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Lecture 22 Relativistic Background

Why study relativistic ?

1 Many experimental phenomena cannot be understood within purely non-relativistic domain. e.g. quantum mechanical , of new sub-atomic , etc.

2 New phenomena appear at relativistic velocities. e.g. production, , etc.

3 Aesthetically and intellectually it would be profoundly unsatisfactory if relativity and quantum mechanics could not be united. Background

When is a particle relativistic?

1 When velocity approaches speed of c or, more intrinsically, when is large compared to rest energy, mc2. e.g. at CERN are accelerated to of ca. 300GeV (1GeV= 109eV) much larger than rest mass energy, 0.94 GeV.

2 have zero rest mass and always travel at the – they are never non-relativistic! Background

What new phenomena occur?

1 Particle production e.g. - pairs by energetic γ-rays in .

2 instability: If binding energy of electron

2 4 Z e m 2 Ebind = > 2mc 2!2 a nucleus with initially no is instantly screened by creation of electron/positron pairs from vacuum

3 Spin: emerges naturally from relativistic formulation Background

When does relativity intrude on QM?

1 When E mc2, i.e. p mc kin ∼ ∼ 2 From relation, ∆x∆p > h, this translates to a length

h ∆x > = λ mc c the Compton .

3 for massless particles, λc = , i.e. relativity always important for, e.g., photons. ∞ Relativistic quantum mechanics: outline

1 (revision and notation)

2 Klein-Gordon

3

4 Quantum mechanical spin

5 Solutions of the Dirac equation

6 Relativistic quantum field

7 Recovery of non-relativistic limit Special relativity (revision and notation)

Space- is specified by a 4-vector

A contravariant 4-vector

x =(x µ) (x 0, x 1, x 2, x 3) (ct, x) ≡ ≡

ν transformed into covariant 4-vector xµ = gµν x by Minkowskii metric 1 µν 1 µν µ µ (gµν ) = (g )= −  , g gνλ = g δ , 1 λ ≡ λ −  1   −    product: x y = x y µ = x µy ν g = x µy · µ µν µ Special relativity (revision and notation)

Lorentz : consists of linear transformations, Λ, preserving µ µ µ ν x y, i.e. for x x ! =Λ x = x y · %→ ν · µ ν µ ν α β α β x ! y ! = g x ! y ! = g Λ Λ x y = g x y · µν µν α β αβ = gαβ ' () * e.g. along x1

γ γv/c γv/c − γ 1 Λµ =  −  ,γ = ν 10 (1 v 2/c2)1/2  01 −     Special relativity (revision and notation)

4-vectors classified as time-like or -like

x 2 =(ct)2 x2 −

1 forward time-like: x 2 > 0, x 0 > 0

2 backward time-like: x 2 > 0, x 0 < 0

3 space-like: x 2 < 0 Special relativity (revision and notation)

Lorentz group splits up into four components:

1 Every LT maps time-like vectors (x 2 > 0) into time-like vectors

2 0 Orthochronous transformations Λ 0 > 0, preserve forward/backward sign

3 Proper: det Λ= 1 (as opposed to 1) − 4 Group of proper orthochronous transformation: +↑ – subgroup of – excludes time-reversalL and 1 1 − 1 1 T = , P =  1   − 1  −  1   1     −      5 Remaining components of group generated by

↓ = T +↑ , ↑ = P +↑ , +↓ = TP +↑ . L− L L− L L L Special relativity (revision and notation)

1 Special relativity requires theories to be invariant under LT or, more generally, Poincar´etransformations: x µ Λµ x ν + aµ → ν 2 Generators of proper orthochronous transformations, Λ +↑ , can be reached by infinitesimal transformations ∈L Λµ = δµ + ωµ ,ωµ 1 ν ν ν ν (

µ ν 2 ! gµν Λ αΛ β = gαβ + ωαβ + ωβα + O(ω ) = gαβ i.e. ω = ω , ω has six independent components αβ − βα αβ ↑ has six independent generators: three and three boosts L+ µ 3 covariant and contravariant derivative, chosen s.t. ∂µx =1 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ = = , ,∂µ = = , . µ ∂x µ c ∂t ∇ ∂x c ∂t −∇ + , µ + , 1 ∂2 4 d’Alembertian : ∂2 = ∂ ∂µ = 2 µ c2 ∂t2 −∇ Relativistic quantum mechanics: outline

1 Special relativity (revision and notation)

2 Klein-Gordon equation

3 Dirac equation

4 Quantum mechanical spin

5 Solutions of the Dirac equation

6 Relativistic quantum field theories

7 Recovery of non-relativistic limit Klein-Gordon equation Klein-Gordon equation

How to make equation relativistic?

