of the directions of the questionnaire and respond honestly to the questions. 5. The respondents should have enough knowledge to respond to the study questions, and exactly represent the target population. Delphi method. The Delphi method has been used frequently, due to its flexibility, for exploratory forecasting. Basically, it uses a panel of experts within the field of the study to seek consensus on future perspectives or alternatives through a series of instruments. The panel, usually no more than 2 0 people and no fewer than 5, is used to generate the perspective of the study (Somers, Baker, & Isbell, 1984). There are three critical characteristics that distinguish the Delphi method from other 54 methods of group interaction: (a) anonymity, (b) repeated surveys with a feedback strategy, and (c) statistical group responses (Rickman, 1987). In using the Delphi technique, there are two common problems that should be considered. The first is the capacities of the panel and the second is the calendar time required to complete the process (Brook, 1979; Pontillo, 1991). Because consensus is obtained from the panel of experts, the process is usually conducted through at least three rounds. Each of the three rounds of the Delphi process produce a different outcome. Usually, the desired outcome of each round is expected and set forth to respond to the research questions or problems (see Figure 7). Round I Round II Round III (Create Ideas) (Feedback) (Reconsider) . Consensus j Figure 7 . The process of the Delphi technique. The first round of the Delphi process is designed to obtain individual judgment or opinions from each panel expert. The purpose is to elicit by a brainstorming strategy the personal ideology and views, such as cultural attitudes, subjective bias, and knowledge of the respondents (Rickman, 1987). 55 The second round provides a summary of the output obtained from the first round and asks respondents to consider their own responses by way of comparison with the responses of the others. Generally, the instrument provides a scale, such as a Likert-scale, for panel members to rate each statement. The third round is to improve the group consensus. The instrument indicates the concurrence values of each item or question with the central tendency based upon the results of the second round. These values provide a personal position and the majority position on each survey item or question. The purpose of this process is to obtain a higher degree of consensus so this round of the process allows the panelists to compare their responses to the majority view. If their responses are significantly different from the majority view, they are able to consider their responses and make any needed change. If the panelist does not make any change, he/she is asked to provide a rationale to support the differing opinion (Rickman, 1987; Pontillo, 1991; Zirbel, 1993). Generally, the criteria for consensus is that 75% of the panelists' responses to each item or statement are in agreement. If there is no consensus, it can be assumed that there is no way to forecast this situation with accuracy (Brook, 1979; Somers, Baker, & Isbell, 1984; Rickman, 1987; Zirbel, 1993). 56 DACUM. DACUM is a competency-based, performer-oriented strategy to develop a curriculum. It is a modified brainstorming process. Primarily, the rational is based on the belief that expert workers or performers can describe their jobs more appropriately than can any others. Hence, the data from a full DACUM are derived from the performers or the workers. A modified DACUM is one in which the representatives on the panel of experts consist of the accessible laborers and related representatives. Basically, the rational of a modified DACUM is based on the belief that industry, business, labor and community agency representatives can best identify the focus needed for current and future demands in the workplace. Government representatives can provide the concepts regarding political and financial supports (Helmandollar, 1990). For example, in Virginia, while a curriculum-writing team has done extensive curriculum development work, industry representatives were invited to validate the work. Duties and tasks were analyzed, deleted, and augmented in preparation for the final curriculum development phase (Helmandollar, 1990) . In Ohio, this method was used to develop Occupational Competency Analysis Profiles (OCAPs) to meet the second objective of Imperative 3 of the Action Plan for Accelerating the Modernization of Vocational and Career Education: Ohio's Future at Work. DACUM is a very quick, effective, and low- cost method to accomplish an occupational or job analysis 57 (Helmandollar, 1990; Pontillo, 1991). Face-to-face discussion is a unique aspect of DACUM. Generally, a full DACUM takes no longer than one and one-half days to two and one-half days to complete, and a modified DACUM takes only a few hours to complete (Pontillo, 1991; Helmandollar, 1990). Helmandollar has stated that there are three premises to support the DACUM; 1. Expert workers are better able to describe or define their jobs than anyone else. 2. Any job can be effectively and sufficiently described in terms of the tasks of successful workers in that occupation. 3. All tasks have direct implication for the knowledge and attitudes that workers must have in order to perform the tasks correctly. (P.25) The following process of DACUM was derived from Helmandollar’s (1990) project report: 1. Start with an orientation. 2. Define or review the job or occupational area by the panel. 3. Identify the broader or general area of job responsibility, such as the duty areas. Each duty area is recorded on an index card and mounted on the wall. 58 4. Rank the duty areas according to their importance, frequency, or the level of learning difficulty. 5. Identify the specific tasks performed in each of the general areas of responsibility. Each task is recorded on an index card and mounted on the wall following its duty. 6. Review and refine the task statements. 7. Rank the task according to its importance, frequency, or the level of learning difficulty. 8. Determine a criteria (what degree of accuracy or what level of knowledge or skills) for the performance of each task/competency. 9. Other options, as desired. Sii rnrnnrv Traditionally, vocational curriculum development is based upon a technical design process, a social-oriented curriculum design process, or an academic design process (Zuga, 1993). Indeed, curriculum development may involve more than one curriculum design process reflecting the forces of the curriculum (Erekson, 1992). There is no reason to focus on any one curriculum design pattern to develop a new curriculum (Zuga, 1993). The vocational curriculum needs to reflect technology, industry, society, and individual needs (Finch & Crunkilton, 1993; Ray, 1980; Taba, 1962). Vocational education should be dedicated to helping students 59 develop a broad range of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values, which ultimately contribute in some manner to the graduate's employability (Finch & Crunkilton, 1993). The rational for the DACUM approach to curriculum development is based on the belief that a few expert workers or performers can describe their jobs more accurately than any others. The intent of the survey questionnaire approach is, on the other hand, to collect the perspectives of a large number of workers in a short time. Job and task analysts believe that document analysis and questionnaire survey can be used to validate the tasks of a job. Consequently, the technical curriculum design process using the method of job analysis was used by the study to analyze the tasks of CNC machining technology. Document analysis and a survey questionnaire were used to generate task statements and collect worker data for answering the research questions. Worker task performance data were collected from experts in the field of CNC machine tool manufacturers because expert workers or performers can describe their jobs more appropriately than any others. The results of the literature review supported the methodology of the study. Description of CNC Machining Technology This section of the literature review focuses on automated manufacturing technology and its impact on industry 60 and secondary level vocational industrial schools. The review of literature was undertaken especially to describe the development for CNC machining technology in metal manufacturing, identify the nature of CNC machining, and demonstrate the need for CNC machining technology in the vocational industrial high school curriculum. Overview Of CNC Evolution Numerical Control (NC) machine tools have evolved from conventional machine tools. The difference between the two is that the manipulation of the machine tools has shifted from workers directly controlling machines to workers indirectly control machines. NC is not a new kind of machine tools, but a method used to control a machine. The first NC machine tool was introduced in November, 1954, and after further refinements, became available for industry in 1957 (Seames, 1986). Since then, the innovation of the NC machine tool went along with advanced computer technology. That is, the capability of an NC machine tool is basically determined by the program/language design. The Automatically Programmed Tool (APT) was the first NC language used to describe machining messages (Dennis, 1990). An essential element of CNC machine tools is the controller. It determines the capability of saving, calculating, managing, and generating the data for controlling a machine. In 1971, the microprocessor was 61 produced by the Intel Corporation (Krar, 1990) and used to design computers. Since 1975, the controller of NC machine tools has shifted to use microprocessors; the numerical control machine tools is called Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools (Congress of the U.S., 1984). That is, the CNC machine tool is equipped with a minicomputer with a screen and input devices available for writing, editing, and adjusting an NC program directly on the machine tool. In 1976, all CNC controllers, CAD, CAM and Computer- Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) became a part of manufacturing and the associated hardware was shown at the Chicago Trade Show (Haggen, 1990). In 1980, the concept of Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) had been introduced at the Chicago Trade Show. The FMS is a group of processing or workstations connected by an automated material-handling system and operated as an integrated system under computer control (Biekert, 1993). FMS have been designed to fill the gap between high-production transfer lines and low-production DNC/CNC machines. Actually, FMS embody an operating philosophy in which more than one machine is controlled by an on-line computer. The FMS gives the manufacturer increased flexibility, which allows more efficient use of equipment and workforce. One of the most important features of the FMS is the significant reduction of work-in-process inventory. Today, CNC has replaced the original title of NC in the machining industry. The philosophy of FMS has been expanded to integrate management and business information, and become a top-down computer based organization in manufacturing . referred to as computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM). Obviously, in the 1980s, CIM involved both operational and organizational strategies and became popular due to its advantages of quality, efficiency, flexibility, and adaptability (Grannis & Boyd, 1991). In technological terms, CIM is synonymous with automation manufacturing or computer technology in today's manufacturing (Gunn, 1986). Trend Qf Machining Manufacturing In today's world market, a number of major changes have been made in the manufacturing industry due to global competition. According to Raju (1985), there were three primary changes: (a) The share of manufactured products increased steadily to about 65% in the industrialized countries, (b) the nature of manufacturing shifted from mass production to batch production orientation, and (c) the competitive pressures in the manufacturing industry increased steadily around the world. ' Indeed, it is imperative that companies consider all available tools and new technologies to continue to stay competitive in domestic and international markets. Aletan (1991) has stated that one of the efficient tools needed to 63 meet these changes is to implement automation in the manufacturing factory. Bamford (1993) has projected that automated manufacturing will replace traditional precision machining within 10 years. Obviously, high-level computerized equipment will be needed in the machine shop in a short time. An interactive graphic NC programming system will aid shop floor personnel by transferring geometric data from the CAD/CAM system (Schmierl, 1992). Importance q£ NC/CNC Machining Technology Obviously, advances in microelectronics and computers are truly revolutionizing manufacturing. All of the automated manufacturing systems such as CAD, CNC, CAM, FMS, and CIM will be controlled by intelligent computers (Haggen, 1990). While industries expect to expand growth in production, an efficient and effective strategy is automated manufacturing in which CNC is essential in the overall manufacturing facility along with CAD, CAM, FMS, and CIM. Therefore, NC/CNC is the first significant step in what some leading scientists and technologists refer to as the second industrial revolution (Krar, 1990). Accordingly, CNC machining technology will be an essential technology for secondary level vocational industrial education or training institutes. Vocational education must prepare modern machinists who possess 64 employable CNC machining technology skills as well as traditional machining knowledge and skills. Description of CNC Machinists In terms of applied technology, CNC machining basically includes three kinds of jobs which are (a) CNC machining operator (609.362-010), (b) CNC machine set-up operator (609.360-010), and (c) CNC programmer (D.O.T., 1993). Although traditionally, CNC programming has been a technical job performed by a technician, advanced computer technology has made CNC programming a part of the CNC machinists' job (Occupational Outlook Handbook. 1994). The difference among these three kinds of jobs is the scope of knowledge and skills in CNC machining technology. Indeed, although CNC machine tools can be operated without direct human intervention, most of these machines still require a human operator. According to the description of the Congress of the U.S. (1984), the CNC machine operator: (a) has override control to modify the programmed speeds (rate of motion of the cutting tool) and feed (rate of cut). The rates will vary depending on the batch of metal used and the condition of the cutting tool, (b) watches the quality and dimensions of the cut, and listens to the tool, replacing worn tools (ideally) before they fail, and (c) monitors the process to avoid 65 accidents or damage—e.g., a tool cutting into a misplaced clamp, or a blocked coolant line. (p. 69) Based on the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1993), the numerical control machine operator: Sets up and operates numerical control machine to cut, shape, or form metal workpiece to specifications: Reviews setup sheet and specifications to determine setup procedure, machining sequence, and dimensions of finished workpiece. Attaches fixture to machine bed and positions and secures workpiece in fixture according to setup instructions, using clamps, bolts, hand tools, power tools, and measuring instruments, such as rule and calipers. Assembles cutting tools in toolholders and positions toolholders in machine spindles as specified, using hand tools, or inserts cutting tools in specified machine magazines. Loads control media, such as disk, tape, or punch card, in machine control console or enters commands to retrieve preprogrammed machine instructions from data base. Manipulates controls and enters commands to index cutting tool to specified set point and to start machine. Observes and listens to machine operation to detect malfunctions, such as worn or damaged cutting tools. Changes cutting tools and location of workpiece during machining process as 66 specified in setup instructions. Measures workpiece for conformance to specifications, using measuring instruments, such as micrometers, dial indicators, and gauges. Notifies supervisor of discrepancies. May adjust machine feed and speed and change cutters to machine parts according to specifications when automatic programming is faulty or machine malfunctions. May machine materials other than metal, such as composites, plastic, and rubber, (p. 536) Furthermore, according to the description of the Dictionary of Chinese Occupational Titles (1994), a numerical control machine setter and operator sets up and operates a magnetic and/or punched-tape controlled machine tool to perform machining operations, such as turning, milling, boring, and reaming metal workpieces. The performance includes: 1. Positions and secures workpieces to table, using clamps, bolts, fixture, or all. 2. Determines the metal properties for selecting a proper tooling. 3. Determines the work procedures for planning the tooling sequence and for installing the tools into holding devices or the spindle of machine. 4. Inserts a programmed tape into reader of control unit. 5. Loads the proper tool and set the switches for operation. 6. Starts machine, monitors machining proceeding, inspects dimensions of machined parts, and reports the shortcoming of program performance. 7. Determines worn tool, program error, machine malfunctions, and all based upon the results of inspection; and then changes the tooling or modify machine operation. Sometimes, CNC programming and machine maintenance may be included in the responsibility of a numerical control machine tool setter and operator (p. 310). Consequently, from the statement of the Dictionary of Occupation Titles, the machinist, the numerical control machine operator, and the numerical control machine set-up operator in metal machining occupations are concerned with the numerical control machines (CNC). These workers are named CNC machinists in this study. The difference between the CNC machine operator, the CNC machine set-up operator, and the CNC programmer in CNC machining technology lies in their duties and performance tasks. 68 Nature of CNC Machlniaf From the description of the Occupational Outlook Handbook (1994), it can be seen that the nature of machinists has changed. Machinists sometimes need to operate a CNC machine to produce products or work along with CNC programmers to check new programs to ensure that machinery will function properly. A CNC programmer, on the other hand, does some of the same work as machinists, such as analyzing blueprints, computing the size and position of the cuts, determining the sequence of machine operations, selecting tools, and calculating the machine speed and feed rates, writing the program in the language of the machine's controller and storing it. Consequently, both the CNC programmer and the CNC operator need to learn the fundamental knowledge and hands-on skills in conventional machining technology that will increase their- ability to perform CNC machining production and CNC programming. High school education programs can be designed to provide students with the knowledge and technology mentioned above. A statement from the Occupational Outlook Handbook (1994) indicates that: a high school or a vocational school education, including mathematics, blueprint reading, metalworking, and drafting, is desirable for becoming a machinist or tool programmer. A basic knowledge of computers and electronics is helpful because of the increased use of 69 computer-controlled machine tools. Experience with machine tools also is helpful, (p. 403) The Occupational Classifications Handbook (1987) in Taiwan also indicates that a vocational industrial high school graduate can be trained to become a competent CNC machine tool setter and operator through a short time training program. — &£ VpgfttlPSWl Industrial High School is Taiwan According to the Standard of Curriculum^ Facility and Equipment for the machinery program promulgated by the Ministry of Education (19 86) in Taiwan, the purpose of vocational industrial high schools is to educate youths in occupational knowledge, skills, and morality so that they become reputable machinists at the front-line work. The goal of senior high vocational industrial education is to help the entry-level skilled worker to succeed in industry. To emphasize personality development or cultural cultivation, vocational industrial high schools should: (a) cultivate students' responsibility, diligence, and cooperation, (b) impart basic knowledge and practical skills in various subjects, and (c) establish the ability to create, adapt, and (d) develop the ability of independence and the nature of self-esteem. 70 C o w O b - U c t i v and Confnt of NC Machine Tool C o u r M in Taiwan According to the goals and purposes of senior high vocational industrial education mentioned previously, the course objectives of NC machining technology promulgated by the Ministry of Education in Taiwan are to: (a) understand the basic concept of Numerical Control (NC) and its importance in automation technology, {b) develop awareness of the basic principle of NC and its application, (c) understand the basic structure of NC machine tools in hardware and media, and (d) understand the basic programming in NC lathe and NC milling. The contents of NC machining technology are translated and listed in Appendix A. Review of CNC Textbooks The purpose of the CNC textbook review was to investigate changes in CNC machining technology contents from 1982 to 1990. Six textbooks were selected over a six-year period and divided into three two-year sections. They were written by Childs (1982), Luggen (1984), Kief (1986), Seames (1986), Thyer (1988), and Krar (1990). Basically, it was concluded from a review of these books that there was no significant difference in the knowledge base of CNC machining technology within this period of time besides the topic of the automatically programmed tool (APT) and the topic of CAD/CAM. The topic of APT was gradually de-emphasized. The topic of CAD/CAM, on the other hand, was increasingly emphasized. With 71 regard to specific topics and wording in each textbook, the following topics were derived from the review of the six CNC textbooks: 1. History and evolution of NC/CNC 2. NC part Programming (includes APT) 3. Terms and structure of NC/CNC 4. Tooling and holders 5. Numerical control systems in NC/CNC machines 6. Coordinate systems 7. Tape code specification and format 8. Machine operation 9. Dimensioning 10. Future trends and basic CAM Review of Related Studies From the literature review, the researcher identified six additional related studies, curriculum guides, curriculum projects, and instructional materials pertaining to this study. These materials have been analyzed and synthesized in terms of the ideology and rationale of the literature review, the description of the Dictionary of Occupation Titles (1992), and the objectives of CNC machining technology for vocational industrial high schools in Taiwan. They were also used to build a potential task profile of CNC machining technology and for developing the task survey questionnaire to collect the worker performance data. According to the study, CNC Occupational Inventory, conducted by Reneau (1986), CNC machining technology includes: (a) programming and planning, (b) setting up, and (c) operating machines. The purpose of the study was to identify needed tasks, tools and equipment which were required by CNC operators and CNC programmers. A survey questionnaire based on the results of a literature review and interviewing was designed by a panel team and evaluated through 106 workers (87% of respondent) who were either CNC programmers or CNC operators. Ninety three tasks, and 40 tools and pieces of equipment were identified by a percentage scale and used to develop a Vocational-Technical Consortium of States (V-TECS) catalog with performance objectives, standards, and performance guides. Moreover, three conclusions were also made in the study, which were: 1. The CNC Occupational Inventory provides an overview of the tasks performed by CNC programmers and CNC operators. 