Dissimulation and Deceit in Early Modern Europe

Home , Alberico Gentili, Francesco Pucci, Jacopo Aconcio

Copyrighted material – 978–1–137– 44748–7 Selection and editorial matter © Miriam Eliav- Feldon and Tamar Herzig 2015 Remaining chapters © Contributors 2015 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6– 10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2015 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978– 1– 137– 44748– 7 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Dissimulation and deceit in early modern Europe / [edited by] Miriam Eliav-Feldon (professor emerita of early modern history, Tel Aviv University, Israel), Tamar Herzig (associate professor of early modern history, Tel Aviv University, Israel). pages cm Papers from an international conference entitled “Cultural and Religious Dissimulation in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries,” held at Tel Aviv University, Israel, on June 10-11, 2012. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–1–137–44748–7 (hardback) 1. Europe—History—1492–1648—Congresses. 2. Europe— Social life and customs—Congresses. 3. Europe—Religious life and customs—Congresses. 4. Truthfulness and falsehood—Social aspects—Europe—History—Congresses. 5. Deception—Social aspects—Europe—History—Congresses. 6. Fraud—Social aspects— Europe—History—Congresses. 7. Impostors and imposture— Europe—History—Congresses. 8. Identity (Psychology—Social aspects—Europe—History—Congresses. 9. Identity (Psychology)— Europe—Religious aspects—History—Congresses. I. Eliav-Feldon, Miriam, 1946– II. Herzig, Tamar. D231.D57 2015 940.2'32—dc23 2015020071

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Contents

List of Figures and Tables vii Acknowledgements viii Notes on Contributors x

1 Introduction 1 Miriam Eliav-Feldon 2 Superstition and Dissimulation: Discerning False Religion in the Fifteenth Century 9 Michael D. Bailey 3 ‘Mendacium officiosum’: Alberico Gentili’s Ways of Lying 27 Vincenzo Lavenia 4 Dissimulation and Conversion: Francesco Pucci’s Return to Catholicism 45 Giorgio Caravale 5 The Identity Game: Ambiguous Religious Attachments in Seventeenth- Century Lyon 67 Monica Martinat 6 From ‘Marranos’ to ‘Unbelievers’: The Spanish Peccadillo in Sixteenth- Century Italy 79 Stefania Pastore 7 Recidivist Converts in Early Modern Europe 94 Moshe Sluhovsky 8 A Hybrid Identity: Jewish Convert, Christian Mystic and Demoniac 110 Adelisa Malena 9 Beyond Simulation: An Enquiry Concerning Demonic Possession 130 Guido Dall’Olio 10 Genuine and Fraudulent Stigmatics in the Sixteenth Century 142 Tamar Herzig

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11 Real, Fake or Megalomaniacs? Three Suspicious Ambassadors, 1450– 1600 165 Giorgio Rota 12 Between Madrid and Ophir: Erédia, a Deceitful Discoverer? 184 Jorge Flores

Bibliography 211 Index 243

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All religions agree that lying is a sin, and yet in the period when Europe was more possessed by religious fervour than at any other time in its history, telling lies and living a lie were more rampant than ever. Moreover, religious affiliation became the major cause for deceit; and perhaps all the more unexpected, Muslim, Jewish and Christian theo- logians, together with certain lay moralists, were openly condoning subterfuge and justifying the ‘honest lie’ (on the history of attitudes to lying and dissimulation in Christendom and among humanists, see below the essays by Michael Bailey and Vincenzo Lavenia). As the bibliography to this volume amply demonstrates, many historians in recent decades have become captivated by the widespread phenomenon of imposture and pretence in the early modern world. Montaigne’s observation that ‘dissimulation is one of the most notable qualities of this century’1 has become a motto for many a scholarly study of the various manifestations of deception in that period. Discussions of deceit are to be found in innumerable sixteenth- and seventeenth- century texts: endorsements of self- fashioning and sprezzatura on the way to becoming the ideal courtier; either condemnations or justifica- tions of religious dissimulation; discussions of ‘discernment of spirits’ in dealing with the multitude of possession cases, or of stigmatics and other aspiring saints; as well as fulminations against cross- dressing and crossing class boundaries, whether by dressing up and putting on airs, or by dressing down by people trying to pass for legitimate beggars. Special institutions and bureaucratic machineries were then set up to unmask impostors of all kinds, and trial records – of both ecclesiastical and secular courts – reveal that the early modern obsession with false identities emerged from repeated confirmations that an ever growing number of individuals were not who they claimed to be.