According to canonical procedure in NRQM: ˆ µ µ pˆ = i! , E = i!∂t , i.e. p (E/c, p) pˆ − ∇ ≡ %→ transforms as a 4-vector under LT What if we apply quantization procedure to energy? pµp =(E/c)2 p2 = m2c2, m rest mass µ − −

2 4 2 2 1/2 2 4 2 2 2 1/2 E(p) = + m c + p c i!∂t ψ = m c ! c ψ %−→ − ∇ Meaning of- square root?. Taylor expansion: / 0 2 2 4 2 2 2 ! ! ( ) i!∂t ψ = mc ψ ∇ ψ ∇ ψ + − 2m − 8m3c2 ··· i.e. time-evolution of ψ specified by infinite number of boundary conditions non-locality, and space/time asymmetry – suggests that this equation%→ is a poor starting point... Klein-Gordon equation

Alternatively, apply quantization to energy- invariant:

2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 E = p c + m c , ! ∂ ψ = ! c + m c ψ − t − ∇ - . 2π mc Setting kc = = , leads to Klein-Gordon equation, λc !

2 2 ∂ + kc ψ =0 - . Klein-Gordon equation is local and manifestly Lorentz covariant. Invariance of ψ under rotations means that, if valid at all, Klein-Gordon equation limited to spinless particles

But can ψ 2 be interpreted as density? | | Klein-Gordon equation:

Probabilities? Take lesson from non-relativistic quantum mechanics:

Schrodinger eqn. c.c. !2 2 !2 2 ψ∗ i!∂t + ∇ ψ =0, ψ i!∂t + ∇ ψ∗ =0 2m − 2m )+ *' , ( ) + *' , (

2 ! i.e.∂ ψ i (ψ∗ ψ ψ ψ∗)=0 t | | − 2m ∇· ∇ − ∇

cf. continuity relation – conservation of probability: ∂ ρ + j =0 t ∇·

2 ! ρ = ψ , j = i (ψ∗ ψ ψ ψ∗) | | − 2m ∇ − ∇ Klein-Gordon equation: Probabilities

1 2 2 2 Applied to KG equation: ψ∗ ∂ + k ψ =0 c2 t −∇ c + , 2 2 2 ! ∂t (ψ∗∂t ψ ψ∂t ψ∗) ! c (ψ∗ ψ ψ ψ∗)=0 − − ∇· ∇ − ∇ cf. continuity relation – conservation of probability: ∂ ρ + j = 0. t ∇· ! ! ρ = i (ψ∗∂ ψ ψ∂ ψ∗) , j = i (ψ∗ ψ ψ ψ∗) 2mc2 t − t − 2m ∇ − ∇

µ µ With 4-current j =(ρc, j), continuity relation ∂µj = 0. i.e. Klein-Gordon density is the time-like component of a 4-vector. Klein-Gordon equation: viability?

But is Klein-Gordon equation acceptable?

! Density ρ = i (ψ∗∂ ψ ψ∂ ψ∗) is not positive definite. 2mc2 t − t Klein-Gordon equation is not first order in time derivative therefore we must specify ψ and ∂t ψ everywhere at t = 0. Klein-Gordon equation has both positive and solutions.

Could we just reject negative energy solutions? Inconsistent – local interactions can scatter between positive and negative energy states

∂2 + k2 ψ = F (ψ) self interaction c − 2 2 (∂-+ iqA/!.c) + kc ψ =0 interaction with EM field 1 2 Relativistic quantum mechanics: summary

When the of particles become comparable to rest mass energy, p mc particles enter regime where relativity intrudes on quantum mechanics.∼ At these energy scales qualitatively new phenomena emerge: e.g. particle production, existence of antiparticles, etc. By applying procedure to energy-momentum invariant, we are led to the Klein-Gordon equation,

2 2 (∂ + kc )ψ =0

λc ! where λ = = denotes the . 2π mc However, the Klein-Gordon equation does not lead to a positive definite probability density and admits positive and negative energy solutions – these features led to it being abandoned as a viable candidate for a relativistic quantum mechanical . Lecture 23 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: Dirac equation Relativistic quantum mechanics: outline

1 Special relativity (revision and notation)

2 Klein-Gordon equation

3 Dirac equation

4 Quantum mechanical spin

5 Solutions of the Dirac equation

6 Relativistic quantum field theories

7 Recovery of non-relativistic limit Dirac Equation

Dirac placed emphasis on two constraints:

1 Relativistic equation must be first order in time derivative (and therefore proportional to ∂ =(∂ /c, )). µ t ∇

2 Elements of wavefunction must obey Klein-Gordon equation.

Dirac’s approach was to try to factorize Klein-Gordon equation: (∂2 + m2)ψ = 0 (where henceforth we set ! = c = 1)

( iγν ∂ m)(iγµ∂ m)ψ =0 − ν − µ −

i.e. withp ˆµ = i∂µ

(γµpˆ m) ψ =0 µ − Dirac Equation

(γµpˆ m) ψ =0 µ −

Equation is acceptable if:

1 ψ satisfies Klein-Gordon equation, (∂2 + m2)ψ = 0; 2 there must exist 4-vector current density which is conserved and whose time-like component is a positive density; 3 ψ does not have to satisfy any auxiliary boundary conditions.