2. CNC programmers and operators perform many of the same tasks on-the-job. 3. The 93 tasks should provide CNC educators (industrial and educational institutions) with the "must know" tasks (competencies) to be included in CNC training programs, (p. 52) 73 According to Dimmlich’s (1989) study, Cluster Matrices for Industrial Occupations, manufacturing is one of 14 clusters in industrial occupations. Meanwhile, the machinist is one of nine jobs involved in the manufacturing occupation, and he/she needs to learn CNC machining technology. This finding is in agreement with the statements of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1992) and Occupational Outlook Handbook (1994) . Dimmlich noted that the duties and tasks found in these matrices form the basis of industrial content for secondary, postsecondary and adult occupational training programs. Orientation level instruction, usually offered in grades 9, 10, and 11, is a vital component of all vocational education programs and provides a strong function and vehicle for making the transition into occupational training programs. There were 84 tasks of CNC machining technology derived from this work that a machinist needed to learn. These tasks pertain to setting up and operating numerical control/computer!zed numerical control machines. Crosswhite (1989) developed the Competencv-Based Module of CNC (Computerized Numerical Control). In its CNC machining technology has been divided into five units: (a) employ CNC machine safety guidelines, (b) perform care and maintenance, (c) calculate coordinates and dimensions of CNC drafting, (d) writing programs for CNC machine, (e) setup a CNC machine, and (f) machine workpiece with CNC machines. Under each unit, tasks were distributed to general subject areas. The terms of "task" and "competency" were used in this curriculum module to represent the same level of ability. From Eshelby's (1990) study, Precision Machining Technology, sponsored by the Idaho State Department of Education, there were 13 modules to present the competencies of precision machining technology. In this curriculum guide, CNC machining technology involved 8 tasks and 94 objectives. That is, tasks, performance objectives, and enabling objectives have been used to describe the task of CNC machining technology. Each task described an occupational activity which results in a finished process or product. The following 8 tasks were designed to demonstrate proficiency in applying CNC operation skills: 1. Perform preventive maintenance on NC/CNC machines 2. Identify the parts of the machine 3. Comply with safe and efficient work practices 4. Identify and select proper machine controls 5. Write a program and apply basic programming skills to a turning and a milling operation 6. Select proper cutting tools and cutting conditions 7. Machine parts to blueprint tolerances 75 8. Demonstrate the use of CAD/CAM systems for part program development, (pp. 81-84) This curriculum guide was developed into competency- based program standards for senior high vocational industrial schools. The main purposes of this curriculum project were to help student articulation from secondary to postsecondary programs and to help students obtain entry-level employment. It was compiled by the states of Alabama and Florida for the Vocational-Technical Education Consortium of States (V-TECS). Based on Ohio1s Occupational Competency Analysis Profiles (OCAPs) in machine trades, developed by the Ohio State Department of Education (1991), there were two units related to CNC machining technology. Within these 2 units, there were 19 competency builders grouped into 4 competencies for either CNC turning/turning center or CNC milling/milling center. The four competencies included: 1. Perform preventive maintenance according to manufacturer's specifications 2. Prepare program according to print specifications, dimensions, and tolerances 3. Load program and set up machine according to manufacturer's specifications 76 4. Manufacture workpiece according to print specifications, dimensions, and tolerances, {pp. 14-15) This competency profile was developed by a writing team and directed by the Vocational Instructional Materials Laboratory at The Ohio State University's Center on Education and Training for Employment. The method used was a modified DACUM process. The representatives of this study involved business, industry, labor, and community agency representatives from throughout Ohio. The competency profile was identified by three levels of competencies—core, advancing, and futuring—and involved CNC lathe and CNC milling. The core competency builders (or competencies) were essential to entry-level employment; the advancing competency builders (or competencies) were essential to a specific occupation; the futuring competency builders (competencies) were needed in the upcoming 3-to-4 years from 1991. Finally, Helmandollar (1990) conducted a project related to CNC machining technology. The purpose of the project was to develop a competency profile of automated manufacturing technology by a modified DACUM method for developing a 2 + 2 program in Roanoke, Virginia. The tasks were written by the representatives from all six participating school systems, Virginia Western Community College, and 42 manufacturing 77 firms in industry and evaluated by survey forms, questionnaires, and rating sheets. The curriculum profile contained duties and tasks. The tasks were divided into two levels-easy to learn and advanced to learn. Within this competency profile, there were 3 units and 67 tasks grouped into CNC programming and planning, setting up a CNC machine, and operating a CNC machine. Most tasks belonged to advanced technology. Although this curriculum profile involved tech-prep programs, it was also available for vocational high schools due to the curriculum of tech-prep, which has two years covered at the high school level. Based on the literature review and the Occupational Outlook Handbook (1994), CNC machining operators jobs are appropriate for students both high—school—bound and vocational—school-bound. Moreover, vocational education systems are suggested both as a function of an articulation of secondary to postsecondary schools, and as a function of helping students to learn employable skills in advanced technology. Additionally, from Martin and Beach's (1992) study, the content of CNC machining technology was divided into three phases—planning, programming, and running. The purpose of the study was to compare the differences in competency patterns of CNC machinists and CNC operators who had varying backgrounds in CNC machining technology. The study revealed 78 that both planning and running phases are not unique to CNC machining, although they may function differently for traditional machinists and CNC machinists. Briefly, programming is an intermediary step between CNC planning and CNC machining. The phase of programming is the focus of CNC machining technology. Running is only a debugging in addition to one of mechanical fine turning. Traditionally, NC or CNC programming was a computer- based technology underlying broad and fundamental knowledge in machine trades occupations. It was the responsibility of machine engineers who needed a knowledge of machining fundamentals to facilitate their work (Krar, 1990; Martin & Beach, 1992) . The introduction of programming software shifted the task of CNC programming from programmers to machinists (Krar, 1990). Therefore, there is a need for machinists to have a thorough understanding of planning, programming, and operating CNC machines (Goldenberg & Mishkovsky, 1983). Consequently, vocational educational programs should undertake the instruction of CNC machining technology when the students have experience in the fundamentals of conventional machining technology. It is appropriate for secondary level vocational industrial schools to provide an 79 efficient and effective opportunity for students learning high technology. As a result of industries moving toward cutting-edge equipment and technology, machinists are more involved in both CNC machining technology and making decisions. Thus, CNC machining technology is an appropriate course to help students succeed in postsecondary programs and in their occupational career development. From the literature review, there was no related study or article that could be used as a model to develop the study's survey questionnaire. The difficulty with previous work was (a) dated content, performances, subjects, and tasks; (b) different goals associated with different curriculum development projects; {c) different representatives providing different perspectives. Consequently, the review of related literature identified five duty areas—planning, setting tooling, programming, operating, and machining-and 16 duties of CNC machining technology (see Table 1). Those duty areas and duties regarding CNC machining technology were used as a framework to develop 101 potential task statements describing CNC machining technology. Table 1 Potential Duty Areas and Duties of CMC Machining Technology I. Planning A. Prepare required data to write a program. B. Select the CNC machine tool. II. Programming A. Write a manual program in word address format. B. Edit a program using a conversational program control unit. C. Generate a program with CAD/CAM systems. III. Setting Tooling and Machines A. Perform preventive maintenance. B. Set up workpiece. C. Set up tools and holding devices. D . Load programs. IV. Operating Machines A. Set manual mode control. B. Perform the proper operation according to the description of the control monitor. C. Verify the tape or program by dry-run machines. D. Verify machine performance. V. Machining A. Machine first piece to verify accuracy of program and setup. B. Inspect the first part. C. Machine parts to blueprint/part tolerances.______81 Summary of Literature Raviaw It is obvious that we live in an ever-changing society resulting from the pressure of global competition and the impact of advancing technology. The literature review identified the following results which supported the study. 1. High wages, high performance, and flexible production are the new philosophy of automated manufacturing in the manufacturing industry. Thus, CNC machining technology is a basic and important element for developing the production of automated manufacturing. It is also becoming a primary element in the development of manufacturing curriculum for vocational industrial high school programs. However, the lack of accurate identification of the tasks of CNC machining technology can cause the education program to be at risk. 2. CNC operation and programming has become an important job for machinists. The lack of up-to-date job analysis in CNC machining technology could damage the training of CNC machinists. Educators, supervisors, and teachers in related institutes are responsible for periodically revising, updating, and modifying the curriculum of vocational industrial high school programs to offer an efficient and effective program for students to learn CNC machining technology. 82 3. The function of vocational industrial high schools is shifting from the traditional focus on preparing entry- level workers to preparing the students to benefit effectively from extensive retraining and continued education. CNC machining technology is one element of advanced technology in the field of manufacturing. 4. A vocational curriculum should reflect the needs of technology, industry, society, and individuals. Vocational education should be dedicated to helping students develop a broad base of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values, each of which ultimately contributes in some manner to the graduate's employability. Thus, the 21st century labor force will not only need to adapt to new technologies, but to a new distribution of jobs as well. Consequently, the methodology and rationale of the study was supported by the results of the literature review: (a) The impact of advanced technology changed the nature of machinists; (b) DACUM experts believe that workers or performers can describe their jobs more appropriately than any others; (c) the intent of the questionnaire is to collect the perspectives from a large number of respondents in a short time; (d) curriculum innovators and educators proposed that technical curriculum design can be efficiently used to develop a performance-based curriculum with measurable objectives; (e) job and task analysts believe that document 83 analysis and worker survey can be used to validate the tasks of a job; (f) there was no related study or article that could be used as a model to develop the questionnaire. The results of related literature also identified five duty areas of CNC machining technology—planning, setting tooling, programming, operating, and machining. The 5 duty areas and 16 duties of CNC machining technology were identified and used as a framework to develop 101 potential tasks describing CNC machining technology. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The focus of this chapter is: (a) the research method, (b) the procedure of identification and validation of the task inventory, (c) the survey instrument and its development, and Research Method The purpose of this study was to identify and validate the tasks of CNC machining technology based on the perceptions of CNC machinists in the field of CNC machine tool manufacturers. The intention of this study was to provide an efficient reference for developing effective educational programs for vocational industrial high schools in Taiwan. A descriptive research method, using a self- developed questionnaire, was employed to collect the data needed to answer the study questions. Descriptive research involves collecting data to describe what things, phenomena, or both are like, but not to answer or verify why they are that way {Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1990; Gay, 1992; Warmbrod, 1994). It is widely used in education {Ary, Jacobs, & 84 85 Razavieh, 1990). Collecting data for the sake of testing hypotheses or answering questions concerning the current situation of the subject of the study is typically done through the use of a questionnaire survey, interviews, or direct observations. Usually a formal, standard instrument or questionnaire is used to ask a set of questions for the sake of collecting the information from a large number of individuals by mail, by telephone, or in person (Fraenkel & Wallen, 1993). Moreover, a survey questionnaire is one effective data collection method of task analysis (Morsh, & Archer, 1967; Jonassen, Hannum, & Tessmer, 1989). Obviously, descriptive research is dependent on both a sound design for the research instrument and a high rate of response to the survey. While a survey may be used to collect data, the validity of the information is affected by the following factors: (a) ensuring that the questions to be answered are clear and not misleading, and (b) getting a sufficient number of the questionnaires completed and returned so that meaningful analyses can be made. The analysis of descriptive research data generally uses descriptive statistics to summarize the results of a survey. Procedures of the Study The procedure used to increase the survey response rate, and design a concise and valid questionnaire (see Figure 8) consisted of six stages. Basically, the first stage focused 86 Tasks of CNC Machining Technology ** Conducted Literature Review Described Study Problems ** Developed the Research Method ** Selected Representives (Population, Professional, and Experts)______ Established Potential Tasks 1. Analyzed Potential Tasks 2. Identified Potential Tasks 3. Integrated Potential Tasks Validated the Potential Tasks 1. Translated the Potential Tasks into Chinese 2. Validated by Taiwanese Experts in Industry 3. Evaluated and Approved by the Study Committee at The Ohio State University Designed the Questionnaire 1. Developed An English Questionnaire 2. Approved by the Study Committee 3. Translated Questionnaire into Chinese Description 4. Did a Face Validity Review Collected the Data 1. Delivered the Questionnaires 2. Followed Up Non-respondents 3. Collected the Returned Questionnaires 4. Analyzed the Collected Data 5. Interpreted the Data Described the Results Figure 8. The procedures of the study. 87 on the identification and establishment of the study problem, development of the study methodology, and review of the related literature. The second stage focused on the establishment of the potential CNC machining tasks based on a document analysis. There were three steps involved in this stage: {a) analyzing the tasks of CNC machining technology, (b) identifying the potential tasks of CNC machinists based on job analysis and describing the objectives of CNC machining technology at vocational industrial high schools in Taiwan, and (c) establishing a potential task inventory for doing content validity. The third stage of the study was to validate the potential job tasks. The following steps were involved: (a) translating the potential tasks into Chinese, (b) validating the potential tasks by experts in the field of CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan, and (c) presenting the potential tasks to be evaluated and approved by the researcher's study committee at The Ohio State University. The fourth stage of the study was to develop the survey instrument based on the approved potential job tasks of CNC machining technology. It involved: (a) developing an English language questionnaire for approval by the researcher's advisor at The Ohio State University, (b) translating the questionnaire into a Chinese language questionnaire, and (c) doing a face validity review of the questionnaire. 88 The fifth stage was to collect the study data. There were five steps involved in this stage: (a) delivering the questionnaires to the respondents, (b) following up non respondents, (c) collecting the returned questionnaires, (d) analyzing the data, and (e) interpreting the data. The finally stage of this study was to describe the results, and make the recommendations. Established Potential Tasks Jonassen, Hannum, and Tessmer (1989) indicated that "task analysis means different things to different people" (p. 5). That is, there are many methods used to do a job/task analysis. Basically, they identified 27 different techniques or procedures for performing a job/task analysis. In this study, a modified "Methods Analysis" recommended by Jonassen, Hannum, and Tessmer (1989) was employed to analyze the potential tasks. The following are the essential characteristics of the methods analysis approach: 1. The purpose of the methods analysis is to describe in detail the work performed by individual workers on a job. 2. It is based upon a behavioral outlook on task analysis. 3. It is most appropriate for use in a manufacturing environment in which workers are making things. 4. A questionnaire can be used to collect the data efficiently, (pp. 177-186) Accordingly, the procedure of job analysis used in this study was: (a) identifying the job, (b) describing the nature of the job, (c) identifying the duty areas and duties of CNC machinists, {d) establishing the job tasks, (e) collecting the task data on importance, and (f) integrating the job tasks (see Figure 9). Identified the Job Described the Job Identified the Duty Areas and Duties Established the Potential Tasks Collected the Task Data on Importance Integrated the Tasks Figure 9. The procedure of job analysis used in this study. The identification and description of CNC machining technology was based on the literature review, the job descriptions in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1991), Occupational Outlook Handbook (1994), and the goals of senior 90 high vocational industrial education in Taiwan (Ministry of Education, 1986). Identification of the duty areas and duties and establishment of potential job tasks of CNC machining technology was derived by the researcher from the related studies and articles in the fields of automated manufacturing. The collection of data to validate and integrate the proposed tasks was accomplished by means of the survey questionnaire. Consolidation of the proposed tasks, which were integrated into core tasks and supporting tasks, was based upon the grand means of the scales for rating current and future importance of the tasks. Analyzed Potential Tasks For the sake of obtaining appropriate and reasonable job tasks as potential tasks to develop a CNC machining technology curriculum, prudent analysis based on the rationale of job and task analysis was employed. In order to complete this objective, the following procedures and strategies were used: 1. Reviewed doctoral dissertations, curriculum guides, curriculum development projects, articles, and textbooks related to computer-aided drafting (CAD), computerized numerical control (CNC), computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), robotics, and computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) in the duty area of metal machining or automated manufacturing technology. 91 2. Identified the available curriculum modules, curriculum guides, and instructional materials developed by other institutions (e.g., V-TECS for Alabama and Florida, and Educational Departments of Ohio, Idaho, and Virginia). These materials were evaluated and identified by curriculum title, grade level, and goals. 3. Identified and compiled the potential tasks through the method of job analysis based on the strategy of document analysis. 4. Established the potential job tasks related to CNC machining technology. In the initial job analysis of this study, the card-sort and the frequency table techniques were used to collect the tasks of CNC machining technology from document analysis. The task matrix technique was used to verify and arrange the tasks; the job function technique was used to identify and organize the task into each duty and duty area. Finally, a task inventory survey questionnaire was developed and used to determine the current and future importance of each task. Identified Potential Tasks The criteria for identification of the potential job tasks of CNC machinists were established based upon the results of the literature review and the principles of 92 job/task analysis to describe the job of CNC machinists. The criteria were: 1. The task has been described by the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1991), regarding either numerical control machine set-up operator (609.360-010) or numerical control machine operator (609.362-010). 2. The task was basic or distinctly consistent with preceding tasks. Any advanced task was supported by pre-required knowledge, skills, or both. 3. The task was a technical skill, a process, or both. 4. The task was derived from the duty areas of CNC machining technology. 5. The task can be clearly described independently. 6. The job duties were derived from more than two sources related to CNC machining technology. Job duties consist of and are described by a set of related tasks. Int«qr*t»4 Potential Tftgfrff The results of the job analysis procedure classified CNC machining technology into three hierarchical levels which were duty areas, duties, and tasks, based upon Carlisle's (1992) definitions (see Figure 10). Carlisle defines a task as describing a single activity. Many tasks taken together constitute a duty. Therefore, a job is described by many activities. An appropriate job description lists the job title, the actions performed, and 93 CNC Machining Technology Job n n Duty Planning Programming Setting tooling Operating CNC Areas and machines machines machining JN=5: f - T p Level of duty Duties Level of duty LevelLevel ofof dutyduty Level ol (N=15L *— i=h I Tasks Level of task Level of task Level of task Level of task ,{N=100)j Figure 10. The hierarchy of job analysis of CNC machinists used in this study. the objects used in the performance. Consequently, the results of this stage established a set of 101 tasks grouped into 16 duties organized under 5 duty areas (see Appendix B). The 5 duty areas were planning, programming, setting tooling and machines, operating machines, and machining. These duty areas were identified and described by related documents, mentioned in Chapter II. Validated the Potential Tasks The validation and identification of CNC machining tasks in this study was a site-based-oriented process. The intent of this process was to identify the skill, ability, and 94 experience of CNC machinists in the field of CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan to arrive at the best solution to fill the gap between the educational content and the content needed by industry. Although the validity of a questionnaire cannot be numerically indicated, the higher the validity of a questionnaire, the higher the degree of reliability. The validity of the questionnaire used in this study, therefore, was supported by the strategies of document analysis mentioned previously and a initial review of the instrument by a panel of job experts. Translated the Potential Taeke into Chinese First, the potential tasks were translated into Chinese by the researcher and a partner separately (see Appendix C). The partner taught CNC principles and programming at a vocational industrial high school in Taiwan for more than 5 years and was enrolled in the comprehensive vocational education doctoral program at The Ohio State University. Then the researcher and the partner discussed the wording of the two Chinese translations of the potential tasks item-by- item to determine the correct and concise wording and to eliminate duplicate or redundant tasks. Basically, the wording of the two translations were similar to each other in meaning. No change was required in the original number of potential duties and tasks. Modifications were made in the 95 wording, integration, and arrangement of the tasks. Finally, the set of potential tasks in Chinese included 101 tasks grouped into 5 duty areas (see Appendix D). Content Validity After the translation of the potential tasks into Chinese, the task list was delivered personally to a panel of five experts in Taiwan for validation. Martin and Beach (1992) define a highly experienced CNC programmer as one who has written more than 100 CNC programs for CNC machines. Therefore, qualified experts possessed at least one of the following criteria and were working for CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan as CNC programmers, CNC operators, or CNC machine set-up operators. These qualifications were the basic qualifications underlying Martin and Beach's definition and the definition of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1991) : 1. Had written more than 100 CNC programs for producing parts with a CNC lathe, CNC turning center, CNC milling, CNC milling center, or all of the above. 