Defining Extreme Sport: Conceptions and Misconceptions

fpsyg-09-01974 October 16, 2018 Time: 19:31 # 1 View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Middlesex University Research Repository PERSPECTIVE published: 18 October 2018 doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01974 Defining Extreme Sport: Conceptions and Misconceptions Rhonda Cohen1*, Bahman Baluch2 and Linda J. Duffy2 1 The London Sports Institute, Faculty of Science and Technology, Middlesex University London, London, United Kingdom, 2 Department of Psychology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Middlesex University London, London, United Kingdom One feature of how sport is defined is the distinction between extreme and non- extreme sport. BASE jumping is an example of an “extreme sport” because it involves a high degree of risk, whilst swimming is classified as “non-extreme” because the risks involved are minimal. This broad definition falls short of identifying the extent of risk and ignores the psychological, social-demographic and life style variables associated with engagement in each sport. Keywords: extreme sport, sport, high risk sport, defining sport, thrill seeking, action sport, adventure sport, BASE jumping INTRODUCTION Indeed, the lack of consistency within the term “extreme sport” means that those wishing to study this field are forced to create their own criteria as a starting point, often in a less than scientific Edited by: Robert D. Schweitzer, manner. This literary review of contemporary and historical research articles raises the key question Queensland University of Technology, of whether the definition of extreme sport is one of risk-taking with a high chance of injury or death Australia or whether there are additional aspects to consider such as lifestyle or a relationship to the natural Reviewed by: environment. This review does not examine any hypotheses and is a narrative based on key papers. Pierre Bouchat, Due to the lack of literature on this subject area it was not thought pertinent to conduct a systematic Université catholique de Louvain, review. Belgium The aim of this article is twofold: firstly, to demonstrate whether the term “extreme sport” in Stephen David Edwards, scientific terms, has developed into a misnomer, misleading in the context of the sports it tends to University of Zululand, South Africa encompass, secondly, to propose a revised, more accurate definition of extreme sport, reflective of *Correspondence: the activities it encompasses in the context of other non-mainstream sports. Based on this review Rhonda Cohen it is argued that a new definition of an extreme sport is one of “a (predominantly) competitive [email protected] (comparison or self-evaluative) activity within which the participant is subjected to natural or unusual physical demands. Moreover, an unsuccessful outcome is “likely to result in the injury Specialty section: This article was submitted to or fatality of the participant, in contrast to non-extreme sport” (Cohen, 2016, p. 138). Performance Science, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology “EXTREME SPORT” – CHALLENGING THE DEFINITION Received: 19 January 2018 The question of what is an extreme sport and whether the term “extreme sport” should be used Accepted: 26 September 2018 to label particular sports can be viewed from a variety of angles. “Extreme sport” appears to be Published: 18 October 2018 used interchangeably with “high risk sport” in much of the research literature. Both “high risk” Citation: and “extreme sport” are defined as any “sport where one has to accept a possibility of severe Cohen R, Baluch B and Duffy LJ (2018) Defining Extreme Sport: injury or death as an inherent part of the activity” (Breivik et al., 1994). In the same manner, Conceptions and Misconceptions. classification of extreme or high risk could partly be due to peak static and dynamic components Front. Psychol. 9:1974. achieved during competition (Mitchell et al., 2005), which may result in bodily changes such as doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01974 high blood pressure (e.g., Squash vs. Archery). A further classification would consider physical risk Frontiers in Psychology| www.frontiersin.org 1 October 2018| Volume 9| Article 1974 fpsyg-09-01974 October 16, 2018 Time: 19:31 # 2 Cohen et al. Defining Extreme Sport (e.g., BASE Jumping vs. Darts) as a defining feature of competition at all levels” (Council of Europe [CEE], 2001, The any “extreme or high risk sport” (Palmer, 2002). However, European Sports Charter, revised, p. 3 – CEE). This broad the implication that those who engage in extreme sport are definition of sport can encompass “traditional” sports such as exclusively high-risk taking participants is an over simplification Archery, Football, and Cricket, as well as those hitherto regarded which requires careful consideration. Part