µ From condition (1) we require (assuming [γ , pˆν ] = 0) 0=(γν pˆ + m)(γµpˆ m) ψ =(γν γµ pˆ pˆ m2)ψ ν µ − ν µ − (γν γµ+γµγν )/2 1 = γν ,γµ pˆ pˆ m2 ψ =(g'νµ()pˆ*pˆ m2)ψ =(p2 m2)ψ 2{ } ν µ − ν µ − − + , i.e. obeys Klein-Gordon if γµ,γν γµγν + γν γµ =2g νµ { γµ, and}≡ therefore ψ, can not be scalar. ⇒ Dirac Equation: Hamiltonian formulation

(γµpˆ m) ψ =0, γµ,γν =2g νµ µ − { }

To bring Dirac equation to the form i∂t ψ = Hˆ ψ, consider γ0(γµpˆ m)ψ = γ0(γ0pˆ γ pˆ m)ψ =0 µ − 0 − · − Since (γ0)2 1 γ0,γ0 = g 00 = I, ≡ 2 { } γ0(γµpˆ m)ψ = i∂ ψ γ0γ pˆψ mγ0ψ =0 µ − t − · −

i.e. Dirac equation can be written as i∂t ψ = Hˆ ψ with

Hˆ = α pˆ + βm, α = γ0γ,β = γ0 · Using identity γµ,γν =2g µν , { } 2 β = I, α,β =0, αi ,αj =2δij (exercise) { } { } Dirac Equation: γ matrices

i∂ ψ = Hˆ ψ, Hˆ = α pˆ + βm, α = γ0γ,β = γ0 t ·

Hermiticity of Hˆ assured if α† = α, and β† = β, i.e.

0 0 0 0 0 (γ γ)† γ†γ † = γ γ, and γ † = γ ≡ So we obtain the defining properties of Dirac γ matrices,

µ 0 µ 0 µ ν µν γ † = γ γ γ , γ ,γ =2g { } Since space-time is four-dimensional, γ must be of at least 4 4–ψ has at least four components. × However, 4-component wavefunction ψ does not transform as 4-vector – it is known as a (or ). Dirac Equation: γ matrices

µ 0 µ 0 µ ν µν γ † = γ γ γ , γ ,γ =2g { } From the defining properties, there are several possible representations of γ matrices. In the Dirac/Pauli representation: 0 0 σ γ0 = I2 , γ = 0 I2 σ 0 + − , + − , σ – Pauli spin matrices

σi σj = δij + i,ijk σk ,σi † = σi

01 0 i 10 e.g., σ = ,σ = ,σ = 1 10 2 i −0 3 0 1 + , + , + − , So, in Dirac/Pauli representation, 0 σ 0 α = γ0γ = ,β = γ0 = I2 σ 0 0 I2 + , + − , Dirac Equation: conjugation, density and current

µ µ 0 µ 0 (γ pˆ m) ψ =0,γ † = γ γ γ µ −

Applying complex conjugation to Dirac equation

µ µ [(γ pˆ m)ψ]† = ψ† iγ† ←−∂ m =0,ψ†←−∂ (∂ ψ)† µ − − µ − µ ≡ µ 3 4 Since (γ0)2 = I, we can write,

0 0 µ 0 µ 0 0=ψ†γ ( i γ γ† ←−∂ mγ ) = ψ¯ iγ ←−∂ + m γ − µ − − µ ψ¯ γµγ0 3 4 ' () * ' () * µ Introducing Feynman ‘slash’ notation a γ aµ, obtain conjugate form of Dirac equation - ≡

ψ¯(i←−∂ + m) = 0 - Dirac Equation: conjugation, density and current

ψ¯(i←−∂ + m) = 0, ∂ = γµ∂ - - µ

The, combining the Dirac equation, (i−→∂ m)ψ = 0 with its - − conjugate, we have ψ¯(i←−∂ + m)ψ =0= ψ¯(i−→∂ m)ψ, i.e. - − - −

ψ¯ ←−∂ + −→∂ ψ = ∂ (ψγ¯ µψ) = 0 - - µ 3 4 j µ ' () * µ We therefore identify j =(ρ, j) = (ψ†ψ,ψ†αψ) as the 4-current.

So, in contrast to the Klein-Gordon equation, the density 0 ρ = j = ψ†ψ is, as required, positive definite.