2. Had machined more than 100 kinds of products with a CNC lathe, CNC turning, CNC milling, CNC milling center, or all of the above. 3. Had more than 3 years of experience as a CNC machine setup operator. 96 TbS I f ulf validation According to these criteria, the validation panel consisted of five experts (see Appendix E) who were working for two CNC machine tool manufacturers in the central area of Taiwan. Four out of the 5 experts had worked in their companies for more than 5 years in the setup of CNC machines. Three out of the 5 experts had mastered CNC programming and CNC machine operations. The experience of the 5 qualified experts is listed in Table 2. The content validation process was conducted throughout October, 1994 by the panel of experts. The experts believed that 87% of the tasks describing CNC machining technology did not need to be modified and probably were clear and accurate statements in Chinese. No duplication of tasks and dependent tasks were found by the procedure. Twelve of 13 tasks were Table 2 Th N . Experience No. of Programs No. o f Parts No. of Years in Designed Machined Setup Machines 100 151 More 100 151 More More than than than Position 150 200 200 150 200 200 3-4 4-5 5 A. Technican * * B. Manager * C. Team Leader * * * D. Section Head ** * E. Vice-manager * questioned by an expert. Only the task of "preparing a tape manually" was questioned by two experts. The comments of the expert panel included the following points: 1. Three tasks regarding coordinating systems on a CNC machine could be used to design a CNC program so they should be integrated into one task. The suggestion was not followed because the content of these tasks was judged to be different. 2. Three tasks related to determining threading passes for turning, selecting cutting speed and feed rate, and scheduling restart points and reference points were proposed to be merged into one task. The suggestion was not followed because the tasks were judged to be different and each was needed for the job analysis. 3. Both preparing a tape manually and generating a tape from a tape puncher were proposed to be deleted because a cutting-edge CNC machine did not need to prepare a tape manually. Consequently, these two tasks were merged into one task—generating a tape with a tape puncher. 4. Both altering cutting parameters (feed, speed, and coolant) through mode select switches and setting proper parameters of machine controller could not be changed by a operator and therefore the word "parameter" was changed to "cutting condition" to avoid misunderstanding. 5. The task of manual data input (MDI) was not used to verify a CNC program and therefore the task was deleted. 98 6. Neither the interrupting of the automatic cycle nor changing the spindle speed was needed while performing a dry-run machine and therefore the task was deleted. 7. A task related to checking/removing tool interference should be added to the inventory. Finally, a set of 100 job tasks arranged and grouped into 15 duties under 5 duty areas of CNC machining technology was established and used for developing the survey questionnaire. Face Validity Review After the process of content validation, a questionnaire in English was developed and approved by the researcher's committee (see Appendix F). Consequently, the researcher again translated the questionnaire into Chinese and sent it to a professor, a graduate student, and a vocational industrial high school teacher in Taiwan for concise wording (see Appendix E). The intent of this process was to identify the logical Chinese design and organization of the questionnaire by the professor and to enhance the clarity, ease of comprehension, and brevity of the wording by the graduate student and the teacher to reduce respondent bias and increase content validity. The final Chinese version of the questionnaire (see Appendix G) was delivered by assistants personally to each respondent on November 10, 1994. Dasign of th« Questionnaire The intent of the questionnaire was to validate the tasks identified during the document analysis process and to provide the opportunity for additional representatives from industry to rank the tasks in terms of current and future importance to CNC machining technology in Taiwan. The questionnaire was intended to answer the following research questions: 1. What current tasks are performed by CNC machinists and are t important for vocational industrial high school students to learn in Taiwan? 2. What is the flexibility of the tasks in CNC machining technology to meet the dynamic technology and for developing the curriculum of CNC machining technology at the level of vocational industrial high schools in 3 to 5 years from now in Taiwan? Pr+pftg+fl Qu+f After the expert validation of the questionnaire was completed, the researcher working with his advisor regarding the format, content, and presentation of the survey instrument before it was translated into Chinese. The questionnaire materials contained: (a) a cover letter which described the orientation and the purpose of the study, and the data required; (b) respondent specific directions; (c) a section (Part I) requesting brief demographic information, 100 and (d) a section {Part II) listing 100 tasks grouped into the duty areas of planning, setting tooling and machines, programming, operating machines, and machining. Appendix F contains the English language version of the questionnaire and Appendix G contains the Chinese language version of the instrument. Part I contained a brief set of questions related to the respondents. The intent of this part was to: {a) probe the work experience of the respondents in the field of CNC machining technology, (b) obtain the strategies and procedures of CNC machining technology learned, and (c) describe and classify the qualified respondents. Part II listed the job tasks along with two Likert-type scales for each task. Blanks were left at the end of each duty area for respondents to add any additional tasks that they felt were not listed. Blanks were also left at the end of the survey for respondents to indicate any additional recommendations for the survey. Respondents were asked to rate the level of each task with respect to both current and future importance for CNC machinists based on their knowledge and professional experience. — a£ the Questionnaire For answering the research questions, each job task had listed two Likert-type scales for rating its current and 101 future importance. The scale for rating current importance was divided into five intervals ranging from 1 = Not important (no need to know), to 5 = Essential importance (should be understood). The scale of future importance, on the other hand, ranged from 1 = Decreasing importance, 2 = Stabilizing importance, and 3 = Increasing importance in the upcoming 3-to-5 years. Demographic Question* The respondents were requested to provide demographic information describing their background. Question 1 provided information about educational background and the educational systems from which the CNC machinists graduated. Question 2 provided information about the source of the job knowledge and skills of CNC machinists. Question 3 provided information about professional experience in CNC machining technology. Questions 4 and 5 provided information about specific ability in CNC programming, CNC machine operation, or both abilities. Question 6 provided information about the frequency of using CNC technology on the routine job. The items employed in question 4 and question 5 were based on differences in hands-on machining experience, CNC programming experience, and CNC operation experience. From Martin and Beach's (1992) study, a machinist who had written between 5 and 25 programs for CNC machines is a low-experience CNC programmer; a machinist who had written at least 100 programs 102 for CNC machines is a high-experience CNC programmer. Therefore, these criteria were used to divide CNC machinists into six classifications: 1. Novice CNC operators—those who operated CNC machines to produce fewer than 50 kinds of parts, but had no experience in CNC programming; 2. Experienced CNC operators—those who operated CNC machines to produce between 51 to 100 kinds of parts, but had no experience in CNC programming; 3. Novice CNC programmers—those who had written less than 50 kinds of CNC programs, but had no experience in CNC operation; 4. Experienced CNC programmers—those who had written between 50 to 100 kinds of CNC programs; but had not been involved in CNC operation. 5. High-experience CNC machinists (technicians)—those who had written between 101 to 150 kinds of CNC programs or operated CNC machine tools to machine between 101 to 150 kinds of parts, or those who had done both activities; 6. CNC experts—those who had written 151 kinds of CNC programs or operated CNC machine tools to machine at least 151 kinds of parts, or those who had done both activities. 7. Machinists—besides all the above mentioned—machinists had no experience in either writing CNC programs or operating CNC machines. 103 Population Obviously, most importantly from a research point of view, it was desirable to have factories and workers represented in the study who had experience with CNC machining technology. Thus, an industry-based population participated in this study to identify and validate the tasks of CNC machining technology in order to assess the needs of individuals in industry, enhance the function of school-to- work transition, and improve the weakness of traditional curriculum development focused on an educator-oriented procedure and lack of industry involvement. Those participating in this study were employed as CNC machinists with CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan. They were employed at 14 factories in Taiwan which were listed in The Directory of Chinese-Mark Products and Factories (National Bureau of Standards, 1994). This publication was selected because it identified factories widely recognized as major employers of CNC machinists and which produced nationally qualified CNC lathes, CNC milling machines, or CNC machining centers. The CNC employees of these companies were identified because it was felt that they could describe their jobs more appropriately than others outside the companies. In order to determine the size of the population, the researcher faxed a population form to each of the 14 factories requesting an estimated of the number of its 104 technicians in the field of CNC machining production. The intent of this request was to probe the interest of participation in this study and to identify the number of suitable CNC machine operators, CNC programmers, and CNC machine tool setters. There were 13 companies which had returned the form prior to the middle of October, 1994. Only one factory did not send back the estimation of population form, but in a telephone discussion expressed an interest in participating in the study. The results of this procedure indicated that all CNC machinists of the 14 CNC machine tool manufacturers were qualified for the population and were interested in participation in this study. Consequently, the population for this study involved 307 CNC machinists from the 14 CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan. A list of the 14 factories and contacted persons is provided in Appendix H. Data Collection Data for identification and validation of 100 job tasks were collected by means of a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire was sent to each factory by personal delivery. Based on the assistants' schedules, this procedure of data collection began on November 10, 1994 and was completed on December 15, 1994. In order to maximize the response rate, three assistants aided by personally delivering and collecting respondent 105 questionnaires at each factory in three geographic districts of Taiwan. Each factory also identified a facilitator within the factory to delivery and collect questionnaires from their workers. The facilitators and the district assistants are listed in Appendix H. After five work days, a first telephone call was made by the district assistant to determine the number of returned questionnaires available. A follow-up telephone call was made five days later to the factories which had not completed collection of questionnaires by the time of the first phone call. The time limit for completion of data collection was set at 2 0 work days. Although the time limit for data collection had been set for 20 work days from the date the questionnaires were sent, there were 13 factories which completed the questionnaires within a period of 10 work days. Only one company did not finish the responses to the questionnaires within a period of 15 work days due to some machinists being assigned to serve their satellite companies. All of the returned questionnaires were collected by December 15, 1994. Each returned questionnaire was numbered for facilitating statistics. A set of returned questionnaires was mailed to the researcher in Ohio from the assistants by international express mail and received by the researcher at the end of December, 1994. There were a total of 270 returned questionnaires collected. 106 Data Traatmant Based upon receipt of the returned questionnaires, a frequency and percentile distribution was tabulated for each of the questions regarding demographic information, and means were calculated for each task in Part II. These means were used to list tasks in descending order to facilitate interpretat ion. In order to examine the amount of dispersion in the ratings of each task by the respondents, the standard deviation was calculated. Furthermore, if it was difficult to rank the tasks by mean values, standard deviations were used associatively. For the purpose of interpretation and discussion, means were grouped by numerical values assigned to equal divisions of the five-point scale and three-point scale (see Table 3). Summary This chapter presented the research methodology and the validation of the task inventory by the expert panel in the field of CNC machine tool manufacture. It described the development of the questionnaire that was designed by the researcher for data collection in this study. After the validation by the expert panel and research committee members, the questionnaire, consisting of the basic demographic information in Part I and the 100 job tasks in Part II, was personally delivered by three district 107 assistants and a facilitator in each of the 14 companies to a population of 307 CNC working machinists in Taiwan to collect the data needed for the study. Table 3 Level of Importance Scales and Their Mean Values The Scale pf Current ImDortance Value Level 4.201--5.000 5 = Essential importance 3.401--4.200 4 = Moderately important 2.601--3.400 3 = Important 1.801--2.600 2 = Probably important 1.000--1.800 1 = Not important The Scale pf Future Importance Value Level 2.334--3.000 3 = Increasing importance 1.667--2.333 2 = Stabilizing importance 1.000 — 1.666 1 = Reducing importance CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS, FINDINGS, AND DISCUSSION Overview The focus of this chapter is to present the findings of data analysis regarding the tasks of CNC machining technology identified by CNC machinists in the field of CNC machine tool manufacturing in Taiwan. As mentioned in Chapter I, the purpose of the study was to develop a set of job tasks for CNC machining technology as an essential reference for developing a curriculum for vocational industrial high schools and training programs in Taiwan. The presentation of the results includes discussions of: (a) the return rate, (b) reliability of the survey questionnaire, (c) the demographic information of the respondents based on the data collected from Part I of the questionnaire, (d) the current importance of tasks, and (e) the future importance of tasks, (f) the discussion of the task status, and (g) the results of data analysis to answer the two research questions based upon the data collected from Part II of the questionnaire. 108 109 Return R a f A questionnaire involving 100 tasks was designed and submitted to 307 CNC machinists working for 14 CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan. Two hundred and seventy questionnaires were returned and completed at the end of the data collection. The response rate was 88% (see Table 4). According to Babbie’s (1990) statements, a response rate of 50% is considered sufficient for valid data analysis and a response rate of 70% is very good. Non-respondent error may be problematic when the response rate is lower than 50%. Therefore, the return rate in this study reached an efficient and sufficient level for data analysis. Within the 270 returned questionnaires, 242 questionnaires were usable for data analysis and 28 were eliminated from the analysis. Twenty-five of the 28 respondents indicated that they had no experience in either CNC operation or CNC programming and were eliminated. Three respondents circled the same level of importance for all tasks on both the scale of current importance and the scale of future importance. Their responses were also eliminated. Six questionnaires, on the other hand, had no responses to the scale of future importance and therefore, they were not used for the analyses of future importance. Hillectad (1977) indicates that a limitation for using Likert-point scales is that respondents tend to respond to all items in a certain way. To overcome such tendencies, it Table 4 Survey Response Rate bv Each Company Company Name N Return Rate of Return 01. Tatung Co., Ltd. 52 43 83% 02. Yujya Industry Co., Ltd. 50 44 88% HUM 03. Taichung Machinery Co.,Ltd. 30 29 97% 04. Liwei Machinery Co., Ltd. 25 23 92% S t VMt 3 05. Shengjye Industry Co., Ltd. 15 15 100% 06. Chyaufu Machinery Co., Ltd. 5 5 100% 07. Yungjin Machinery Co., Ltd. 20 20 100% 08. Lungchang Machinery Co., Ltd. 8 8 100% 09 Chengtai Machinery Co., Ltd. 9 9 100% 10. Dali Machinery Co., Ltd. 5 5 100% 11. Dahlih Machine Co., Ltd. 21 18 90% 12. Kaofeng Machinery Co., Ltd. 5 4 80% 13. Yang iron works Co., Ltd. 26 21 81% 14. Fareast Machinery Co., Ltd. 36 26 72% Total 307 27 0 88% Ill is important to select an appropriate population which is interested in and knowledgeable about the topic of study. Finally, there were 242 usable questionnaires for analyzing the identification of current importance and 236 usable questionnaires for analyzing the identification of future importance of CNC machining technology tasks {see Table 5). Reliability of the Survey Questionnaire The reliability of the survey questionnaire used in this study was estimated by Cronbach's Alpha procedure. Cronbach's Alpha procedure was used to estimate the instrument consistency based upon: (a) an instrument using a Likert-scale to measure the variables, (b) only one test form been developed, and {c) only one administration of the instrument having been done (Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1990; Gay, 1992) . The results of statistical analysis indicated that the reliability of the scale of current importance was .98 and the reliability of the scale of future importance was .96. These figures indicated that response effects might be playing a role and/or that the high value of reliability may be due to the large number of items because the instrument involved 100 ranking tasks. Although the degree of reliability depends upon the intent of the instrument, a range of reliability from .30 to 112 Table 5 Usable Questionnaires from Each Company Return Current Scale Future _£cale Companies Unusable Usable Unusable Usable 01. Tatung 43 3 40 6 37 02 . Yujya Industry 44 7 37 7 37 03 . Taichung Machinery 29 4 25 4 25 04. Liwei Machinery 23 3 20 3 20 05 . Shengjye Industry 15 4 11 4 11 06. Chyaufu Machinery 5 0 5 0 5 07. Yungjin Machinery 20 2 18 3 17 08. Lungchang Machinery 8 0 8 0 8 09 . Chengtai Machinery 9 2 7 2 7 10 . Dali Machinery 5 0 5 0 5 11. Dahlih Machine 18 0 18 1 17 12 . Kaofeng Machinery 4 0 4 0 4 13 . Yang Iron Works 21 1 20 2 19 14. Fareast Machinery 26 2 24 2 24 Total 270 28 242 34 236 .50 is generally acceptable for the purpose of making a decision or for most research {Ary, Jacobs, & Razavieh, 1990). Furthermore, Gay (1992) states that, "a reliability coefficient over .90 would be acceptable for any test." (p. 168) 113 H*an Value■ To enhance the flexibility of curriculum implementation and the explanation of the findings, job tasks were intended to be grouped into either core tasks or supporting tasks based upon grand mean ratings. Grand mean ratings are the average of the means of each task from all respondents. Garcia (1988) also used the grand mean rating as a criterion for separating more important items from less important ones in his study. Consequently, in this study, the core tasks were identified as those having mean values equal to or greater than the grand mean value. The supporting tasks, on the other hand, were those having mean values lower than the grand mean value. Table 6 shows the grand means based on the means for each task (3.592 on the five-point scale of current importance and 2.221 on the three-point scale of future importance). Table 6 Grand Means on the Scales of Current and Future Importance bv Means of Total Tasks Scales .Types.. Mean SD Min. Max. Current Importance 5-point 3.592 .26 2.565 4.156 Future Importance 3-point 2.221 .18 1.457 2.610 Note. N = 100. 114 Although the differences in the respondents' experiences may affect their perspective of identification, the results of statistical analysis did not show either a bimodel distribution or a true rectangular distribution of means for each task. Therefore, the mean value as well as the standard deviation for each task was used to describe the study data. Demographic Information Respondent demographic information was collected from Part I of the questionnaire. Six questions were designed to probe the respondents' experience in the field of CNC machining technology. Educational Background Table 7 lists the highest degree that the respondents earned. One-half of the respondents (49%) graduated from vocational industrial high schools. Twenty percent of the respondents finished vocational industrial high school and two-year junior college. Consequently, 69% of the respondents (n=165) finished the program of vocational industrial high schools. Other respondents graduated from: (a) elementary schools (8%), (b) academic high schools (8%), (c) three-or-five year junior colleges (9%), and (d) four year colleges/universities (7%). No respondent completed graduate school. 