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A few of these exposed impostors attained lasting fame thanks to sensationalist printed reports at the time and to latter- day studies: from royal pretenders in England, Portugal or Russia to peasants such as Martin Guerre, from cross- dressers such as Catalina de Erauso, the ‘Lieutenant Nun’,2 to false visionaries such as Benedetta Carlini,3 from arch- heresiarchs who, like David Joris,4 succeeded for decades in evad- ing exposure, to poor and obscure crypto- Jews whose autos- da-fé were grand public spectacles. The panic that arose among early modern authorities who felt that too many people were not who they claimed to be, generated in turn a search for reliable means of identification – with unsatisfactory results from the authorities’ point of view.5 However, perplexity concerning the veracity or falsehood as to who or what a person claimed to be afflicted not only premodern minds, frustrating inquisitors, judges and princes. Despite great efforts made by quite a few historians, and despite modern- day psychological insights, we still remain baffled in very many cases, even – or perhaps all the more so – when the person in question left an ‘ego- document’ for posterity, as in the case of Alvisa Zambelli, analysed in Adelisa Malena’s essay in this volume, or as in the famous case of Benvenuto Cellini and his fanciful autobiography.6 In fact, as most of the contributors to this volume emphasise, since we are unequipped nowadays with the necessary divine gift, we are not very successful in ‘discernment of spirits’ and thus the ‘true’ identity of our historical protagonists continues to evade us. Out of the multiple facets of deceit and counterfeit identities, the chapters below discuss three types of cases which exhibit the complexity of separating the genuine from the fraudulent: first, religious dissimulation; second, pretence to direct communication with the oth- erworldly (holiness as well as witchcraft and demonic possession); and third, offers of contact with or knowledge about distant lands. Religious dissimulation, meaning inwardly or secretly adhering to one confession while outwardly practising another, was by far the most extensive form of identity forgery: first mostly by conversos and Moriscos in the Iberian Peninsula, and after the Reformation throughout Central and Western Europe by all manner of Christians who refused to accept the ‘cuius regio, eius religio’ principle. This very wide field has been discussed by now in an enormous corpus of scholarly works. Those men and women who chose dissimulation over martyrdom or exile, have been dubbed ‘two faced’ by their contemporaries and ‘divided souls’7 or ‘hybrid identities’ by modern- day scholars, and by and large the assumption was that they had remained staunchly

Copyrighted material – 978–1–137– 44748–7 Copyrighted material – 978–1–137– 44748–7 Introduction 3 faithful to one confession while reluctantly masquerading obedience to another. Nonetheless, as the authors of several essays in this book argue, during those troubled times, when all rulers were attempting to impose religious unity, there were many who did not possess absolute convic- tion and ‘true’ loyalty to one faith in their hearts – or, at the very least, we have to admit that even today we are still unable to open a window into their souls. Chameleons who adapted to the local state religion as they moved from one place to another (as, for example, the women and men who travelled between Lyon and Geneva, whom Monica Martinat describes in Chapter 5), recidivists or serial converts who repeatedly sought the benefits granted to neophytes (studied by Moshe Sluhovsky in Chapter 7), confused ‘truth seekers’ who went back and forth (see Giorgio Caravale on Francesco Pucci), as well as Nicodemites who attributed no importance to forms of external worship, without necessarily giving any indication of what they truly believed – 8 the souls of all these premodern individuals remain opaque to us. Could some of them have been, pace Lucien Febvre,9 secret atheists? The term athéisme was coined in France in the sixteenth century and soon appeared in other European languages, but it was used then mostly as an insult and an accusation, meaning ‘ungodly’ in the sense of lacking moral values. Nevertheless, as demonstrated by Stefania Pastore in Chapter 6 in regards to Italy, people who had practised dissimulation could be suspected at the time of being unbelievers. In fact, the diaspora of Iberian conversos – those who openly returned to Judaism as well as those who remained Christian – was fertile ground for complex identities and for various forms of dissimulation. Hence it is not surprising to find that these uprooted exiles, having to re- invent themselves wherever they went, were suspected of assorted deceits, from spying for the sultan to being serial converts or unbelievers. The fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries were the heyday of religious dissimulation and of the authorities’ preoccupation with unmask- ing it, but in certain areas of Europe the problem would not disappear till much later. An issue that was to become all the more acute with time – one not discussed in this volume (nor in Perez Zagorin’s seminal work, Ways of Lying)10 – was that of the very many European converts to Islam who wished to return to their church and country, claiming that they had remained loyal at heart to their Christian faith during all the time they had practised Muslim rites. Could they be trusted? And should a Christian church be lenient towards people who were not only ‘renegades’, however repentant, but who had also admitted to having lived a lie for a considerable time? If ecclesiastics were to accept

Copyrighted material – 978–1–137– 44748–7 Copyrighted material – 978–1–137– 44748–7 4 Miriam Eliav-Feldon the principle that what really mattered was what one believed in one’s heart, they could become entangled in all kinds of contradictions and sail dangerously close to Lutheran solafidism or even to a nicodemistic position. Some converts – both those who changed their religion sincerely and those who appear to have been dissemblers – offered their services as mediators between cultures and religious realms. These frequently belonged to more than one category of the ‘ two- faced’ individuals (see, for example, the multifaceted personas of Anthony Sherley discussed by Giorgio Rota in Chapter 11, or of Manuel Godinho de Erédia as portrayed by Jorge Flores in Chapter 12). Also, certain converts to Christianity were prone to both visions and demonic possession, which could have been their means of contending with guilt and doubts. They too – as for example Alvisa Zambelli’s tormented soul in the eighteenth century – illustrate the wide variety of categories of deceit (some of them overlapping) as well as the complexity of defining identity and the uncertainty exhibited by the authorities when having to pass judgement. Links to the supernatural: were all visionaries, aspiring saints, stigmatics, and possessed girls frauds and liars? Most modern historians, who reject any belief in the devil and have at least serious doubts about direct communication channels between the divinity and individual human beings, would answer ‘yes’ – all the above were either delusional or conscious fakes. Yet, as Guido Dall’Olio writes concerning sixteenth- century cases of demonic possession, and Tamar Herzig claims regarding stigmatics, the terms ‘dissimulation’ or ‘deceit’ should not necessarily be applied to them. If the persons in question truly believed they had been chosen to convey a divine message or that they had been bewitched and possessed, then they were not pretending: ‘dissimulation’ is too simplistic a term for a much more complex psychological and social phenomenon. ‘Augustine argued, and Aquinas agreed, that the essence of a lie was a person saying one thing while thinking another’, writes Bailey – thus, if Anne Gunter honestly believed she had been bewitched and Lucia Brocadelli and Sor María of Santo Domingo were utterly convinced they were bearing the signs of Christ’s wounds, we should not consider them dissemblers and impostors. In some cases there were suspicions that the bewitched or the visionary were themselves victims of fraud rather than its perpetrators. However, once again, we have no way of knowing with any measure of certainty what were the intentions and interior beliefs of such persons. ‘Travel liars’ is the soubriquet often given to most medieval and early modern authors who described their journeys in far- off lands.