Motivated by this triumph(!), let us now consider what constraints relativistic covariance imposes and what consequences follow. Relativistic covariance

If ψ(x) obeys the Dirac equation its counterpart ψ!(x !) in a LT ν ν µ frame x ! =Λ µx , must obey the Dirac equation,

ν ∂ iγ m ψ!(x !) = 0 ∂x ν − + ! ,

If observer can reconstruct ψ!(x !) from ψ(x) there must exist a local (linear) transformation,

ψ!(x !)=S(Λ)ψ(x)

where S(Λ) is a 4 4 , i.e. × ν µ ∂x 1 ν ν 1 ν ∂ S(Λ) iγ (Λ− ) S(Λ)γ S − (Λ)γ m S(Λ)ψ(x)=0 ∂x µ µ ∂x ν − + ! ,

ν 1 1 ν µ Compatible with Dirac equation if S(Λ)γ S − (Λ) = (Λ− ) µγ Relativistic covariance

ν 1 1 ν µ ψ!(x !)=S(Λ)ψ(x), S(Λ)γ S − (Λ) = (Λ− ) µγ

But how do we determine S(Λ)? For an infinitesimal (i.e. proper orthochronous) LT

µ µ µ 1 µ µ µ Λ = δ + ω , (Λ− ) = δ ω + ν ν ν ν ν − ν ··· (recall that generators, ω = ω , are antisymmetric). µν − νµ This allows us to form the Taylor expansion of S(Λ):

∂S µν 2 S(Λ) S(I + ω)=S(I) + ω + O(ω ) ≡ ∂ω + ,µν I i '()* Σµν '−4() * where Σ = Σ (follows from antisymmetry of ω) is a matrix in µν − νµ bispinor space, and ωµν is a number. Relativistic covariance

i µν 1 i µν S(Λ) = I Σµν ω + , S − (Λ) = I + Σµν ω + − 4 ··· 4 ···

ν 1 1 ν µ Requiring that S(Λ)γ S − (Λ) = (Λ− ) µγ , a little bit of (see problem set/handout) shows that matrices Σµν must obey the relation,

[Σ ,γν ]=2i γ δν γ δν µη µ η − η µ This equation is satisfied by (exercise)- .

i Σ = [γ ,γ ] αβ 2 α β In summary, under set of infinitesimal Lorentz transformation, x ! =Λx, where Λ= I + ω, relativistic covariance of Dirac equation demands that wavefunction transforms as ψ!(x !)=S(Λ)ψ where i µν 2 i S(Λ) = I Σµν ω + O(ω ) and Σµν = [γµ,γν ]. − 4 2 Relativistic covariance

i µν S(Λ) = I Σµν ω + − 4 ···

“Finite” transformations (i.e. non-infinitesimal) generated by

i S(Λ) = exp Σ ωαβ ,ωαβ =Λαβ g αβ −4 αβ − 5 6

1 Transformations involving unitary matrices S(Λ), where S †S = I translate to spatial rotations.

2 Transformations involving Hermitian matrices S(Λ), where S † = S translate to Lorentz boosts. So what?? What are the consequences of relativistic covariance? and spin

For infinitesimal anticlockwise by angle θ around n

x! x + θn x Λ x, Λ I + θ n . × ≡ . × ω

i.e. ωij = θ,ikj nk , ω0i = ωi0 = 0. ' () * In non-relativistic quantum mechanics:

1 ψ!(x!)=ψ(x)=ψ(Λ− x!) ψ((I ω) x!) . − · ψ(x!) ω x! ψ(x!)+ . − · ·∇ ··· = ψ(x!) iθn x! ( i )ψ(x!)+ − × · − ∇ ··· = (1 iθn Lˆ)ψ(x!)+ Uˆ ψ(x!) − · ···≡ iθn Lˆ cf. of rotations: Uˆ = e− · . Angular momentum and spin

But relativistic covariance of Dirac equation demands that ψ!(x !)=S(Λ)ψ(x)

With ωij = θ,ijk nk , ω0i = ωi0 = 0,

i αβ i S(Λ) I Σαβω = I Σij ,ikj nk θ . − 4 − 4

In Dirac/Pauli representation σk – Pauli spin matrices

i σk 0 0 σi Σij = [γi ,γj ]=,ijk ,γi = 2 0 σk σi 0 + , + − ,

i.e. S(Λ) = I iθn S where − ·

1 1 1 σk 0 Sk = ,ijk Σij = ,ijk ,ijl σl I = 4 4 ⊗ 2 0 σk + , δ δ δ δ =2δ jj kl − jl jk kl ' () * Angular momentum and spin

Altogether, combining components of transformation,

I iθn S − · 1 ψ!(x !)=S(Λ) ψ(xΛ− x !) (I iθn (S + Lˆ))ψ(x !) . − · )*'( (I iθn Lˆ)ψ(x !) − · ' () * we obtain

1 ψ!(x !)=S(Λ)ψ(Λ− x !) (1 iθn Jˆ)ψ(x !) . − · where Jˆ = Lˆ + S represents total angular momentum. Intrinsic contribution to angular momentum known as spin.