115 Table 7 Highest Degree Earned bv Respondents Kinds of Education Number Percent Vocational industrial high school 118 49.0 Academic high school 20 8.3 Two-year junior college 47 19.5 Three- or five-year junior college 21 8.7 Four-year college/university 16 6.6 Graduate school 0 0 Others (Elementary school) 19 7.9 Total 241 100.0 Note. Missing case = 1. The data revealed that the majority of CNC machinists (69%) finished vocational industrial high schools. Twenty- eight percent of the respondents graduated from postsecondary schools. The results indicated that CNC machining technology was available for vocational-technical school students. Where £££ Machining Technology Was Learned Table 8 lists the programs where the respondents learned CNC machining technology. Of 241 usable questionnaires, 65% were from respondents who depended on job training programs to learn CNC machining technology. Twenty-three percent of the respondents learned CNC machining technology from both 116 Table 8 Where CNC Machining Technology Was learned Respondents Kinds of Programs Number percent Job training programs 156 64.7 Schools and job training programs 55 22 .8 Vocational industrial high school 13 5.4 Academic high school 0 0 * Two-year junior college 2 .8 Three- or five-year junior college 3 1.2 Four-year college/university 0 0 Graduate school 0 0 Self-conducted learning {colleagues ... Etc.) 55 5.0 Total 241 100.0 Note. Missing case = 1. the education system and job training programs. Others depended on: {a) vocational industrial high schools (5%), (b) their partners {5%), and (c) junior colleges (2%) to learn the CNC machining technology. There were no respondents who learned the CNC machining from academic high schools, four year colleges/universities, or graduate schools. The results reveal that job training is an essential strategy to learn CNC machining technology. According to the literature review, three out of four jobs in the United States require some education or technical training beyond 117 the high school level (Kranzberg, 1991; Scott, 1991) . Obviously, job training plays an imperative role in human resource development in both the United States and Taiwan. Table 9 lists the programs that the respondents attended to learn CNC machining technology. Seventy-nine percent of the respondents (n=190) attended on-the-job training in their companies. Some respondents attended on-the-job training outside their companies (13%) and off-the-job training (12%). Others attended: (a) vocational industrial high schools Table 9 Technolocrv Resoondents Programs/Strategies Number Percent Job training On-the-job training in company 190 78.8 On-the-job training out of company 32 13 .3 Off-the-job training 28 11.6 Vocational industrial high school 42 17.4 Two-year junior college 24 10.0 Three- or Five-year junior college 8 3.3 Four-year college/university 6 2.5 Total 100.0 Note. N = 241; missing case = 1. 118 (17%), (b) two-year junior college (10%), (c) three-year or five year junior college (3%), and (e) four-year college/university (3%). A number of the respondents learned CNC machining technology from one or two kinds of training programs other than schools. The results reveal that on-the-job training is a primary strategy to learn and update CNC machining technology in Taiwan. However, the figure indicates that the on-the-job training might play an essential role and/or that the high percentage may be limited at big companies due to the respondents selected from big companies in this study. The literature review indicates that small firms in technical fields have difficulty providing on-the-job training for their employees in the United States (Gray, 1991). Work Experience Table 10 lists the years of work experience of respondents. Three-fourths of the respondents (74%) had been serving more than two years. One-half of the respondents had been serving more than four years. The data reveal that 74% of the respondents were experienced employees, either CNC operators or CNC machine setup operators, based on the definitions of the D.O.T. (1991), noted earlier in Chapter III. 119 Table 10 Number of Years of Work Experience Respondents Year(s) Number Percent Cum. Percent 10.0-- Over 35 16.1 16.1 8.0--9.9 7 3.2 19.3 6.0--7.9 30 13.8 33.1 4.0--5.9 37 17.0 50.1 2.0--3.9 52 23.9 74.0 0.1 — 1.9 57 26.1 100.0 Total 218 100.0 Note. Missing cases = 24. la CNC Machining Table 11 lists how many kinds of parts the respondents machined with CNC machine tools. Forty-six percent of the respondents machined less than 50 kinds of parts with CNC machine tools. Twenty-six percent of the respondents machined more than 150 kinds of parts. Four percent of the respondents were not experienced in the operation of CNC machine tools. That is, they were working in CNC programming. Eleven respondents did not respond to this question. Based upon the classification mentioned in Chapter III, 26% of the respondents were experts in the operation of CNC machine tools because they machined more than 150 kinds of parts and 51% of the respondents were experienced CNC operators due to having machined more than 50 kinds of parts. 120 Table 11 Respondent Experience in CNC Machining Respondents Kinds of Machined Parts Number Percent Cum,. Percent Over 150 61 26.4 26.4 101--150 11 4.8 31.2 51 — 100 45 19.5 50.7 Below 50 105 45.5 96.2 None 9 3.9 100.0 Total 231 100.0 Note. Missing cases = 11. E»p>ri>nc« In CNC Programming Table 12 lists how many kinds of programs the respondents designed to machine a part with CNC machine tools. Forty-three percent of the respondents who finished less than 50 kinds of programs. One-fifth of the respondents (21%) designed more than 150 kinds of CNC programs. Consequently, 25% of the respondents were high-experienced in CNC programming due to having designed more than 100 kinds of programs for CNC machining. There were 16% of the respondents who had no experience in CNC programming. That is, they were CNC operators. Fifteen respondents did not respond to this question. 121 Table 12 Respondent Experience in CNC Programming Respondents Kinds of Programs Number Percent Cum. Percent Over 150 48 21.1 21.1 101--150 8 3.5 24.6 51--100 37 16.3 40.9 Below 50 98 43.2 84.1 None 36 15.9 100.0 Total 227 100. 0 Note. Missing cases = 15. Table 13 lists the classification of the respondents by experience in CNC machining technology. Based on the criteria mentioned in Chapter III, 46% of the respondents finished less than 5 0 kinds of CNC programs, CNC machined parts, or both. Therefore, they were classified into novice CNC programmers (12%), novice CNC operators (3%), or both (30%). Thirty percent of the respondents had finished more than 150 kinds of CNC programs, CNC machined parts, or both. Therefore, they were CNC experts. Twenty percent of the respondents completed between 51 to 100 kinds of CNC programs, CNC machined parts, or both. Therefore, they were classified as experienced CNC programmers (9%), experienced CNC operators (3%), or both (9%). Others (4%) were classified into high-experience CNC machinists due to having 122 Table 13 Classification of the Respondents bv Experience in CNC Machining Technology Programs and Machined oarts Kinds Program. Operator Both Number Percent Over 150 22 (9.4) 9 (3.8) 39 (16.7) 70 29.9 101--150 5 (2.1) 3 (1.3) 2 (.9) 10 4.3 51--100 21 (9.0) 7 (3.0) 20 (8.5) 48 20.5 Below 50 27 (11.5) 8 (3.4) 71 (30.3) 106 45.3 Total 234 100.0 completed between 101 and 150 CNC programs, CNC machined parts, or both. Full-Tim* CMC Machinists Table 14 lists the number of hours a week the respondents spent on CNC machining technology. Three-fifths of the respondents (61%) were working more than 40 hours a week, so they were called full-time CNC machinists in this study. Other respondents were working (a) less than 10 hours (28%), and (b) 10 to 40 hours (11%) in a week. There were 41 respondents who did not respond to this question. The data revealed that 3 5% of the respondents worked less than 30 hours in a week, and were identified as having part-time responsibility in CNC machining in this study. 123 Table 14 Respondent Performance of CNC Machining and Programming Hours/Week Number Percent Cum. Percent Over 5 0 31 15.4 15.4 40--49 92 45.8 61.2 30--39 7 3.5 64.7 20--29 7 4.0 68.7 10 — 19 8 3.5 72.2 Below 10 56 27.9 100.0 Total 201 100.0 Note. Missino cases = 41. Analysis of Current Importance A five-point scale in the questionnaire was designed to measure the current importance of a total of 100 job tasks for the sake of answering research question one: What current tasks are performed by CNC machinists and are important for vocational industrial high school students to learn in Taiwan? The intent of this scale was to identify the level of importance and rank the priority of implementation for current CNC machinists. Mean of F l v Current Duty Areas Table 15 pertains to the means of the five duty areas of CNC machining technology based on the perspective of CNC 124 machinists working for CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan. The means of the ratings of current importance for the total number of tasks included in each of the five duty areas were computed and ranged from a high of 3.741 on CNC machining to a low of 3.437 on planning. All the duty areas were, however, rated at the level of moderate importance. Basically, the mean scores of the five duty areas fell closer to each other, indicating that the perception of CNC machinists was that all duty areas should be involved in a curriculum of CNC machining technology. The ranked order of five duty areas of CNC machining technology on the scale of current importance is CNC machining, setting tooling and machines, operating CNC machines, planning, and programming, respectively. Table 15 Mean of the Five Duty Areas of CNC Machining Technology on the Scale of Current Importance Current Importance Duty Areas Mean Rating Rank I. Planning 3.601 4 II. Programming 3.437 5 Ill. Setting tooling and machines 3.637 2 IV. Operating CNC machines 3 .607 3 V. CNC machining 3 .741 1 125 The results of analysis indicated that the duty area of CNC machining was more important than other duty areas to current CNC machinists. The duty area of programming, on the other hand, was less important than other duty areas. Obviously, the primary implementation of CNC machining technology is the hardware of CNC machining technology before the software of CNC machining technology for CNC machinists. The results are supported by the description of the Occupational Outlook Handbook (1994) which indicates that CNC programming was traditionally a responsibility of engineering technicians. Mean Ratings of _ Tasks on tha Scale of Current Importance Table 16 lists the tasks ranked in descending order of the calculated means on the scale of current importance. The means ranged from a high of 4.156 (standard deviation .85) on the task of checking the dimensions, to a low of 2.565 (standard deviation 1.14) on the task of generating a tape with a tape puncher. There were three tasks (3%) with a mean rating greater than 4.000, 61 tasks (61%) rated with a mean rating greater than 3.500 and less than 4.000, 34 tasks (34%) with a mean rating greater than 3.000 and less than 3.500, two tasks (2%) with a mean rating greater than 2.500 and less than 3.000. No task was rated with a mean lower than 2.500 (see Table 17). 126 Table 16 Tasks of CNC Machining Technology Ranked in Descending Order of Mean Ratings on the Scale of Current Importance Rank N o .______Tasks Mean SD 1 95. Check the dimensions. 4.156 .85 2 9. Select cutting conditions (feed, rate, speed, depth, and coolant.). 4.009 .87 3 76. Determine problem using appropriate troubleshooting techniques. 4.008 .88 4 53. Measure cutter compensation value. 3.983 .92 5 56. Set tool length compensation. 3.966 .88 6 96. Calculate revised compensation. 3.962 .82 7 39. Lubricate CNC machines. 3.953 .90 8 65. Perform the emergency stop. 3.946 .94 9 37. Perform routine inspections and maintenance of CNC machines. 3.936 .87 10 2. Select tools and holding devices. 3.888 .89 11 55. Replace a worn or broken tool during the cutting. 3.886 .89 12 40. Perform the required maintenance and/or adjustment in response to the notification of a problem by the automatic-detection systems. 3.885 .90 13 41. Select workpiece-holding devices. 3.882 .81 14 1. Schedule machining sequences. 3.838 .95 15 14. Identify the capacity of a CNC control system 3.837 .94 16 98. Update cutter compensation value. 3.829 .91 17 97 . Determine required changes of setup devices and setup methods 3.827 .83 16 (continued) N o .______Tasks______Mean 18 86. Modify cuter compensation. 3.826 19 89. Verify the difference of machine executions. 3.822 20 32. Generate CNC programs. 3.816 21 66. Alter cutting conditions (feed, speed, depth, and coolant) through mode select switches. 3.8 05 22 57. Set tool radius offset. 3.803 23 15. Check the instructions of a CNC machine. 3.786 24 77. Set proper parameters of machine controller. 3.785 25 91. Perform visual and sound inspections through single block performance. 3.784 26 30. Set cutting conditions (feed rate, depth, speed, and coolant). 3.784 27 93. Modify/identify optimum cutting conditions (feed rate, cutting speed, and coolant). 3.780 28 82. Verify cutting paths. 3.776 29 5. Determine the required instructions for programming. 3.772 30 80. Verify a program by single block performance. 3.765 31 13. Identify the working area of a CNC machine. 3.764 32 99. Run and evaluate second part. 3.755 33 83. Verify the index of turret. 3.748 34 85. Check/remove the tooling interference. 3.740 35 50. Load tools with automatic tool changer. 3.740 16 (continued) N o .______Tasks______Mean 36 90. Update a program. 3.731 37 70. Activate automatic cycle. 3.702 38 62. Load programs from off-line CAD/CAM programming stations. 3.681 39 3. Determine the procedure and holding devices for setting workpiece. 3.674 40 75. Modify/update messages. 3.672 41 58. Align holding devices and tools with machine axis. 3.667 42 74. Call up operator-related messages on screen. 3.661 43 46. Install cutting tools in holders. 3.649 44 61. Load programs from distributed numerical control (DNC) systems. 3.638 45 42. Mount a workpiece. 3.628 46 38. Clean CNC machines. 3.619 47 45. Check tool holders. 3.617 48 87. Modify cutting depth. 3.610 49 18. Write complex-turning programs involving threading, boring, and, cutting. 3.603 50 64. Turn on and turn off a machine. 3.603 51 10. Schedule restart points and reference points. 3.601 52 35. Download CNC programs to CNC machines or off-line CAD/CAM systems. 3.599 53 43. Position a workpiece in relation to machine axis. 3.593 54 78. Index cutting tools to the zero point. 3.590 129 Table 16 (continued) Rank No .______Tasks Mean SD 55 52. Call up tools. 3.587 .90 56 21. Write a complex-milling program with sub-cycle, copy, mirror, and 3-D contouring. 3.585 .96 57 63. Call up programs from a CNC controller. 3.581 .96 58 73. Change spindle speed. 3.576 .91 59 27. Edit a complex-milling program with sub cycle, copy mirror, and 3-D contouring. 3.576 .96 60 12. Identify the use of CNC machine components. 3.539 .92 61 31. Simulate cutting paths. 3.534 1.04 62 81. Verify a program by automatic cycle. 3.519 .92 63 34. Save CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 3.515 1.01 64 44. Remove a workpiece and holders. 3.506 .87 65 51. Load tools into the turret. 3.496 .91 66 20. Write a canned-cycle program. 3.491 .94 67 84. Verify the procedure of tool changes. 3.481 .98 68 19. Write a milling program for contouring. 3.478 .89 69 48. Insert tools and holders in tool magazine. 3.474 .87 70 94. Check surface finish. 3.467 .83 71 100. Remove chips. 3.466 .94 72 25. Edit a milling program for contouring. 3.457 .91 73 29. Draw a part drafting. 3.444 1.10 74 24. Edit complex-turning programs involving threading, boring, and cutting. 3.443 .90 130 Table 16 (continued) Rank No.______Tasks Mean SD 75 54. Remove/change cutting tools and tool holders. 3.427 .87 76 26. Edit a canned-cycle program. 3.411 .90 77 17. Write a turning program for threading. 3.410 .93 78 72. Perform cycle dwell. 3.403 .86 79 4. Schedule tool change sequences. 3.398 1.00 80 16. Write a turning program for contouring. 3.391 .92 81 59. Key-in programs from keyboard directly. 3.390 .97 82 92. Perform visual and sound inspections through automatic cycle. 3.386 .92 83 49. Load tools into the tool drum. 3.376 .90 84 71. Interrupt automatic cycle. 3.374 .86 85 6. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for absolute Programming. 3.3 55 1.04 86 47. Mount holders and tools on spindle manually. 3.341 .99 87 68. Perform search sequences. 3.33 0 .92 88 22. Edit a turning program for contouring. 3.330 1.00 89 23. Edit a turning program for threading. 3.286 .97 90 28. Open a CAD/CAM system and set the window size. 3.266 1.03 91 67. Adjust table positions from jog mode. 3.245 .95 92 7. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for incremental programming. 3.244 1.03 93 79. Verify a program script by manual data input (MDI). 3.235 1.03 131 Table 16 (continued) Rank No. Tasks Mean SD 94 33. Print out CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 3 .226 1.01 95 69. Adjust tool offset manually. 3 .221 .95 96 88. Check cutting fluid. 3.213 .94 97 11. Calculate run time. 3.160 1.04 98 8. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for polar-coordinate programming. 3.157 1.07 99 60. Load programs from a tape reader. 2.989 1.12 100 36. Generate a tape with a tape puncher. 2.565 1.14 Three tasks with a mean rating greater than 4,000 are: (a) Checking the dimensions, (b) Selecting cutting conditions (feed rate, speed, depth, and coolant), and (c) Determining problem using appropriate troubleshooting techniques. Obviously, on the scale of current importance, 78 tasks were rated as moderately important; 21 tasks were rated as important; only one task (generating a tape with a tape puncher) was rated at the level of probable importance. The greatest consensus on the scale of current importance was a standard deviation of .79 with a mean of 3.78 on the task of modifying/identifying optimum cutting conditions (feed rate, cutting speed, and coolant... etc.) . By contrast, the highest dispersion was a standard deviation of 1.14 with a mean of 2.565 on the task of generating a tape 132 Table 17 Frequency of Tasks bv Mean Ratings Tasks Mean Ratings Frequency Percent Cum. Percent Over 4.000 3 3 3 3.500— 3.999 61 61 64 3 .000--3.499 34 34 98 2 . 500--2.999 2 2 100 Note. N=100. with a tape puncher. The five tasks with the highest mean ratings were dispersed among the four duty areas of CNC machining technology except the duty area of programming. The highest ranked programming task was the 2 0th ranked task. By contrast, the five tasks with the lowest mean ratings were dispersed among the four duty areas of CNC machining technology except the duty area of CNC machining. The lowest ranked CNC machining task was the task ranked 82nd. Consequently, the tasks regarding CNC machining had higher mean values than the tasks related to CNC programming. There were 99 tasks with a mean higher than 3.000 on the five-point scale. That is, 99 tasks were identified as being important or moderately important. Only one task was rated as probably important. 133 Analysis of Futurs laportanca A three-point scale on the questionnaire was designed to measure the future importance of a total of 100 job tasks for the sake of answering research question two: What is the flexibility of the tasks in CNC machining technology to meet the dynamic technology and to develop the curriculum of CNC machining technology at the level of vocational industrial high schools in 3 to 5 years from now in Taiwan? The purpose of this scale was to predict the change by the degree of importance and rank the priority for implementation in 3 to 5 years from now. Mean of Flva Futurs Duty Areas Table 18 shows the means of the five duty areas of CNC machining technology based on the perspective of CNC machinists working for CNC machine tool manufacturers in Taiwan. The means of the ratings of future importance for the total number of job tasks included in each of the five duty areas were computed and ranged from a high of 2.259 (standard deviation .60) on programming to a low of 2.184 (standard deviation .55) on operating CNC machines. The mean scores of the five duty areas of CNC machining technology fell very much closer to each other, although the ranked order of each duty area was changed and different from the rank on the scale of current importance. The ranked order of the five duty areas of CNC machining technology on the scale 134 Table 18 Mean of the Five Duty Areas of CNC Machining Technology on the Scale of Future Importance Future Importance Duty Areas Mean Rating Rank I. Planning 2.223 3 II. Programming 2.259 1 III. Setting tooling and machines 2.216 4 IV. Operating CNC machines 2.184 5 V. CNC machining 2.245 2 Note. N = 100. of future importance was CNC programming, CNC machining, planning, setting tooling and machines, and operating CNC machines, respectively. The results indicated that the CNC machinists in the field of CNC machine tool manufacture believe all of the duty areas will be stabilizing in importance in 3 to 5 years. The duty area of programming, on the other hand, shifted from the last ranked position on the scale of current importance to the first ranked position on the scale of future importance in 3 to 5 years from now. The extreme change in the ranked order of the duty area of programming appears to be the result of the impact of advanced technology, which is changing the nature of CNC machining technology. The tasks pertaining to CNC software 135 technology will be more important than these tasks related to the CNC hardware technology in the future. CNC programming and CNC machining will be the primary competency areas for a qualified CNC machinist. These results are supported by others. For example, Krar (19 9) noted that the introduction of CNC programming software shifted the task of CNC programmers to machinists. Further, Goldenberg and Mishkovsky (1983) indicated that there is a need for students to have a thorough understanding of planning, programming, and operating CNC machines. Mean Ratings of Tasks on the Scale of Future Importance Table 19 lists the tasks ranked in descending order of the calculated means on the three-point scale of future importance. The means ranged from a high of 2.610 (standard deviation .55) on the task of loading programs from off-line CAD/CAM programming systems, to a low of 1.47 5 (standard deviation .64) on the task of generating a tape with a tape puncher. According to the mean values on the scale of future importance, four tasks (4%) had a mean rating greater than 2.500; 89 tasks (89%) had a mean rating greater than 2.000 and less than 2.500; 6 tasks (6%) had a mean rating greater than 1.600 and less than 2.000, and one task had a mean rating of 1.475 (see Table 20). 136 Table 19 Tasks of CNC Machining Technology Ranked in Descending Order of Mean Ratings on the Scale of Future Importance Rank N o .______Tasks Mean SD 1 62. Load programs from off-line CAD/CAM programming stations. 2.610 .55 2 76. Determine problem using appropriate troubleshooting techniques. 2.596 .53 3 35. Download CNC programs to CNC machines or off-line CAD/CAM systems. 2.542 .55 4 61. Load programs from distributed numerical control (DNC) system. 2.524 .57 5 32. Generate CNC programs. 2.489 .56 6 40. Perform the required maintenance and/or adjustment in response to the notification of a problem by the automatic-detection systems. 2.467 .55 7 30. Set cutting conditions (feed rate, depth, speed, and coolant). 2.458 .55 8 77. Set proper parameters of machine controller. 2.430 .56 9 50. Load tools with automatic tool changer. 2.429 .58 10 14. Identify the capacity of a CNC control system. 2.426 .58 11 27. Edit a complex-milling program with sub cycle, copy mirror, and 3-D contouring. 2.425 .59 12 93. Modify/identify optimum cutting conditions (feed rate, cutting speed, and coolant... etc.). 2.400 .57 13 74. Call up operator-related messages on screen. 2.383 .55 14 95. Check the dimensions. 2.3 81 .54 137 Table 19 (continued) Rank No.______Tasks Mean SD 15 41. Select workpiece-holding devices. 2.376 .54 16 34. Save CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 2.372 .56 17 29. Draw a part drafting. 2.363 .61 18 75. Modify/update messages. 2.362 .57 19 53. Measure cutter compensation value. 2.361 .60 20 39. Lubricate CNC machines. 2.352 .53 21 2. Select tools and holding devices. 2.347 .56 22 21. Write a complex-milling program with sub-cycle, copy, mirror, and 3-D contouring. 2.346 .64 23 28. Open a CAD/CAM system and set the window size. 2.340 .62 24 37. Perform routine inspections and maintenance of CNC machines. 2.33 6 .51 25 15. Check the instructions of a CNC machine. 2.336 .59 26 31. Simulate cutting paths. 2.336 .62 27 63. Call up programs from a CNC controller. 