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‘The authors [of travel books] were liars – few of them steady liars […] but frequent and cunning liars’, writes Stephen Greenblatt in the introduction to Marvelous Possessions.11 The scholarly debate about the authenticity of Marco Polo’s fabulous tales is yet to die down; large parts of The Travels of John Mandeville are regarded nowadays as mere inventions by the mind of an author who also camouflaged his own identity; Ludovico di Varthema,12 travelling under various disguises, may well have been the first non- Muslim to visit Mecca, but there is no doubt that much of his adventurous tales was a figment of his rich imagination; Fernão Mendes Pinto’s descriptions of his voyages to the Orient were at least flagrantly exaggerated …13 The list of such works grew longer and longer as fantastic news from around the world made every invention seem possible (‘reality strengthened the illusion’, in the words of Jean Delumeau)14 and the printing press made them eas- ily available to a large readership. It could be said that travel literature was the Renaissance equivalent to the medieval romances of knightly adventures – read by many for its entertainment value rather than to acquire knowledge about the newly discovered parts of the world. And yet, several centuries later we are still hard- pressed to separate the wheat from the chaff in those travelogues. At the time, however, it was not simply a question of believing or disbelieving tall tales: in certain cases there was a real danger that a self- proclaimed ambassador or discoverer would be trusted with large funds, with arms or with important diplomatic negotiations. Attempting to capitalize on the European Islamophobia of that period and on the hopes for finding allies beyond the Muslim realm, as well as on the dreams of more and more riches to be found, a host of delegates appeared in European courts claiming to be emissaries of various foreign dignitar- ies (such was the figure of David Reuveni, the Jewish ambassador from a kingdom of the Lost Tribes of Israel, or the ‘suspicious ambassadors’ portrayed in Giorgio Rota’s chapter below),15 and ‘eccentric adventurers with a healthy inclination for lying’ (as Jorge Flores writes in his chapter on Erédia) applied for commissions in the service of popes and princes. Most historians today tend to dismiss them as liars and charlatans – yet another word coined in the sixteenth century – 16 and regard rulers who granted them an audience and some credence as gullible and ignorant. Yet, as Rota and Flores demonstrate, one should not take for granted that their far- fetched stories, the airs they put on or the forged docu- ments they produced are definite proofs that they were complete frauds: some of what they claimed may well have been true; certain aspects of their accounts are verifiable by external sources, and embellishments

Copyrighted material – 978–1–137– 44748–7 Copyrighted material – 978–1–137– 44748–7 6 Miriam Eliav-Feldon and exaggerations are not sufficient evidence to regard them simply as opportunistic deceivers. In a way, we are going in a direction opposite to the one taken by our predecessors: if in past decades it has been the custom of scholars to boast of their ability to look behind the mask, to find evidence of lies and deceit, to make much of the advantages of hindsight and of meth- odological research tools, it now seems that at present we choose to stress the caution and suspicion expressed by early modern authorities rather than their credulity, and to admit that many deceivers were not necessarily conscious liars – at least not according to their own demarca- tion line between acceptable self- puffery and falsehood. We have also to admit – as the authors of the chapters below all stress – how elusive was and still is the concept of identity. The examination of a cluster of contemporaneous false identity cases – that is, several individuals adorned in borrowed plumes or pretending to belong to a group other than their own, or changing their affiliation as the wind blows – offers a route towards a better under- standing of the medley of ingredients that formed a person’s identity at a specific historical period. For example, religious affiliation, nowadays of marginal importance in most parts of the Western world, was probably the most significant identity component in the age following the Reformation and prior to the age of nationalism. Therefore, religious dissimulation figures prominently among the various presentations of false identities during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. And since Tridentine Catholicism, even more than the medieval church, opened the doors wide for women to be heard and acknowledged for having supernatural qualities, many girls in Catholic regions fashioned themselves as ‘living saints’ (to borrow Gabriella Zarri’s apt term). At the same time far- flung maritime voyages, bringing marvellous news from around the world, enabled adventurers to claim invaluable knowledge or to pose as ambassadors of real or imaginary foreign potentates. Tales of impostors invariably constitute good examples of the similari- ties between the work of the historian and that of the detective attempting to solve mysteries, for they involve adventure, disguise, suspicions, inter- rogations, fantasy and often dramatic – sometimes gory – consequences. Moreover, their analyses help in clarifying important aspects of early modern mentalités: ideas of virtue in general and honesty in particular, norms of social behaviour, what was regarded to be within the realm of the possible, religious tensions and expectations, gender differences, credulity and gullibility, plausible forgeries, cynicism and much more. Thus, even if lying is a violation of moral and religious commandments, historians

Copyrighted material – 978–1–137– 44748–7 Copyrighted material – 978–1–137– 44748–7 Introduction 7 should probably be grateful for the large numbers of such transgressions in previous centuries. Truth, the opposite of falsehood, could be overrated. ‘The truth is often a terrible weapon of aggression. It is possible to lie, and even to murder, for the truth’, wrote the psychologist Alfred Adler in 1929.17 As we follow the peregrinations of the men and women persecuted or harangued in the early modern era for being liars and dissemblers, we indeed discover how much more aggressive than all impostors put together were those attempting to impose a single truth and a pure unmixed identity on every person among their contemporaries.

