DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2018-004

A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Adara of Kaduna and Niger States, Nigeria

Luther Hon, Grace Ajaegbu, Carol Magnusson, Uche S. Nweke, and Zachariah Yoder A Sociolinguistic Survey of the Adara of Kaduna and Niger States, Nigeria

Luther Hon, Grace Ajaegbu, Carol Magnusson, Uche S. Nweke, and Zachariah Yoder

SIL International® 2018

SIL Electronic Survey Report 2018-004, March 2018 © 2018 SIL International® All rights reserved

Abstract

The survey team visited the Adara language group of Kachia, Kajuru and Paikoro Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna and Niger States in Nigeria, from March 1 to March 16, 2011. The team did not visit Muya LGA because the dialect spoken is the same as the one spoken in Paikoro LGA. The Adara people are commonly called Kadara, especially by outsiders. They are known to speak dialects of the Kadara language. The dialects are Adara [kad], Ada [kad], Eneje [kad], Ajiya [idc] and Ekhwa [ikv]. The main goal of the survey was to determine the most suitable dialect(s) that all speakers of Adara understand and accept as the best for a standard written form of Adara that would serve all of them. The survey team tested for intelligibility, interviewed different people and groups, gathered words for checking lexical similarity and asked the people about their potential support of a language project. The name Adara has two meanings in this work: “Adara” as the name of the language, and “Adara” as the name of one of the dialects. As such, we will use “the Adara language” for the whole language, “the Adara people” for the whole people, and “the Adara dialect” for the dialect. For language and people, we will use Kadara in square brackets after Adara when referring to the language and the people, for example: “Adara [Kadara] language” and “Adara [Kadara] people.” Our findings indicate that the Adara dialect may be developed to serve the Adara, Ada and Eneje speakers, while the Ajiya and Ekhwa dialects may need separate literature. Alternatively, the Ada dialect may be developed to serve only Ada and Eneje speakers, while Adara, Ajiya and Ekhwa dialects may each need separate literature.

Acknowledgements

This survey would not have been possible without the support of many people throughout the language area surveyed. We express our profound gratitude firstly to the paramount ruler, His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara,1 Mr Maiwada Galadima (JP2), who permitted us to go into the villages of the Adara people to do our work. We also express our appreciation to the various district, village and family heads who mobilized their people to participate in the survey process. We appreciate the time and energy of those who volunteered to help us in eliciting the wordlists from the five Adara varieties, those who narrated the stories used for testing dialect comprehension, as well as the pastors, other church leaders and teachers who, in spite of their tight schedules, responded patiently to the questions on our interview forms.

1 The literal translation from the Adara language means “chief person” or more likely “chief of the Adara people.” Agom means ‘chief’ and Adara means ‘person’. 2 The abbreviation JP means Jerusalem Pilgrim.

Contents

Tables 1 Introduction 1.1 Previous research/background information 1.2 Social setting 1.2.1 Adara administrative setting 1.2.2 Adara villages 1.2.3 Neighboring languages 1.2.4 Intermarriage 1.2.5 Agriculture and economic/commercial units 1.2.6 Health care services 1.2.7 Religious profile 1.2.8 Estimated population 1.3 Goals 2 Language identification 2.1 The dialects that the Adara people speak in their area 2.2 Dialect relatedness 2.3 Summary of language identification 3 Social interaction 3.1 Intermarriage between the Adara [Kadara] people 3.2 Interaction with neighboring language groups 3.3 Church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area 3.4 Government officials in the area 3.5 Local development associations 3.6 Economic/commercial units 4 Language vitality 4.1 Children’s language use 4.2 The domains where Adara is primarily spoken 4.3 The Adara [Kadara] groups who mainly speak the local language without mixing with Hausa 4.4 The language that the people mostly use in rural and urban areas 4.5 The people’s perception of their language 4.6 The people’s attitudes towards the shift and death statuses of their language 4.7 The Adara [Kadara] people’s attitudes towards languages of wider communication 4.8 Summary of language vitality 5 Language acceptability 5.1 The dialect(s) that people are willing to read and write in 5.2 Most acceptable dialect that might be used as a standard written form for all Adara people 5.3 The languages that literature is available in 5.4 Summary of language acceptability 6 Intelligibility 6.1 The dialect(s) that the people are reported to understand 6.2 Recorded text testing 6.3 Summary of intelligibility 7 Bilingual proficiency/language use 7.1 Other languages spoken by the Adara [Kadara] people 7.2 Neighboring languages spoken fluently by the Adara [Kadara] people 7.3 Language spoken by each segment of the Adara [Kadara] society 7.4 Where these languages are learned 7.5 Summary of bilingualism

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8 Contact patterns 8.1 Interaction among speakers of the dialects 8.2 Local development associations 8.3 Church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area 9 Literacy 9.1 The age group(s) that can read and write 9.2 The language(s) that each age group can read and write well 9.3 The best medium to serve the Adara [Kadara] people 9.4 Summary of literacy 10 Church support 10.1 Church leaders’ feelings about language development 10.2 The people’s desire for materials in their language 10.3 The people’s ability to work together and support a language project 10.4 Summary of church support 11 Methodology 11.1 Interviews 11.2 Recorded text testing (RTT) 11.2.1 Test development and administration 11.2.2 Reliability of the RTT method 11.2.3 Subject selection 11.2.4 Testing procedure 11.2.5 Scoring 11.2.6 Post-test questions 11.3 Wordlist 11.3.1 Wordlist elicitation 11.3.2 Wordlist comparison 11.4 Observation 11.5 Sampling 11.6 Participatory method 12 Results 12.1 Lexical similarity and interpretation 12.2 Adara [Kadara] dialects for which people can score above 75 percent on RTT 13 Findings 14 Conclusion and recommendation Appendix A: Ada of Kaduna Wordlist Appendix B: Ankwa of Kaduna Wordlist Appendix C: Adara of Kaduna Wordlist Appendix D: Eneje of Kaduna Wordlist Appendix E: Adja of Kaduna Wordlist References Tables

Table 1. Names of villages visited and the dialects spoken in each Table 2. Names of markets and market days Table 3. Percentage of Adara [Kadara] language speakers per LGA Table 4. Names of dialects and alternate names Table 5. Where wordlists were elicited and checked Table 6. Comparing words for ‘medicine’ Table 7. Lexical similarity percentage Table 8. Test site and recorded text testing percentage Table 9. Comparing three Eneje texts (different subjects)

vi 1 Introduction

The purpose of the Adara survey was to elicit data that would assist the Adara people and interested organizations that are involved in language development to identify which of the dialects of the Adara language group of the southern parts of Kaduna and Niger States of Nigeria is most suitable and accepted by the people for a standard written form of the Adara language. The survey team visited the Adara language group of Kachia, Kajuru, and Paikoro Local Government Areas (LGAs) of Kaduna and Niger States in Nigeria, from March 1 to March 16, 2011. The Adara people are commonly called Kadara, especially by outsiders. They are known to speak dialects of the Kadara language. The dialects surveyed are Adara dialect [kad], Ada [kad], Eneje [kad], Ajiya [idc] and Ekhwa [ikv]. Note that there are two meanings of Adara used in this report, “Adara dialect” and “Adara language.” One dialect of the Adara language is also called Adara. Therefore, in this report, we will be referring to this dialect as “the Adara dialect,” the whole language as “the Adara language” and the people as “the Adara people.” We will use Kadara in square brackets after Adara when referring to the language and the people, for example: “Adara [Kadara] language” and “Adara [Kadara] people.”

Map of the Adara area

© 2016 OCHA ROWCA, through Ngandu Kazadi Bruno-Salomon, the Information Management Officer, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, Nigeria – 15, Mississippi Street, Maitama, Abuja. Adapted by John Muniru (used QGIS, free mapping software). Used with permission.

1.1 Previous research/background information

Temple reports that Adara [Kadara] is spoken in the southern part of the old Zaria Province in Northern Nigeria, in the districts of Zana, Wali and Kajuru as well as at Riban and in Fuka, in Kuta District of the former Niger Province (1919:179). Gunn further writes that the Adara [Kadara] language is spoken in Bida, Agaie and Abuja Emirates. These areas are now parts of Paikoro and Muya LGAs (1956:123).

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However, he maintains that the actual settlements of the speakers in these three places are not known. Dancy and Gray, in their survey report of 1966, state that the language is spoken north of Abuja and north-east of Minna, while Crozier and Blench (1992:62) report that the speakers of Adara [Kadara] are located in Kachia LGA of Kaduna State and in the former Chanchaga LGA, now Paikoro and Muya LGAs of Niger State. Temple writes that Hausa is generally understood by the Adara [Kadara] speakers (1919:180). Dancy and Gray say that most young and a few older people speak Hausa (1966:2). Temple also maintains that the Adara [Kadara] speakers in Fuka also speak Gbagyi (1919:180). Gunn feels that the people may be assimilating into the culture and language of other groups in these areas (for example Gbari, Koro and Ganagana) (1956:123). Three wordlists were collected over the years: the Swadesh one hundred-item wordlist that was collected in 1966 by Dancy and Gray; John Ballard’s list of Adara words as incorporated into the Benue Congo Comparative wordlist by Williamson (1973:lxi); and another recent set in 2004̵̵̵–2006 of the Adara [Kadara] language group by Alex Maikarfi with Roger Blench (Maikarfi 2006).

1.2 Social setting

1.2.1 Adara administrative setting

The Adara language speakers are headed and guided by a paramount ruler, His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara, and other senior title holders. There are also lower chiefs, village heads and their assistants who are answerable to the paramount ruler. The palace serves as a place where the speakers of the various dialects of the Adara language meet and interact with each other.

1.2.2 Adara villages

The Adara have many villages but we were only able to visit a few where we did our work. Each village that we visited has a village head who looks over all affairs and reports to the district head who may be living in a separate village. The villages that we visited are tabulated here with the dialect that is spoken in each:

Table 1. Names of villages visited and the dialects spoken in each

Village Dialect Amalle Ada Ankwa Ekhwa Barakwai Ada Barga Eneje Kurmin Kare (Ovah) Ada Mai Ido Rafi Eneje Rafin Kunu Adara Rubu Adara Sabon Gari Ankwa Ekhwa Tudu Iburu Ajiya

1.2.3 Neighboring languages

Kuturmi, Kamatan Ikulu, Jabba, Gbagyi, Gbari, Ganagana, Koro, and Fulfulde are the languages that are spoken around the area of the Adara language group. Hausa is also spoken as a language of wider communication (LWC) by Hausa settlers, many other immigrants, and also the Adara. 3

1.2.4 Intermarriage

The Adara people intermarry mainly among the Adara language group and with the Kuturmi, Kamatan, Ikulu and Jabba people.

1.2.5 Agriculture and economic/commercial units

The Adara people are mostly subsistence farmers who grow maize, guinea corn, yams, groundnuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, millet, rice, soya, cocoyams, ginger, and sugar cane. They have many markets in the area where some of the produce is offered for sale on market days. The markets are attended according to the days shown in table 2. Most of these markets provide opportunities for speakers from the different dialects to meet each other.

Table 2. Names of markets and market days

Names of markets Market days Those who attend the market Adunu Tuesday Ada Amalle Friday Ada Ankwa Thursday All speakers except Ajiya Doka Tuesday All speakers except Ajiya Ishau Wednesday Ada Kachia Friday All speakers except Ajiya Kafi Every four days Ada Kasuwan Magani Thursday All speakers except Ajiya Kufana Monday All speakers except Ajiya Mai-Ido Kufai Thursday All speakers except Ajiya Rafin Kunu Friday All speakers except Ekhwa

1.2.6 Health care services

We came across some good looking structures that were said to be designed to serve as either hospitals or clinics in some of the villages that we visited, but most of them were reported and observed not yet in use. In fact, while we were working at Ankwa, a pregnant woman was about to give birth but because the clinic in the village was neither equipped with facilities nor personnel, she had to be rushed in our car to the hospital in the main town, Kachia, where the general hospital is located. The situation was a little better at Rafin Kunu where we came across a maternity home where two women were reported to be the only staff.

1.2.7 Religious profile

There are Christian churches of different denominations (see section 3.3) in the area. The population of Christians is estimated at 66 percent while the Muslim population is estimated at 7 percent and the African traditional religionists were also estimated at 7 percent.

1.2.8 Estimated population

Table 3 presents the 2006 national population census figures of the four LGAs in Kaduna and Niger States where the Adara [Kadara] language speakers predominantly live. In order to find out the present population of Adara [Kadara] language speakers in these LGAs, we asked a colleague about the population of the people in the area. He estimated the percentages of the speakers in each LGA as they 4 appear in table 3. The population in Kaduna and Niger States between 2006 and 2011 increased annually by an estimate of 3.0 percent and 3.4 percent respectively (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2007). We used the 2006 figures and the estimated annual growth rate percentages together to calculate the population in the four LGAs in 2011. We used the percentages of Adara [Kadara] speakers as they were given to us by our colleague to determine the estimated population in each of the LGAs for 2011. In conclusion, we estimate the population to be almost 300,000.

Table 3. Percentage of Adara [Kadara] language speakers per LGA

Estimated Percentage of Population of Census population Adara[Kadara] Adara[Kadara] speakers 2006 2011 speakers per LGA

Kajuru 110,868 128,526 80 102,821 Kachia 244,274 283,181 45 127,431 Paikoro 158,086 186,851 30 56,055

Muya 103,651 122,511 10 12,251

Total 298,558

1.3 Goals

We gathered data primarily based on these goals: • To identify Adara dialects and their linguistic relationship. • To determine whether the speakers of the dialects understand each other. • To determine which dialect is central and would be the best choice for all Adara literature. • To determine whether the Adara are shifting to speaking primarily another language or if Adara is still their primary language. • To determine whether the local church would support language development and literacy work. The field work for this survey was done from March 1 to 16, 2011. The field surveyors elicited data in ten villagesː Kurmin Kare (Ovah),3 Sabon Gari Ankwa, Barga, Mai Ido Rafi (Ivlo), and Ankwa villages in Kachia Local Government Area (LGA) of Kaduna State; we also collected data in Rubu, Rafin Kunu and Tudu Iburu in Kajuru LGA of Kaduna State and in Barakwai and Amalle of Paikoro LGA of Niger State (see map). We chose these three LGAs because that is where the five dialects of the Adara [Kadara] language are spoken. We did not choose to work in Muya LGA because the dialect in Muya is the same as the one spoken in Paikoro LGA.