2.333 .56 28 23. Edit a turning program for threading, 2.333 .62 29 9. Select cutting conditions (feed rate, speed, depth, and coolant). 2.332 .62 30 22. Edit a turning program for contouring. 2.323 .62 31 24. Edit complex-turning programs involving threading, boring, and cutting. 2.321 .58 Activate automatic cycle. 2.310 .53 32 70. Verify the difference of machine 33 89. executions. 2.304 .63 34 96. Calculate revised compensation. 2.296 .53 138 Table 19 (continued) Rank No. ______Tasks Mean SD 35 12. Identify the use of CNC machine components. 2.295 .59 36 1 . Schedule machining sequences. 2.293 .55 37 90. Update a program. 2.284 . 58 38 26. Edit a canned-cycle program 2.268 . 60 39 13. Identify the working area of a CNC machine. 2.263 . 53 40 56. Set tool length compensation. 2.262 . 55 41 99. Run and evaluate second part. 2.258 . 56 42 97. Determine required changes of setup devices and setup methods. 2.257 .52 43 98. Update cutter compensation value. 2.255 . 57 44 66. Alter cutting conditions (feed, speed, depth, and coolant) through mode select switches. 2.243 .55 45 3. Determine the procedure and holding devices for setting workpiece. 2.243 .57 46 57. Set tool radius offset. 2.242 .57 47 45. Check tool holders. 2.236 .48 48 55. Replace a wore or broken tool during the cutting. 2.236 .61 49 82. Verify cutting paths. 2.234 .52 50 25. Edit a milling program for contouring. 2.233 .57 51 94. Check surface finish. 2,227 .53 52 11. Calculate run time. 2.225 .66 53 5. Determine the required instructions for programming. 2.215 .62 19 (continued) N o .______Tasks______ 18. Write complex-turning programs involving threading, boring, and cutting. 55 85. Check/remove the tooling interference. 56 38. Clean CNC machines. 57 73. Change spindle speed. 58 33. Print out CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 59 58. Align holding devices and tools with machine axis. 60 42. Mount a workpiece. 61 52. Call up tools. 62 65. Perform the emergency stop. 63 86. Modify cuter compensation. 64 43. Position a workpiece in relation to machine axis. 65 80. Verify a program by single block performance. 66 44. Remove a workpiece and holders. 67 83. Verify the index of turret. 68 10. Schedule restart points and reference points. 69 20. Write a canned-cycle program. 70 46. Install cutting tools in holders. 71 91. Perform visual and sound inspections through single block performance. 72 87. Modify cutting depth. 73 72. Perform cycle dwell. 140 Table 19 (continued) Rank N o .______Tasks Mean SD 74 51. Load tools into the turret. 2.140 .54 75 19. Write a milling program for contouring. 2.138 .59 76 78. Index cutting tools to the zero point. 2.137 .56 77 81. Verify a program by automatic cycle. 2.129 .56 78 92. Perform visual and sound inspections through automatic cycle. 2.120 .59 79 64. Turn on and turn off a machine. 2.118 .50 80 100. Remove chips. 2.115 .55 81 48. Insert tools and holders in tool magazine. 2.110 .50 82 4. Schedule tool change sequences. 2.107 .50 83 54. Remove/change cutting tools and tool holders. 2.107 .52 84 84. Verify the procedure of tool changes. 2.099 .50 85 71. Interrupt automatic cycle. 2.074 .49 86 16. Write a turning program for contouring. 2.063 .60 87 8. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for polar-coordinate programming. 2.062 .61 88 49. Load tools into the tool drum. 2.055 .46 89 17. Write a turning program for threading. 2.044 ,59 90 88. Check cutting fluid. 2.031 .54 91 7. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for incremental programming. 2.026 .63 92 68. Perform search sequences. 2.009 .50 141 Table 19 (continued) Rank No. Tasks Mean SD 93 6. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for absolute Programming. 2.064 .60 94 67. Adjust table positions from jog mode. 1.974 .52 95 79. Verify a program script by manual data input (MDI). 1.947 .66 96 47. Mount holders and tools on spindle manually. 1.921 .58 97 69. Adjust tool offset manually. 1.899 .58 98 59. Key-in programs from keyboard directly. 1.876 .66 99 60. Load programs from a tape reader 1.601 .69 100 36. Generate a tape with a tape puncher. 1.475 .64 The greatest consensus on the scale of future importance was a standard deviation of .46 with means of 2.062 and 2.184 on the task of calling up tools and the task of loading tools into the tool drum. By contrast, the highest dispersion was a standard deviation of .69 with a mean of 1.601 on the task of Loading programs from a tape reader. According to the scale of future importance, there were 26 tasks (26%) rated at the level of increasing importance with a mean value beyond 2.334, 72 tasks rated at the level of stabilizing importance with a mean value between 1.667 and 2.333, and two tasks rated at the level of reduced importance in 3 to 5 years from now. 142 Table 20 Frequency of Tasks bv Mean Ratings Tasks Mean Ratings Frequency Percent Cum.Percent Over 2.500 4 4 4 2.000--1.499 89 89 93 1.500 — 1.999 6 6 99 1.000 — 1.499 1 1 100 Note. N=100. Four tasks with mean ratings greater than 2.500 were (a) Loading programs from off-line CAD/CAM programming stations, (b) Determining problem using appropriate troubleshooting techniques,(c) Downloading CNC programs to CNC machines or off-line CAD/CAM systems, and (d) Loading programs from distributed numerical control (DNC) systems. The task ranked last in future importance was the task of generating a tape with a tape puncher. Consequently, CAD/CAM systems, troubleshooting, and DNC systems will be the focus of CNC machining technology in the future. There are 98 task identified between the level of increasing importance and stabilizing importance in 3 to 5 years from now. 143 Extra Tasks or F t ™ T"1«ndatlons Respondents were requested to add any extra tasks of CNC machining technology omitted that they believed were important in the performance of CNC machinists. However, no additional tasks or recommendations were suggested by the respondents. Discussion of Task Status The discussion of task status is based on the changed rank of each task from the scale of current importance to the scale of future importance in their functional duty area. The duty area of planning included 2 duties with 15 tasks. Table 21 lists the duty of preparing required data for programming and the changed rank of each task. On the scale of current importance, there were 3 tasks ranked in the top 20 tasks and focused on selecting cutting condition, selecting tools and holding devices, and scheduling machining sequences. On the scale of future importance, however, there was no task ranked in the top 20 tasks. Eight out of 11 tasks shifted into a lower ranked order. Although 3 tasks shifted into a higher ranked order, 2 out of the 3 tasks were ranked the bottom 20 tasks in both current and future importance. The data revealed that the duty of preparing required data for CNC machining technology is reducing in importance. The tasks comprising this duty are 144 Table 21 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Preparing Required Data for Programming Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 1 .Schedule machining sequences. 15 36 L 2. Select tools and holding devices. 10 21 L 3 . Determine the procedure and holding devices for setting workpiece. 39 45 L 4. Schedule tool change sequences. 79 82 L 5. Determine the required instructions for programming. 29 53 L 6. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for absolute Programming. 85 93 L 7. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for incremental programming. 92 91 H 8. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for polar-coordinate programming. 98 87 H 9. Select cutting conditions (feed rate, speed, depth, and coolant). 2 29 L 10 . Schedule restart points and reference points. 51 68 L 11 . Calculate run time. 97 52 H Note. H = shifted into a higher rank: L = shifted into a lower rank. focused on the manufacturing process and selecting technical data. Krar (1990), and Martin and Beach (1992) also indicate that machine engineers need a knowledge of machining 145 fundamentals to facilitate their work. With respect to this view, a knowledge of machining fundamentals is essential and involves CNC machinists' responsibility. Table 22 lists the duty of selecting a CNC machine tool and the changed rank of each task. Two out of 4 tasks shifted into a higher order in rank. Identifying the capacity of a CNC control system and identifying the use or function of CNC machine components are increasing in importance. The task of identifying the capacity of a CNC control system was ranked in the top 20 tasks in both ranks. Consequently, the software function in a CNC machine is more Table 22 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Selecting a CNC Machine Tool Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 12. Identify the use of CNC machine components. 60 35 H 13. Identify the working duty area of a CNC machine. 31 39 L 14. Identify the capacity of a CNC control system. 15 10 H 15. Check the instructions of a CNC machine. 23 25 L Note. H = shifted into a higher rank; L = shifted into a lower rank. 146 important than the hardware function in current and future decision-making in planning. The ability to understand the programming manual of a CNC machine is very important in the duty of selecting a CNC machine. Planning was traditionally a high-order performance and was the responsibility of engineering technicians. However, the respondents rated planning tasks highly important and the responsibility of CNC machinists includes the duty area of planning. The duty area of programming included 3 duties with 21 tasks. Table 23 lists the duty of writing a manual program in word address format and the changed rank of each task in the duty. On the scale of current importance, all of the six tasks were ranked in either a middle or lower order although different levels of required knowledge and skills exist among these tasks. On the other hand, 2 tasks were ranked among the bottom 20 tasks on the scale of future importance. Only 1 out of 6 tasks shifted into a higher order in rank. This task requires the highest level of knowledge and skills to perform. Thus, the respondents indicated that the ability of writing a manual program in word address format should be reached at the level of a complex-milling program in the future. Others shifted into a lower order in rank are becoming fundamental tasks. That is, the basic competency of 147 Table 23 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Writing a Manual Program in Word Address Format Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 16. Write a turning program for contouring. 80 86 L 17. Write a turning program for threading. 77 89 L 18. Write complex-turning programs involving threading, boring, and cutting. 49 54 L 19. Write a milling program for contouring. 68 75 L 20. Write a canned-cycle program. 66 69 L 21. Write a complex-milling program with sub-cycle, copy, mirror, and 3-D contouring. 56 22 H Note. H = shifted into a higher rank; L = shifted into a lower rank. writing a program in word address format is not enough to match the needs of industry. Table 24 lists the duty of editing a program with a conversational program control unit. All six tasks making up this duty shifted into a higher ranked order in future importance. Furthermore, although there was only one task ranked in the top 20 tasks on the scale of future importance, the other tasks all shifted into a higher order of future importance. The data revealed that the duty of editing a program with a conversational program control unit is 148 Table 24 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Editing a Program With a Conversational Program Control Unit Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 22. Edit a turning program for contouring. 88 30 H 23 . Edit a turning program for threading. 89 28 H 24. Edit complex-turning programs involving threading, boring, and cutting. 74 31 H 25. Edit a milling program for contouring. 72 50 H 26 . Edit a canned-cycle program. 76 38 H 27. Edit a complex-milling program with sub cycle, copy mirror, and 3-D contouring. 59 11 H Note. H = shifted into a higher rank; L = shifted into a lower rank. shifting to greater future importance. The level of editing a program is required to reach the highest level of the skill of complex-milling programs. Table 25 lists the duty of generating a program with CAD/CAM systems and the changed rank of each task. All the tasks shifted into a higher order in rank except the task of generating a tape with a tape puncher. On the scale of current importance, there was only one task ranked in the top 20 tasks. However, there were four tasks ranked in the top 20 tasks on the scale of future importance. The task of generating a tape with a tape 149 Table 25 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Generating a Program with CAD/CAM Systems Tasks Curr, Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 28. Open a CAD/CAM system and set the window size. 90 23 H 29. Draw a part drafting. 73 17 H 30. Set cutting conditions (feed rate, depth, speed, and coolant). 26 7 H 31. Simulate cutting paths. 61 26 H 32 . Generate CNC programs. 20 5 H 33 . Print out CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 94 58 H 34. Save CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 63 16 H 35. Download CNC programs to CNC machines or off-line CAD/CAM systems. 52 3 H 36. Generate a tape with a tape puncher. 100 100 S Note. H = shifted into a higher rank; S - stabilized the order in both ranks. puncher was ranked last in both current and future importance. The data revealed that CAD/CAM systems are shifting to replace the traditional method of generating a CNC program. The functions of CAD/CAM are focused on setting cutting conditions, generating CNC programs, and downloading CNC programs to CNC machine tools. The task of generating a tape with a tape puncher is no longer relevant for CNC machining. 150 Consequently, the data strongly indicate that writing a manual program will be replaced by either CAD/CAM systems or a conversational program control unit. The cutting-edge technology will function in CNC programming. The results emphasize the effect of advanced technology, which shifts the nature of CNC programming. The duty area of setting tooling and machines included 4 duties with 27 tasks. Table 26 lists the duty of performing preventive maintenance and the changed rank of each task. On the scale of current importance there were 3 tasks ranked in the top 20 tasks, and also 2 tasks ranked in the top 20 tasks on the scale of future importance. However, 3 out of 4 tasks shifted into a lower order in rank and only 1 task shifted into a higher order in rank. The data revealed that the CNC machinist role of performing preventive maintenance is shifting from an active to a passive role due to the benefit of automatic-detection systems on CNC machines. Currently, CNC machinists need to do routine inspections, maintenance, lubrication, and clear CNC machines. Automatic-detection systems are designed on cutting-edge CNC machine tools for doing a lot of self-check functions related to mechanical systems, control systems, and lubricant systems. If there is any malfunction, automatic- detection systems will inform operators by an alarm and the problem should be solved before the machine tool is started. 151 Table 26 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Performing Preventive Maintenance Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 37. Perform routine inspections and maintenance of CNC machines. 9 24 L 38 .Clean CNC machines. 46 56 L 39 . Lubricate CNC machines. 7 20 L 40, Perform the required maintenance and/or adjustment in response to the notification of a problem by the automatic-detection systems. 12 6 H Note. H = shifted into a higher rank; L = shifted into a lower rank. Table 27 lists the duty of setting up a workpiece and the changed importance of each task. All of the tasks shifted to lower future importance. The duty of setting up a workpiece is focused on the task of selecting workpiece- holding devices. This task is more cognitive than manipulative. On a CNC machine or in an automatic manufacturing factory, 3 out of the 4 tasks can be performed by robots or other alternative automatic devices but not the task of selecting workpiece-holding devises. The data revealed that the duty of setting up a workpiece obviously focuses on decision-making performance, but not on the manipulation performance. 152 Table 27 Changed Rank o f the Tasks in the Duty of Setting u p a Workpiece Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 41. Select workpiece-holding devices. 13 15 L 42. Mount a workpiece. 45 60 L 43 . Position a workpiece in relation to machine axis. 53 64 L 44. Remove a workpiece and holders. 64 66 L Note. L = shifted into a lower rank. Table 28 lists the duty of setting up tools and holding devices and the changed rank of each task. Only one out of 14 tasks shifted to a higher level of importance in the future and one task did not change order at all. Other tasks shifted into lower levels of future importance. On the scale of current importance, there were 3 tasks ranked in the top 20 tasks. The current duty of setting up tools and holding devices is focused on the tasks of cutter compensation value and replacing a worn or broken tool. On the scale of future importance, however, there were 2 tasks ranked in the top 20 tasks and focused on the tasks of both loading tools with an automatic tool changer and measuring cutter compensation value. The results also indicated that the tasks related to setting up tools and holding devices that shifted into lower levels of future importance were 153 Table 28 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Setting u p Tools and Holding Devices Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta- ______Rank Rank tus 45. Check tool holders. 47 47 S 46. Install cutting tools in holders. 43 70 L 47. Mount holders and tools on spindle manually. 86 96 L 48. Insert tools and holders in tool magazine. 69 81 L 49. Load tools into the tool drum. 83 88 L 50. Load tools with automatic tool changer. 35 9 H 51. Load tools into the turret. 65 74 L 52. Call up tools. 55 61 L 53 . Measure cutter compensation. 4 19 L 54. Remove/change cutting tools and tool holders. 75 83 L 55. Replace a worn or broken tool during the cutting. 11 48 L 56. Set tool length compensation. 5 40 L 57. Set tool radius offset. 22 46 L 58. Align holding devices and tools with machine axis. 41 59 L Note. H = shifted into a higher rank; L = shifted into a lower rank; and S = stabilized; same order in both ranks. 154 concerned more with manipulation than with automatic operations. Table 29 lists the duty of loading programs and the changed rank of each task in the duty. Three out of 5 tasks shifted to higher levels of importance in the future. On the scale of future importance, there were 2 tasks ranked in the top 20 tasks, although there was no task ranked in the top 20 tasks on the scale of current importance. By contrast, the task of loading programs from a tape reader was ranked second to last in importance on both current and future importance scales. The data revealed that loading programs from a tape reader is being replaced by DNC and CAD/CAM systems and is no longer relevant for CNC machining technology. Consequently, determining hands-on performance to match the requirement of automatic control systems is the primary competency in the duty area of setting tooling and machines. The results revealed that the high-order tasks tend to concern more trouble-solving than manipulation skills. The results are supported by the literature review. Kranzberg (1991) indicates that smart machines require smart workers for their use. In the future, many jobs will need more mental than motor skills (Glover & Marshall, 1993; Johnson, 1992; Marshall & Tucker, 1992; Murphy, 1985). 155 Table 29 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Loading Programs Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 59. Key-in programs from keyboard directly. 81 98 L 60. Load programs from a tape reader. 99 99 S 61. Load programs from distributed numerical control (DNC) systems. 44 4 H 62 . Load programs from off-line CAD/CAM programming stations. 38 1 H 63 . Call up programs from a CNC controller. 57 27 H Note. H = shifted into a higher rank; L = shifted into a lower rank; S = stabilized; same order in both ranks. The duty area of operating CNC machines included 3 duties with 27 tasks. Table 3 0 lists the duty of setting the control panel for manual data input and the changed rank of each task. Seven out of 10 tasks shifted to a lower order level of future importance. Three out of 10 tasks shifted to a higher level of future importance. Four tasks were ranked among the bottom 20 tasks on both current and future importance. The data revealed that the role of manual data input has shifted from required operations to alternative operations. 156 Table 30 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Setting a Control Panel for Manual Data Input Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 64. Turn on and turn off a machine. 50 79 L 65. Perform the emergency stop. 8 62 L 66. Alter cutting conditions (feed, speed, depth, and coolant) through modei select switches. 21 44 L 67. Adjust table positions from jog mode. 91 94 L 68. Perform search sequences. 87 92 L 69. Adjust tool offset manually. 95 97 L 70. Activate automatic cycle. 37 32 H 71. Interrupt automatic cycle. 84 85 L 72. Perform cycle dwell. 78 73 H 73 . Change spindle speed. 58 57 H Note. H = shifted into a higher rank; L= shifted into a lower rank. Table 31 lists the duty of performing required operations in response to the message of the control monitor and the changed rank of each task. All of the tasks shifted to a higher ranked order and ranked in the top 2 0 tasks in future importance. The data revealed that troubleshooting in the duty of performing required operations in response to a message of the control monitor is increasing in importance for future CNC machinists. 157 Table 31 Chanaed Rank. of .the Tasks in the Dutv of Performina Reauired Operations in Response to Message of the Control Monitor Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 74. Call up operator-related messages on screen. 42 13 H 75 . Mod i fy/update mes sages. 40 18 H 76. Determine problem using appropriate troubleshooting techniques. 3 2 H 77. Set proper parameters of machine controller. 24 8 H Note. H = shifted into a higher rank. Table 32 lists the duty of verifying a program by dry- run machine and the changed rank of each task. Twelve out of 13 tasks shifted to a lower ranked order in future importance and one shifted to a higher ranked order in future importance. On the scale of current importance, 2 tasks ranked among the top 20 tasks. On the scale of future importance, however, there was no task ranked that high. The data revealed that dry-run machine to verify a program will be reduced in importance in the future. Consequently, performing required operations in response to messages of the control monitor is the primary duty of operating CNC 158 Table 32 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Verifying a Program bv Drv-Run Machine Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 78. Index cutting tools to the zero point. 54 76 L 79. Verify a program script by manual data input The duty area of CNC machining included 3 duties with 10 tasks. Table 33 lists the duty of Machining the first piece to verify the accuracy of programs and setup, and the changed rank of each task. Two out of 3 tasks shifted to a higher ranked order in future importance. The other task shifted to a lower order of future importance. The data indicated that the duty of machining the first piece to versify the accuracy of the program and setup is focused on the task of modifying/identifying optimum cutting conditions. An optimum cutting condition (parameter) is an essential factor regarding the quality of machined Table 33 Chanaed Rank of the Tasks in the Dutv of Machinincr _the First Piece to Verifv the Accuracv of Proarams and SetuD Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta- Rank Rank tus 91. Perform visual and sound inspections through single block performance. 25 71 L 92. Perform visual and sound inspections through automatic cycle. 82 78 H 93. Modify/identify optimum cutting conditions (feed rate, cutting speed, and coolant...etc.). 