Notes

1. Michel de Montaigne (1993), Essays, Book II, trans. M.A. Screech (Penguin Books): 756. 2. Sh. Velasco (2000), The Lieutenant Nun: Transgenderism, Lesbian Desire, and Catalina de Erauso (Austin: University of Texas Press). 3. J.C. Brown (1986), Immodest Acts: The Life of a Lesbian Nun in Renaissance Italy (Oxford: Oxford University Press). 4. G.K. Waite (1987), ‘Staying Alive: The Methods of Survival as Practiced by an Anabaptist Fugitive, David Joris’, Mennonite Quarterly Review, 61, no.1, 46– 57. 5. See M. Eliav-Feldon (2012), Renaissance Impostors and Proofs of Identity (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan). 6. B. Cellini (1999), The Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini, trans. George Anthony Bull (Penguin Classics, revised edn). 7. See, for example, E. Carlebach (2001), Divided Souls: Converts from Judaism in Germany, 1500– 1750 (New Haven: Yale University Press). 8. There are by now many works on Nicodemism, on groups such as the Family of Love and on individuals – notably Justus Lipsius – whose erratic behaviour could be explained by their nicodemistic views. Particularly interesting is the claim made by David Wootton, that Queen Elizabeth I, who was said to have declared that she did not desire to open windows into men’s souls, was her- self a member of the Familia Caritatis. See D. Wootton (2009), ‘Deities, Devils and Dams: Elizabeth I, Dover Harbour and the Family of Love’, Proceedings of the British Academy, 162, 93– 122. 9. L. Febvre (1942), Le problème de l’incroyance au XVIe siècle: la religion de Rabelais (Paris: Albin Michel). 10. On this important issue see, for example, L. Scaraffia (1993), Rinnegatti: Per una storia dell’identità occidentale (Roma: Laterza). 11. S. Greenblatt (1991), Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press): 7. 12. P. Bracciolini and L. de Varthema (1963), Travelers in Disguise: Narratives of Eastern Travel, revised with an introduction by Lincoln Davis Hammond (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press). 13. R.D. Catz (ed. and trans.) (1989), The Travels of Mendes Pinto (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press).

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14. J. Delumeau (1990), Sin and Fear: The Emergence of a Western Guilt Culture, 13th– 18th Centuries (New York: St. Martin’s Press; first published in French in 1983): 257. 15. See Chapter 3 in Eliav- Feldon, Renaissance Impostors. 16. J.- C. Margolin (1979), ‘Sur quelques figures de charlatans à la Renaissance: Apparence et réalité du charlatanisme’, in: M.T. Jones- Davies (éd.), Devins et charlatans au temps de la Renaissance (Université de Paris – Sorbonne): 35– 58. 17. A. Adler (1964), Problems of Neurosis: A book of Case Histories, (New York: Harper & Row, 1964; first published 1929): 24.

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Index

Abelard, Peter, 13 Augustine, 4, 10–12, 14–15, 17, Abingdon, 131 30–2, 134 Abraham, 31 Augustus, Elector of Saxony, 187 Accetto, Torquato, 133 Australia, 188 Aceh, Sultanate of, 189 Austria, 118, 168, 169, 172, 175 Achilles, 34 Azevedo, Jerónimo de, 200, 201 Aconcio, Jacopo (Aconcio, Giacomo; Azevedo, Malchor Vaz de, 100 Acontius, Jacob), 28, 48 Azores, 191 Acquaviva, Claudio, 196, Azpilcueta, Martín de (‘Doctor 197, 202 Navarrus’), 35 Adler, Alfred, 7 Adournes, Anselme, 166 Babington, Churchill, 45 Against the Vices of Superstitions (Denys Bacon, Francis, 27 the Carthusian), 19 Bailey, Michael, 1, 4 Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus), 149 Balbani, Niccolò, 48 Albuquerque, Fernão de, 190 Balexert, Susanne, 72 Aldobrandini, Ippolito, 58 Barba, Pompeo della, 47 Aleksandre II, King of K’axeti, 173 Barba, Simone della, 47 Aleotti, Pietro, 118 Barreiros, Gaspar, 193 Alexander VI, Pope, 145, 147, 150 Basalù, Giulio, 88 Alexandria, 30, 100 Basel, 48, 49, 55, 97, 145 Alighieri, Michele, 166 Baumgarten, Konrad, 148 Almada, André Álvares de, 193 Bayāt, Oruj Beyg, 174 Ambrose of Milan, 12 Bembo, Pietro, 86 Amsterdam, 100 Ben Israel, Joseph (Ramsey, Angola, 192 Thomas), 104 Antioch, 11, 166, 176 Beneﬁ t of Christ (Beneﬁ cio di Cristo), Antwerp, 52, 53, 54, 99, 100 45, 46, 47, 58 Apologie de Raimond Sebond (Michel de Bengal, 192 Montaigne), 29 Berne, 152–4 Aquaviva, Ana de Heredia, 200 Bologna, 118, 137, 144, 145, 150 Aquaviva, Mariana, 200 Bolognetti, Alberto, 55–56 Aquaviva, João Erédia (Juan de Bonaventura, Gabriel, 175 Heredia), 186, 197 Bonaventure of Bagnoreggio, 31, 149 Aquaviva, Manuel, 200 Borromeo, Carlo, 102 Aquinas, Thomas, 4, 11, 12, 14, 15, Borselli, Girolamo Albertucci de’, 16, 17, 30, 31 144–6, 150, 155, 156 Aretino, Pietro, 27, 28, 85 Botero, Giovanni, 172 Arias Montano, Benito, 53 Bouvier, Emeraude, 72 Ariosto, Ludovico, 83, 86, 88 Brocadelli, Lucia, 4, 145–153, Aristotle, 32 155, 156 Asunción, 194 Brossier, Marthe, 132 Augsburg, 98 Bruno, Giordano, 58