2 Language identification

2.1 The dialects that the Adara people speak in their area

The people of the villages that we visited reported that five Adara dialects are spoken in the area: Adara dialect, Ada, Ajiya, Ekhwa and Eneje. However the respondents did not know the dialect names that the speakers of each dialect used for their dialects. The speakers of each dialect could easily identify each

3 The people in Kurmin Kare were said to be discussing changing the name to Kurmin Jama’a. 5 other by their different ways of expressing the emphatic phrase: ‘I say…’ in their respective dialects (see table 4).

Table 4. Names of dialects and alternate names

ISO 639-3 Language ‘person’ ‘people’ ‘I say…’* Other name(s) /dialect kad Adara Adara [ɑ́ːdɑ̄ɾɑ̄] Adara [ɑ́dɑ̄ɾɑ̄] Misiyo Edra [édɾɑ̄] [ɑ́dɑ̄ɾɑ̄] [mīsījō] kad Ada[ɑ́dɑ̄] Anda [ɑ́ndɑ̄] Ada [ɑ́dɑ̄ː] Misiyen Eda [édɑ̄] [mīsījẽ] kad Eneje Anda [ɑ́ndɑ̄] Ada [ɑ́dɑ̄ː] Misiya Eji/Aji [énēdʒē] [mīsījɑ̄] [édʒī/ɑ́dʒī] Idc Ajiya Ajiya [ɑ́dʒījɑ̄] Ajiya [ɑ́dʒīːjɑ̄] Misiwa Ajuli [ɑ́dʒùlī] [ɑ́dʒījɑ̄] [mīsīwɑ̄] Ikv Ekhwa Eneyi/ Adara Anare/Adara Ewengor Ankwa/Ahua [ékʰwɑ́] [énéːjī/ɑ́ːdɑ̄ɾɑ̄] [ɑ́nɑ́ːɾē/ɑ́dɑ̄ɾɑ̄] [éwēnɡɔ̄ː] [ɑ́nkwɑ́/ɑ́húɑ́] *These phrases, which mean ‘I say…’ are used for identification of each other by all speakers.

His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara, told us that the name or term Kadara is the Hausa term for the name Adara, which means ‘people’. Furthermore, many respondents reiterated the Agom-Adara’s claim during the group interviews. Contrastingly, an elderly man who is a speaker of the Ajiya dialect said Kadara, as written by previous researchers, was the original name. He maintained that Adara referred only to the speakers of the Adara dialect.

2.2 Dialect relatedness

Our respondents for group and individual interviews in Rubu, Barga, Rafin Kunu, Barakwai, Kurmin Kare and Mai Ido Rafi reported that all the dialects (and their speakers) are linguistically, socially and culturally related but that the Ekhwa and Ajiya dialects have a high degree of linguistic variation from the other three dialects. Speakers of the Adara, Ada and Eneje dialects whom we interviewed reported that they speak the same as each other, but with lexical and phonological variations. On the other hand, the Ekhwa and Ajiya people were reported by the other groups to speak very different dialects (see lexical similarity results in section 12.1).

2.3 Summary of language identification

The people identified their language as Adara [Kadara] and the dialects as Adara dialect, Ada, Eneje, Ajiya, and Ekhwa. But they simply refer to each other by the emphatic phrase ‘I say…’ in their language. However, speakers of Adara dialect, Ada, and Eneje say they understand each other, but do not understand either Ekhwa or Ajiya.

3 Social interaction

3.1 Intermarriage between the Adara [Kadara] people

The Adara [Kadara] live freely and happily among themselves and intermarry with each other without discrimination. They also participate in all Adara [Kadara] cultural activities. 6

3.2 Interaction with neighboring language groups

The Adara language speakers co-exist happily with the Kuturmi, Kamatan, Ikulu, Gbari, Gbagyi, Jabba, Koro, Fulani and Ganagana people groups. They go to the same markets, farming areas, churches, mosques and schools. They also intermarry and are at peace with each other.

3.3 Church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area

There are many churches of various denominations working with each other. The churches are: Evangelical Church Winning All (ECWA); Catholic; Baptist; Maranatha; Assemblies of God; Deeper Life; Chapel of Good News; Anglican; Seventh Day Adventist; Chapel of Grace; Methodist; and Living Faith. Furthermore, many Adara [Kadara] people attend ECWA and Catholic churches because they are the two big denominations that are found in many villages in the area. Also, there are a few subgroups in each church working hand in hand with the leadership. These include the women’s fellowship, youth fellowship, choir, and Boys and Girls Brigades. These subgroups from the various denominations bring the speakers of the various dialects together during inter-church group or association programs. The Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) is the large fellowship umbrella and the forum that brings all the churches and the speakers of the various dialects together, through its regular general meetings.

3.4 Government officials in the area

The Adara [Kadara] language speakers are headed and guided by His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara, and other senior title holders. There are also lower chiefs, village heads and their assistants who are answerable to the paramount ruler. The palace of His Royal Highness, the Agom-Adara, in Kachia town serves as a place where the speakers of the various varieties of the Adara language meet and interact with each other.

3.5 Local development associations

The interviewees reported that there is an Adara Development Association at the village, state and national levels. The Adara [Kadara] people, at home and abroad, come together every year to celebrate their cultural festival named Adara Day and to discuss the way forward for the entire Adara language group. There is also an association called the Akpazuma (in the Adara dialect) or Akpazwã (in the Ada dialect). Each dialect group is said to have their own Akpazuma which draws people together to discuss the problems and progress of their own community.

3.6 Economic/commercial units

There are many markets in the area. The markets are held on specific days as earlier indicated in section 1.2.5. These markets provide opportunities for speakers from the different dialects to meet each other.

4 Language vitality

4.1 Children’s language use

In the villages that we visited the children were reported to speak and we observed them speaking their dialect of Adara fluently in informal contexts. The children at Rafin Kunu, Barakwai, Tudu Iburu and Rubu appeared not to speak Hausa well. In fact, the primary six pupils who were our subjects at Rafin Kunu and Tudu Iburu found difficulty responding to our questions in Hausa. We had to seek the assistance of interpreters to have the children respond. 7

4.2 The domains where Adara is primarily spoken

Adara seems to be the language most often spoken in the home domain. The people reported and were observed speaking the Adara [Kadara] language in their homes with all age categories: parents with children, grandparents with grandchildren, wives with husbands and brothers with sisters. The Adara [Kadara] language was said to be mainly spoken during hunting, on the farm and at play with age-mates and friends in school during the recess.

4.3 The Adara [Kadara] groups who mainly speak the local language without mixing with Hausa

The age groups in each village that we visited reported—and we observed—that they mainly spoke their language among themselves. Even so, Ekhwa speakers in Sabon Gari Ankwa seemed to use Hausa loan words. They also use complete Hausa clauses in long discussions.

4.4 The language that the people mostly use in rural and urban areas

In the villages that we visited it was reported—and we observed—that the people use their own dialects of Adara [Kadara] in all non-formal domains. We also observed some use of Hausa in all of the villages we visited. It was reported—and we observed—that Hausa was mostly used in the towns. Curiously, in Katari, a big town of the Ada speakers, a few people of all age groups were observed speaking the Ada dialect at the houses near the palace. This indicates that the desire to maintain the Ada dialect is strong; despite the contact they have with Hausa speaking outsiders, they still maintain their language.

4.5 The people’s perception of their language

The people in the villages we visited said that everyone in their villages speaks their Adara [Kadara] dialect. They said their children start learning this language first before any other language. They also said that a few of their non-Adara neighbors, both adults and children, also learn to speak their language. Furthermore, they reported that they use their language in all domains, except with non-Adara [Kadara] speaking outsiders. Contrary to Gunn’s 1956 view that the Adara [Kadara] people are assimilating other cultures and languages (see section 1.1), the Adara [Kadara] language is very much in use, despite the general use of Hausa in their areas.

4.6 The people’s attitudes towards the shift and death statuses of their language

The people we interviewed in the villages we visited responded both in the group and in the individual interviews that they would never be happy if their language was diminishing or dying. The group in Barakwai expressed strong optimism that the Adara [Kadara] language would never diminish or die and they maintained that “even the unborn generation would continue to speak the Adara [Kadara] language.” The group in Ankwa felt that the diminishing or death of the Adara [Kadara] language would amount to throwing away their heritage and culture.

4.7 The Adara [Kadara] people’s attitudes towards languages of wider communication

Almost every group we interviewed appeared to have a moderately positive attitude towards the use of English and Hausa. In fact the people in Tudu Iburu, Barakwai and Ankwa appeared to have strong positive attitudes towards English. The people in these three villages feel that learning to speak English will make their children “bring cars home,” they feel it will “help them in life” and that it will show that their children are educated. They also said that they speak English and Hausa because they are general languages. These beliefs are common in Nigeria, where English is considered as a language of prestige 8 and economic advantage. It appears that English is desired because of its perceived advantage while Hausa is used because it is widely spoken in the Adara [Kadara] language area.

4.8 Summary of language vitality

Adara is the language of every home, particularly in the rural areas. Children speak it with each other and their parents, and all adults speak it in all domains. The speakers expressed strong positive attitudes towards the maintenance of their language.

5 Language acceptability

5.1 The dialect(s) that people are willing to read and write in

The information gained from the questionnaires, interviews and the participatory method of data gathering showed that most people would choose the Adara dialect as the dialect that should be developed for all the Adara [Kadara] people to read and write in. Their second choice would be Ada, followed by Eneje. Furthermore, the answers showed that the speakers of Ekhwa and Ajiya would also choose the Adara dialect. However, the intelligibility and lexical similarity results showed that Ajiya and Ekhwa are separate languages both from the other three dialects and from each other and would benefit from separate development.

5.2 Most acceptable dialect that might be used as a standard written form for all Adara people

The groups and individuals that we interviewed would choose Adara as the main dialect that could be used for all the Adara [Kadara] people to read and write in. Adara was also chosen as the dialect that could be used for all the Adara [Kadara] people to read and write in during the facilitation of the participatory method of data gathering. The groups gave reasons that, “everyone understands the tongue,” “they [Adara dialect speakers] are the majority,” “it is central and easy” and “it is like the general one.” The groups in Barga (Eneje) and Sabon Gari Ankwa (Ekhwa) chose Ada and Eneje respectively. This choice could have been made because of the proximity between Ekhwa, Ada and Eneje villages. The group in Barga felt that Ada was “pure, no adulteration.”

5.3 The languages that literature is available in

Hausa and English literature is available throughout the Adara [Kadara] language area. The expressed feelings of the groups and individuals interviewed seemed not to be very favorable to literature in Hausa or English.

5.4 Summary of language acceptability

Adara speakers we worked with chose Adara dialect for development because it is central to the other dialects and easily understood by everyone. The speakers believe that it is the only dialect that could unite them.

6 Intelligibility

6.1 The dialect(s) that the people are reported to understand

During group discussions, the respondents from each dialect group reported that they at least partially understand each other. Even so, Ajiya speakers said they can only understand a bit of Adara dialect and 9 speakers of Adara dialect also said that they understand a bit of the Ajiya dialect. Only Ekhwa speakers claimed to understand all the dialects.

6.2 Recorded text testing

We used the recorded text testing (RTT) method to directly measure the intelligibility between the Adara dialects. Generally, if results are lower than 75 percent on an intelligibility test, separate literature needs to be developed (SIL 1991). However, if the results are 75 percent or greater, other factors need to be considered before we can be sure that literature can be understood by speakers of two or more dialects. The results indicate that: • Each of the five groups scored above 90 percent on its own text. • Eneje speakers scored 100 percent on the Adara dialect text and 96 percent on the Ada text. • Ada speakers scored 75 percent on the Adara dialect text and 70 percent on the Eneje text. • Adara dialect speakers scored 75 percent on the Eneje text and 66 percent on the Ada text. • Adara dialect, Ada and Eneje speakers scored very low on the Ekhwa’s text and Ekhwa speakers also scored very low on texts from these dialects.

6.3 Summary of intelligibility

The Adara text was easily understood by Eneje speakers and marginally (75 percent) by the Ada speakers. This implies that Adara may serve the three dialects. Also, the Ada story was easily understood by Eneje speakers, but the Adara speakers scored an insufficient score of 66 percent. Ekhwa and Ajiya speakers did understand the Adara, Ada and Ekhwa texts; however, they achieved a low score on the three texts.

7 Bilingual proficiency/language use

7.1 Other languages spoken by the Adara [Kadara] people

Besides speaking their own dialect of Adara [Kadara], almost every person in the villages that we visited was reported and observed to speak Hausa to some level. English was also reported to be spoken well by just a handful of individuals who have acquired higher Western education in the area. Furthermore, a few people were said to speak Kuturmi, Jabba, Kamatan, Ikulu, Gbagyi or Koro.

7.2 Neighboring languages spoken fluently by the Adara [Kadara] people

None of the neighboring languages mentioned in sections 3.2 and 7.1 was reported in the group and individual interviews to be spoken fluently by the Adara [Kadara] people. Some people are reportedly able to speak a bit of some of the languages. A few children and women were said to speak Kuturmi quite well.

7.3 Language spoken by each segment of the Adara [Kadara] society

All segments of the Adara [Kadara] society speak the local language fluently in all domains. The youth are said to be the primary speakers of Hausa in the region. Many middle-aged people and children are also said to speak Hausa but not as well as the young people, while most old people are said to speak just a bit of it. Similarly, of the handful that speak English well, youth are reported as the predominant speakers in the area, while most middle-aged people and children are reported to speak just a bit of it. In like manner, only a few old people are said to speak a bit of English. 10

7.4 Where these languages are learned

A child learns his/her dialect in the home and we observed its use everywhere in the village. Furthermore, the people reported that their children learn to speak Hausa from the children of strangers, particularly the Fulani, who live around all their villages. They said their children meet with other children in school and use Hausa as the common and easiest medium of communication between them (Hausa is taught as a subject in almost all schools in northern Nigeria). Also, teachers are said to occasionally instruct in Hausa whenever pupils appear not to understand concepts in English and other subjects. English is the major language of school everywhere in Nigeria. Pupils in the Adara [Kadara] language group area are said to be encouraged to speak it while in class. In fact, a pupil may reportedly be punished for speaking Adara [Kadara] in class. However, we observed primary and secondary school children struggle mostly without success to respond to our questions in English. As a result, we did almost all our interviews in Hausa.