1 [S , S ]=i, S , (S )2 = for each i i j ijk k i 4 Dirac equation is relativistic for spin 1/2 particles. Parity

So far we have only dealt with the subgroup of proper orthochronous Lorentz transformations, ↑ . L+ 1 1 Taking into account Parity, Pµν =  − 1  −  1   −   ν 1 1 ν µ relativistic covariance demands S(Λ)γ S − (Λ) = (Λ− ) µγ

1 0 0 1 i i S − (P)γ S(P)=γ , S − (P)γ S(P)= γ − achieved if S(P)=γ0eiφ, where φ denotes arbitrary . But since P2 = I, eiφ = 1 or 1 −

1 0 ψ!(x !)=S(P)ψ(Λ− x !)=ηγ ψ(Px !)

where η = 1 — intrinsic parity of the particle ± Lecture 24 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics: Solutions of the Dirac equation Relativistic quantum mechanics: outline

1 Special relativity (revision and notation)

2 Klein-Gordon equation

3 Dirac equation

4 Quantum mechanical spin

5 Solutions of the Dirac equation

6 Relativistic quantum field theories

7 Recovery of non-relativistic limit solutions of Dirac Equation

(p m)ψ =0, p = iγµ∂ - − - µ

Free particle solution of Dirac equation is a :

ip x iEt+ip x ψ(x)=e− · u(p)=e− · u(p)

where u(p) is the bispinor amplitude.

Since components of ψ obey KG equation, (pµp m2)ψ = 0, µ − (p )2 p2 m2 =0, E p = p2 + m2 0 − − ≡ 0 ± So, once again, as with Klein-Gordon equation7 we encounter positive and negative energy solutions!! Free particle solutions of Dirac Equation

ip x iEt+ip x ψ(x)=e− · u(p)=e− · u(p)

What about bispinor amplitude, u(p)? In Dirac/Pauli representation,

σ γ0 = I2 , γ = I2 σ + − , + − , the components of the bispinor obeys the condition,

0 µ p m σ p (γ pµ m)u(p)= − − · u(p) = 0 − σ p p0 m + · − − , i.e. bispinor elements:

ξ (p0 m)ξ = σ pη u(p)= , η σ p−ξ =(p0 + m· )η + , 8 · Free particle solutions of the Dirac Equation

ξ (p0 m)ξ = σ pη u(p)= , η σ p−ξ =(p0 + m· )η + , 8 · σ p Consistent when (p0)2 = p2 + m2 and η = · ξ p0 + m

χ(r) u(r)(p)=N(p) σ p · χ(r) 9 p0 + m : where χ(r) are a pair of orthogonal two-component vectors with index r =1, 2, and N(p) is normalization. Helicity: Eigenvalue of spin projected along direction of

1 p ( ) p ( ) 1 ( ) σ χ ± S χ ± = χ ± 2 · p ≡ · p ±2 | | | | (+) ( ) e.g. if p = p eˆ3, χ = (1, 0), χ − = (0, 1) Free particle solutions of the Dirac Equation

So, general positive energy plane wave solution written in eigenbasis of helicity,

( ) χ ± ( ) ip x ψp± (x)=N(p)e− · p ( )  | | χ ±  ±p0 + m  

But how to deal with the problem of negative energy states? Must we reject the Dirac as well as the Klein-Gordon equation? In fact, the existence of negative energy states provided the key that led to the discovery of antiparticles. To understand why, let us consider the problem of from a potential step... Klein paradox and antiparticles

Consider plane wave, unit amplitude, energy E, momentum p ˆe3, and spin (χ = (1, 0)) incident on potential barrier V (x)=V θ(x ) ↑ 3 χ(+) ψ = e ip0t+ipx3 p in − χ(+) 9 p0 + m :

At barrier, spin is conserved, component r is reflected (E, p ˆe ), − 3 and component t is transmitted (E ! = E V , p! ˆe ) − 3 From Klein-Gordon condition (energy-momentum invariant): 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 p E = p + m and p! E ! = p! + m 0 ≡ 0 ≡ Klein paradox and antiparticles

χ(+) ψ = e ip0t+ipx3 p in − χ(+) 9 p0 + m : Boundary conditions: since Dirac equation is first order, require only continuity of ψ at interface (cf. Schrodinger eqn.)