243

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Brussels, 188 Chronicle of the Master Generals of Bruto, Giovanni Michele, 56 the Friars Preachers (Girolamo Bryer, Anthony, 166 Borselli), 150 Burgundy, 166, 168, 176 Cicero, 30 Burton, Robert, 185 Cilicia, 166 Busale, Abbot, 87–8 Clement of Alexandria, 30 Clement VIII, Pope, 58 Caleffi, Franceschina Lippi, 99, 105 Cochin, 186, 188, 196 Calvin, Jean, 31, 45, 46, 54 Cointaud, Hélène, 69, 70 Cambambe (Angola), 192 Cointaud,Théodore, 69 Cambodia, 192 Colloquia (Desiderius Erasmus), 154 Camerarius, Joachim the Elder, 34 Colonna, Vittoria, 87 Caminha, António Lourenço de, Commentationes de Iure Belli (Alberico 188, 189 Gentili), 29, 33 Campalti, Alvisa, 118 Constantinople, 100 Campanella, Tommaso, 54 Contarini, Ambrogio, 166 Campion, Edmund, 33, 36, 51 Contarini, Gasparo, 83 Camporesi, Piero, 97, 98 Contra mendacium (Augustine), 10, 30 Cano, Melchor, 31 Córdoba, González de, 79, 82 Cantimori, Delio, 87 Corpus Iuris Civilis, 33 Cape Verde, 169 Corro, Antonio del, 27, 33 Caracciolo, Tristano, 82, 83 Coryat, Thomas, 185 Caravale, Giorgio, 3 Coutinho, Álvaro Pinto, 200 Cardano, Girolamo, 34 Coutinho, Gonçalo Vaz, 191 Carena, Cesare, 135 Coutinho, Luís Monteiro, 189 Carlebach, Elisheva, 103 Cracow, 48, 55–57 Carlini, Benedetta, 2 Croatia, 113 Caro, Annibal, 86 Croce, Benedetto, 79 Case, John, 34 Curione, Celio Secondo, 31, 34, 48 Cassini, Samuele, 151–152 Cyropaedia (Xenophon), 34 Castelfranco Veneto, 115 Castelvetro, Giacomo, 33 Dall’Olio, Guido, 4 Castiglione, Baldassare, 85 Damian, Paul, 74 Castro, Martim Afonso de, 190 Dandelet, Thomas, 79 Catalina de Erauso, 2 Dauphiné, 69 Cathay, 195 David, 30, 31, 32 Catherine of Siena, 143–5, 152, Davis, Natalie Zemon, 75 154–6 De abusu mendacii (Alberico Gentili), Cecarelli, Alfonso, 197 33, 34, 36 Cecil, William, 52 De actoribus et spectatoribus fabularum Cellini, Benvenuto, 2 non notandis (Alberico Gentili), 33 Centiloquium (Pseudo-Bonaventure), 31 De armis Romanis (Alberico Gentili), 30 Cephas, 31 De Christi servatoris efﬁ cacitate Ceylon (Sri Lanka), 186, 201 (Francesco Pucci), 48, 49 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, De doctrina Christiana (Augustine), 12 79, 85 De civitate Dei (Augustine), 30 Charles VIII, King of France, 46 Decretum Gratiani, 31 Charron, Pierre, 80 De ﬁ de haereticis servanda China, 192 (Jan Vermeulen), 32