7.5 Summary of bilingualism

The people are mostly bilingual in Hausa and some of them, especially children, youth and middle-aged adults, speak English, and a few women and children speak Kuturmi quite well.

8 Contact patterns

This section has to do with how and where the Adara speakers meet with each other.

8.1 Interaction among speakers of the dialects

The Adara [Kadara] people are conscious of their oneness and reportedly men and women from the different dialects intermarry. Wives and husbands speak each other’s dialect or learn to speak them when necessary. Adara-Day, the cultural festival of all the Adara [Kadara] people, brings people together from Kaduna and Niger States. It is celebrated in the town of Kachia, where the palace and house of the paramount ruler are located. Kachia remains the primary place of convergence. Also, there are many markets in the various villages that we visited where the speakers of the various dialects meet.

8.2 Local development associations

The people reported that there is an Adara [Kadara] Development Association at the village, state and national levels. All the Adara [Kadara] people, at home and abroad, come together every year to celebrate their cultural festival named Adara-Day and to discuss the way forward for the entire Adara language group. There is also an association called the Akpazuma. Each dialect group is said to have its own Akpazuma which draws people together to discuss the problems and progress of their own community.

8.3 Church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area

The nature of church networks and Christian associations in the Adara [Kadara] language area is such that there are many churches of various denominations working with each other in the area. There are a few subgroups in each church working hand in hand with the leadership. These include the women’s fellowships, youth fellowships, choirs, and Boys and Girls Brigades. 11

9 Literacy

This section deals with the reading/writing ability of the people and the people’s access to education. It also deals with the kind of medium that would be most appropriate and the people’s attitudes towards the available literature in the area.

9.1 The age group(s) that can read and write

Many people reported in the group and individual interviews that they can read and write. The children, youth, and middle-aged people seem to be the most literate among all of them. Only a few old people are said to be able to read and write.

9.2 The language(s) that each age group can read and write well

The youth are said to read and write in Hausa and English, which they learn at school. Middle-aged people are also reported to be able to read and write in Hausa and English, but not as well as the youth. Only a few old people reported that they are able to read and write in Hausa or English. Only a handful of all the age categories are reported to be able to read and write letters and other notes in the Adara language.

9.3 The best medium to serve the Adara [Kadara] people

Books and audio-visual media seem to be the primary means that could be used to serve the Adara [Kadara] language group. The youth and children, who are the future of the Adara [Kadara] people, were reported during the group and individual interviews to prefer reading and watching TV to only listening to audio messages. Only a few middle-aged people were also reported to prefer reading, watching and listening to just listening to audio or radio messages.

9.4 Summary of literacy

The children, youth and middle-aged people are the most literate in English and Hausa in the area, although the youth and middle-aged were said to read and write better than the children. The people chose book and audio-visual mediums over merely listening to audio messages.

10 Church support

10.1 Church leaders’ feelings about language development

The church leaders interviewed in the Adara language group area expressed enthusiasm about the translation of materials into the local language. They said that if materials were translated into an Adara [Kadara] dialect, children and youth would learn how to read and write in it. Also, they reasoned that Adara [Kadara] language development would help maintain the mother tongue. The church leaders pledged to give their support and do awareness campaigns among the people should there be a language development project, so that everyone may support it in various ways.

10.2 The people’s desire for materials in their language

The Adara [Kadara] language speakers we interviewed appeared eager to have vernacular materials in their language. They said they would like themselves and their children to learn how to read and write in their language. They feel that they are left behind, saying many people had literature in their 12

language but they did not. They further demonstrated their desire to see their language developed when they reported that they were ready to get involved in any kind of project that would lead to the development of their language into a standard written form.

10.3 The people’s ability to work together and support a language project

During the interviews, it became apparent that the people’s ability to work together for their progress is remarkable. They said they had jointly built primary schools, classrooms, markets, roads to clinics, bridges, and dug wells in their various communities. We personally observed some of these projects.

10.4 Summary of church support

The people have demonstrated an ability to work together and potentially support language development and literacy work in their area. They also mentioned a few names of individuals who may be of tremendous assistance in the cause of the prospective language development work.

11 Methodology

Following are the methods that we used to investigate the language situations in the Adara [Kadara] area.

11.1 Interviews

We visited ten villages. In one village from each dialect area (Adara dialect, Ada, Eneje and Ekhwa), we interviewed a group of forty individuals of both sexes and all ages. We also interviewed teachers and church leaders. We did not do individual interviews in any Ajiya village because we did not plan for it. We thought the Ajiya dialect was the same as the Adara dialect until we discovered during a group interview in Rubu village that Adara dialect speakers could not understand it.

11.2 Recorded text testing (RTT)

We did recorded text testing in each dialect area in order to ascertain mutual intelligibility between the speakers of the different dialects of the Adara [Kadara] language.

11.2.1 Test development and administration

First, short stories about an interesting event in the storyteller’s life were recorded in the vernacular in four dialects: Adara, Ada, Eneje and Ekhwa. Two more stories were recorded in the Eneje dialect, making the Eneje stories three. They were used to test for reliability of the RTT method. The stories were named “Eneje Love,” “Eneje Travel,” and “Eneje Farm.” The stories were about two to three minutes in length. These texts were transcribed, and then an English phrase-by-phrase free translation was made with key words glossed. For each of these texts, fifteen basic comprehension questions were created. No inferences or background knowledge were required in order to answer the questions correctly; the correct responses were found in the texts themselves. The questions attempted to cover a wide range of semantic categories (e.g., who, what, when, where, how many, action, instrument, quotation, etc.) and were formed in such a way as not to be answerable on the basis of common knowledge alone. The texts were recorded on minidiscs, and track marks were inserted indicating points where comprehension questions should be asked. Standard RTT methodology (Casad 1974) prescribes that the questions then be recorded in the speech variety of the subjects and inserted into the story following the information being asked about. This would ensure consistency of test administration and eliminate the variable of the subject’s command 13

of a language of wider communication (LWC) from the test results. However, experience has shown that subjects tend to find responding to questions coming from a machine extremely unnatural and rather confusing. Responding to a person asking questions is much more natural and eliminates this confusion from the testing situation. Hence, we verbally asked questions and did not insert the questions into the recording. We administered the RTT by playing the text up to the point where a question should be posed, pausing the playback and then asking the subject the question. We asked the questions in English or Hausa, sometimes followed by a translation into the local dialect, provided by local interpreters. The subject responded in either the local dialect, Hausa, or English. The response was written down in English, Hausa or Adara. When appropriate, the tester would prompt to clarify if the subject understood that portion of the text. For example, if the subject responded with other elements of the story but not the answer sought by the question, the question was posed again or rephrased slightly. The tester, as well as the interpreter, had to take care not to give away the correct answer in their prompt questioning and interpreting. If there was some distraction during the playback of a portion of the text, such as loud noises, people talking, or the subject had a problem understanding the text the first time, the tester replayed that portion of the text. All such follow-up questions and replays were noted on the answer sheets. Since the tester is working with a rough transcription of a text in an unfamiliar speech variety, it is possible that the questions devised will not coincide with the text or not appear to be logical to native speakers. The initial fifteen questions were pilot tested with ten speakers of the same speech variety as the story. Questions which elicited unexpected, wrong, and/or inconsistent responses from vernacular speakers were eliminated, and the ten best questions were retained for the final test.

11.2.2 Reliability of the RTT method

The professional term “reliability” means the state of dependability or similarity of test results if a test is repeated. To determine the reliability of the tests we used more than one text, each tested with speakers of other dialects. Thus, three Eneje texts were used to test with speakers of the Ada, Ekhwa, Ajiya, and Adara dialects. This was part of a larger study that included three other language areas besides Adara [Kadara] (Yoder 2014).

11.2.3 Subject selection

For the pilot test we found at least ten subjects of any age (most were young) and gender who were vernacular speakers of that dialect and who were willing to participate. When administering the actual test, we tested people with as little contact with the other dialect as we could find. The guidelines for acceptable levels of inherent intelligibility are based on testing people with no contact with the other varieties. This is necessary to determine the inherent intelligibility of the test dialect as opposed to intelligibility acquired through contact. Pupils in primary school class 3 (P3) to junior secondary school class 3 (JSS3) were chosen as test subjects. Where possible, we tried to choose subjects in primary school classes P4–P6 or junior secondary school classes 1–3 (JSS1–JSS3). The students in this age range are old enough to have a good command of their own dialect but have not usually had many opportunities to visit other villages. Therefore, they are likely to be those with the least amount of contact with other dialects. We selected a sample of twenty vernacular speakers of each dialect to listen to the texts. We chose two villages from each dialect area with the exception of Ajiya, and tested ten subjects from each of these villages. Related to the study of the reliability of the RTT, which we mentioned earlier, we selected a different sample of fifteen to twenty subjects each in three villages to listen to the three Eneje texts.

11.2.4 Testing procedure

The testing procedure for the RTT on this survey was in four parts: subject identification and screening, a practice or familiarization test, a “hometown” test, and intelligibility testing. The first phase consisted of 14

gathering basic demographic information (age, sex, level of education), verifying that the subject was a vernacular speaker of the dialect of interest (mother and father were both from the dialect area), and screening for contact with the other dialects being tested (subject does not travel to one of the other dialect areas frequently or have close relatives from another dialect). With only a few exceptions (due to a shortage of subjects), all subjects met these criteria. The second phase was a short practice test in the subject’s own dialect, which served to familiarize the subject with the testing procedure. The practice story was written out by a surveyor and then translated and recorded in order to save time on transcription and to make sure the story contained useful content. Four questions were created for this story. The test was not graded as part of the RTT. This was sometimes played twice if it appeared the subject was beginning to understand the procedure, but had not completely understood. This was done to screen out poor test takers. The third phase was the hometown test. Each subject was tested using the text in their own dialect first, which served as a further screening procedure. If subjects could not score 85 percent on the test in their own dialect, they were judged incompetent to follow the testing procedure (or incompetent in their vernacular dialect) and no further testing was performed. The final phase was administering the test in the dialects of interest. After passing the hometown test, each subject was tested on the three other stories. The order in which the other tests were played was rotated in order to avoid any effect on the average scores by testing-fatigue of the subject.

11.2.5 Scoring

For each text, the answers given by the vernacular speakers of that dialect were taken to be correct. Usually, the pilot testers gave consistent answers to each of the ten questions selected for the final test. Occasionally, there was a small range of related answers given by the pilot testers and/or the hometown subjects (e.g., “he is not grown enough” versus “he did not reach age”), and in this case, the entire range of these answers was considered a correct response. Sometimes, a subject would give a response that was partially correct (e.g., correct noun or object but incorrect action, such as: “rain wants to fall” instead of “rain fell”), and such responses were scored as half correct. During the analysis phase of this survey, every response was crosschecked for consistency in scoring.

11.2.6 Post-test questions

Immediately after hearing each story, each subject was asked a series of questions regarding that speech variety: 1. Is the way this man speaks the same as the way you speak, a bit different, or very different? 2. What language was he speaking? 3. How much of the story did you understand: all, most, some, little, or none? 4. Was he easy to understand: easy, not difficult, a bit difficult, not easy, difficult? Carla Radloff (1993) found in a similar survey that the answers to questions like numbers 1 and 3 usually corresponded to intelligibility test results, which supported the tests’ conclusions. Moreover, where responses to these questions differed from the test results, they corresponded to strong attitudes (usually negative) towards the dialects in question. On this survey, question 4 allowed subjects to further clarify their response to question 3. Question 2 revealed whether the subject had had enough contact with the dialect that they had just heard to be able to identify it. Responses to all of these questions can indicate not only the information specifically asked for but also any strong language attitudes.

11.3 Wordlist

We collected a 364-item wordlist in each of the five dialect areas in order to determine cognates that are similar between the dialects. The analysis of these wordlists helps us to identify the dialects that are lexically similar and those that are not. 15

Wordlists were elicited to compare how similar the lexicons of each dialect of the area surveyed are to each other. A total of five wordlists (of five dialects) were elicited in five villages—two villages per dialect. The wordlist taken in village A was crosschecked in village B of the same dialect before proceeding to village C to collect a fresh wordlist in a different dialect. However, we did not check the Ajiya wordlist in a second village. Table 5 below provides more explanation.

Table 5. Where wordlists were elicited and checked

Wordlist/Dialect Elicited at Checked at Adara Rubu Rafin Kunu Ada Ovah Barakwai Eneje Barga Mai Ido Rafi Ajiya Tudu Iburu Not checked Ekhwa Sabon Gari Ankwa Ankwa

11.3.1 Wordlist elicitation

The wordlist was based on the one used in surveying the Fali of Mubi LGA, Adamawa State, Nigeria. We elicited a wordlist from a group of three or four residents in each village. The primary informants were males between eighteen and eighty years of age. In most villages onlookers (men and women) besides the primary informants were present during the elicitation. They helped decide which word was the most appropriate in cases where the gloss we elicited could have been expressed by more than one word in the local dialect. In some cases, the primary informant was not able to help with the entire wordlist, so a new person was sought and found from the group of people who were observing. Wordlists were handwritten on a printed wordlist form, using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). We elicited both singular and plural forms (where applicable) for nouns. Verbs were elicited in “dictionary form” and 3rd person singular past (or perfective) tense, for example: ‘eat’ and ‘he ate’. Adjectives were elicited both in isolation and with an example noun (e.g., ‘long’ and ‘long road’). For documentation purposes, audio recordings of all the words elicited were taken using a ZOOM Handy Recorder H2 recording device, recording singular and plural nouns and adjective and verb forms (both in isolation and in a frame). All phonetic transcriptions tend to be influenced by the phonology of the transcriber’s language. The transcriptions were done by Carol Magnusson (American English) and Zachariah Yoder (American English). The wordlists were checked, usually by a different surveyor than the original elicitor and/or transcriber. Each word was re-elicited. Items different from the first transcriptions were re-transcribed and re-recorded in order to make each list as reliable as possible in the amount of time available for the survey.