27 12 H Note. H = shifted into a hiaher rank: L = shifted into a lower rank. 160 procedures. The task of modifying/identifying optimum cutting condition is extremely different between CNC machinists and traditional machinists. Basically, traditional machinists perform and control operations by directly touching machines. The activity of modifying performances is reflected directly during the performance procedure by spontaneity which results from personal sensitivity and performance experiences. They know whether a machine is running right by listening to how it sounds and visualizing how it performs. On the other hand, CNC machinists control CNC machine by numbers. The activity of modifying performance is based upon past machining procedures. Thus, they are less involved with touching and working on a machine. They depend on observations of what a machine is doing, and based on the past procedures, determine the numbers for controlling the machining procedure. Furthermore, Martin and Beach (1992) noted that "the process of modifying past machining procedures to produce a new part is potentially quite different for CNC and traditional machinists." (p. 16). Traditional machinists depended on personal memory, notes, and experience to determine and modify the cutting conditions. CNC machinists have access to a modifiable program which specifies exact cutting conditions and operations. 161 Table 34 lists the duty of inspecting the first part and the changed rank of each task. Three out of 4 tasks shifted to a lower ranked order of future importance. On the scale of current importance, there were 3 tasks ranked in the top 20 tasks. The task of checking dimensions was ranked first in current importance. In future importance, however, the task of checking dimensions shifted to the rank of 14th in importance. The data revealed that this duty of Inspecting the first part is decreasing in importance. The respondents may be aware that in the future the function of automatic measuring will be employed to measure the dimensions of parts and tools. Table 34 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Dutv_. of Inspecting the First Part Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta- ______RankRank tus 94. Check surface finish. 70 51 H 95. Check the dimensions. 1 14 L 96. Calculate revised compensation. 6 34 L 97. Determine required changes of setup devices and setup methods. 17 42 L Note. H = shifted into a higher rank; L = shifted into a lower rank. 162 Table 35 Changed Rank of the Tasks in the Duty of Machining Parts to Blueprint/Part Tolerance Tasks Curr. Futu. Sta Rank Rank tus 98. Update cutter compensation value. 16 43 L 99. Run and evaluate second part. 32 41 L 100 . Remove chips. 71 80 L Note. L = shifted into a lower rank. Table 35 lists the duty of machining parts to blueprint/part tolerance and the changed rank of each task. All the tasks shifted to a lower ranked order of future importance. The data also indicated that the duty of machining parts to blueprint/part tolerance is decreasing in future importance. r v In the duty area of planning, selecting a proper CNC machine tool is more important than preparing required data for programming. The respondents believed cutting-edge CNC machining tools and program devices will reduce the need for manually preparing data for programming. In the duty area of programming, the duty of writing a manual program in word address format is shifting to the use of conversational program control units or CAD/CAM systems. 163 Programming is increasing in importance for CNC machinists, although it is not the focus of current responsibilities for CNC machinists. In the duty area of setting tooling and machines, generally, a number of duties are stabilizing their importance in the future. Furthermore, the tasks which accompany automatic control are specifically increasing in importance in the future. In the duty area of operating machines, a number of duties are performed by automation, so the tasks accompanying manual performance are declining in importance currently and in the future. The tasks are focused on the ability of communication and troubleshooting for the control systems, such as loading programs from distributed numerical control systems, CAD/CAM systems, and CNC controllers; activating automatic cycle performance, and all four tasks regarding performing required operations in response to messages of the control monitor (see Table 31). In the duty area of CNC machining, the duties cannot be distinguished from each other in importance. However, the tasks are focused on modifying/identifying optimum cutting conditions, checking dimensions, and calculating revised compensation for cutting a closely precision part. 164 Summary of tha Findings The typical respondent (69%) graduated from vocational industrial high schools, but 65% depended on training programs to learn CNC machining technology. Only 17% of the respondents learned CNC machining technology from vocational industrial high schools. Ten percent of the respondents learned CNC machining technology from two-year college. Consequently, training is the typical strategy for learning CNC machining technology. Thus, vocational industrial high schools should provide CNC machining technology for students. With respect to this point, on-the-job training is the primary delivery strategy for learning CNC machining. A number of the respondents (65%) learned CNC machining technology from job training programs. Four-fifths of the respondents (79%) attended on-the-job training in their companies. Four-fifths of the respondents possessed experience in both programming and CNC machine operation. Only 4% of the respondents were programmers and 16% were CNC machine operators. Fifty-five percent of the respondents were experienced in either operating CNC machine tools or CNC programming. Each of these respondents machined or programmed more than 50 different kinds of parts. Based on the scale of current importance, the results of the analysis indicated that the duty area of CNC machining 165 was more important than other duty areas to current CNC machinists. The duty area of programming, on the other hand, is currently less important than other duty areas. The current primary implementation of CNC machining technology is through the tasks of CNC machining. CNC programming was traditionally a responsibility of engineering technicians (Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1994). Thus, the current curriculum for CNC machining technology should focus first on preparing students to become CNC machine operators and second on doing CNC programming. On the scale of current importance, 78 tasks were rated at the level of moderate importance, 21 tasks were rated as important and only one task (generating a tape with a tape puncher) was rated at the lowest level of probably important. Consequently, there were 99 tasks identified between the level of important and moderately important. Only one task belonged to the level of probably important. The results of the analysis revealed that the duty area of CNC programming has changed in rank order from last on the scale of current importance to first on the scale of future importance. It indicates the impact of advanced technology, which changed the nature of CNC machining technology. The tasks pertaining to CNC software technology will be more important than those tasks related to the CNC hardware technology in the future. CNC programming and CNC machining will be the primary competency for a qualified CNC machinist 166 in the future. The introduction of CNC programming software will shift CNC programming to machinists (Krar, 1990). Consequently, there is a need for students to have a thorough understanding of planning, programming, and operating CNC machines (Goldenberg & Mishkovsky, 1983). According to the scale of future importance, there were 26 tasks rated at the level of increasing importance, 72 tasks rated at the level of stabilizing importance, and two tasks rated at the level of reduced importance in 3 to 5 years from now. Consequently, there are 98 tasks identified between the level of increasing importance and stabilizing importance in upcoming 3 to 5 years. CAD/CAM systems, trouble-shooting, and DNC systems will be among the foci of CNC machining technology in the future. The Results of Analysis The results revealed that the impact of advanced technology has shifted the nature of CNC machining technology. A number of tasks related to cutting-edge technology and automation will become more important in 3 to 5 years from now in Taiwan. The responsibility of CNC machinists currently is focused on CNC machining. However, the responsibility of CNC programming will become more important in 3 to 5 years from now. CAD/CAM stations and systems will especially be among the foci of CNC machining technology in the future. 167 Basically, 99 out of 100 job tasks were identified as either important or moderately important on the scale of current importance. On the other hand, 98 out of 100 tasks were identified as either stabilizing or increasing in importance in 3 to 5 years from now. CAD/CAM systems, troubleshooting, and DNC systems will be among the foci of CNC machining technology in the future. Both the task of generating a tape with a tape puncher and the task of loading programs from a tape reader were rated the last two in order of current and future importance and should be taken out of the list of tasks of CNC machining technology. Consequently, the researcher recommends that all 98 tasks be proposed as the tasks of CNC machining technology for developing a curriculum of vocational industrial high schools as well as training institutes. Table 36 lists a total of 98 proposed tasks, indicating the priority of each task for curriculum implementation. The priority of each task depends on both its rank order and mean ratings. When the mean rating of a task was higher than the grand mean, the task was identified as a core task essential for inclusion in the curriculum. On the other hand, tasks with mean ratings lower than the grand mean were identified as supporting task which should, if possible, be included in the curriculum. On the scale of current importance, the task means rated higher than the grand mean (3.592) are recommended as current core tasks, or high priority tasks for current curriculum 168 implementation. There were 53 tasks which were listed as current core tasks. On the other hand, there were 45 tasks with means lower than the grand mean value which were grouped into current supporting tasks. On the scale of future importance, the tasks with mean ratings higher than the grand mean (2.221) are recommended as future core tasks, or high priority tasks for curriculum implementation in 3 to 5 years from now. There were 52 tasks listed as future core tasks and 46 tasks designed as future supporting tasks because these tasks had mean ratings higher than the rating for the level of stabilizing importance. 169 Table 3 6 Core Tasks and Supporting Tasks of CNC Machining Technology Status _____ Tasks______Current Future I. Planning A. Prepare required data for programming. 1. Select cutting conditions {feed rate, speed, depth, and coolant). * * 2. Select tools and holding devices. * * 3. Schedule machining sequences. * * 4. Determine the required instructions for programming. * @ 5. Determine the procedure and holding devices for setting workpieces. * * 6. Schedule restart points and reference points. * @ 7. Schedule tool change sequences. @ @ 8. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for absolute Programming. @ @ 9. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for incremental programming. @ @ 10. Calculate run time. @ * 11. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for polar-coordinate programming. @ @ B. Select a CNC machine tool. 1. Identify the capacity of a CNC control system. * * Note. * = core tasks; @ = supporting tasks. (table continues) 170 Table 3 6 (continued) ____ Status____ Tasks Current Future 2. Check the instructions of a CNC machine. * 3. Identify the working area of a CNC machine. * 4. Identify the use of CNC machine components. @ II Programming A. Write a manual program in word address format. 1. Write complex-turning programs involving threading, boring, and cutting. * @ 2. Write a complex-milling program with sub-cycle, copy, mirror, and 3-D contouring. @ * 3. Write a canned-cycle program. @ @ 4. Write a milling program for contouring. @ @ 5. Write a turning program for threading. @ @ 6. Write a turning program for contouring. @ @ B. Edit a program with a conversational program control unit. 1. Edit a complex-milling program with sub cycle, copy mirror, and 3-D contouring. @ * 2. Edit a milling program for contouring. @ * 3. Edit complex-turning programs involving threading, boring, and cutting. @ * 4. Edit a canned-cycle program. @ * 5. Edit a turning program for contouring. @ * 6. Edit a cutting program for threading. @ * 171 Table 36 (continued) Status____ Tasks Current Future Generate a program with CAD/CAM systems. 1. Generate CNC programs. 2. Set cutting conditions (feed rate, depth, speed, and coolant). 3. Download CNC programs to CNC machines or off-line CAD/CAM systems. 4. Simulate cutting paths. 5. Save CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 6. Draw a part drafting. @ 7. Open a CAD/CAM system and set the window size. 8. Print out CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. @ 9. Generate a tape with a tape puncher. III. Setting Tooling and Machines A. Perform preventive maintenance. 1. Lubricate CNC machines. 2. Perform routine inspections and maintenance of CNC machines. 3. Perform the required maintenance and/or adjustment in response to the notification of a problem by the automatic-detection systems. 4. Clean CNC machines. B. Set up a workpiece. 1. Select workpiece-holding devices. 172 Table 36 (continued) _____Status______Tasks______Current Future 2. Mount a workpiece. * @ 3. Position a workpiece in relation to machine axis. * @ 4. Remove a workpiece and holders. @ @ C. Set up tools and holding devices. 1. Measure cutter compensation value. * * 2. Set tool length compensation. * * 3. Replace a worn or broken tool during the cutting. * * 4. Set tool radius offset. * * 5. Load tools with automatic tool changer. * * 6. Align holding devices and tools with machine axis. * @ 7. Install cutting tools in holders. * @ 8. Check tool holders. * * 9. Call up tools. @ @ 10. Load tools into the turret. @ @ 11. Insert tools and holders in tool magazine. @ @ 12. Remove/change cutting tools and tool holders. @ @ 13. Load tools into the tool drum. @ @ 14. Mount holders and tools on spindle manually. @ @ D . Load programs. 1. Load programs from off-line CAD/CAM programming stations. * * 173 Table 36 (continued) ____ Status______Tasks______Current Future 2. Load programs from distributed numerical control (DNC) systems. * * 3. Call up programs from a CNC controller. @ * 4. Key in programs from keyboard directly. @ @ 5. Load programs from a tape reader. @ @ IV. Operating CNC Machines A. Set control panels for manual data input. 1. Perform the emergency stop. * @ 2. Alter cutting conditions (feed, speed, depth, and coolant) through mode select switches. * * 3. Activate automatic cycle. * * 4. Turn on and turn off a machine. * @ 5. Change spindle speed. @ @ 6. Perform cycle dwell. @ @ 7. Interrupt automatic cycle. @ @ 8. Perform search sequences. @ @ 9. Adjust table positions fromjog mode. @ @ 10. Adjust tool offset manually. @ @ B. Perform required operations in response to messages of the control monitor. 1. Determine problem using appropriate troubleshooting techniques. * * 2. Set proper parameters of machine controller. * * 174 Table 36 {continued) Status____ Tasks Current Future 3. Modify/update messages. * * 4. Call up operator-related messages on screen. * * C. Verify a program by dry-run machine. 1. Modify cuter compensation. * @ 2. Verify the difference of machine executions. * * 3. Verify cutting paths. * * 4. Verify a program by single block performance. * @ 5. Verify the index of cutting tools. * @ 6. Check/remove the tooling interference. * @ 7. Update a program. * * 8. Modify cutting depth. * @ 9. Index cutting tools to the zero point. @ @ 10. Verify a program by automatic cycle. @ @ 11. Verify the procedure of tool changes. @ @ 12. Verify a program script by manual data input (MDI). @ @ 13. Check cutting fluid. @ @ V. CNC Machining A. Machine first piece to verify accuracy of program and setup. 1. Perform visual and sound inspections through single block performance. * @ 175 Table 3 6 (continued) Status Tasks Current Future 2. Modify/identify optimum cutting conditions (feed rate, cutting speed, and coolant). ** 3. Perform visual and sound inspections through automatic cycle. @@ B. Inspect the first part. 1. Check the dimensions. k * 2. Calculate revised compensation. k * 3. Determine required changes of setup devices and setup methods. k ★ 4. Check surface finish. @ * C. Machine parts to blueprint/part tolerance. 1. Update cutter compensation value. ★ ★ 2. Run and evaluate second part. * ■ * r 3. Remove chips. @ Note. * = core tasks; (I = supporting tasks. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary As manufacturing employs automation to replace traditional mass production and low-wage production is replaced by higher-order performance, vocational industrial high schools are forced to revise or restructure their curriculum to keep tip with industry's need for change. As CNC machining technology is an essential component of automatic manufacturing, vocational industrial high schools should provide an up-to-date CNC machining technology curriculum for students. The literature reviewed for this study supported the need for machinists to understand CNC machining technology as the cornerstone of the whole system of automatic manufacturing. This study revealed that education systems experience pressure to keep programs of education up-to-date with the changing nature of jobs. Revising and improving the curriculum of CNC machining technology is a key to the education and training of machinists. The process of developing and revising curriculum at the vocational industrial high school to respond to the national need is overwhelming in Taiwan. To match the needed change 176 177 superintendents, principals and teachers need to obtain a better understanding of what content is important and what content will be increasingly more important for successful job performance in the future. Therefore, an industry- oriented identification and validation of the tasks of CNC machining technology was essential as a reference for developing a curriculum of vocational industrial high schools for CNC machinists. The purpose of this study was to identify and validate the tasks of CNC machining technology as an efficient reference for developing effective educational curriculum at the level of vocational industrial high schools in Taiwan. A descriptive job survey method, using a researcher-developed job task inventory questionnaire, was employed to identify and consolidate the perspectives of CNC machinists in the field of CNC machine tool manufacturers in order to answer two major research questions: 1. What current tasks are performed by CNC machining technology and are important for vocational industrial high school students to learn in Taiwan? 2. What is the flexibility of the tasks in CNC machining technology to meet the dynamic technology and for developing the curriculum of CNC machining technology at the level of vocational industrial high schools in 3 to 5 years from now in Taiwan? 178 The literature on curriculum development suggested that a technical approach to curriculum design was an effective and efficient method of developing a curriculum for vocational-technical education. This approach, adopted for this study, uses the methodology of job and task analysis and the techniques of document analysis and survey questionnaires to identify and consolidate the perspectives of CNC machinists in Taiwan regarding the current and future importance of CNC machining tasks. From the information on demographics collected in the study, 69% of the CNC machinists surveyed graduated from vocational industrial high schools. Twenty percent of the respondents graduated from vocational industrial high schools and two-year colleges. Consequently, 89% of the respondents graduated from vocational industrial high schools. Significantly, 87% of the respondents attended additional training programs to learn CNC machining technology. The following six essential findings were derived from the study: 1. Just as noted in the current literature, job training program plays an essential role in this advanced technology era. Sixty-five percent of the respondents (n=156) depended on job training programs to learn CNC machining technology, 79% of the respondents (n=190) attended on-the-job training in their companies, and 87% of the respondents (n=211) attended either out- of or in- 179 company training programs for learning CNC machining technology. Preparing for higher education is a very important function of vocational industrial high schools due to the need for high performance in industry which is the focus of current human resource development philosophy. Fifty- seven percent of the respondents graduated from secondary level educational programs and 3 5% of the respondents graduated from either two-year postsecondary schools or four year colleges/universities. Data analysis in this study revealed that job tasks of a manual nature were generally ranked lower on both scales of current and future importance. The tasks involving automatic functions were ranked higher on both scales of current and future importance. Tasks regarding CNC machine operation were ranked higher than tasks regarding programming on the scale of current importance. By contrast, tasks regarding programming were ranked higher than tasks regarding CNC machine operation on the scale of future importance. Ninety-eight percent of the job tasks were rated at a level between currently important to moderately important and at a level between stabilizing importance and increasing importance in 3 to 5 years from now. All of these tasks {see Table 36) were listed as important for inclusion in a curriculum for CNC machining technology. 180 Moreover, CAD/CAM technology will be an important focus of CNC machining technology in 3 to 5 years in Taiwan. 6. All the proposed tasks have been identified as either core tasks or supporting tasks for curriculum implementation. The intent of the core tasks is to ensure that students learn essential basic technical skills. The intent of the supporting tasks is to enhance the core tasks for students to obtain an entry-level skill. This study identified 53 current core tasks and 52 future core tasks, along with supporting tasks for developing a curriculum for CNC machining technology for vocational industrial high schools as well as training programs now and in the future. Conclusions Based upon the findings from the study, the following c one1us i ons seem warranted: 1. Training is currently the typical strategy for learning CNC machining technology. That is, vocational industrial high schools should provide CNC machining technology for students to learn and for employees to update training. This conclusion was derived from the following findings: A. The typical respondents (69%) graduated from vocational industrial high schools, but the typical respondents (65%) depended on the on-the-job training programs to learn the CNC machining technology. B. Job training in the company is the primary delivery strategy for learning CNC machining. There were 89% of the respondents who attended the training programs to learn CNC machining technology. Four-fifths of the respondents (79%) attended on-the-job training in their companies. C. There were only 17% of the respondents who had learned CNC machining technology from vocational industrial high schools. Ten percent of the respondents had learned CNC machining technology from two-year college. Generic workplace skills in CNC machining technology should be considered in the design of curriculum for CNC machining technology for vocational industrial high schools. Four-fifths of the respondents possessed experience in both programming and CNC machine operation. There were only 4% of the respondents who were programmers and 16% of the respondents who were CNC machine operators. Although planning and programming were traditionally recognized as higher-order performances, and were the responsibility of technicians or engineers, the respondents believed the responsibility of CNC machinists involved all five duty areas of CNC machining technology- planning, programming, setting tooling and machines, CNC operating, and CNC machining. This conclusion was derived from the finding that the respondents rated all 5 duty areas and 98 job tasks as currently important to moderately important and as important to increasingly important in 3 to 5 years from now. Some background in machining fundamentals is essential for CNC machinists in order to plan the sequence and required devices of CNC programming and operations. This conclusion was derived from the following findings: A. The data analysis revealed that the duty of preparing required data for CNC programming is declining in importance and focuses on scheduling machining processes, determining required tooling and devices, and determining appropriate cutting conditions. On the other hand, preparing a proper CNC machine for proper machining is increasing in importance and focuses on the software function of CNC machine tools. B. From the literature review, the responsibility of machine engineers requires a knowledge of machining fundamentals to facilitate their work in CNC machining (Krar, 1990; Martin & Beach, 1992). This view is confirmed by the results of the study. Writing a manual program will be replaced by either CAD/CAM systems or a conversational program control unit. The cutting-edge technology will function in CNC programming. The results emphasize the effect of advanced technology, which shifts the nature of CNC programming. This conclusion was derived from the following findings: A. Writing a manual program in a word address format is declining in importance, B. Editing a program with a cutting-edge control unit is shifting to increased importance. C. CAD/CAM systems are shifting in importance to replace the traditional method of generating a CNC programming. The task of generating a tape with a tape puncher is no longer relevant to the CNC machinist job. Determining hands-on performances to match the requirements of automatic control systems is the primary competency of setting tooling and machines. This conclusion was derived from the following findings: A. Generally, the nature of setting up a workpiece does not change but focuses on decision-making performance, not on manipulation performance. B. The duty of setting up tools and holding devices concerns relating more to automatic operations than to manipulation. C. The duty of loading programs from a tape reader is being replaced by DNC and CAD/CAM systems. D. The high priority tasks were concerned more with determining problems and using appropriate troubleshooting techniques than with manipulation skills. E. From the literature review. Kranzberg (1991) indicates that smart machines require smart workers for their 184 use. In the future, many jobs will need more mental skills than motor skills ( Glover & Marshall, 1993; Johnson, 1992; Marshall & Tucker, 1992; Murphy, 1985). 