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De immensa Dei misercordia (Sermon on Directorium inquisitorum (Nicolau the Immense Mercy of God, Benedetto Eymerich), 16 Varchi), 47 Discorsi sopra la prima deca di Tito De Iure Belli (Alberico Gentili), 27, Livio (Niccolò Machiavelli), 28, 34 29, 30 Domenichi, Ludovido, 47 De iustitia et iure (Domingo de Soto), 35 Du démentir (Michel de Montaigne), 29 De legationibus (Alberico Gentili), 28 Dudley, Robert, 27, 28, 52 De legibus (William of Auvergne), 14 De mendacio (Augustine), 10, 30 Egypt, 31 De nuptiis (Alberico Gentili), 36 Eliav-Feldon, Miriam, 52, 176, 184 De offi ciis (Ambrose), 12 Elizabeth I, Queen of England, 29 De offi ciis (Cicero), 30 Emmaus, 31, 34 De papatu Romano Antichristo (About England, 2, 27, 28, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, the Antichrist Roman Papacy, 80, 100, 104, 138, 168, 169 Alberico Gentili), 28, 51 Erasmus, Desiderius, 29, 31, 34, De quattuor heresiarchis Ordinis 47, 134 Predicatorum de observantia Ercker, Lazarus, 187 nuncupatorum apud Switenses in Erédia, Manuel Godinho de, 4, civitate Bernensi combustis (Thomas 184–203 Murner), 153 Esau, 31 De ratione tegendi et detegendi secretum Eṣfahān, 171, 172 (Domingo de Soto), 35 Essais (Michel de Montaigne), 29, 30 De sapientia (Girolamo Cardano), 34 Estado da Índia, 184, 186, 195, De stigmatibus sacris Divi Francisci 201, 202 et quomodo impossibile est aliquam Este, Cesare d’, Duke of Ferrara, 169 mulierem, licet sanctissimam, recipere Este, Ercole I d’, Duke of Ferrara, stigmata (Samuele Cassini), 152 146–151 De vera religione (Augustine), 12, 134 Este, Ippolito d’, Cardinal, 148, De veritate et mendacio (Polidoro 149, 151 Vergili), 32 Ethiopia, 166, 167 Declaraçam de Malaca e India Everaert, John, 189 Meridional com o Cathay (Manuel Exhortation to Martyrdom (Giulio della Godinho de Erédia), 188, 191, 197, Rovere), 52 198, 199, 201 Eymerich, Nicolau, 16, 18 Dee, John, 57 Defi nitiones (Philip Melanchthon), 35 Farinelli, Arturo, 85 Delicado, Francisco, 82 Farnese, Alessandro, 196 Della dissimulazione onesta (Torquato Fattori, Giovanni Maria, 110, 111, Accetto), 133 112, 119, 120 Della Torre, Raimondo, 173, 174 Fava, Giacomo, 172 Delumeau, Jean, 5 Febvre, Lucien, 3 Denmark, 167 Ferdinand, King of Aragon, 84 Dente, Iseppo (Penso, Giacob), 117 Ferrara, 118, 146–8, 169 Denys the Carthusian, 19 Fez, 100 Des menteurs (Michel de Montaigne), Fiamengo, Abramo, 114 29 Ficino, Marsilio, 47 Descartes, René, 80 Firpo, Luigi, 57 Desiderius, 13 Fischart, Johann, 154 Devereux, Robert, Earl of Essex, 29 Florence, 47, 100, 118

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Flores, Jorge, 4, 5 Gujarat, 186, 200 Florio, John, 29 Gunter, Anne, 4, 130, 136, 138 Forma d’una republica catholica (Form Guzmán, Guillén Lombardo de, 185 of a Catholic Republic, Francesco Györ, 173 Pucci), 51, 52 France, 3, 80, 100, 130, 138, H˙ asan, Uzun, 166, 168, 177 166, 169 Heidelberg, 18 Franco, Niccolò, 85 Heloise, 13 Frankfurt, 53 Hemmerli, Felix, 18 Frederick III, Emperor, 168 Hermet, Monseigneur, 71 Friesland, 54 Herzig, Tamar, 4 Hippias Minor (Plato), 29 Gager, William, 33 Historia Anglica (Polidoro Vergili), 32 Gama, Francisco da, 189, 190, Holland, 100 191, 192 Hungary, 100, 145, 166, 167 Gaon, Lea/Elena, Hus, Jan, 32 see Zambelli, Alvisa Gaon, Moisé, 113 Iberia, 97, 100, 101, 187 Gaon, Rachele, 113 Idiáquez, Juan de, 175 Garcês, Henrique, 192 Il Principe (Niccolò Machiavelli), 32 Gardeau, François, 70 Imola, 136, 137, 138 Garnet, Henry, 36 In Praise of Folly (Desiderius Geneva, 3, 68, 69, 72, 73, 74, 75 Erasmus), 134 Gennari, Tommaso, 111 India, 166, 167, 185, 190, 191, 193, Genoa, 74 196, 203 Gentili, Alberico, 27–36, 51–52 Informação da Aurea Quersoneso Gentili, Matteo, 27 (Manuel Godinho de Erédia), Gentili, Scipione, 27 188, 192, 201 Gentillet, Innocent, 28, 32 Informatione della religione Cristiana Georgia, 166, 173 (Francesco Pucci), 27–8, 49 Germany, 97, 100, 104, 166, 167, 173, Institoris, Heinrich, 148–9 175, 202 Israel, 5 Gerson, Jean, 15 Istanbul, 100, 185 Ghini, Giovanni Antonio, 136–7 Italy, 3, 34, 36, 45, 46, 50, 53, Ginzburg, Carlo, 31, 184 56, 58, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, Goa, 184, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 86, 87, 88, 97, 99, 104, 155, 191, 197, 200, 201, 202 166, 167, 173 Gonzaga, Giulia, 87 Gonzáles, María (Mariana de los Jacob, 31 Reyes), 100 James I, King of England, 28, 169 Grafton, Anthony, 202 Jericho, 31 Graizbord, David, 95, 101, 103 Jerome, 11, 12, 30, 31 Greece, 100, 134 Jerusalem, 100, 196 Greenblatt, Stephen, 5 Jetzer, Hans, 152, 154, 155 Gregory of Tours, 12, 13 John XXII, Pope, 16, 17 Grynaeus, Johann Jakob, 48 Joris, David, 2 Guerre, Martin, 2 Guicciardini, Francesco, 28, 82, 83 Kaplan, Yosef, 81 Guistinian, Antonio, 104 Klaniczay, Gábor, 145