11.3.2 Wordlist comparison

The 364 wordlist items were analyzed using WordSurv 6, a program that calculates the percentage of forms judged to be similar by surveyors. To judge similarity, we typically followed the methodology for comparison (Blair 1990:27–33). In this method, corresponding phones in two words to be compared are classified into three clearly defined categories. Words are only considered similar if at least half the phones in the words are category one (roughly “almost identical”) and no more than a quarter of the phones are category three (roughly “not similar”). For a more detailed explanation of this method, see Blair 1990:27–33. By collecting the words in singular and plural forms and in contrasting frames, we were usually able to identify the root, and when recognizable only the root was used in the comparison. For example, consider the words for ‘medicine’ shown in table 6; for the sake of comparison, we look only at the root. 16

Table 6. Comparing words for ‘medicine’

Dialect Singular Plural Root Grouping Adara okuŋ ekuŋ oku 1 Ada oka eka oka 1 Eneje oka eka oka 1 Ajiya okaŋ ikaŋ oka 1 Ekhwa oga ega oga 1

We first compare the root of all the dialects. When we match the first phones with the first, second with second, we see that Adara, Ada, Eneje, Ajiya and Ekhwa match similarly (so they are in category one). Since more than half of the phones of the two words are category one (in this case 2 out of 2) and less than a quarter are category three (0 out of 2) we conclude words are “similar” and include them in one group.

11.4 Observation

We also used the participant observation method (Spradley 1980) in order to investigate the general language use of the people we visited in each dialect area. Surveyors watched people’s activities and interaction among themselves and listened to the languages they used. Even while working with a group, the facilitators continued to observe how the people used their language and other languages.

11.5 Sampling

We randomly chose the respondents for individual interviews. We met them in informal places and interviewed them. For the RTT testing, we randomly chose a separate group of ten to twenty subjects who had little or no contact with speakers of other Adara dialects. Our sample consisted of: • Forty respondents each in Kurmin Kare (Ovah), Sabon Gari Ankwa, Barga, and Rubu for individual interviews.4 • Ten to twenty subjects in each dialect area who have little or no outside contact for the RTT testing.

11.6 Participatory method

We chose to use the participatory method because it allows speakers of a language to be part of the survey process in identifying the domains in which they use their language and other languages (particularly English and Hausa), and how often they use these languages in their community. The tool also helps speakers to identify their dialects and the names of the villages where their dialects are spoken. Using the tools they are also able to identify the dialects that are very similar to their own and those that are not. This tool is divided into two sections: domains of language use and dialect mapping. (a) Domains of language use: We asked the speakers to write down the languages that they use in their community, the domain in which the languages are used and how often they use each language. This was done so that we could determine whether the people are still speaking their language or whether they have shifted to speaking another one.

4 Data from individual interviews were not collected at Tudu Iburu. 17

(b) Dialect mapping: We asked the speakers to write down the name of their language, its dialects and the names of the villages where their dialects are spoken. Furthermore, we asked them to indicate dialects that are very similar and those that are a bit different. This was done in order to determine the dialect boundaries.

12 Results

12.1 Lexical similarity and interpretation

Blair’s lexical similarity judging standard states that if the results of a wordlist comparison between two speech varieties are greater than sixty percent, then the varieties should be regarded as “similar” and if otherwise “dissimilar” (1990:23–24). In each of the five dialects we collected a wordlist of 364 items. In all but the Ajiya dialect, this list was re-elicited in a second village to verify that the correct words were transcribed correctly. Similar word forms were identified using the rules described by Blair (1990:27–33). The percentages of similar forms between dialects are shown in table 7.

Table 7. Lexical similarity percentage

Adara dialect (Rafin Kunu) 64% Eneje (Mai Ido Rafi) 57% 70% Ada (Barakwai) 34% 32% 30% Ajiya (Tudu Iburu) (Not checked) 28% 29% 26% 27% Ekhwa (Sabon Gari Ankwa)

From table 7, we can make the following observations: • Ekhwa is a separate language from all the other dialects surveyed (less than 30 percent similarity). • Ajiya is clearly a very different dialect from Adara dialect, Eneje, Ada, and Ekhwa (less than 35 percent similarity). • Eneje is lexically the most central dialect, having higher similarity with the Adara dialect and Ada than these two have with each other. • Eneje may be slightly more similar to Ada (70 percent) than to the Adara dialect (64 percent). • The Adara dialect has a rather low similarity with Ada (57 percent). It seems likely that speakers of these dialects will have difficulty understanding each other.

12.2 Adara [Kadara] dialects for which people can score above 75 percent on RTT

Our original research question sought to determine which dialects speakers of other dialects could score above 75 percent on. Thus, any that cannot succeed in scoring higher than 75 percent are considered to have too low of an intelligibility to use audio or written materials developed in the tested dialect. With reference to section 11.2.3, regarding the question of the reliability of the RTT method, we played one text from each dialect5 to a sample of nine to eleven subjects in five villages, using the text “Eneje Love” to represent Eneje. These results are shown in table 8.

5 We discovered the Ajiya dialect after we had finished testing in most of the other dialects, and so we did not play the Ajiya text for the other dialects. 18

Table 8. Test site and recorded text testing percentage

Texts

Dialect Village Subjects Adara Eneje Love Ada Ajiya Ekhwa

Adara Rafin Kunu 11 96% 75%a 66% 4%

Eneje Mai Ido Rafi 10 100% 96% 96% 3%

Ada Barakwai 10 75% 70% 98% 6%

Ajiya Tudu Iburu 9 31% 23% 11% 97%

Ekhwa Ankwa 10 11% 30% 12% 96% a If the eighth question is removed from the test, the Adara subjects score 79 percent on “Eneje Love. ” The other site’s results do not change significantly if this question is removed.

Then, using a different sample of fifteen to twenty subjects in three villages, we tested the three Eneje texts, with the results shown in table 9.

Table 9. Comparing three Eneje texts (different subjects)

Test Sites Texts Dialect Village Subjects Own text “Eneje Love” “Eneje Travel” “Eneje Farm”

Eneje Mai Ido Rafi 10 See  96% 96% 92%

Adara Rafin Kunu 15 97% 80% 76% 64%

Ada Amallea 20 97% 81% 89% 89%

Ekhwa Ankwa 15 99% 24% 7% 5% a We could not find more than ten subjects who could participate in the research in Barakwai, so we tested the three Eneje texts in a different Ada village.

These two tests did not yield the same results. As seen in table 8, only Eneje subjects were able to score significantly above 75 percent on any text besides their own. In fact, on average they were able to score above 95 percent on both the Adara and Ada dialect texts. The Adara and the Ada subjects did not get a mean score above 75 percent on the Eneje test. The difference may be due to Eneje speakers learning to understand the other varieties (acquired intelligibility; see the comment on contact in section 8.1 as well as the discussion in this section) or it may be that there is an asymmetric inherent intelligibility. In an attempt to measure contact, we asked the subjects if they could tell where the speaker of each text was from and if they knew anyone from that place. Their answers showed that a few Eneje subjects have contact with the Adara and Ada dialects. If we take into account the second test using the three Eneje texts, we can observe two surprising changes (see table 9). First, when the same “Eneje Love” text was played again for more subjects from the Adara and Ada dialect speakers, a new result, this time higher than 75 percent, was achieved. In addition to this, the Ada subjects scored quite well (89 percent) on the two new Eneje texts. However, the Adara dialect subjects scored lower (76 percent and less) on the new texts. 19

Considering the observations made earlier in this section, we can make inferences about which dialects are understood well by speakers of other dialects. • Considering the low lexical similarity between Ekhwa and Ajiya (see table 7), and the subjects’ low comprehension of other dialects included in this survey, Ekhwa and Ajiya speakers would not be well served by literature in any dialect other than their own. Both Ekhwa and Ajiya dialects will need separate development. • The Adara dialect text was understood well by Eneje subjects, and marginally (75 percent) by the Ada subjects. Perhaps it could serve all three. • The Ada text was understood well by Eneje subjects, but the Adara dialect subjects achieved a score of 66 percent which is below the potential intelligibility threshold. • The Eneje texts produced mixed results (see table 9). Depending on which text test result is considered and which village the subjects are from, the results could indicate that speakers of either Adara dialect or Ada score above 75 percent on Eneje or that speakers from both Adara dialect and Ada or even neither do. Using the more conservative results, we might question whether speakers of either Adara dialect or Ada can understand Eneje well.

13 Findings

The following are the findings of the survey. We found out that five dialect groups claimed to speak the Adara language: Adara dialect, Ada, Eneje, Ekhwa, and Ajiya. However, lexical similarity comparisons and intelligibility text testing results indicate that Ekhwa and Ajiya are two separate languages. So, the dialects of the Adara language are Adara dialect, Ada and Eneje. Even so, the lexical similarity results indicate that Ada shares more similar words with Eneje (70 percent) than with the Adara dialect (57 percent). Adara, Ada and Eneje speakers reported that they understand the Adara dialect, and the intelligibility test results confirm that the Adara dialect is most understood. Eneje and Ada subjects scored 100 percent and 75 percent respectively on the Adara dialect text. The Adara dialect is reportedly prestigious and most understood by all, just as indicated in the intelligibility results. These indicators are convincing enough to qualify Adara dialect as the central and best choice for Adara [Kadara] language literature. Adara [Kadara] children speak their mother tongue in their homes and at play and they also speak Hausa as a second language. The Adara [Kadara] language is still the people’s primary language.

14 Conclusion and recommendation

Based on the lexical similarity, the intelligibility results and the interview responses of some individuals, it seems the Adara, Ada and Eneje dialects are similar and people of these dialect groups could possibly use the same literature. Furthermore, all the interviewees from these three dialects appeared to exhibit positive attitudes towards the Adara dialect as their preference for development. They feel that the Adara dialect is generally the best understood and easiest to learn among these dialects. In fact, even songs in the Adara dialect are reportedly understood and appreciated by the speakers of the other two dialects. Therefore, our first suggestion is that the Adara dialect should be developed to serve not only speakers of the Adara dialect but also those of the Eneje and Ada dialects. Table 8 indicates that Eneje speakers understand the Adara dialect well, while Ada speakers may need some time to get used to it. Since work in the Ada dialect is reportedly in progress, and it appears that Ada speakers may need some time to perfect their understanding of the Adara dialect, we make the alternative suggestion that the Ada dialect may also be developed alongside the Adara dialect. If the Ada dialect is developed, some Eneje speakers may prefer to use that instead of the Adara dialect. The Ajiya and Ekhwa dialects appear to be very different from the others and from each other. We therefore suggest that they should each have separate literature. 20

The vitality of all the Adara dialects seems to be high. All the dialects are spoken fluently in every domain by all age categories. There is some level of literacy in English and Hausa which could be built on. In terms of project support, there appears to be a great deal of enthusiasm. Appendix A: Ada of Kaduna Wordlist

Language Ada Ovah Ada Barakwai village Date 02 March 2011 12 March 2011 Given language Ada Ada‐Check name Given village Ovah Barakwai name LGA Kachia Paikoro State Kaduna Niger Informant SB PA Age 25 47 Sex M M Reliability: good good Elicited by: CM CM Other Informanʦ: DG, 28, M DM, 49, M Language (village) Ada (Ovah) Ada (Barakwai) No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. 1 hair none unsɛɾɛcʷɛ əsɛɾɛcʷe unsɛɾɛcʷɛ 2 head ɛcʷɛ acʷɛ ɛcʷɛ acʷɛ 3 forehead mbɛkɛ umbɛkɛ mbɛkɛ umbɛkɛ 4 ear ɔːtɔŋ aːtɔŋ ɔːtɔŋ aːtɔŋ 5 mouth ɔːnu ɔːnu ɔːnu ɔːnu 6 tooth idʒri edʒɾi idʒri edʒɾi 7 tongue iːno iːno iːno iːno 8 saliva ɛkpɛ none ɛkpɛ none 9 sweat iːdo none iːdo none 10 chin ocʷo ocʷo ocʷo none 11 beard unfocʷo none unfocʷo none 12 nose uᵏpɛwɛ akpɛwɛ ukpelo akpelo 13 eye ijɛ ajɛ ɪridʒre ɪɾidʒ̠re 15 tear drop ajɛ none adɛn none 16 neck ɑnta anta ontoh antoh 17 shoulder obʷe ɑbʷe obʷige abʷige 19 belly ofo̚ ɑfoetuŋnone 20 navel iko nko iko none 21 stomach omofo ɑmɑfo aʲki none 22 intestines onɑ ænæ onɑ ænæ 23 back epetʃe none ɛtʃɾi none

21 22

24 knee 25 leg uŋbun oŋbun uŋbun oŋbun 26 foot ofɾa afɾa ofɾa afɾa 27 shoes apɛnpʰofɾa apampʰafɾa apɛnpʰofɾa apampʰafɾa 28 thigh opula aᵏpala opula aᵏpala 29 arm okɾo akɾo okɾo akɾo 31 finger onʲe anʲe onʲe anʲe 32 fingernail eɾenje eɾenje eɾenje eɾenje 33 skin eta eta (none) eŋbenje eŋbenje eŋbenje eŋbenje 34 bone etaŋ 35 blood (none) (none) ukʷo okʷo ukʷo okʷo 36 heart (none) (none) eʒi eʒi 38 liver (none) ɛhɾʷɛkɾu ɛhɾʷɛkɾu 38.5 body (none) ɛhɾʷɛ ɛhɾʷɛ ɛhcʷe 40 tree eki eki eki eki ɛgbɛna ɛgbɛna ɛgbɛna 41 firewood 42 bush onum onum onbo anbo okoŋ ɛko okoŋ ɛko 43 forest 44 bark (none) akɾo akɾo akɾo akɾo 46 root ona ana ona ana uŋbaki aŋbaki aŋbagarə 47 branch ongaki angaki ongaki angaki 48 medicine oka eka oka eka 49 thorn 50 okɛn akɛn okɛn akɛn 51 basket rope iwɛ iwɛ iwɛ iwɛ 52 clothing ɛnzɛ onzɛ ɛnzɛ onzɛ 53 seed onkʲoʃe onkʲotʃe onkʲoʃe onkʲotʃe 54 ax onfo onfo eɾa eɾa ɛntɾetɾo ontɾetɾo 55 cutlass HAUSA HAUSA HAUSA HAUSA ɛnfo ɛnfo 56 hoe akala akala akala akala 57 and akala ka adda (na) akala ka adda (na) 58 leaf 59 ground nut (none) oza aza oza aza 60 bambura nut (none) ɛcɾa,ɛtʃɾa ɛcɾa ɛcɾa,ɛtʃɾa 61 guinea corn aja (none) (none) ɛtasɛ ɛtasɛ ɛtasɛ 62 locust bean tree (none) (none) okɾu 64 millet (none) (none) ɛɸɾa ɛkɾa 65 (none) (none) ɛndo̚ ɛndo̚ 68 shea butter ilije ilije zobo leaf aŋbabuʷu ɛzikʲo 69 mohogany ɪlige ɪlige 70 grass õmbo ambo õmbo (none) akʷo akʷo akʷo akʷo 23