1 1 1 0 0 0   + r   = t   p/(E + m) p/(E + m) p!/(E ! + m) −  0   0   0              (helicity conserved in reflection) Equating (generically complex) coefficients:

p p 1+r = t, (1 r)= ! t E + m − E ! + m Klein paradox and antiparticles

p p 1+r = t (1), (1 r)= ! t (2) E + m − E ! + m

From (2), 1 r = ζt where − p (E + m) ζ = ! p (E ! + m)

Together with (1), (1 + ζ)t =2

2 1+r 1 1 ζ t = , = , r = − 1+ζ 1 r ζ 1+ζ −

Interpret solution by studying vector current: j = ψ¯γψ = ψ†αψ σ j = ψ α ψ,α = γ γ = 3 3 † 3 3 0 3 σ + 3 , Klein paradox and antiparticles

σ j = ψ 3 ψ 3 † σ + 3 ,

(Up to overall normalization) the incident, transmitted and reflected currents given by,

1 (i) p 0 σ3 0 2p j3 = 10 E+m 0  p  = , σ3 0 E + m + , E+m - .  0    (t) 1 2 (r)  2p 2 j3 = (p! + p!∗) t , j3 = r E ! + m | | −E + m | |

where we note that, depending on height of the potential, p! may be complex (cf. NRQM). Klein paradox and antiparticles

p E + m ζ = ! p E ! + m

Therefore, ratio of reflected/transmitted to incident currents,

j (r) 1 ζ 2 3 = r 2 = − (i) −| | − 1+ζ j3 ; ; ; ; (t) ; ; j3 2 (p! + p!∗) E + m 4 1 2(ζ + ζ∗) = t ; ; = (ζ + ζ∗)= (i) | | 2p E + m 1+ζ 2 2 1+ζ 2 j3 ! | | | |

(i) (r) (t) From which we can confirm current conservation, j3 = j3 + j3 :

(r) 2 2 (t) j 1+ζ 1 ζ 2(ζ + ζ∗) j 1+ 3 = | | −| − | = = 3 (i) 1+ζ 2 1+ζ 2 (i) j3 | | | | j3 Klein paradox and antiparticles

j (r) 1 ζ 2 3 = r 2 = − (i) −| | − 1+ζ j3 ; ; ; ; ; ; Three distinct regimes; ; in energy:

1 E ! (E V ) > m: ≡ 2 − 2 2 i.e. p! = E ! m > 0, p! > 0 (beam propagates to right). −

p! E + m (r) (i) Therefore ζ > 0 and real; j3 < j3 as expected, ≡ p E ! + m | | | | i.e. for E ! > m, as in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, some of the beam is reflected and some transmitted.

2 m > E ! > m: 2 −2 2 i.e. p! = E ! m < 0, p! pure imaginary. − Particles have insufficient energy to surmount potential barrier.

p! E + m (r) (i) Therefore, ζ pure imaginary, j3 = j3 . ≡ p E ! + m | | | | i.e. all beam is reflected; ψ has evanescant decays on the right hand side of the barrier (cf. NRQM).

3 E ! = E V < m: − − i.e. step height V > E + m 2m larger than twice rest mass energy. 2 2 2 ≥ p! = E ! m > 0, p! > 0 (beam propagates to the right) − p (E + m) But ζ = ! < 0 real! p (E ! + m) (r) (i) Therefore j3 > j3 !! – more current is reflected than is incident – Klein Paradox| | (also| | holds for Klein-Gordon equation). But particle current conserved – it is as though an additional beam of particles were incident from right. Klein paradox and antiparticles

Physical Interpretation:

“Particles” from right should be interpreted as antiparticles propagating to right i.e. incoming beam stimulates emission of particle/ pairs at barrier. Particles combine with reflected to beam to create current to left that is larger than incident current while antiparticles propagate to the right in the barrier region. Klein paradox and antiparticles

Negative energy states

Existence of antiparticles suggests redefinition of plane wave states with E < 0: Dirac particles are, in fact, fermions and Pauli exclusion applies. Dirac vacuum corresponds to infinite sea of filled negative energy states. When V > 2m the potential step is in a precarious situation: It becomes energetically favourable to create particle/antiparticle pairs – cf. vacuum instability. Incident beam stimulates excitation of a positive energy particle from negative energy sea leaving behind positive energy “hole” – an antiparticle. Klein paradox and antiparticles

cf. creation of electron-positron pair vacuum due to high energy . Klein paradox and antiparticles

2 2 Therefore, for E < 0, we should set p0 =+ p + m and +ip x ψ(x)=e · v(p) where (p + m)v(p)=0(N.B. “+”) - 7

σ p (r) (r) · χ v (p)=N(p) p0 + m 9 χ(r) :

But Dirac equation was constructed on premace that ψ associated with “single particle” (cf. Schr¨odingerequation). However, for V > 2m, theory describes creation of particle/antiparticle pairs. ψ must be viewed as a quantum field capable of describing an indefinite number of particles!! In fact, Dirac equation must be viewed as field equation, cf. wave equation for harmonic chain. As with chain, quantization of theory leads to positive energy quantum particles (cf. ). Allows reinstatement of Klein-Gordon theory as a relativistic theory for scalar (spin 0 particles)... Quantization of Klein-Gordon field

Klein-Gordon equation abandoned as candidate for relativistic theory on that (i) it admitted negative energy solutions, and (ii) probability density was not positive definite.

