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Food in World History Food in World History Providing a comparative and comprehensive study of culinary cultures and consumption throughout the world, this book examines the globalization of food, illustrating how the diffusion of crops contributed to population growth and industrialization, and exploring the political, social and environmental implications of our changing relationship with food. Including numerous case studies from diverse societies and periods, Food in World History examines and focuses on: • the use of food as a tool of colonialism in Africa and Asia • the influence of the Italian and Chinese diasporas on US and Latin American food culture • how food was fractured along class lines in the French bourgeois restaurant culture and working-class cafés • the results of state intervention in food production and distribution • how the impact of genetic modification and food crises has affected the relationship between consumer and product. This concise and readable survey not only presents a simple history of food and its consumption, but also provides a unique examination of world history itself. Jeffrey M. Pilcher is Associate Professor of History at the University of Minnesota. Author of ¡Que vivan los tamales! Food and the Making of Mexican Identity (1998), he has also published essays in the American Historical Review, The Americas and Food, Culture and Society. Themes in World History Series editor: Peter N. Stearns The Themes in World History series offers focused treatment of a range of human experiences and institutions in the world history context. The purpose is to provide serious, if brief, discussions of important topics as additions to textbook coverage and document collections. The treatments will allow students to probe particular facets of the human story in greater depth than textbook coverage allows, and to gain a fuller sense of historians’ analytical methods and debates in the process. Each topic is handled over time – allowing discussions of changes and continuities. Each topic is assessed in terms of a range of different societies and religions – allowing comparisons of relevant similarities and differences. Each book in the series helps readers deal with world history in action, evaluating global contexts as they work through some of the key components of human society and human life. Gender in World History Revolutions in World History Peter N. Stearns Michael D. Richards Consumerism in World Migration in World History History: The Global Patrick Manning Transformation of Desire Sports in World History Peter N. Stearns David G. McComb Warfare in World History The United States Michael S. Neiberg in World History Edward J. Davies II Disease and Medicine in World History Alcohol in World History Sheldon Watts Gina Hames Western Civilization Childhood in World History in World History Peter N. Stearns Peter N. Stearns Religion in World History The Indian Ocean John Super and Briane Turley in World History Milo Kearney Asian Democracy in World History Alan T.Wood Food in World History Jeffrey M. Pilcher First published 2006 by Routledge 270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016 Simultaneously published in the UK by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 2006 Jeffrey M. Pilcher All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Every effort has been made to ensure that the advice and information in this book is true and accurate at the time of going to press. However, neither the publisher nor the authors can accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. In the case of drug administration, any medical procedure or the use of technical equipment mentioned within this book, you are strongly advised to consult the manufacturer’s guidelines. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Pilcher, Jeffrey M., 1965– Food in world history / Jeffrey M. Pilcher. p. cm. – (Themes in world history) ISBN 0–415–31145–4 (hardback) – ISBN 0–415–31146–2 (pbk.) 1. Food–History. 2. Food supply–History. I. Title. II. Series. TX353 .P46 2005 641 .3′009–dc22 2005007198 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-203-08766-6 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0–415–31145–4 (hbk) ISBN 0–415–31146–2 (pbk) For my Mother, who introduced me to a world of food. Contents Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 1 The first world cuisine 8 Part I The ingredients of change 17 2 The Columbian Exchange 19 3 Sugar, spice, and blood 27 4 Nouvelle cuisines 34 5 Moral and political economies 42 Part II The taste of modernity 51 6 The industrial kitchen 55 7 Cuisine and nation-building 63 8 Empires of food 71 9 Migrant cuisines 79 viii Contents Part III The global palate 87 10 Guns and butter 91 11 The Green Revolution 100 12 McDonaldization and its discontents 108 13 Culinary pluralism 113 Conclusion 118 Index 123 Acknowledgments Thanks to Masaya Arakawa, Warren Belasco, Donna Gabaccia, Raymond Grew, Paul Gutenberg, Keith Knapp, Anne Rubenstein, and Sydney Watts. I also appreciate the encouragement of Peter Stearns, Victoria Peters, Philippa Grand, and the expert staff at Routledge. The Citadel Foundation, Charleston, SC, generously supported my research. Introduction Everyone requires the same basic nutrients – proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals – yet human societies have adopted wildly different approaches to satisfying these physiological needs. Agrarian peoples kept healthy on vegetarian regimes of up to 80 percent starchy grains, while Inuit hunters of the Arctic once lived almost entirely on whale meat – perhaps the ultimate in high and low carbohydrate diets. However monotonous these traditional food habits may have seemed on a daily basis, they collectively illustrate the range of cultural adaptations that have taken shape over the course of world history. The rise of modern, industrial societies during the past three hundred years has increased personal choice while narrowing the overall diversity of human food supplies, just as novelty diets and individualistic eating habits have undermined the sense of community formed over the dinner table. The material constraints of environment, technology, and physiology set boundaries for human diets, but even traditional societies have been quite skilled in exploiting available resources. People obviously cannot hunt whales in tropical highlands or harvest grain from the Arctic ice; nevertheless, peasant farmers possess a tremendous range of practical knowledge of microclimates to maximize the harvest from any given field. The material nature of food, especially its perishability, likewise determines availability, although a society’s technological base can compensate for such limitations. The use of refrigera- tion to keep food without spoiling may well reflect a modern failure of culinary imagination. Traditional preparations such as sausage, jam, pickles, and cheese demonstrate the technological achievements of earlier civilizations in pre- serving meat, fruit, vegetables, and milk. Even human physiology can adapt, over millennia, to overcome material shortages. Northern Europeans and Asian steppe nomads, unable to obtain sufficient vitamin D from sunlight alone, evolved a lifelong tolerance to lactose, unlike most humans, who can only digest milk, and the vitamin D it contains, in childhood. The study of culinary cultures must consider both the material nature of ingredients and the beliefs and practices about these foods. India and Mexico provide a revealing comparison of two nations that eat largely vegetarian 2 Introduction diets, use legumes extensively as a substitute for animal protein, and season generously with chiles and spices. Wheat flatbreads (naan) even resemble corn tortillas. Despite these striking parallels, structural differences run deeper. Mexican cooks consider chile peppers the indispensable foundation of a mole sauce, rather than simply one spice among many in a curry. South Asian meals consist of a variety of dishes served simultaneously, in contrast to the Hispanic sequence of courses. The social meanings of food diverge further; Mexican elites achieved distinction by monopolizing limited meat supplies while Indians preserved caste purity by abjuring meat. Historical perspective magnifies this contrast between the non-violence of Jain devotees and the ritual sacrifices of Aztec priests. Commensality, the sharing of food and drink, forges bonds of group identity. Daily meals shared around the family hearth accumulate intimate and enduring social ties. Metaphors also link food to sexuality, further cement- ing the foundations of family life. In modern times, as communal meals have declined in regularity, symbolic occasions such as Thanksgiving and Christmas carry even greater emotional weight. Ceremonial feasts have also served to convey an element of familial intimacy to political relationships, bolstering ties between rulers and subjects. Moreover, the sharing of food habits helps to define ethnic identity,
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