71 grass, dry õ (none) 72 weed (none) (none) (none) (none) mbo kʷo ambo kʷo õmbo kʷo 73 flower ifuwo õnfuwo unfuwo õnfuwo 74 fruit 75 meat (none) ɛkɾaki ɛkɾaki ɛkɾaki ɛkɾaki 76 fat (none) ɛnam ɛnam ɛnam 77 egg ɛpoh ompoh ɛpoh 78 bean ido ido ido ido ɛkpa akpa ɛkpa akpa 79 fufu 80 (none) (none) ɛʃɛ onʃɛ ɛʃɛ onʃɛ 81 cough ikulo (none) ikulo (none) soup untʃɛ uncʷi 82 ulo ilo olo (none) 82.5 (none) pain 83 grave itu itu itu itu corpse okɾo akɾo okɾo 84 one (na) (na) 85 two (na) (na) izu izu 86 three eta (na) eta (na) epuwa epuwa 87 four (na) (na) 88 five (na) (na) enaŋ enaŋ 89 six ike (na) ike (na) itoŋ itoŋ 90 seven (na) (na) 91 eight (na) (na) itumpuwa itumpuwa 92 nine ituna (na) ituna (na) enaːna enaːna 93 ten (na) (na) 94 twelve (na) (na) okoʰ okoʰ 94.5 fifteen (na) (na) okoʰ lɛpuwa okoʰ lɛpuwa 95 twenty (na) (na) okoʰ letoŋ okoʰ letoŋ 96 hundred (na) (na) ɛkwɛpuwa ɛkwɛpuwa 97 woman atɛlɛ atɛlɛ 98 man eki eki anʃɛ aʃɛ anʃɛ aʃɛ 100 andah ada ɛnki ɛnki 102 wedding ab (none) person ɛnji ɛnjitɾi 102 father ekije ekije ekije ekije obɾa ɾa obɾa 105 mother eja eje eja eje 106 child are are 107 brother areŋ areŋ 108 sister afuwom afuwom afuwom afuwom ewedʒim ewedʒim ewedʒim ewedʒim 111 chief 112 friend m agoŋ agoŋ agoŋ agoŋ 113 stranger onusɛm onusɛm onusɛ onusɛm 114 God (none) (none) oːsoŋ oːsoŋ oːsoŋ oːsoŋ o n u m̚ o n u m̚ 24

115 name ontuwa (none) ontuwa (none) 116 animal (none) (none) 118 onijatʃa oŋketɾaŋ 119 tail pig ubusuɾum obusuɾum ubusuɾum obusuɾum 122 fly utʃi etʃi utɾi etɾi 123 ensuŋ ẽsisuŋ ensuŋ ẽsisuŋ 124 mosquito evoh evoh evoh evoh spider agiᵉ agiᵉ agiᵉ agiᵉ 129 honeybee 130 honey etoh (none) (none) eɸo eɸo eɸo eɸo 131 goat abo abo abo abo etoŋ 132 horn 133 cow etũwa atũwa etũwa atũwa 134 she ɛlõw ɛlõw ɛlõw ɛlõw 135 crocodile ep atɛ̃ atɛ̃ atɛ̃ atɛ̃ 137 chicken ãno ãno arano ãno aːkwõ aːkwõ aːkwõ aːkwõ 138 guinea fowl 139 bird oɸo aɸo oɸo aɸo 140 claw aɾɛno aɾono aɾɛno aɾono 141 wing ampɾa ampɾa akɛn akɛn 142 feather ufɾu ofɾu ufɾu ofɾu 143 snake ifu̚ ũfu ifu̚ iŋu 144 tortoise ɛ̃ wɛ ɛ̃ wɛ ɛ̃ wɛ ɛ̃ wɛ 145 rat ekɾu ekɾu ekɾu ekɾu 146 ena ena ena ena iːki iːki iːki iːki 147 fish arevo arevo scorpion 148 toad a a arevo̚ arevo̚ⁱɸ ⁱɸ 150 buffalo aɸᵛʷɾa aɸᵛʷɾa irə irə 151 nka ɛkuwa ɛkuwa ɛkuwa ɛkuwa 154 hyena elephant ɛ ɛnka ɛnka ɛnka 155 dog ava ava ava ava ɛkɾo õŋkɾo ɛkɾo õŋkɾo 156 house/hut 157 room abaŋ abaŋ abaŋ abaŋ fence 158 ũŋkougbɛ ̆lɛ õŋkoegbɛ ̆lɛ ũŋkougbɛ ̆lɛ õŋkoegbɛ ̆lɛ 159 160 ok road/path õŋtʃãŋ ɛŋtʃãŋ õŋtʃãŋ ɛŋtʃãŋ 161 farm (field) onum onum onum onum pit ukpo po ukpo okpo 162 at (de) 163 door anjatija atija anjatija atija ko mabaŋ ko mabaŋ omabaŋ 164 chair/stool 165 salt onija (none) onliga (none) ɛntɾetʃo ontʃɔtʃɔ ɛntɾetʃo ontʃɔtʃɔ 166 broom

ɛndʒɛ ondʒɛ ɛndʒe ɛndʒe 25

167 mortar 168 otʃo otʃo utʃu otʃu 169 fire ola ela ola ela pestle aɾa aɾa aɾa aɾa 170 smoke ung (none) (none) 171 ashes (none) (none) n̩ s n̩ s u n g 172 stick anʃɾola oŋtõ 173 stone abːa abːa abːa abːa 174 cave e ɛntʃitʃe ontʃutʃə ɛntɾa ontɾotɾa 175 mountain anko anko ukpot okpote ofopaʰ afapaʰ 176 earth, ground ombo (none) ɔnko ɔnko 177 mud H utubu (none) H utubu (none) ɛːbo ɛːbo 178 clay itom untom itom (none) 179 sand (none) (none) 180 dust (none) (none) iʃe iʃe 181 money unvʷiikĭli ikĭli unvʷiikĭli ikĭli 182 iron 184 market ojiɾə ajiɾə ojiɾə ajiɾə 185 wind (none) (none) iːze iːze iːze iːze 186 cloud (none) uruᵑ uruᵑ 187 rain (none) (none) amɛn amɛn ɛnkʷĩ 188 rainy season (none) evɾa evɾa 189 dry season ewo (none) ewo (none) ekɾo onkɾo ekɾo 190 dew omwo (none) omwo (none) 191 stream igo igo (none) 192 river (none) (none) n̩ g o 193 canoe udjɾi udʒɾi 194 bridge okpambɾe ekpambɾe okpambɾe ekpambɾe 195 water (none) (none) ɛndᶾɾə ondᶾɾə ɛndᶾɾə ondᶾɾə 196 lake o ambɾe ambɾe 197 sky (none) (none) uŋkp oŋkpo uŋkpo oŋkpo 198 moon apɾemin apɾemin 199 star opɾe apɾe opɾe apɾe 200 sun (none) (none) eɾinkɛn oɾunkɛn eɾinkɛn oɾunkɛn 201 year onːum onːum 202 morning (none) aːme aːme aːme aːme 203 afternoon (none) (none) otuɾəmbo otuɾəmbo oturəmbo 204.1 evening anle (none) anle (none) aɽe aɽe 205.1 night otu otu otu (none) 206 yesterday õle (none) õle (none) 207 tomorrow ombu (none) ombu (none) 208 knife

ɛ̃n̥ɸ̥ ̃ɾə õn̥fɸ̥ ɾə ɛ̃n̥ɸ̥ ̃ɾə õn̥fɸ̥ ɾə 26

208.1 my bow (na) (na) 208.2 your (na) (na) oːtəm oːtam 208.3 his (na) (na) oːtəŋ ota umʷɛm 208.4 her (na) (none) (na) oːtag̥a otaŋ 208.5 our (na) etanji (na) oːtag̥a 208.6 (same as 208.02) (na) etawo (na) oːtanji 208.7 their (na) (na) your (pl) 209 bow a (na) oːtawɒ eːtawɒ 210 arrow oːtə eːtə oːt 211 quiver okum okum okum okum ecɾa oncɾa ecɾa acɾa 212 213 war (none) (none) spear okɾe akɾe okɾe akɾe 214 who? okwɪnona okwɪnona 215 whose? (de) (de) ẽːna wõẽːna? ẽːna ɛnosɛŋa 216 what? unse w n unsuwa? (de) (de) ⁱ ɪ oBibleõweŋgaʷne? 217 when? ulubo (de) (de) 218 where? (de) (de) uluboweŋabaʷ? 219 here (de) (de) okoʷã koloŋkʷa? 220 how? (de) (de) koŋkʷɛn õwɛn 221 why? sabuse? nsa w so aba? (de) (de) kemːalajə kemːalotʷãso?ⁱ ɔ ŋ 222 (na) (na) 223 rotten (na) a a ja (na) ripe obɾa obɾaⁱʃ ⁱ 224 hungry ewo (na) ewo (na) oʃawa 225 hot (na) (na) 226 cold/cool (na) (na) opje afɪn (same as (same as 227 cold cold/cool)oɾaŋ (na) cold/cool)oɾaŋ (na) 228 smooth (na) (na) 229 white (na) (na) odedɾe odedɾe 230 black (na) (na) okᵘki okᵘki 231 dark itum (na) itum (na) otʃutʃi otʃutʃi 232 red ususo (na) ususo (na) 233 ona (na) ona (na) 234 dull osowonama (na) (na) sharp 235 evil (na) (na) ɛsɛgɛnama 236 good agjaguwa (na) agjaguwa (na) anehkɾɛbibi anehkɾɛbibi 237 many (na) u (na) 238 wide (na) (na) ukɾe kɾe 239 narrow (na) (na) upɛsi upɛsi 240 straight (na) (na) nanoᵊ nanoᵊ 241 crooked ugun (na) ugun (na) naʃe naʃe 243 long (na) (na)

ɛgbɾa ɛgbɾa 27

244 short okuku (na) okuku (na) 246 thick omumuⁱ (na) osolulu (na) 247 thin (na) (na) 248 heavy olulo (na) olulo (na) opopʷɛ sɛrencre 249 light (na) (na) 250 old (na) (na) osɛsɛgʰe osɛsɛgʰe 251 new (na) (na) okokɾə okokɾə 252 left (na) (na) opopɾə opopɾə 253 right (na) (na) ipɾe iŋipɾe 254 yes (na) (na) ejə ejə 255 no ka (na) ka (na) ɛ̃ ː ⁱ ɛ̃ ː ⁱ 256 hard (na) (na) 257 soft usuarata (na) (na) sɛkpɛpua umumᶢɪɾi 258 few (na) (na) onnɛɾe 259 (na) (na) nakpaɸɛɾɛ oɸɛ 260 down (na) ilu (na) up apɾe apɾe 261 wet (na) ola (na) ɛːbo 262 dry (na) (na) ̃õkʲeola 263 dirty (na) otuwa (na) õkʲeonkʷo onkʷo 264 all (na) ididu (na) ilːuwe 265 I mi (na) imi (na) neduwə̃ 266 you (na) (na) 267 he (na) (na) õŋã õŋã 268 she (na) (na) ãŋã ẽŋã 269 we (na) (na) anʃela aɾaʃe 271 you unu (na) unu (na) ɪnʲi ɪndʒi 272 they amăla (na) amăla (na) 274 blow 275 whistle opɛh apɛh opɛh apɛh 275.5 sing otante atante ante alatante iɸu aʃeiɸu iɸu oʃɛmbu 276 eat ja oja aⁱja alaja 276.01 I ate maⁱja (na) malaⁱ (na) 276.02 you ate ona ja (na) ma (na) ⁱ ⁱ jə 276.03 you (f) ate (na) (na) jə 276.04 he ate oja (na) (na) anʃeja anʃejəⁱ 276.05 she ate (na) (na) ɛnaŋa jə 276.06 we ate (na) (na) anʃeja anʃejəⁱ 276.08 they ate (na) (na) injajə indʒa jə 276.10 ona ledun (na) (na) ɛmajaⁱə ɛmajaⁱ 276.11 he is eating oja (na) (na) you (pl) ate indʒa jə 276.12 he will eat aloja (na) aloja (na) akojonkʲ ɛŋjasonkʲojə 28

276.13 he usually eat akaⁱja (na) aloⁱ (na) 276.14 he didn't eat asojamma (na) asojamma (na) jə 276.5 do du odu odu olodu 277 dance ota ata ota alata 278 ovivili avivili ovivili alavivili 279 smell onja onja play 280 see onjʷun onjʷun 281 laugh ʃi eʃi ʃi oləʃi 282 say okɾo akɾo okɾo alakɾo 283 ask uluwe eluwe uluwe eleuwe aʃe apɛʃi aʃe alaʃi 284 beg owã owã 285 listen awə alawə 286 hear njɛnato aŋjɛnato njɛnato alanjɛnato 287 bark okoᵑ akoᵑ okoᵑ alakoŋ 288 shout ugbɾe ogbɾe ugbɾe olɛgbɾe 289 cry okɛ̚kpa atɛ̚kpa okɛ̚kpa alatɛ̚kpa 290 fear okibo ekibo ukibu alakibu utɾi etɾe utɾi ɛlitɾe 291 want oni eni ni 292 think ələni 293 count orekɾe arekɾe orekɾe alarekɾe 294 know opuə apuə opuə alapuə 295 teach ulolo ololo ululo olululo ozə azə aza aza 296 show 297 drink oniᵘŋ eniᵘŋ oniᵘŋ elɪniᵘŋ 298 suck oɸa aɸa oɸa alaɸa 300 vomit oʃʷom aʃʷom oŋa alaŋa 301 e uhʷo ohʷu uhʷo alahʷo 302 spit otakpe atakpe otakpe alatakp 303 bite onwa anwa onwa alanwa sneeze ɛndiʃa atandiʃa ɛndiʃa alatandiʃa 304 305 sit sweep oze aze oze alaze 306 stand otʃɛtʃa atʃɛtʃa otɾɪtɾa alatɾɪtɾa 307 fight njinjə anjinjə njinjə alanjɪnjə 308 lie down naw a naw okwɛn akwɛn okwɛn alakwɛn 309 yawn naŋa alaŋa 310 rest oŋanu aŋanu oŋanu olaŋanu 311 ona ona alanona utɾɪm etɾɪm utɾɪm eletɾɪm 312 wash uhulo ohulo uhulo olohulu sleep anɔna 313 wash-clothes (same) (na) (same) (na) 314 bathe 315 steal utuwo otʃam atʃam otɾum alatɾum edʒetuwo uᵗʃu uᵗʃu 29