But Klein paradox suggests reinterpretation of Dirac wavefunction as a quantum field.

If φ were a classical field, Klein-Gordon equation, (∂2 m2)φ =0 would be associated with Lagrangian density, −

1 1 = ∂ φ∂µφ m2φ2 L 2 µ − 2

Defining canonical momentum, π(x)=∂ = φ˙(x) φ˙ L 1 = πφ˙ = π2 +( φ)2 + m2φ2 H −L 2 ∇ / 0 is +ve definite! i.e. if quantized, only +ve energies appear. H Quantization of Klein-Gordon field

Promoting fields to operators π πˆ and φ φˆ, with “equal time” %→ %→3 commutation relations, [φˆ(x, t), πˆ(x!, t)] = iδ (x x!), (for m = 0, cf. harmonic chain!) −

1 Hˆ = d 3x πˆ2 +( φˆ)2 + m2φˆ2 2 ∇ < 5 3 46 Turning to Fourier space (with k ω = √k2 + m2) 0 ≡ k 3 d k ik x ik x φˆ(x)= a(k)e− · + a†(k)e · , πˆ(x) ∂ φˆ(x) (2π)32ω ≡ 0 < k - 3 3 . where a(k), a†(k!) = (2π) 2ω δ (k k!), k − / 0 d 3k 1 Hˆ = ω a†(k)a(k)+ (2π)32ω k 2 < k 5 6

Bosonic operators a† and a create and annihilate relativistic scalar (bosonic, spin 0) particles Quantization of Dirac field

Dirac equation associated with Lagrangian density,

µ µ = ψ¯ (iγ ∂ m) ψ, i.e.∂ ¯ =(iγ ∂ m) ψ =0 L µ − ψL µ −

0 With momentum π = ∂ = iψγ¯ = iψ†, Hamiltonian density ψ˙ L = πψ˙ = ψ¯iγ0∂ ψ = ψ¯ ( iγ + m) ψ H −L 0 −L − ·∇ Once again, we can follow using canonical quantization procedure, promoting fields to operators – but, in this case, one must impose equal time anti-commutation relations,

ψˆα(x, t), πˆ(x!, t) ψˆα(x, t)ˆπβ(x!, t) +π ˆβ(x, t)ψˆα(x!, t) { }≡ 3 = iδ (x x!)δ − αβ Quantization of Dirac field

Turning to Fourier space (with k ω = √k2 + m2) 0 ≡ k 2 3 d k (r) ik x (r) ik x ψ(x)= a (k)u (k)e− · + b†(k)v (k)e · (2π)32ω r r r=1 k = < 1 2 with equal time anti-commutation relations (hallmark of !)

3 3 a (k), a†(k!) = b (k), b†(k!) = (2π) 2ω δ δ (k k!) r s r s k rs − >ar†(k), as†(k!)? = >br†(k), bs†(k!)? =0 > ? > ? 2 which accommdates Pauli exclusion ar†(k) = 0(!), obtain

2 d 3k Hˆ = ω a†(k)a (k)+b†(k)b (k) (2π)32ω k r r r r r=1 < k = / 0 (r) ik x Physically a(k)u (k)e− · annihilates +ve energy particle (r) ik x (helicity r), and b†(k)v (k)e · creates a +ve energy antiparticle. Low energy limit of the Dirac equation

Previously, we have explored the relativistic (fine-structure) corrections to the . At the time, we alluded to these as the leading relativistic contributions to the Dirac theory. In the following section, we will explore how these corrections emerge from relativistic formulation. But first, we must consider interaction of with electromagnetic field. As with non-relativistic quantum mechanics, interaction of Dirac particle of q (q = e for electron) with EM field defined by minimal substitution, pµ− pµ qAµ, where Aµ =(φ, A), i.e. %−→ −

(p qA m)ψ =0 - − - − Low energy limit of the Dirac equation

For particle moving in potential (φ, A), stationary form of Dirac Hamiltonian given by Hˆ ψ = Eψ where, restoring factors of ! and c,

Hˆ = cα (pˆ qA)+mc2β + qφ · − mc2 + qφ cσ (pˆ qA) = cσ (pˆ qA) mc· 2 −+ qφ + · − − ,

T To develop non-relativistic limit, consider bispinor ψ =(ψa,ψb), where the elements obey coupled ,