7. Performing required operations in response to messages of the control monitor is the primary duty of operating CNC machines. Both dry-run machine to verify programs and manual data input from the control panel are declining in importance. A. The role of manual data input is decreasing in importance. B. Troubleshooting in the duty of performing required operations in response to messages of the control monitor is increasing in importance for future CNC machinists. C. The dry-run of machines to verify programs is decreasing in future importance. D. The ability to do troubleshooting is essential both in operating CNC machines and in setting tooling and machines. 8. An optimum cutting condition (parameter) is an essential factor regarding the quality of machined procedures. The process of modifying/identifying optimum cutting conditions is extremely different for CNC machinists and traditional machinists. Basically, traditional machinists perform and control operations by directly touching machines. The activity of modifying performances is 185 reflected directly during the performance procedure by spontaneity which results from personal sensitivity and performance experiences. They know whether a machine is running right by listening to how it sounds and visualizing to how it be performed. On the other hand, CNC machinists control CNC machine by numbers. The activity of modifying performance is based upon past machining procedures. Thus, they are less involved with touching and working on a machine. They depend on observations of what a machine is doing, and based on the past procedures, determine the numbers for controlling the next machining procedure. A. The duty of machining the first piece to verify the accuracy of the program and setup is focused on the task of modifying/identifying optimum cutting. B. The duty of machining parts to blueprint/part tolerance is decreasing in importance. C. The duty of inspecting the first part is also decreasing in importance. D. From the literature review, Martin and Beach (1992) noted that "the process of modifying past machining procedures to produce a new part is potentially quite different for CNC and traditional machinists" (p. 16). Traditional machinists depended on personal memory and notes to determine and modify the cutting conditions. CNC machinists, on the other hand, have access to a 186 modifiable program which specifies exact cutting conditions and operations. This view is confirmed by the results of the study. The results of this study can also be used to develop training programs to train working employees or novices. For example, CNC machining technology available to students at the high school level can assist them in progressing to a program of postsecondary education for preparation as CIM technicians in automatic-machining manufacturing. Also, CNC machining technology has been employed in machining production. Machinists working in the field of manufacturing will be involved in using CNC machine tools to perform their responsibility. For the function of school-to-work transition, the students of vocational industrial high schools will be able to perform CNC machining production. Education and training are important strategies for working employees to adopt advanced technology and to develop new occupational careers. Recommendat ions Changes in the nature of the machinist job are very evident. The data from this study overwhelmingly support the idea that there is great pressure to revise and improve the machinist curriculum of senior vocational schools. The respondents rated all five duty areas and 98 job tasks as currently important to moderately important and as 187 important to increasingly important in 3 to 5 years from now. All of these tasks are essential for developing a curriculum for CNC machining technology at the secondary school level as well as for job training programs. Consequently, recommendations generated by this study include these observations. 1. Teachers, curriculum innovators, superintendents, and principals at the secondary level of vocational industrial schools should use the findings of this study as a basis for discussion to evaluate and determine the amount of time, the needs of fundamental courses, the needs for facilities and equipment, the learning activities, instructional strategies and sequence when designing or revising a curriculum of CNC machining technology. 2. Currently, the course should be focused on CNC machine operations prior to CNC programming so hands-on learning activities should be planned and developed. On the other hand, the activities related to the performance of CAD/CAM systems and programming should be included in 3-to-5 years. 3. The majority of the respondents participating in this study indicated that they learned CNC machining technology through on-the-job training. Therefore, schools should be prepared to provide opportunities for incumbent workers. On the other hand, the findings are also appropriate as an 188 essential reference for developing on-the-job training programs for skill upgrading. 3. As CNC machining technology becomes increasingly sophisticated, teachers of CNC machining technology should be prepared to continually upgrade their competency with application of CNC machining technology. Thus, workshops, trade shows, seminars, and partner cooperation in industry should be available strategies for skill upgrading. implementation into the Curriculum The machinist job tasks were grouped into current core tasks and current supporting tasks based on the grand mean value for the sake of facilitating curriculum development and implementation. The intent of the core tasks is to provide for developing an articulated curriculum for students interested in becoming prepared as CIM technicians. The respondents believed the set of tasks used for this study covered the tasks of CNC machinist. From the findings of the study, CNC machining involves the fundamentals of schedule planning, machining process, selecting tools and setting, determining cutting conditions, and performing CAD/CAD systems. Thus, it is recommended that students study both the fundamentals of manufacturing process and the application of computer. The tasks are appropriate for developing a curriculum for CNC operators, CNC programmers, CNC machinists, and basic 189 technical skills. The following content is recommended to accomplish these goals: 1. A curriculum for CNC operators should include the tasks of setting tooling and machines, operating CNC machines, and CNC machining. The curriculum should be available for implementation at vocational industrial high schools, training institutes, as well as companies in Taiwan. 2. A curriculum for CNC programmers should involve the tasks of planning, programming, setting tooling and machines, and CNC operating. The curriculum should be available for implementation at vocational industrial high schools, training institutes, as well as companies in Taiwan. 3. A curriculum for CNC machinists should include all of the proposed tasks. The curriculum should be available for implementation at vocational industrial high schools as well as training institutes in Taiwan. 4. A curriculum for basic technical skills should include all of the core tasks. The curriculum should be available for helping students prepare to enroll in postsecondary or university program to become CIM technicians or CIM engineers. p>f.ftnm.ndatlon» for Future gtuflle.a 1. Based upon the literature review and the findings of this study, the nature of the machinist job has been changed by the impact of advanced technology and society. Therefore, 190 the researcher recommends that an industry-based needs assessment be conducted for developing an integrated or revised curriculum for modern machinists due to the impact of employed high-tech facilities and equipment in the field of automatic manufacturing and the changing nature of the machinist job. This study revealed that CNC machining technology is key to the education and training of CNC machinists, technicians, and technologists in the field of automatic manufacturing, so further research is recommended to ensure that CNC machining technology is integrated into automatic manufacture at the level of vocational industrial high schools and is articulated with the program of postsecondary education. Moreover, the basic technical knowledge and skills related to automatic manufacturing designed for vocational industrial high schools should be identified. A. There is a need to conduct a survey or DACUM of teachers at secondary level schools of CNC machining technology to identify the level of difficulty of each CNC machining task and the need for fundamental competency and learning. B. Periodically review CNC machining technology in industry to track the change of CNC machining technology. Cutting-edge technology and equipment such CAD/CAM will continually change the nature of CNC machining technology and will become the mainstream of CNC machining technology in 3-to-5 years in Taiwan. CNC machining technology is one essential component of automatic manufacturing. Thus, there is a need for a survey of industry to identify the need for basic competency related to automatic manufacturing as an essential reference for developing and revising the machinist program at the secondary school level. A survey of teachers, superintendents, principals and educators is needed to integrate the perspectives on basic technical skills in automatic manufacturing at the level of vocational industrial high schools in Taiwan. APPENDIX A THE OBJECTIVES/CONTENT OF THE NUMERICAL CONTROL 192 193 Units Course Contents Hours Orientation 1. History of NC machine tools. 2 2 . The classification of NC machine tools. 3. The advantage of NC machine tools. Structure of 1. Servo Motors. 6 NC machine 2. The ball Screw. tools 3 . The Open-loop control system 4. The closed-loop control system 5. Decoders Coordinate 1. Coordination 8 systems and 2. Fix and float zero systems axes of NC 3 . Absolute and incremental systems machine tools 4. Right-hand coordination 5. The coordination of NC machine tools NC media 1. The binary system 10 2. Number of NC tape 3 . NC tape 4. Magnetic tape 5. Tape formats The types of 1. Position or point-to-point control 4 NC machine 2. Contour or continuous path control tools 3 . Automatic tool changer 194 (continued) NC lathe 1. Position 15 programming 2. Linear cutting 3 . circle cutting 4 . Stop 5. Home setting 6. Threading 7 . Cycle threading 8 . Repeated-cycle threading NC milling 1. Set zero point 15 Programming 2 . Position 3 . linear cutting 4. Circle cutting 5 . Tool length compensation 6. Tool radius compensation 7 . Canned cycles Automatically 1. Introduction 4 Programmed 2 . Describe geometry Tools (APT) 3 . Describe movement 4. Postprocessor and auxiliary description 5. APT example. Note. Translated from Ministry of Education in Taiwan. (1986). Standards of curriculum,facilitv and eauioment of vocational industrial hioh school for the machinery program. Taipei, Taiwan: Chen-Chung Publishing. APPENDIX B TASK INVENTORY FOR CNC MACHINING TECHNOLOGY IDENTIFIED BY DOCUMENT ANALYSIS 195 196 APPENDIX B TASK INVENTORY FOR CNC MACHINING TECHNOLOGY I. Planning A. Prepare required data to write a program. 1. Schedule machining sequences. 2. Select tools and holding devices. 3. Determine setting workpiece procedure and holding devices. 4. Schedule tool change sequence. 5. Determine the required instructions for programming. 6. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for absolute Programming. 7. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for incremental programming. 8. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for polar-coordinate programming. 9. Determine threading passes for turning. 10. Select cutting speed and feed rate. 11. Schedule restart points and reference points. 12. Calculate run time. B. Select the CNC machine tool. 1. Identify parts of a CNC machine and explain their use. 2. Identify work areas of a CNC machine. 3. Identify the capacity of control systems of the CNC machine. 4. Check instructions of the CNC machine. 197 II. Programming A. Write a manual program in word address format. 1. Write a turning program for contouring. 2. Write a turning program for threading. 3. Write a complex turning program involving threading, boring and cutting. 4. Write a mill program for continuous path contouring. 5. Write a mill program for canned cycle drilling. 6. Write a complex mill program with sub-cycle, copy mirror, and 3-D continuous path contouring. 7. Prepare tape manually. B. Edit a program using a conversational program control unit. 1. Edit a turning program for contouring. 2. Edit a turning program for threading. 3. Edit a complex turning program involving threading, boring, and cutting. 4. Edit a mill program for continuous path contouring. 5. Edit a mill program for canned cycle drilling. 6. Edit a complex mill program with sub-cycle, copy mirror, and 3-D continuous path contouring. C. Generate a program with CAD/CAM systems. 1. Open a CAD/CAM system and set the window size. 2. Make a part drafting. 3. Set cutting parameters (feed rate, cutting depth, speed...etc.). 4. Simulate cutting paths. 5. Generate CNC programs. 6. Print out CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 198 7. Save CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 8. Download CNC programs to CNC machines or off-line CAD/CAM systems. 9. Generate a tape with a tape puncher. III. Setting Tooling and Machines A. Perform preventive maintenance. 1. Perform routine inspection and maintenance of CNC machines. 2. Clean CNC machines. 3. Lubricate CNC machines. 4. Follow indications of the automatic detective system to perform the required maintenance and/or adjustment. B. Set up workpiece. 1. Select work-holding devices. 2. Mount workpiece. 3. Position the workpiece in relation to machine axis. 4. Remove workpiece and work holders. C. Set up tools and holding devices. 1. Check tool holders. 2. Install cutting tool in holder. 3. Mount holder and tool on spindle manually. 4. Insert tools and holders in machine magazine. 5. Load tool in tool drum. 6. Load tools with automatic tool changer. 7. Load tools in turret. 8. Call up tools. 199 9. Measure cutter compensation value. 10. Remove/change cutting tools and tool holders. 11. Replace a worn or broken tool during the cutting. 12. Set tool length compensation. 13. Set tool radius offset. 14. Align holding devices and tools with machine axis. D. Load the program. 1. Key in programs from keyboard directly. 2. Load program from the tape reader. 3. Load program from distributed numerical control (DNC) systems. 4. Load program from off-line CAD/CAM programming stations. 5. Call up program from the CNC controller. IV. Operating CNC Machines A. Set manual mode control. 1. Turn on the machine and turn off. 2. Perform the emergency stop. 3. Alter cutting parameters (feed, speed, and coolant) through mode select switches. 4. Perform the manual/jog mode to adjust the table position. 5. Perform search sequence. 6. Adjust tool offset manually. B. Perform the proper operation according to descriptions of the control monitor. 1. Call up operator-related messages on screen. 2. Modify/update messages. 200 3. Match alarm codes to release the troubleshooting. 4. Set proper parameters of machine controller. C. Verify the tape or program by dry-run machine. 1. Verify a program using manual data input (MDI) process. 2. Verify a program by single block performance. 3. Verify a program by automatic cycle. 4. Initiate program restart from reference points. 5. Verify the tool change procedure and tool index. 6. Modify cuter compensation. 7. Modify cutting depth. 8. Update the program. D. Verify machine performance. 1. Index cutting tools to zero point. 2. Verify cutting path. 3. Check the index of turret. 4. Activate automatic cycle mode. 5. Interrupt automatic cycle. 6. Change spindle speed. 7. Check cutting fluids. 8. Verify the difference between machine controls. V. Machining A. Machine first piece to verify accuracy of program and setup. 1. Perform visual and sound inspection through single block performance. 2. Perform visual and sound inspection through automatic cycle performance. 201 3. Modify/identify optimum cutting parameters (feed rate, cutting speed, and coolant). B. Inspect the first part. 1. Check surface finish. 2. Check the dimensions. 3. Calculate revised compensation. 4. Determine required changes of setup devices and setup methods. C. Machine parts to blueprint/part tolerance. 1. Update the cutter compensation code value. 2. Run and evaluate second part. 3. Remove chips. APPENDIX C CHINESE LANGUAGE VERSION OF TASK INVENTORY FOR CNC MACHINING TECHNOLOGY 202 203 The Partner's Translated Version: I . Plannlna , & \ CflJC data to write a program. . lule machining sequences. 2. Select tools and holding devices. 3. Determine setting workpiece procedure and holding Q6V1CG8« 4. Schedule tool change sequence. s. M s s the required instructions for programming. u is 6. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for absolute Programming. 1 7. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for incremental 8. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for polar-coordinat< i f s j M t f i x i f z - t e programming. 1 9 . Determine threading passes for turning. 10. Select cutting speed and feed rate. 11. Schedule restartjpoints arid reference points. 12. B. Select the,CNC machine tool. l. Identify parts of a CNC machine and explain their use. 204 2. Identify work areas of a cnc machine. 3. Identify tne capacity of control systems of the CNC machine. 4. Check instructions of the CNC machine. 11 A. prog^m ain word r address format. 1. Write A turning^program for contouring. 2. Write a turning program for threading. 3. cliinplturning program involved threading prog^m for continuous path contouring. 5. Write S^^S^jEo^iuied cycle drilling. M l - 6. Write a cc jrogram with sub-CT-cle, copy « & * . min “ and path contouring.• 7. Prepare taj manually. B. Edit a using a conversational program control unit. :uraing program for contouring. ~ ) e x m program, for threading. turning program involved threading, MU# MfofcWt W f a f a - x H ' A borining, and cutting. 4. Edit a mill program for continuous path contouring. Generate a programwith CAD/CAM systems, jfl CAV/CAM & M f r A % % t $ T 1. Open a CAD/CAM system and jset the window size. W^i'CAp/C/IM £ X 4 . 2. Make a part drafting. 3. let cuttiiig parameters (feed rate, cutting depth, ate cutting paths, nerate CNC programs. c M c m 6. Print ou D/CAM document d CNC programs. tz CAJc 7. Save CAD/CAM do nt and CNC programs. Download CNC programs to CNC machines or off-line c a p /c a m JJ i systems. 9. Generate a tape with a tape puncher. XXX. Setting Tooling and Machines Perform preventive maintenance. outine, inspection and maintenance of CNC machines. 2. Clean, CNC machines. 3. Lubricate CNC machines. M f t clJC M & 206 4. Follow Indications of the automatically detective system to perform theRequired maintenance and/or adjustment. b - w r * 1. Select work*holding devices. 2. Mount wprkpiece. 3. Position the workpiece In relation to machine axis. M h . 4. Remove workpiece and work holders. C. Set-up hools and holding devices. <¥#, 1. Check tool holders. 2. Install cutting tool in holder. . Mount holder _ _ and toolt on spindle manually. 4. Insert tools and holders In machine magazine. 6. Load tools with automatic tool changer. 7. Load.tools in turret. 8. Call up tools. 9. Measure cu£tjj|jf‘ compensation. 10. ^Remove%han^ cutting tools and tool holders. Replacen m a n a wore, or broken tool during A the cutting. W s t f l o n . i. let toootfaet. 14. Align bolding devices and tools with machine axis. pr°9r®”'- ' 1. Key-in programs from Keyboard directly. 2. Load, program from the tape reader. # #i , „ 3. Loacr program frnm dratdistributed numerical control (DNC) M L v*ic.Jr-,$h4w systems. Load program from off-line CAD/CAM programming c a p /c m i * 4 m m $ i w stations. 1 Call up program from the CNC controller. zv* Operating CNpjcachlaes l ^onCrol. 1. Tupn.ph andTt^irn off the machine. . ______evSnergency stop. H, f f f M ' . Alter cutting parameters (feed, Bpeed, and coolant) 4. Perform the manual/jog mode to adjust the table 5. Perfoi^ sequence search. «. M st_ t^ol ^fifset, manually. Perform^roe jumier deration according to descriptions of tno control monitor. i. Call up operator-related messages on Bcreen. 208 2. Mc|iif y/upd^t® messages. 3. Match alarm'codes to release the troubleshooting. 4. Set proper parameters.of machine controller. C. verify the tape or program by dry-run machines. i W m i n ^ (HDD p« 2:., verify a program by single block performance. 3. m h w m m ltomatic ‘ cycle, 4 . restart ffom reference points. A 4 £h*B jkiti& i 5. Verify the tool change procedure and tool index. 6. Mqdify cuter conpensation. 7. Modify cutcina depth. 8. iJtoaateethe program. ^Ey^tiacm.ne performance. Index cutting tools to zero point. of turret. ivate aut itic'kt cycleGUjmit'Mi mode. „ nterrupt a Ltic cycle. speed. Chec luids. erify the difference between machine controls. 209 V. Machining A. Machine first piece to verify accuracy of program and x - & sf t y « - Perfo nd soundi inspection tnrougnthrough single ce. MM l l e a . Perform visual and sound inspection through automatic Modify/identify optimum cutting parameters, {feed rate, $ J i 2 y f i r # ( £ 'tjffldfc. jfv&ttpki) cutting speed, and coolant). 1 ' , the first part. iecg surface finish, leqk the dimensions. AJ Calculate revised compensation. 4. Determine required changes of setup devices and setup #0 . 3 4 3. Remove chips. J 210 The Researcher's Translated Version: I. Planning A. Prepare, required , data__ to write a program, l.' Scheduleiedule machining st !{/>« * 'ft 'h 2 . Select tools 'andanc holding devices, 3, Determine se£tinij Workpiece procedure and holding devices Sc^ie^u l^tool^ cAang e s equence. Determine the required instructions for programming. Transfer bhieprint/part dimensions for absolute Programming 8. Transfsfer blueprint/part dimensions for polar-coordina ’t-*£CIlctyofc Select/.the1'if CNC 2machine A txool. ir^ldentify$ partis*1 or a^CNC ■ machine and explain their use " > i vf ...... 