316 give oma ama oma alamu 317 hide uje eje uje eleje 318 take 319 hold n̩ n̩ ẽ ãŋẽ oŋwe alaŋwe 320.1 buy alalo ukoʰ okoʰ ukoʰ olukoʰ 321.1 sell olo̚ alo̚ olo̚ 322 give birth ubijo obijo ubijo alobijo uʈɾo oʈɾo uʈɾo oluʈɾu 323 marry 324 die obɾa olobɾa obɾa alakobɾa 325 kill uk�po ok�poŋ uk�po oluk�po 326 fall opɾe apɾe opɾe alakpɾe 327 fall over ok�pao ok�pao ok�pao ok�pao 328 walk ok�pa ok�pa ok�pa ok�pa 329 run utito etito utito ososuŋ ososuŋ ososuŋ olusosuŋ 330 fly ɛletito 331 ufɾu ofɾu ufɾu olufɾu 332 swim owo awo owo alawo jump oːfili eːfili utikpɾifu ofɾu 333 come ba ba alaba 334 enter onj onj ⁱɾ aːba ⁱɾ 335 exit ə anjʳɾə ə alanjiɾə 336 go tʃo ofʃo utɾiti olutɾitri 337 follow k�po kaŋ ok�po kaŋ k�po kaŋ olok�pukaŋ 338 send iɾɛnka iɾɛnka uɾika ɛlɛrika 339 cut fa afa fa alafo tũwə atuwə tũwə alatũwə̃ 340 break owe awe owe alawe 341 osa alasa 342 scratch split otɾə atɾə 343 cook okăla akăla okăla alakălu 343.5 boil ija okʲe akʲe okʲe alakʲe 343.6 fry opija ap ufɪn ələfɪn 344 hunt uti igbe eti igbe uti igbe eleti igbe okɾa akɾa okɾã alakɾã 344.5 hunter (na) (de) 345 hit ola ala ɛgbɛᵑ ɛgbɛᵑ 346 tie ulo olo ulo olulo okə̆la olakə̆la 347 sew 348 forge (de) (de) otŭwə atuwə otŭwə alatuwə 348.5 blacksmith (de) (de) okiʲə akiʲə 349 burn (de) ufu (de) akujə akujə 350 throw ota (de) ota (de) uhrum̥ 351 ⁱ (de) (de) 352 (de) (de) pour onʷ iraŋ nɛno pour out ʃe.bo onɛno 30

354 fill (de) (de) 355 (de) (de) okʷoŋ okʷoŋ 356 l uwo (de) uwo (de) push otaŋjiᵒ uze 357 (de) oma (de) pul 358 dig utu (de) utu (de) squeeze okʲun 359 (de) (de) 361 harvest owa (de) (de) plant utʃuwe utʃuwe Key (none)=no plural form ̠'-m = my... oɾa (na)=not applicable aso=present tense (de)=didn't elicit ako=past tense Appendix B: Ankwa of Kaduna Wordlist

Language village Ankwa Sabon Gari Ankwa Ankwa Date 04 March 2011 10 March 2011 Given language name Ankwa Ankwa‐Check Given village name Sabon Gari Ankwa Ankwa LGA Kachia Kachia State Kaduna Kaduna Informant JM SA Age 36 38 Sex M M Reliability: good Elicited by: CM and ZY CM Other Informanʦ: YS, 32, M Language (village) Ankwa (Sabon Gari) Ankwa (Ankwa) No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. 1 hair ensɛlɛcʷeː onsɛlɛcʷɛ ensɛlɛcʷeː onsɛlɛcʷɛ 2 head ecʷe acʷe ecʷe acʷe 3 forehead ikpoʃo omkpoʃo ikpoʃo omkpoʃo 4 ear oto ato oto ato 5 mouth õnjõ õnjõ õnjõ õnjõ 6 tooth injɛne enjɛne injɛne enjɛne 7 tongue ɛɾle ũɾule ɛɾle ɛɾle 8 saliva ekpʰi none ekpʰi none 9 sweat opʰiɛɾ none opʰiɛɾ apʰiɛɾ 10 chin ikpɛndɛre ukpɛndɛɾe ikpɛndɛre ekpɛndɛɾe 11 beard icʷoŋjo ucʷuŋjo icʷoŋjo ucʷuŋjo 12 nose ɛnʃɛwo oŋʃowo ɛʃeo oŋʃowo 13 eye ikɛnɪze ikɛnɪze ikɛnɪze ikɛnɪze 15 tear drop eːzi eːdʒi eːzi eːdʒi 16 neck ogor agor ogor agor 17 shoulder oŋkʲe aŋkʲe oŋkʲe aŋkʲe 19 belly ata.ɛnje atonje ata.ɛnje atonje 20 navel iku uŋku iku uŋku 21 stomach enʲe onʲe aⁱəɾeŋionʲe 22 intestines igɛɾɛ ungɛɾɛ igɛɾɛ ungɛɾɛ 23 back ɛgo oŋgo ɛgo oŋgo 24 knee utʃuroɾo otʃoroɾo utʃuroɾo otʃoroɾo 25 leg obra abra obra abra 26 foot ompabra ampabra ompabra ampabra

31 32

27 shoes 28 thigh akhwa otikə atikə otikə atikə 29 arm ovo avo ovo avo ohʷa ahʷa okhʷa 31 finger emvo omavo amomvo 32 fingernail emɛmvo 33 skin əkjoᵐ oŋkjoᵐ əkjoᵐ oŋkjoᵐ 34 bone əta ətaː əta ətaː 35 blood eji (none) eji (none) uhʷo ohʷo uhʷo ohʷo 36 heart 38 liver oje aje oje aje iːɸi uŋɸi iːɸi icɸi 38.5 body onum onum 40 tree ɛnum ɛnum 41 firewood ohwo ohwo oʃe aʃe oʃe aʃe 42 bush ɛhwo ɛhwo 43 forest (none) oɾumo oɾumo oɾumo oɾumo 44 bark oɾumaʃe oŋkuɾo oɾumaʃe 46 root õnfɛn ãnfɛn oguʃe ogʷaʃe 47 branch one ane ane engɛne engɛne engɛne engɛne 48 medicine oga ega oga ega ɛne 49 thorn ogan agan ogan agan 50 iwe iwe iwe iwe 51 basket rope 52 clothing onga (none) onga (none) ɛmbɛre ombɛre ɛmbɛre ombɛre 53 seed ewo ewo ewo ewo 54 ax andum andum andum andum 55 cutlass 56 hoe ahoɾa.awaʃe onhoɾa.awaʃe ahoɾa.awaʃe onhoɾa.awaʃe 57 and okpolə (na)akpalə sameokpolə "na" (na)akpalə okpolə na 58 leaf oja a ja oja a ja hoɾa.awaʃe ⁱ ⁱ 59 ground nut ivi ivi ivi umvi 60 bambura nut iva 61 guinea corn ogro (none) ogro (none) hʷa ivahʷa ivakʷa umvakʷa 62 locust bean tree iwulu (none) iwulu iwulu 64 millet anuma (none) anuma anuma 65 ubowo ubowo 68 shea butter ijo ijo ijo iju zobo leaf obuwᵒ obuʷᵒ 69 mohogany (none) (none) oko ako 70 grass 71 grass, dry (same) (same) inʃi ɛnʃi inʃi ɛnʃi 72 weed (same) (none) ombije (none) ɛnʃi akɾako ɛnʃi akɾako 73 flower

umplo omplo umpŭlo ompŭlo 33

74 fruit 75 meat itʃumaʃɛ itʃimoʃɛ ikuɾaʃe ikuɾaʃe 76 fat e ɛnom ɛnom ənum ənum 77 egg ekɹom ekɹom ekɹom kɹom 78 bean (none) ɛkpa akpa ɛkpa akpa 79 fufu (none) unʃe unʃe unʃe 80 (none) eɟɛ egʲe oŋgʲe 81 cough unkai (none) unkai soup oɲɛ oɲɛ oŋje 82 (none) (none) ɛnkai 82.5 pain ornə ornə 83 grave itu untu itu itu corpse ohʷo ɛhʷko ohʷo ɛhʷo 84 one ji (na) (na) 85 two ba (na) ba (na) ⁱ iː ⁱ 86 three tar (na) etar (na) 87 four nane (na) enane (na) 88 five (na) itu (na) 89 six tan (na) etan (na) tuː 90 seven (na) (na) 91 eight nanane (na) enenane (na) tancə etancə 92 nine (na) (na) 93 ten (na) (na) əɾaᵘ əɾaᵘokoh 94 twelve (na) (na) okoʰ ⁱ okoʰ ⁱ 94.5 fifteen (na) (na) okoʰnaba okoʰnaba 95 twenty ekeba (na) ekeba (na) okoʰnotuⁱ okoʰnituⁱ 96 hundred (na) (na) 97 woman ɛdɛɾi ɛdɛɾi 98 man enɪŋene eŋɪne enɪŋene eŋɪne 100 ənaten atɛn ənaten atɛn 102 wedding eba eba umbai person adăɾəⁱ adaɾə ⁱ adăɾəⁱ adaɾə 102 father uɹolumba 105 mother ɛte eːte ɛte eːte 106 child aŋjinə aːŋjinə aŋjinə aːŋjinə 107 brother awʰe ahʷe awʰe ahʷe 108 sister ewɪ̃ⁿɪnɛ ewẽⁿɪnɛ ewɪ̃ⁿɪnɛ ewẽⁿɪnɛ 111 chief agwa agwa agwa agwa afɛn afɛn afɛn afɛn 112 friend onoru onoru onoru onoru 113 stranger 114 God (none) (none) oɟ̹o, odʒ̹o odʒo oɟ̹o, odʒ̹o odʒo 115 name oŋbɛ oŋbɛ 116 animal oŋsə aŋsɛ oŋsə aŋsɛ 118 ɛnumoromu ɛnumoramu ɛnumoromu ɛnumoramu pig uɾum ɛgbɛ oɾum ɛːgbɛ uɾum ɛgbɛ oɾum ɛːgbɛ 34

119 tail 122 fly ekʲɛn aŋkʲɛn ekʲɛn aŋkʲɛn 123 odʒ̠udʒu oːdʒudʒu odʒu oːdʒudʒu 124 mosquito spider oːpantɾe aːpantʃe oːpantɾe aːpantʃe 129 honeybee ɛvoʰ ɛvoʰ ɛvoʰ ɛvoʰ 130 honey (none) (none) ɛsoʰ ɛsoʰ ɛsoʰ oŋsoʰ 131 goat avo avo avo avo atoʰ atoʰ 132 horn atuma ontuma 133 cow ɛntuma ɛntuma 134 antom antom antom antom ɛna ɛna ɛna ɛna 135 crocodile sheep 137 chicken ãno ãno ãno ãno ogʷe egʷe ogʷe egʷe 138 guinea fowl 139 bird õno awono uzo ozo uzo ozo 140 claw ɛno ɛno 141 wing ɛmpʲo ompʲo ekʲom aŋkjom 142 feather ovo.ɛno avo.ɛ̆ no opepʲɛʰ apapɛh 143 snake ewo ewo ewo ewo opɛʰ apapɛʰ apɛh apapɛʰ 144 tortoise ikru ikru ikru ikru 145 rat 146 iːk�pʰi iːk�pʰi iːk�pʰi iːk�pʰi 147 fish scorpion ɛːna ɛːna ɛːna ɛːna 148 toad ɛnkʲo onkʲo ɛnkʲo onkʲo 150 buffalo orːe arːe orːe arːe 151 ɛkawe ɛkaːwe ɛkawe ɛkaːwe 154 hyena elephant ɛŋka oŋka ɛŋka oŋka 155 dog ɛᵏhuɾə ɛᵏhuɾə ɛᵏhuɾə ɛᵏhuɾə 156 house/hut ɛnvə onvə ɛnvə onvə 157 room odo ado odo ado ɛgbɛ ɛgbɛ ɛgbɛ ɛgbɛ 158 fence opaŋ apaŋ opaŋ apaŋ 159 160 road/path odʒa adʒa odɾa adɾa 161 farm (field) (none) orum pit opolo apulo opolo apulo 162 at (na) (na) oɾumo oɾumo 163 door ɛjɛgbɛ asaɛjɛgbe 164 chair/stool oŋʲodo oŋʲado oŋʲodo oŋʲado 165 salt õno (none) õno (none) ik�pik�po unk�pok�po ik�pok�po ik�pok�po 166 broom 167 mortar undu undu ejilɛh oŋjilɛh ejilɛh oŋjilɛh 168 owodu owodu owodu owodu iːdu iːdu 169 fire pestle ɛndə ondə ɛndə ondə 35