(mc2 + qφ)ψ + cσ (pˆ qA)ψ = Eψ a · − b a cσ (pˆ qA)ψ (mc2 qφ)ψ = Eψ · − a − − b b If we define energy shift over rest mass energy, W = E mc2, − 1 ψ = cσ (pˆ qA)ψ b 2mc2 + W qφ · − a − Low energy limit of the Dirac equation

1 ψ = cσ (pˆ qA)ψ b 2mc2 + W qφ · − a − In the non-relativistic limit, W mc2 and we can develop an expansion in v/c. At leading order,( ψ 1 cσ (pˆ qA)ψ . b . 2mc2 · − a Substituted into first equation, obtain HˆNRψa = W ψa where, defining V = qφ, 1 Hˆ = [σ (pˆ qA)]2 + V . NR 2m · −

Making use of Pauli matrix identity σi σj = δij + i,ijk σk ,

1 q! Hˆ = (pˆ qA)2 σ ( A)+V NR 2m − − 2m · ∇× i.e. spin , q! q µ = σ = g Sˆ, with , g = 2. S 2m 2m Low energy limit of the Dirac equation

1 ψ = cσ (pˆ qA)ψ b 2mc2 + W V · − a −

Taking into account the leading order (in v/c) correction (with A = 0 for simplicity), we have

1 W V ψ 1 − cσ pˆψ b . 2mc2 − 2mc2 · a + , Then substituted into the bispinor equation (and taking into account correction from normalization) we find

pˆ2 pˆ4 1 !2 Hˆ + V + S ( V ) pˆ + ( 2V ) . 2m −8m3c2 2m2c2 · ∇ × 8m2c2 ∇ k.e. spin Darwin term − ' () * ' () * ' () * Synopsis: (mostly revision) Lectures 1-4ish

1 Foundations of quantum physics:

†Historical background; wave mechanics to Schr¨odingerequation.

2 Quantum mechanics in one dimension: Unbound particles: potential step, barriers and tunneling; bound states: rectangular well, δ- well; †Kronig-Penney model .

3 Operator methods: Uncertainty ; operator; Ehrenfest’s theorem; †symmetries in quantum mechanics; Heisenberg representation; quantum ; †coherent states.

4 Quantum mechanics in more than one dimension: ; angular momentum; raising and lowering operators; representations; central potential; atomic hydrogen.

non-examinable *in this course*. † Synopsis: Lectures 5-10

5 Charged particle in an electromagnetic field: Classical and quantum mechanics of particle in a field; normal Zeeman effect; gauge invariance and the Aharonov-Bohm effect; Landau levels, †Quantum Hall effect.

6 Spin: Stern-Gerlach experiment; , spin operators and ; spin in a magnetic field; parametric ; of angular momenta.

7 Time-independent : Perturbation series; first and second order expansion; degenerate perturbation theory; Stark effect; nearly .

8 Variational and WKB method: Variational method: energy and ; application to ; †Semiclassics and the WKB method. non-examinable *in this course*. † Synopsis: Lectures 11-15

9 : Particle indistinguishability and quantum statistics; space and spin wavefunctions; consequences of ; ideal quantum gases; † in ; Bose-Einstein condensation in ultracold atomic gases.

10 Atomic structure: Relativistic corrections – spin-orbit coupling; Darwin term; ; hyperfine structure. Multi-electron ; Helium; approximation †and beyond; Hund’s rule; ; LS and jj coupling schemes; atomic spectra; Zeeman effect.

11 Molecular structure: + Born-Oppenheimer approximation; H2 ; H2 ; ionic and covalent bonding; LCAO method; from to solids; †application of LCAO method to ; molecular spectra; rotation and vibrational transitions.

non-examinable *in this course*. † Synopsis: Lectures 16-19

12 theory: from phonons to photons: From particles to fields: classical field theory of harmonic atomic chain; quantization of atomic chain; phonons; classical theory of the EM field; †waveguide; quantization of the EM field and photons.

13 Time-dependent perturbation theory: Rabi oscillations in two level ; perturbation series; sudden approximation; harmonic perturbations and Fermi’s Golden rule.

14 Radiative transitions: Light-matter interaction; ; absorption and stimulated emission; Einstein’s A and B coefficents; approximation; selection rules; .

non-examinable *in this course*. † Synopsis: Lectures 20-24

15

†Elastic and inelastic scattering; †method of particle ; †Born series expansion; Born approximation from Fermi’s Golden rule; †scattering of identical particles.

16 Relativistic quantum mechanics:

†Klein-Gordon equation; †Dirac equation; †relativistic covariance and spin; †free relativistic particles and the Klein paradox; †antiparticles; †coupling to EM field: † and the connection to non-relativistic quantum mechanics; †field quantization.

non-examinable *in this course*. †