of the difficulty in as extreme sports such as Drag racing, BASE Jumping and being able to define extreme sport is, according to Kay and Snowboarding. Laberge(2002). There are so many contradictory factors aside Historically the CEES’s definition is not entirely new as sport from risk. It is suggested here that there are spatial, emotional, has traditionally been accepted to represent a competitive task individualistic and transgressive dimensions to consider in these or activity engaged in by an individual or a group, which sports. Terms such as “alternative,” “action,” “adventure,” and requires physical exertion and is governed by rules. Mason(1989) “lifestyle” are also used to describe extreme sport, however, saw sport as “a more or less physically strenuous, competitive, none of these terms categorically encompass what extreme sport recreational activity:::usually:::in the open air (which) might actually entails. involve team against team, athlete against athlete or athlete against nature, or the clock.” Sport is generally viewed to be performed by individuals or in a group, as an organised, WHAT IS EXTREME? evaluative activity where the outcome of performance is judged by winning or losing. However, the inclusion of the word “or” According to Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary (retrieved in the CEES definition changes the nature of what is considered September 2018) the word extreme means: (1) Exceeding the to be sport. It implies that results in competition do not ordinary, usual or expected. (2) Existing in a very high degree. need to be present and can be self evaluative or competitive. (3) Going to a great or exaggerated lengths. Therefore, extreme The modification of this definition allows activities such as as used in “extreme sport” suggests a deviation beyond what recreational swimming or bungee jumping to now be classified is generally viewed as “normal” or “traditional” activity and as sports. assumes participants pursue activities beyond these limits. The online Oxford University Dictionary(2018) defines “extreme sport” as “Denoting or relating to a sport performed in a IS “EXTREME SPORT” THE SAME AS hazardous environment and involving great risk.” So, the concept “HIGH RISK SPORT?” of “going beyond normal limits” and “risk” seem integral to what constitutes extreme sport. Booker(1998) stated that “extreme If “extreme sport” is the same as a “high-risk” sport then those sports” were beyond the boundary of moderation; surpassing individuals that engage in these sports should be at greater risk what is accounted for as reasonable – i.e., radical, and sports that of injury or even death than those engaging in traditional sports are located at the outermost. Breivik et al.(1994) defined extreme (Yates, 2015). When investigating the available statistics relating sport’ as a high-risk sport where the possibility of severe injury to extreme sport, one comes across a minefield of contradictions or death is a possibility as well as integral to the sport or activity. as the classification of injuries and/or fatalities are reported in a So, the components of these definitions include: going beyond the myriad of different ways. norm of what is considered reasonable and may result in severe A further challenge is then to set parameters using statistics of injury or death, i.e., high physical and/or psychological risk. extreme sport according to risk, injury or mortality. This would require traditional sports such as cheerleading and horse riding, due to their high annual incidence of catastrophic injuries, to WHAT IS SPORT? be classified as high-risk sports (Turner and McCory, 2006). In the United Kingdom the Rugby Football Union defined injury as Historically the definitions of sport have evolved particularly as something that “:::prevents a player from taking a full part in all new activities such as “BASE jumping” and “extreme mountain training activities typically planned for that day:::” (p. 7 in the ironing” have emerged to challenges the perception of what sport England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project Season, actually is. Eysenck et al.(1982), in their seminal review paper 2013–2014). Mean injuries per match for 2013 were identified began by highlighting the problems inherent in the definition of as 62 and mean injuries per club (including training) were 35 sport. They used the Collins dictionary in their paper to define (p. 6 England Professional Rugby Injury Surveillance Project sport as amusement, diversion, fun, pastime, game::: individual Season, 2013–2014). Annual Rugby Union incidents around the or group activity pursued for exercise or pleasure often involving world account for 4.6 catastrophic injuries per 100,000 each the testing of physical capabilities::: (Eysenck et al., 1982). year, e.g., the risk

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