170 smoke (none) (none) 171 ashes on undʒo undʒo 172 stick omba untoʰ toʰ untoʰ ontoʰ 173 stone ota ata ota ata ɛɾaleⁱ unɾalɛⁱ ɛmbaⁱ ⁱ 174 cave ote ate ote ate 175 mountain 176 earth, ground (none) (none) opa apa opa apa 177 mud (none) (none) ɛbije ɛbije 178 clay (none) (none) iɾɛli iɾɛli 179 sand ige (none) ige (none) ɛzɛʰ ɛzɛʰ 180 dust (none) (none) 181 money (none) (none) unvɪnõfɛʰ unvɪnõfɛʰ 182 iron ondom 184 market (none) (none) ɛdom ɛdom ɛdom 185 wind (none) (none) atʷe ag�beze 186 cloud umi emi umi emi uᶉo uᶉo 187 rain (none) (none) 188 rainy season egolo egolo oʲjaʰ oʲjaʰ 189 dry season oŋgolo oŋgolo 190 dew ume (none) ume (none) ewoʰ oŋwoʰ ewoʰ oŋwoʰ 191 stream 192 river akɾo akɾo akɾo akɾo 193 canoe uŋjine ɛŋjine uŋjine ɛŋjine 194 bridge ogada egada udʒiɾgi ɛmɛtʃi idʒiɾgi ɛmɛtʃi ukpo okpo 195 water (none) (none) odɛɾ adɛɾ 196 lake oloko aloko mut i mut i ɛmɛtʃi ɛmɛtʃiⁱ ʃ ⁱ ʃ 197 sky a (none) (none) ⁱ okʷo okʷo 198 moon (none) (none) jə ukpume 199 star oːtə oŋokwe oɾoɾe 200 sun (none) (none) ondɾe andɾe ondɾe andɾe 201 year owe ewe owe ewe ombeʰ ombeʰ 202 morning 203 afternoon (none) (none) odudɾe egʷigʷe odudɾe egʷigʷe 204.1 evening atʃari atʃari 205.1 night ontoɾe antoɾe ontoɾe antoɾe 206 yesterday kore (none) kore (none) ugʷe egʷe ugʷe egʷe 207 tomorrow (none) o (none) 208 knife ofukʲia fukʲia 208.1 my bow ota (na) ota (na) ɛnkwuɾəⁱ onkwuɾə ɛnkwuɾəⁱ onkwuɾə 208.2 your (na) (na) 208.3 his (na) (na) otaʷ otaʷ otaŋ otaŋ 36

208.4 her (na) (na) 208.5 our (na) (na) otaŋ otaŋ 208.6 otanjo (na) otanjo (na) otan.n�de otan.n�de 208.7 their otama (na) otama (na) your (pl) 209 bow 210 arrow (de) otaʰ ataʰ otaʰ ataʰ 211 quiver unturu unturu akɛra akʲɛɾa okʲɛɾa 212 ɪnturu ɪnturu 213 war ogon (none) ogon egon spear ɛkoŋ oŋkoŋ ɛkoŋ oŋkoŋ 214 who? (de) (de)

215 whose? (de) oŋoiŋbom (de) iŋboanɛne iŋbom iŋbeɲasɛne 216 what? (de) (de) asunooBiblekɪn ɛnganjɛn 217 when? (de) okjotukaba (de) inkjomɛnɛ inkjɛmumɛne 218 where? (de) (de) okjuɾotu 219 here (de) (de) kɪnni kɪmbi 220 how? (de) jaotuma (de) kɛmɛn mɛn 221 why? (de) inkjumːo 222 (na) ɛnco ɔba kɛnkje 223 rotten (na) ripe ɔkɔbɾa itʃimaʃekɔbɾa obɾa 224 hungry (na) ejo (na) ovɔ itʃimaʃɛkovɔ uʃowe 225 hot (na) ɛyɔ 226 cold/cool (na) oŋkpam emetʃi saŋkpam opije 227 cold (de) (de) (na) ɔflɛ ɛmɛtʃɔflɛ ɔflɛ 228 smooth (na) ucʷe 229 white otai oval (na) ɛŋgɔdɔdɔr otaiɔdɔdɔr ɛŋgɔdɔdɔr 230 black (na) eŋaɔval ɔval 231 dark (na) eŋguolup otai ublup ɪtʃitʃi 232 red (na) uɟʷɛ uɟʷe utʃitʃi uɟʷɛ 233 (de) (na) ŋgoŋcoŋ otai oncoŋ oŋcoŋ 234 dull (de) (de) (na) sharp ɛŋhoɾoŋza ondʒa 235 evil (na) ɛndʒanjamwa 236 good egjegjom (na) ibzibzi ancʷibzibzi ekɾɪli 237 many (na) ɛgjom anaɟagjom 238 wide (na) anaɾɛ adɾa saɾe osoŋɾɛ 239 narrow (na) ɔɾɔɾai ɔdʒɔ ɔɾɔɾai ɔɾɔɾai 240 straight utitubo (na) upɾupɾi ɔdʒu upɾupɾi owʰale 241 crooked (na) ɛdʒi ɔdʒɔdʒɛ 243 long (na) ɛŋgɔgɾɔgɾai ɔdʒɔɾɔgɾai ugegɛmi 244 short (na) ɛdʒi ɔdʒɔdʒɛ odʒodʒe 246 thick (na) utiŋ ɔdʒu utitiŋ ukukʷe 247 thin (na) ip͡tsi oʃup͡tsi ipipi omptsaŋ aʃomptsoŋ ontʃɛn 37

248 heavy (na) 249 light ufululu (na) umbɾum oʃombɾum umbɾum 250 old (na) oʃufululu ohaᵘ 251 new (na) ɔŋkɾɛ odʒɔgble ogbɛle 252 left (na) opalɛ odzɔpolɛ opalɛ 253 right (na) ipɛɾ, ipɛr ovipir avipɛɾ 254 yes o (na) o (na) ɛnza ovɛnza avɛndʒa 255 no (na) kaⁱ (na) 256 hard (na) oʔo ⁱ 257 soft (na) odʒika oʃɔdʒika ɛka 258 few (na) okpokpɛlɛ oʃɔkpokpɛlɛ okpokpɛlɛ 259 aja (na) aja (na) ɛŋgaŋ adɾa awɛŋgaŋ untʃɛn 260 down (na) (na) up 261 wet (na) ɛdzɛ ɛde 262 dry ohwar (na) ɔkɔbɛŋ nsɔmekɔbeŋ emɛnetʃi 263 dirty (na) okɔhwar ekokɾo 264 all andahwa awun (na) ijiŋi nsɔmojiŋi ejiŋ 265 I (na) andɛ 266 you (na) (na) ɛmɛ mɛ ɛmɛ 267 he (na) (na) ɔŋɔ ɔŋɔ 268 she (same as he) (na) (same as he) (na) ɔŋɔ ɔŋɔ 269 we (na) (na) 271 you (na) (na) andɛ andɛ they (na) (na) 272 ɛndɛɔma ɛndɛandemawa 274 blow ufu okufu ufu okufu 275 whistle 275.5 sing ɛɾlɛ okufɛɾlɛ ɛɾɛlə akunɛɾɛlə 276 eat unsɔ asɔtunsu uŋʃo asoʃouŋʃo 276.01 I ate (na) (na) oŋza akoŋzɛgoŋza ondʒa akodʒa 276.02 you ate (na) (na) ɛkɔŋza ɛkɔŋza 276.03 you (f) ate (same as you ate) (na) (same as you ate) (na) ɔkɔŋza anokoŋza 276.04 he ate (na) (na) 276.05 she ate (same as he ate) (na) (same as he ate) (na) akɔŋza akɔŋza 276.06 we ate (na) (na) 276.08 they ate (na) (na) andakoŋza andakoŋza 276.10 adnda (na) (na) ɔmɔkɔŋza akonza 276.11 he is eating (na) (na) you (pl) ate ke aŋza anokonza 276.12 he will eat (na) (na) aɾɔnza aɾɔnza 276.13 he usually eat (na) (na) ɛsonza ɛsonza 276.14 he didn't eat (na) (na) asonza asonza 276.5 do wune konzaŋa akananzaŋa nɛ akɔnɛ akɔnɛ 38

277 dance 278 ɔtʃɛtʃɛ akɔtʃɛtʃɛ ɔtʃɛtʃɛ akɔtʃɛtʃɛ 279 smell play ɔdɾɛja akɔdɾaja ɔdɾɛja akodɾaiə 280 see ɔŋgɔ aŋgɔ ɔŋgɔ akuŋgo 281 laugh ndʒi ekundʒi unzi akunzi 282 say ɔsɘŋa akɔsɘna ɔsɘŋa akosəna 283 ask ɔga akɔga ɔga akɔga 284 beg usolu okusolu usolu akusulu uɾulu okuɾulu uɾulu akuɾulu 285 listen (??) 286 hear (de) ŋʷai oʷaŋgo akʷoŋgo 287 bark ogom ɔŋgɔ ɔŋgɔ akoŋgo 288 shout aʃɔ akɔtaʃɔ akʷogom 289 cry akpa akɔakpa obe.ɛɾaɾɛna abiɛ.rarɛna 290 fear ukɾo osukɾo ukɾo akukɾo 291 want (u)ndir ekandir ibzoɾo akoŋgibzoɾu ibzoɾo aŋgwebijoro 292 think H H wa k nic u edɛɾⁱ ɛ ʷ edɛɾ 293 count (wa)bai oba akoba ⁱ asoŋgoⁱ 294 know akɔbai 295 teach ukpe ɛkakpe ukpe akpe 296 show omanɛ akomanɛŋ omanɛ akomanɛŋ 297 drink a ujɛni ɛkajɛnitʃimaʃɛ jɛni akujɛni 298 suck ocʷ akɔcʷa ocʷa akɔcʷa 300 vomit umuŋu okuŋmuŋu ozoŋ akozoŋ 301 okɾəlu okukɾəlu okɾəlu okukɾəlu 302 spit ɔtaicʷi okɔtecʷi ecʷi otanɛcʷi 303 bite sneeze ɛtitʃa akɔtɛtiʃa ɛtitʃa akɔtɛtiʃa 304 ɔɾai akɔɾai ɔɾai akɔɾai 305 sit sweep ɔjilɛ akɔjilɛ ɔjilɛ akɔjilɛ 306 stand ɔtʃitʃɛ akɔtʃitʃɛ ɔtʃitʃɛ akɔtʃitʃɛ 307 fight ɔsɘnɛ akɔsɘnɛ oʃɛne akoʃɛne 308 lie down ununo ununo ɛɾ̃na akɔder̃na ɛɾ̃na akɔder̃na 309 yawn akunuɔ akunuɔ 310 rest H H (same as sit) (na) oɾai onju akɔarai onju oɾai onju akɔarai onju 311 umblu akumblu umblu akumblu 312 wash uglo okuglo uglo okuglo sleep 313 wash-clothes (same) (na) 314 bathe uglu.ungə akunglu.ungə 315 steal ɔtʃa akɔtʃa ɔtʃa akɔtʃa 316 give uʒe ɛkuʒe uʒe ɛkuʒe 317 hide usolu okusolu usolu okusolu ɔzɛ akɔze ɔzɛ akɔze 318 take

opkai, suku akɔkpa opkai, suku akɔkpa 39

319 hold uko okuku uko oko 320.1 buy 321.1 sell oɾo akoɾa oɾo akoɾa 322 give birth odo akodo ogɾanɛ akogɾanɛ ogɾanɛ akogɾanɛ 323 marry ebai ebai a ɔdɔw akɔdɔw ⁱ 324 die akɔkpai, akɔebai akɔeb 325 kill ukpu akukpuŋ ukpu akukpuŋ 326 fall ogba ogba opɛɾ akɔpɛɾ opɛɾ akɔpɛɾ (same as fall 327 fall over over) akɔgba (de)akɔgba 328 walk akogoɾe.agba 329 run uɟɛ akuɟɛŋ uɟɛ akuɟe 330 fly ocʷa akɔcʷa ocʷa akɔcʷa 331 ɔmɛ akɔŋmɛ ɔmɛ akɔŋmɛ 332 swim jump ɔkɪɾa akɔkɹɾa ɔkɪɾa akɔkɹɾa 333 come ba ba ɔwɔ akɔwɔ ɔwɔ akɔwɔ 334 enter jo okujo jo okujo akɔba akɔba 335 exit 336 go ɾo okuɾoŋ ɾo okuɾoŋ 337 follow ɟo akoɟa ɟo akoɟo 338 send otuma akotuma kɾo okukɾo kɾo akukɾo 339 cut wa wa tumaŋ okɔtumaŋ 340 break akɔwa akɔwa 341 osar osar uvɾe ekuvɾe uvɾe okuvɾe 342 scratch jane split akɔsar akɔsar 343 cook ajanɛ akɔjanɛ akɔjanɛ 343.5 boil j r ɔtʃa akɔtʃa ɔtʃa akɔtʃaⁱ ɛ 343.6 fry upuno okupuno opijɛr akop 344 hunt ekerumu ekerumu uɾo okuɾo uɾo okuɾo 344.5 hunter (na) orumo iɾumo iɾumo 345 hit itru oɾumo oɾumo 346 tie okurolu okurolu ŋʷe okuŋwe otitɾu 347 sew r̃olu r̃olu 348 forge ɔkɔw akɔkɔw ɔkɔw akɔkɔw 348.5 blacksmith akima (na) akima (na) ɔfɔw akɔfɔw ɔfɔw akɔfɔw 349 burn (de) 350 throw (de) ɔpsa akɔpsa(ŋ) opijə 351 (de) tʃaŋ akɔtʃaŋ otʃaŋ 352 (de) pour utʃɔ okutʃɔ utʃɔ 354 fill (de) pour out n͡ŋʷane akɔnŋʷanɛ n͡ŋʷane 355 H H watavo (de) ocʷu okucʷu ocʷu 356 (de) push ⁱ pull dʒai akɔdʒai dɾa 40

357 oku (de) 358 dig tume okutume tume (de) squeeze pɾe pɾe upɾe 359 (de) 361 harvest vine (de) plant tʃalɛ akɔtʃalɛ otʃale

Key -m = my... akuvɪne uvɪ̆nɛ

(none)=no plural form ̠' (de)=didn't elicit (na)=not applicable aso=present tense

ako=past tense Appendix C: Adara of Kaduna Wordlist

Language village Adara Rubu Adara Rafin Kunu Date 05 March 2011 14 March 2011 Given language name Adara Adara‐Check Given village name Rubu Rafin Kunu LGA Kajuru Kajuru State Kaduna Kaduna Informant SC JP Age 25 31 Sex M M Reliability: good good, but elicitor was voiceless Elicited by: CM CM Other Informanʦ: MM, 65, M AZ, 32, M; MM, 23, M