211 2. identify work areas of a CNC machine. f'\J&’f tAJ c ^ 3 M 1* * J2 3. Identify the capacity of control systems of the CNC 4. Check instructions of the CNC machine. 4*3 ca3 c II Programming f' A. Write a manual program in word address format. >X 4 & jh V ^ S ^ 1. Write a turning, program for contouring. \ & l h Ai 2. Write a turning1 program for threading. S > " $ P \ 3 . Write a cAmplex turning program involved threading 4. Write a mill orqorai^ fpr continuous path contouring. 5. Write a mlll^rcw(raro_fpi 6. Write a complej mirro 7. E^pJra^K^^nanually. B . Edit a program using a qonverBational program control 1. Edit a turning, program for contouring. 3 4 4 § - f 2. Edit a turning program cor threading. Al 3 £? -ff V\j Complex turning program involved threading, f t . 4. Edit a mill program for continuous oath contouring. ~ W t y - A 212 5. Blit a mill program Cor canned cycle drilling. 6. Edit1 a ccp4>lex mill program with sub-cycle, copy . C. Generate e^pjr^j^nfwf th CAD/CAM __ Jf] c # # * " »V, 1. open a CAD/CAM system and set the window size. 3. Set cutting parameters (feed rate, cutting depth, speed ' M . Y. Hf-i* Jifc-- 4. Simulate cutting paths. MtiLtf M f c m. jit. 5. Generate CNC programs. C.AJC. odd 6. Print1 out CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. *I?P 7. Saye (CAD/CAM document ana CNC programs. ' } % 4 X c40/cA^ fc CA^C ^7\‘ 8. Download CNC programs'to CNC machines or off-line A **'c « n J*i # i f 9. Generate a tape with a tape puncher. III. Setting Tooling and Machines A. Perform preventiva maintenance. i M f i e N nspectiqn ^ur\d maintenance of CNC *'5 M c . 2. Clean CNC machines. 'v caj c . 3. fabricate CNC machines. P P s ^ m w 213 4. Follow Indications pf the automatically detective ad*y^stment. B. Set up workpiece > 4^ l .SelectSelect'work-holding '* devices. Mlount ® h t workpiece.workpi Posi'tlon-*■ the workpiece in relation to machine axis. j L j i * * &nove workpiece and work holders. C . Set up tools and holding devices. -4 & * 4^* - * & 1. check tool holders. 2. I ^ t J^i?^t^n^t!ool in holder. 3. Motiht holder and tool on spindle manually. A- ^ % . J> ■£. X * T * > TC 4 # 4. insert tools and holders in machine^magazine, s. S J0j% f t Z> W 6. Loaa tools with Automatic tool changer. I . Load tools in turret'. 8. Call up tools. ^ J -ft 9. Measure cutter compensation. 10. R^mjvel'Sia^J^^ttlng tools and tool holders. II. ^xp/jN0L©-* Replaceci wore or, broken tool during^ the cutting. vE- 13. Set tbol radius offset. 214 14. Align holding devices and tools with machine axlB. I f i z the progra m.D. Load the program.D. from kevboard directly. Loaa^prbgram frc_ ie tape reader. Load^OT^r^^trofiTdS.ftrituted numerical control (DNC) eye Load program from off-line CAD/CAM programming Call up program from the CNC controller. C-Oc & £ } & \tj *’J ^ IV. Operating CMC Machines i&VTt tOc -Wp A. Set manual mode control. M h T V h i 2 1. Turn on and turn off the machine. S i i * PfllK 2. Performing emergency stop. 3. J^Wr^c3t^ngJparamet^rs (f ied, spee@, and coolant) e select switch***’ W 4 i ( z f M 4. Perform the manual/jog mode to adjust the table ^ ^ j i j , . enc& search. 6. Ad jus' fset manually. A j ft B. Perform tto operation according to descriptions of l. Call up operator-related messages on screen. 215 2. Modify/update messages. 3 . t s s k colf&s^tic^'release the troubleshooting. 4. Set proper parameters of machine controller, C. verifyVerify the. tape or*progror*program by dry-run machines. 1. verity a program using manual data input (MDI) process. *1 c hpx ) m f t i K 2. Verify a program by„single block performance. 3. Verify a program by automatic cycle.. M <3 tl fh V? V& & * "f • ?« 4. initiate program restart\fram reference points. H i ? ) Verifyrerify the tool change procedure and tool index. i k n Modifytodify cuter,compehscuter compensation. . n * * j - 1 ( ^ x H f ; 7. Modify cutting depth. 7 V f I?* 8 . Update the program; r t i D. Verify machine performance. l.Ihdex cutting tools to zero point. 2. Verify cutting path. 3. C^ck^he^ Siei idL turret. » 4. Activate1 \ l i » automatic W ' K ' J % cycle , mode. 7 5. interrupt automatic cycle. 4 % ih ty W C m /*6. Change Bpindle speed. 7 . caiac^<^£ln^ feds . VerifyM the difference between machine controls. V. Machining 2_ Machine flrBt piece to verify accuracy of program ana se?up' ^ * * * 1 « . 1. Perform visual ana sound Inspection through single 2. Perform visual., and„ sound inspect ion .through automatic 3. Modify/i 1 - J cu Inspect tho first part. St- ijn. ^ 1.' cna^ctc surface finish. 2. ^tW^aicna. 3. ci^fc^fate compensation. 4. Determine ^required -'I changes of setup devices and setup J6£££-*JM a w * * A Machine parts to blueprint/part tplerance. J e f r K . 1. Update the cutter compensation code value. 2. R^n ak$3^1uat^secona part. 3. Remove cnlpB.v 1 APPENDIX D THE INSTRUMENT OF CONTENT VALIDITY FOR THE EXPERT PANEL 217 218 APPENDIX D THE INSTRUMENT OF CONTENT VALIDITY FOR THE EXPERT PANEL The instrument of Content Validity in Chinese (MTfifimCNC)° ;MfCNO l,|-*CNC^«if->CNC n **4!|*Mt£->4|M£ i&J# ° 1&$L ff- db t ft# ✓ v + ^ - M A 219 1. * Z: J_____ 2. . 3. m . #: j______t 4. 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NSJfcftMMft □ □ ^______t 2. □ □ j_____ *. 3. !«(£#■+, 0MU $ J t , A j_____ , (ttftftn*) 225 4. □ □ 5. 4fc**L&#SW*4 □ □ 6 . □ □ (-K 1. 4^#fMhfe ««.&** □ □ 2. **fSt/**rte**i„& □ □ 3. «4*4^,4M*fcPN#lfr □ □ 4. □ a (^), w k m * . □ □ 2 . □ □ 3. m m t totoMmt##, □ □ 4. □ □ 5. □ □ 6 . 4MttoiN*A □ □ 7. □ □ [«K 1. 3\*txjL£.mmK(z&) □ □ 2 . jHKH w MML □ □ 3. JMrftfctaiNtt# □ □ 4. +»?6ftfciN«Wl □ □ 226 ifMfr frit 5. □ □ 6 . □ □ 7. □ □ 8. friMUMMrttDtfe □ □ * ;MWfcifr-b.7'l*l*» JL. 1. □ □ 2 . □ □ 3. □ □ (— ), 1. □ □ 2 . □ □ 3. ■tfJMM.tttfJL* □ □ 4. □ □ (=.), faJLJLftg. ¥}£ 1. □ □ 2 . □ □ 227 3. □ □ j____ t. * *4Rjan»_tfi*h * °r%foter&: APPENDIX E MEMBERS OF THE EXPERT PANELS FOR CONTENT VALIDATION OF THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE 228 229 APPENDIX E MEMBERS OF THE EXPERT PANELS FOR CONTENT VALIDATION OF THE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE A ft % panel Memoers for content vaiiaa tion ot the Chinese Lancruaoe Version of the Questionnaire + Xft&#UtfH£4?n % M r (04)5623211 t*NT 3 (04)5623211 iBL-k £ + » # n m# i /m**» & m 3 9 st *MHfl 4fejt (04)3592101 & + 4H I M M lifr# QUO- n &X - £*i|f#+aMMy5t266ft (04)5623211 # + ## fl HU JMt**#-639ifc n t* ■€<£ (04)3592101 6 +##tfcJft*Nf WflHfc £ + ^6+*&*M.&2668fc Panel Member for Face validity Review of the Chinese Language Version of the Questionnaire Lung-Sheng Steven Lee, Professor. H A £ # & Department of Industrial Technology Education, National Taiwan Normal University Panel Members for Content validation of the English Language Version of the Questionnaire at The Ohio State University Dr. Frank C. Pratziier Educational Studies Associate professor The Ohio State University Dr. Michael L. Scott Educational Studies Associate professor The Ohio State University Dr. Paul E. Post Educational Studies .!?h.6_.0h.io§ta^ APPENDIX F ENGLISH LANGUAGE VERSION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE 231 232 October, 1994 Dear Colleague: Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools are becoming basic equipment in automated manufacturing because CNC machining technology is a fundamental technology of automation. Therefore, the nature of the machinist job has influenced by the impact of advanced technology. The purpose of this survey is to identify a CNC machinist's tasks. The survey result will be used to develop a course to effectively equipping vocational industrial high school students and in- service machinists for the needs of the manufacturing industry. The study is being conducted by The Ohio State University and National Taiwan Normal University. Because of your competence and experience in the field of CNC, we request your assistance in responding to this questionnaire. If you have any questions, please feel free to let me know. Your assistance in this study will be greatly appreciated and very important. Thank you for your time and cooperation! Sincerely, Department of Industrial Education, National Taiwan Normal University Chuan Shou Hsu Tel & Fax: (02)704-3100 233 PART I DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Directions: The following information is required for my study only. Your personal information will be confidential. Please complete the following questions by checking or filling in the appropriate blanks. Name: ______(Optional) Affiliation: Position: Question l: What kinds of schools have you graduated? (Multiple choice available) □ (1) Vocational industrial high school □ (2) Academic high school □ (3) Two-year junior college □ (4) Three- or Five-year junior college □ (5) Four-year college/university □ (6) Graduate school □ (7) Others (Please indicate): ______Question 2: Where have you learned CNC machining technology? (Multiple choice available) □ (1) Vocational industrial high school □ (2) Academic high school □ (3) Two-year junior college □ (4) Three- or Five-year junior college □ (5) Four-year college/university □ (6) Graduate school □ (7) On-the-job training in your company □ (8) On-the-job training out of your company □ (9) Out-job training □ (10) Self-conduct learning □ (11) Others (Please indicate): ______ (Continues) 234 Question 3: How many years have you been a CNC machinist in your company? (Please Indicate) : ______Years ______Months Question 4: How many kinds of parts have you produced with CNC machine tools within your experience? (Check one) □ (1) None □ (2) Less than 50 □ (3) Between 51 to 100 □ (4) Between 101 to 150 □ (5) More than 151 Question 5: How many CNC programs have you designed within your experience? (Check one) □ (l) None □ (2) Less than 50 □ (3) Between 51 to 100 □ (4) Between 101 to 150 □ (5) More than 151 Question 6. How many hours per week have you worked with CNC machining technology? (Please indicate) * ______Hours (Part II continues) 235 PART II TASKS OF CNC MACHINING TECHNOLOGY Directions: In this part, there are 100 tasks of CNC machining technology listed for rating. Each task has two different scales—one for rating the current level of importance and one for rating the future importance of the tasks. The current level of importance has been divided into five interval scales from 1 = Not important (no need to know) to 5 = Essential importance (should be understood), respectively. The future importance rating, on the other hand, involves 1 = Decreasing importance, 2 = Stabilizing importance, and 3 = Increasing importance in the upcoming 3-to-5 years. Please rate each of the following CNC machining tasks by a circle on both the number describing the level of importance and the number describing the future importance of the tasks according to your perception and experience. Is there anything else you would like to add about the ideal CNC machinist's tasks for vocational industrial high schools? If so, please use the blank space at the end of duty areas of the questionnaire for this purpose. 236 Current Future importance Importance Please circle the 1—Not important 1—Decreasing number which correspond 3—Important 2—Stabilizing to your perception of 5—Essential 3—Increasing what a CNC machining (Circle one) (Circle one) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 technology requires. Example 1 © 3 (a). Use calculator in operation. 1 3 4 5 (b). Perform a route maintenance. 0 2 3 4 5 1 2 (3) Z . Planning A. Prepare required data for programming. l. Schedule machining sequences * 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 2. Select tools and holding devices. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 3. Determine the procedure and holding devices for setting workpiece. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4. Schedule tool change sequences. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 5. Determine the required instructions for programming. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 6. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for absolute Programming. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 7. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for incremental programming. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 8. Transfer blueprint/part dimensions for polar-coordinate programming • 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 9. Select cutting conditions (feed rate. speed, depth, and coolant). 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 (Continues 237 (Circle one) (Circle one) (Continued) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 10. Schedule restart points and reference points. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 11. Calculate run time. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 B. Select a CNC machine tool. 12. Identify the use of CNC machine components. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 13. Identify the working area of a CNC machine. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 14. Identify the capacity of a CNC control system. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 15. Check the instructions of a CNC machine. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 ** Other(s): (Please list) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 IT Programming A. Write a manual program in word address format. 16. Write a turning program for contouring. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 17. Write a turning program for ______threading.______1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 (Continues) 238 (Circle one) (Circle one) (Continued) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 18. Write complex-turning programs involving threading boring and cutting. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 19. Write a milling program for contouring. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 20. Write a canned-cycle program. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 21. Write a complex-milling program with sub-cycle, copy, mirror, and 3-D contouring. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 B. Edit a program with a conversational program control unit. 22. Edit a turning program for contouring. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 23. Edit a turning program for threading. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 24. Edit complex-turning programs involving threading, boring, and cutting. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 25. Edit a milling program for contouring. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 26. Edit a canned-cycle program.______1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 (Continues 239 (Circle one) (Circle one) (Continued) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 27. Edit a complex-milling program with sub-cycle, copy mirror, and 3-D contouring. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 C. Generate a program with CAD/CAM systems. 28. Open a CAD/CAM system and set the window size. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 29. Draw a part drafting. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 30. Set cutting conditions (feed rate. depth, speed, and coolant). 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 31. Simulate cutting paths. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 32. Generate CNC programs. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 33. Print out CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 34. Save CAD/CAM document and CNC programs. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 35. Download CNC programs to CNC machines or off-line CAD/CAM systems. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 36. Generate a tape with a tape puncher. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 ** Other(s): (Please list) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 ■ » 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 (Continues) 240 (Circle one) (Circle one) (Continued) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 III. Setting Tooling and Hachinas A. Perform preventive maintenance. 37 . Perform routine inspections and maintenance of CNC machines. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 38 . Clean CNC machines. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 39 . Lubricate CNC machines. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 40. Perform the required maintenance and/or adjustment in response to the notification of a problem by the automatic-detection systems. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 B. Set up a workpiece. 41. Select workpiece-holding devices. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 42 . Mount a workpiece. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 43. Position a workpiece in relation to machine axis. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 44. Remove a workpiece and holders. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 C. Set up tools and holding devices. 45. Check tool holders. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 46. Install cutting tools in holders. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 47. Mount holders and tools on spindle manually. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 48. Insert tools and holders in tool magazine. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 (Continues) 241 (Circle one) (Circle one) (Continued) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 49. Load tools into the tool drum. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 50. Load tools with automatic tool changer. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 51. Load tools into the turret. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 52 . Call up tools. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 53. Measure cutter compensation value. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 54. Remove/change cutting tools and tool holders. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 55. Replace a worn or broken tool during the cutting. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 56. Set tool length compensation. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 57. Set tool radius offset. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 58. Align holding devices and tools with machine axis. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 D. Load programs. 59. Key-in programs from keyboard directly. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 60. Load programs from a tape reader. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 61. Load programs from distributed numerical control (DNC) systems. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 62 . Load programs from off-line CAD/CAM programming stations. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 (Continues) 242 (Circle one) (Circle one) (Continued) 1 2 3 4 5 12 3 63. Call up programs from a CNC controller. 1 2 3 4 5 12 3 ** Other(s): (Please list) 1 2 3 4 5 12 3 1 2 3 4 5 12 3 IV. Operating CNC Machines A. Set manual mode control. 64. Turn on a machine and turn off. 1 2 3 4 5 12 3 65. Perform the emergency stop. 1 2 3 4 5 12 3 66. Alter cutting conditions (feed, speed, depth, and coolant) through mode select switches. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 67. Adjust table positions from jog mode. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 68. Perform search sequences. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 69. Adjust tool offset manually. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 70. Activate automatic cycle. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 71. Interrupt automatic cycle. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 72. Perform cycle dwell. 1 2 3 4 5 2 3 73. Change spindle speed.______1 2 3 4 5 2 3 (Continues) 243 (Circle one) (Circle one) (Continued) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 B. Perform required operations in response to the messages of the control monitor. 74. Call up operator-related messages on screen. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 75. Modify/update messages. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 76 . Determine problem using appropriate troubleshooting techniques. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 77. Set proper parameters of machine controller. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 C. Verify a program by dry-run machine. 78 . Index cutting tools to the zero point. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 79 . Verify a program script by manual data input (MDI). 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 80. Verify a program by single block performance. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 81. Verify a program by automatic cycle. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 82 . Verify cutting paths. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 83 . Verify the index of turret. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 84. Verify the procedure of tool changes. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 85. Check/remove the tooling interference. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 86. Modify cuter compensation. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 (Continues) 244 (Circle one) (Circle one) (Continued) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 87. Modify cutting depth. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 88. Check cutting fluid. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 89. Verify the difference of machine executions. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 90. Update a program. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 * ★ Other(S): (Please list) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 V. CNC Machining A. Machine first piece to verify the accuracy of programs and setup. 91. Perform visual and sound inspections through single block performance. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 92. Perform visual and sound inspections through automatic cycle. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 93. Modify/identify optimum cutting conditions (feed rate, cutting speed, and coolant... etc.). 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 B. Inspect the first part. 94. Check surface finish. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 95. Check the dimensions. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 96. Calculate revised compensation. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 (Continues) 245 (Circle one) (Circle one) (Continued) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 97. Determine required changes of setup devices and setup methods. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 C. Machine parts to blueprint/part tolerance. 98. Update cutter compensation value. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 99. Run and evaluate second part. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 100. Remove chips. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 ** Other(s): (Please list) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 A,. i i i.i i i . i i ... -.. t 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 ★ ★■fr****************'******* Comment Recommendations: 1..______=- 2 .j______^ 3 . j______t 5 . 6 . Thanks for your cooperation and patient. 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W ¥ 258 WM&ttflUfc’ ttTf’JCNO^flLflf a h t o t e m • m # m .r n m t o ± m m U=Mfc* l=iMt j M l*• « « J t - 2--*r»** 3=** 2=** m m t t o f U L * 4=flLt* 5=«*!*-* 3=J#^ t e m (Wi4-te) J* 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 t 98. X*f 73 *« * ■ £ * 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 m Sy, AuijMHfcJS— , 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 fa 1 0 0 . y£fiM9$ 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 JL 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 > SIMM: > itjLurJMutiKin***) o APPENDIX H PERSONNEL ASSISTING IN DATA COLLECTION 259 260 Each Company1s Facilitator and Assistant of Data Collection Name Facilitator Position Assistant 01. Tatung (02)7043100 46# it 02. Yujya Industry (04)5684378 ft-k 03. Taichung Machinery m - k 04. Liwei Machinery 05. Shengjye industry 06. Chyaufu Machinery 07. Yungj in Machinery 08. Lungchang Machinery M t U S 09 Chengtai Machinery #4WlWMfc4Mra-«M r<|t* 10. Dali Machinery f r & S L J U W & 11. Dahlih Machine tfiit jMM&« 12. kaofeng Machinery 13. Yang Iron Works 14 Fareast Machinery (05)2771042 it jM M U l * M' t FUA (*£fe ft'dt REFERENCES Aletan, S. {1991). 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