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Knollys, Francis, 52 Marescot, Michel, 132 Kongo, 192 Margarian, Hakob, 173–7 María de la Visitación, 155 La Florida del Inca (Garcilaso de la María of Santo Domingo, 4, 150–2 Vega), 194 Martinat, Monica, 3 Lapini, Eufrosio, 47 Marvelous Possessions (Stephen Lavenia, Vincenzo, 1 Greenblatt), 5 La Verna, Mount, 143 Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland, 35 Leo Africanus (al-Hasan ibn Mary Tudor, Queen of England, 51 Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Wazzan), Matthew, Tobias, 33, 36 67, 185 Matthew, Tobie, 36 Leo Africanus (Amin Maalouf), 67, 68 Maurice the Learned, Landgrave of Levant, 83, 166, 168, 176 Hesse-Cassel, 170 Liber Vagatorum: Der Bettler Orden Mecca, 196 (The Book of Vagabonds), 96–8 Medici, Jean-Leon de, 67 Lipsius, Justus, 34, 54 Medici, Lorenzo de’, 46 Lisbon, 100, 186, 191, 192, 202 Melanchthon, Philip, 34, 35, 45 Livorno, 100, 118 Melo, Nicolao de, 170, 172 Loci communes (Pietro Martire Memorabilia (Xenophon), 34 Vermigli), 32 Mendaña, Álvaro de, 191 Locke, John, 80 Méndez, Carlos, 100 London, 27, 28, 31, 32, 48, 51 Mendoza, Diego Hurtado de, 85 Loreto, 27 Menghi, Girolamo, 137 Luçantara (‘Great Java’), 188, 196, 201 Messina, 118–19 Lucas, Suzanne, 70, 71, 73 Mexico, 197 Lucca, 99 Milan, 73, 102 Lucero, Diego Rodríguez de, 82 Minturno, Antonio, 85 Lucian, 30 Modena, 99, 104 Lucy, Saint (Lucia of Syracuse), 118 Monomotapa (Mozambique), 192 Ludovico da Bologna, 165, 167, 172, Montaigne, Michel de, 1, 29, 80 176, 177 More, Thomas, 34 Lunati, Girolamo, 73, 74 Morocco, 100, 169 Luria, Keith, 103 Morone, Giovanni, 46, 87 Luther, Martin, 45, 46, 97, 102 Mozambique, 192 Lyon, 3, 53, 56, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, Muccini, Antonio, 137 74, 75 Murner, Thomas, 153–4

Maalouf, Amin, 67, 68 Naaman, 31 Machiavelli, Niccolò, 27, 28, 32, 34, Naples, 82, 88 37, 84 Naselli, Girolamo, 29 Madrid, 81, 100, 104, 174, 185, 186, Necromancer (Ludovico Ariosto), 83 187, 190, 192, 194, 195, 202 Netherlands, the, 80, 169 Malacca, 184, 186, 200, 201 New Spain, 185 Malay Archipelago, 185, 186, 188, Niclaes, Hendrik, 53 189, 190 Nicodemus, 31 Malena, Adelisa, 2 Nider, Johannes, 19 Manelfi, Pietro, 52 Niederkorn, Jan Paul, 175 Manrique de Lara, Juan, 85 900 Theses (Giovanni Pico della Manzini, Bernardina, 121 Mirandola), 86

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North Moreton, 130 Pius V, Pope, 29 Nunes, Pedro, 194 Plantas de praças das conquistas de Portugal (Manuel Godinho de Obry, Nicole, 130, 138 Erédia), 188 Olomouc, 148, 149 Plantin, Christophe, 53 Ophir, 193, 203 Plato, 29, 32, 34 Origen, 11 Plautus, 33 Ortiz Zárate, Juan de, 194 Plutarch, 29 Ottobon, Marco, 173 Poland, 55, 100 Oxford, 27–30 Pole, Reginald, 46, 51, 87 Polo, Marco, 5 Padua, 88 Popkin, Richard, 80 Paleologo, Alessandro, 175 Popper, Karl, 132 Pallache, Samuel, 100 Portugal, 2, 100, 191, 192, 193, Papal States, 27 194, 201 Paris, 13, 53 Portuondo, María, 194 Parsons, Robert, 51 Potosí, 192 Patrizi, Francesco, 58 Prague, 55–7, 173, 175 Paul IV, Pope, 34, 85 Prester John, 166, 176 Paul V, Pope, 195, 196, 202 Publilius, Syrus, 29 Paul, 11 Prosperi, Adriano, 113 Paviot, Jacques, 176 Provana, Prospero, 56 Peña, Antonio de la, 150–151 Pucci, Francesco, 3, 27, 33, 45–58 Penso, Giacob, see Dente, Iseppo Pullan, Brian, 84, 99, 104 Peregrinação (Fernão Mendes Pusterle, Alessandro, 73 Pinto), 185 Perkins, William, 36 Qazvin, 172 Persia, 165, 166, 168, 169, 170, 171, Queirós, Pedro Fernandes de, 173, 174 191, 192 Peru, 193, 197 Peso político de todo el mundo Raccanati, Berardo, 148 (Anthony Sherley), 169, 172 Rahab, 31, 32 Peter, 11 Rainolds, John, 32, 33 Pharaoh, 31 Ramsey, Thomas, see Ben Israel, Philip II, King of Spain, 79, 173, 191, Joseph 194, 202 Rasmussen, Paul J., 34 Philip III, King of Spain, 169, 177, Raymond of Capua, 143, 144 189, 190, 192, 193, 195, 200, 202 Regales disputationes (Alberico Philip IV, King of Spain, 100, 190 Gentili), 28 Philippines, 194 Reggio, Marcello da, 137 Philopseudes (Lucian), 30 Relazioni universali (Giovanni Philosophaster (Robert Burton), 185 Botero), 172 Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, Reuveni, David, 5 47, 86 Révah, I. S., 80, 81 Pietro Paolo di Santa Teresa, 120 Rhetoric (Aristotle), 32 Pini, Teseo, 94–5 Rhineland, 18 Pinto, Fernão Mendes, 5, 185 Righetto (Abraham Benvenisti, Pisa, 118 Annriquez Nuñez), 99 Pius II, Pope, 144, 167, 168 Rio de Janeiro, 188

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Rome, 46, 47, 50–5, 81, 82, 83, 99, Simon I, King of Georgia, 173, 174 100, 104, 145, 153, 166, 167, 173, Simoni, Simone, 55 174, 186, 195–7, 202 Sixtus IV, Pope, 144, 168 Rota, Giorgio, 4, 5 Socrates, 29, 34, 35 Rovere, Giulio della, 52 Solomon, King, 193 Rubén, Avraham, see San Antonio, Soria, Lope de, 88 Francisco de Soto, Domingo de, 35 Rudolf II, Emperor, 56, 169, 173, Soto, Hernando de, 194 174, 177 Sozzini, Fausto, 49, 53, 55 Russia, 2, 170 Spain, 12, 29, 79, 80, 81, 100, 102, 168, 169, 170, 175, 185 Šāh ʿAbbās I, 169, 171–4, 177 Speculum Cerretanorum (Mirror of Saint-Roman-de-Couzon, 70 Beggars, Teseo Pini), 94, 95, 98 Saldanha, Aires de, 191, 193 Spinoza, Baruch, 80 Salonica, 88 Split, 113 Sampaio, Violante, 186, 200 Squarcialupi, Marcello, 55 San Antonio, Francisco de (Rubén, Sri Lanka, see Ceylon Avraham), 100, 103, 104 Strasburg, 154 San Ginesio, 27 Strauss, Leo, 34 Sandei, Felino, 146, 147, 149 Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, 171, 172, 189 Santo Domingo, 4 Sulawesi, 186, 197 São Miguel Island, 191 Suma de árvores e plantas da índia Sarah, 31 intra ganges (Manuel Godinho de Saruc, Chain, 84 Erédia), 189 Sarzana, Aaron Francesco di, 99 Sumario da Vida de M. G. de Heredia Savonarola, Girolamo, 34, 47 (Manuel Godinho de Erédia), 200 Saxo, Antonia de, 136, 138 Summa Theologiae (Thomas Saxony, 48, 54, 55, 187 Aquinas), 31 Scaliger, Joseph, 35 Syleni Alcibiadis (Desiderius Scaraffia, Lucetta, 101 Erasmus), 134 Schwartz, Gary, 171 Syria, 88 Schwenckfeld, Caspar, 52 Scotland, 104, 168 Tacitus, 34 Sega, Filippo, 56 Tangier, 100 Segura Manrique, Juan de, 194 Targhetta, Francesco, 118 Seidel Menchi, Silvana, 46 Tasso, Torquato, 83 Sententiae (Publilius Syrus), 29 Távora, Rui Lourenço de, 190, Sententiae (Scriptum super libros 194, 200 Sententiarum, Thomas Aquinas), 31 The Republic (Plato), 29 Sermon of the Cross (Benedetto Th’overthrow of stage-playes (John Varchi), 47 Rainolds), 33 Seville, 149, 151 Teufel, Hans Christoph, 172 Shakespeare, William, 29 Tito, Maulino, 146, 147 Sharpe, James, 136 Toaff, Ariel, 95 Sherley, Anthony, 4, 168–73, 175, Torres, Manuel Gaytan de, 192 176, 177 Transylvania, 55 Siam, 192 Tratado Breve dos Rios de Guiné do Siculo, Giorgio, 52 Cabo Verde (André Álvares de Sidney, Philip, 27, 28 Almada), 193

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Tratado Ophirico (Manuel Godinho de Vessiva, Elena, 186, 197 Erédia), 188, 193, 197, 200 Vienna, 166 The Travels of John Mandeville, 5 Villafranca, Juan de, 88 Trent, 115 Virgil, 32 Turin, 74 Visconti, Alfonso, 56 Viterbo, 145, 146 Ulysses Redux (William Gager), 33 Vives, Juan Luis, 34 Ulysses, 29, 30, 33, 34 Walker, Daniel P., 132 Valdés, Alfonso de, 85 Waneggfelen, Thierry, 74 Valdés, Juan de, 45, 87 Ways of Lying (Perez Zagorin), 3 Valignano, Alessandro, 186, 187 Werner of Friedberg, 18 Valla, Lorenzo, 28 William of Auvergne, 14–15 Valladolid, 149, 151 Wolf, John, 27, 28 Varchi, Benedetto, 47 Varthema, Ludovico di, 5 Xenophon, 29, 30, 34 Vasconcelos, Luís Mendes de, 192, 193 Vaquero Piñeiro, Manuel 82 Yovel, Yirmiyahu, 81 Vega, Garcilaso de la (El Inca), 194 Velasco, Juan López de, 194 Zacatecas, 192 Vendramin, Francesco, 173, 174 Zacchia, Paolo, 132 Venezuela, 193 Zagorin, Perez, 3, 31 Venice, 45, 88, 99, 100, 110, 114, Zakynthos, 114 115, 117, 118, 119, 166, 168, Zambelli, Alvisa (Gaon, Lea / Elena) 2, 173, 174 4, 110– 122 Vergerio, Pier Paolo, 28 Zambelli, Antonio, 117 Vergili, Polidoro (Vergil, Polydore), Zambelli, Lorenzo, 114 31, 32 Zamometic´ , Andreas, 144 Vermeulen, Jan, 32 Zarri, Gabriella, 6 Vermigli, Pietro Martire (Vermigli, Zurich, 18 Peter Martyr), 28, 32, 33, 35 Zwingli, Huldrych, 45