Language (village) Adara (Rubu) Adara (Rafin Kunu) No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. 1 hair esalɛcʷeʰ osalɛcʷeʰ esalɛcʷeʰ osalɛcʷeʰ 2 head ecʷe acʷe ecʷe acʷe 3 forehead iːkɪti oːbuke iːkɪti oːbuke 4 ear oːtoᵑ aːtoᵑ oːtoᵑ aːtoᵑ 5 mouth aːɲũ aːɲuaːɲũaːɲu 6 tooth idʒi a̩dʒi idʒi a̩dʒi 7 tongue iːnɛme iːnɛme iːnɛme iːnɛme 8 saliva akpʷe akpʷe akpe akpe 9 sweat odoᵑ odoᵑ odoᵑ none 10 chin ɜtulu uʰtulu ɜtulu uʰtulu 11 beard osobo osobo əsubotolo osobotolo 12 nose ewɛɾɛ ewɛɾɛ ewɛɾɛ ewɛɾɛ 13 eye iwɪlɪdi iɾedʒi iwɪlɪdi iɾedʒi 15 tear drop ɛdʒi ɛdʒi ɛdʒi ɛdʒi 16 neck otoʰ ɛtoʰ otoʰ ɛtoʰ 17 shoulder obigə abogə obigə abogə 19 belly ɛtafo ɛta.ofõ ɛtafo ɛta.ofõ 20 navel ikubu akubu ikubu okubu 21 stomach ofõ afõ ofõ afõ 22 intestines onuŋ ænuŋ onuŋ ænuŋ 23 back etʃi atʃi etʃi atʃi 24 knee ubuno abunu ubuno abunu 25 leg ofã afã ofã afã

41 42

26 foot 27 shoes epofa apafa epofa apafa 28 thigh okulo akulo okulo akulo okpulo akpulo okpulo akpulo 29 arm 31 finger onʲe anʲe onʲe anʲe 32 fingernail ewuleŋge ewuleŋge ewuleŋge ewuleŋge 33 skin ɛgbule.ewekŋ ɛgbule.eweleŋ ɛgbule.ewekŋ ɛgbule.eweleŋ 34 bone ugbuhu ogbuhu ugbuhu ogbuhu etaʰ etaʰ etaʰ etaʰ 35 blood 36 heart adʒi ədʒi adʒi ədʒi 38 liver afua (none) ehʷale ehʷale ehʷale ehʷale 38.5 body aʲəfu ehʷale 40 tree a ki a ki ɛnumⁱ ənumu ɛnumⁱ ənum 41 firewood okwo əki əki 42 bush ɛkwola ɛkwola ɛkwo 43 forest ugi ənum ənumo ənum ənum 44 bark əpakulo əpakulo ɪgi 46 root ki ki əgbɾakiⁱ əgbɾaniki əgbɾakiⁱ əgbɾaniki 47 branch onuŋa anuŋaiki onuŋa anuŋaiki 48 medicine əwuniki əwuniki əwuniki əwuniki 49 thorn okuŋ ekuŋ okuŋ ekuŋ 50 iwe iwe iwe iwe okuŋi akuŋi okuŋi akuŋi 51 basket rope 52 clothing o ke o ke o ke o ke ezeⁱ ozeⁱ ezeⁱ ozeⁱ 53 seed 54 ax eɹə eɹə eɹə eɹə 55 cutlass afũ afũ afũ afũ 56 hoe ocʷɛtʃu.ogbo ocʷɛtʃu.ogbo ocʷɛtʃu.ogbo ocʷɛtʃu.ogbo 57 and aːkələ (na)aːkələ kaːkələ (na)aːkələ aːkələ aːkələ 58 leaf konocʷɛtʃu.ogbo onocʷɛtʃu.ogbo 59 ground nut (none) azaiki azaiki oza azaiki 60 bambura nut itaʃĩ itaʃĩ itaʃĩ 61 guinea corn ɛtale ɛtale ɛtale ɛtale 62 locust bean tree okʷu okʷu ilokʷu ilokʷu 64 millet edu edu edu ekʷã okʷã ekʷã okʷã 65 əredu 68 shea butter zobo leaf azikʲo azikʲoː oziᵗkʲo aziᵗkʲo 69 mohogany ɪkilige ɪkilige ɪkilige ɪkilige 70 grass obu abu obu abu akʷo akʷo akʷo akʷo 71 grass, dry obu.ohoho obu.ohoho 72 weed (same as grass) (na) (same as grass) (na) abu.ehʷohoə abu.ehʷohoə 43

73 flower ifugo ufugo 74 fruit ki naki ki ki uɟusɪmaːbaːⁱ oɟusɪmamabaⁱ ⁱ ⁱ 75 meat enum enumo enum enumo ɛkᵃ ɛkᵃ ɛkã. ɛkᵃ. 76 fat (none) 77 egg epʰovo apʰovo epʰovo 78 bean ekpha akpha ekpha akpha 79 fufu ɛɾido ɜɾido ɪrido ɪrido 80 sou ɨʃe aʃe ɨʃe aʃe 81 cough p utʃĩ utʃi utʃĩ utʃi 82 ulo ilo ulo ikʷulo aʷakʷulo ikʷulo ukʷulo 82.5 pain ɛlo 83 grave corpse oːkʷobo aːkʷobo oːkʷobo aːkʷobo 84 one (na) (na) uɟi aɟʷi udʒʷi adʒʷi 85 two (na) (na) izu idʒe 86 three (na) (na) epare epare 87 four ena (na) ena (na) etaʰ etaʰ 88 five itum (na) itum (na) 89 six (na) (na) 90 seven (na) (na) ikɛri ikɛri 91 eight inananu (na) inananu (na) iːtumpa iːtumpa 92 nine (na) (na) 93 ten (na) (na) ibaŋuzu ibaŋuzi 94 twelve (na) e (na) osoʰ osoʰ 94.5 fifteen (na) (na) osoʰniepare osoʰniepar 95 twenty (na) (na) osoʰniːtum osoʰniːtum 96 hundred atada (na) atada (na) iʃiːpareⁱ iʃiːpareⁱ 97 woman 98 man anaʃe aʃe anaʃe aʃe 100 ɛnɛki ɛki ɛnɛki ɛki 102 wedding ulobale lulubale ulobale lulubale person ɛnozu ɛnɛke ɛnuzu ɛnɛke 102 father aⁱkiɾi aⁱkiɾi aⁱkiɾi aⁱkiɾi 105 mother ije ije 106 child uʷje uʷje 107 brother awũne awũne awũne awũne 108 sister afogo afogo afogo awudʒe aːwudʒe awudʒe, anɛpa aːwudʒe, anɛpa 111 chief agom agom afŏgo 112 friend agʷomo agʷom 113 stranger ɛnisumi ɛnisumi ɛnisumi ɛnisumi 114 God onum (none) onum (none) ɛsʷoŋ asʷoŋ ɛsʷoŋ ɛsʷoŋ, isʷoŋ 115 name 116 animal otuwə otuwə otuwə otuwə etsã͡ etsã͡ et�ʃã et�ʃa 44

118 anade anade 119 tail pig anɛde anɛde 122 fly a a a ut�ʃĩⁱ ɛtʃiⁱ ut�ʃĩⁱ ɛtʃi 123 a le suŋ ⁱsuŋɛ suŋ ɛsisuŋ 124 mosquito evo evo evo evo spider uzɛle z agɛre agɛgɛre 129 honeybee 130 honey eʃo eʃo eʃo eʃo 131 goat aBu aBu abu abu etʰũ atʰũ etʰũ atʰũ 132 horn etumu atumu etuma atumu 133 cow 134 abu abu ɛla ɛla ɛla ɛla 135 crocodile sheep atẽ atẽ 137 chicken ano ano ano ano ahʷo ahʷo ahʷo ahʷo 138 guinea fowl 139 bird ono onu oʃo aʃo oʃo aʃo 140 claw a ju a ju ɛnoⁱ ⁱ ɛnu 141 wing ufo ufo igbɪlifa igbɪlifa 142 feather osobo ono inu inu əfo əfo 143 snake osobo ɛno 144 tortoise a kulu a kulu a kulu a kulu eʰwẽⁱ eʰwẽⁱ eʰwẽⁱ eʰwẽⁱ 145 rat iki iki iki iki 146 147 fish evo evo evo evo scorpion ɛna ɛna ɛna ɛna 148 toad aⁱjuɽ aⁱjuɽ aⁱjuɽ aⁱjuɽ 150 buffalo bohu ə ə ə ə 151 eka eka eka ekeka ag�bohu ɛkowə ɛkowə 154 hyena elephant 155 dog ehʷoro ohʷoro ehʷoro ohʷoro 156 house/hut aba aba aba aba avaʰ avaʰ avaʰ avaʰ 157 room fence 158 ukʷoʰivule aba əkʷohivule aba ukʷoʰodʒɛna əkʷohadʒɛna 159 160 road/path otʃã etʃã otʃã etʃã 161 farm (field) ebe obe ebe obe pit ugʷoʰ əgʷoʰ ugʷoʰ əgʷoʰ 162 at oma.aba (na) goma.aba (na) 163 door 164 chair/stool ɛɲukʷo ɛɲukʷo ɛɲukʷo ɛɲukʷo 165 salt olaga olaga olaga olaga ocʷet�ʃa ocʷet�ʃa ocʷet�ʃit�ʃa ocʷet�ʃit�ʃa 166 broom 167 mortar əzale əzale əzale əzale 168 alale alale alale alale utʃu͡ ut�ʃu ut�ʃu ut�ʃu pestle 45

169 fire ola ela ola ela 170 smoke (none) (none) 171 ashes otu (none) otu (none) usuŋ usuŋ 172 stick abba abba abba abba 173 stone otale otale 174 cave ɛtale ɛtale 175 mountain udʒi ədʒi otɛh atɛh 176 earth, ground ebu (none) ebu (none) opa apa opa apa 177 mud (none) (none) 178 clay itum (none) onʲɪnʲæ onʲɪnʲæ 179 sand (none) (none) uʰsu uʰsu 180 dust iɾiʃe iɾiʃe 181 money ədʒʷiikɪli ədʒʷiikɪli ədʒʷiikɪli ədʒʷiikɪli 182 iron H H H H 184 market 185 wind ohujize əhujize ize əhujize 186 cloud umuni umuni uɾu eɾu uɾu eɾu 187 rain eva eva eva eva əmuni əmuni 188 rainy season 189 dry season awu owu awu owu əkʷulo okʷulo əkʷulo okʷulo 190 dew (none) (none) 191 stream omʷoᵃ omʷogo 192 river aɾewʰale awunowʰale aɾewʰale awunowʰale 193 canoe ohome ahome udʒĩ ɛdʒĩ udʒĩ ədʒĩ 194 bridge uɾʲutomenambale uɾʲutomenambale 195 water abale (none) abale (none) ɛːdale oːdale ɛːdale oːdale 196 lake 197 sky (none) (none) udʒiolule ɛdʒiada.dege ɛna ɛna 198 moon apane apɪlimani 199 star opane epane opane epane 200 sun onum (none) onum (none) eɾikɛɾi iɾikiɾi eɾikɛ̆ɾi iɾikiɾi 201 year amare amare amare amare 202 morning (none) 203 afternoon a we (none) a we (none) ɛtiŋaboⁱ ɛtiŋaboⁱ ɛtiŋabu 204.1 evening (none) (none) 205.1 night (none) aːleʰ aːleʰ 206 yesterday ole (none) ole (none) əcʰu əcʰu əcʰu 207 tomorrow ugbu (none) ugbu (none) 208 knife 208.1 my bow otame (na) otame (na) ekʷã okʷã ekʷã okʷã 208.2 your (na) (na)

otaŋo otaŋo 46

208.3 his (na) (na) 208.4 her (same as his) (na) (same as his) (na) otaŋa otaŋa 208.5 our (na) (na) 208.6 etate (na) (na) etaŋʲi etaŋʲi 208.7 their etama (na) etama (na) your (pl) etaŋo 209 bow ota ata ota eta 210 arrow 211 quiver et�ʃa at�ʃa et�ʃa at�ʃa 212 ukumat�ʃa əkumat�ʃa ukumat�ʃa əkumat�ʃa 213 war spear okʲohʷane okʲohʷane ohʷane ahʷane 214 who? (de) opɽadaɾa epuɽadaɾa ohʷane ehʷane 215 whose? ɛŋːa? ɛŋːa? aŋaʃeŋa 216 what? use usewuledile? use usewuledile? ɛŋːaʃɪnuwo? ɛŋːaʃɪnuoBibledile? owɛŋa? ɛŋːaʃɪnuoBibledile? 217 when? ⁱ? agbatuula (de) 218 where? kuke? a ke a keg onoso kalagʷa alegbajeᵘgonasebago? ⁱ ⁱ ʷ 219 here uʃikuke? 220 how? wãdunune wadununenotuna? nãnje ohʷẽ owegohʷẽ? ohʷẽ owegohʷẽ? 221 why? us otumaʃinãnje 222 obã abã obã usəgo? əgobaunuɲwaguŋma? usəgo? usəgobaŋuːwo 223 rotten (na) ripe obɪŋːa 224 hungry (na) (na) aʃəŋa aʃəneŋa õʃa 225 hot (na) (na) oʃoː oʃoː 226 cold/cool (na) (na) ope ope 227 cold (na) (na) oɽan oɽan 228 smooth (na) (na) atugoɽan oɽaŋ 229 white otute (na) otute (na) opopule odɪdare 230 black (na) (na) 231 dark (na) (na) ususəli ususəli 232 red (na) (na) itɪŋji itɪŋji 233 (na) oje (na) ususoʰ ususoʰ 234 dullsharp ocʷeje (na) (na) ocosɪne 235 evil (na) (na) okasaŋoma ukk�pom 236 good (na) (na) ikʲubibi ikʲubibi 237 many (na) kuke (na) ukʲuʃe uʃuʃɪni 238 wide (na) (na) ukʲuke 239 narrow (na) omobo (na) ukʲupule upupuli 240 straight na j te (na) (na) oɟogilaⁱ ɛ 241 crooked sogona kikuma (na) ogogunu (na) ⁱ otɛte 243 long ulele (na) ulele (na) 244 short ugbubulu (na) ugbubulu (na) 246 thick (na) mumuge (na)

ɛlebu 47

247 thin momã (na) (na) 248 heavy ulebu (na) ulebu (na) popʰɛne 249 light (na) (na) 250 old (na) (na) ʃakure oʃakure 251 new (na) e (na) okʷokulo okʷokulo 252 left (na) (na) opopale opopal 253 right ija (na) ija (na) iᵏpule iᵏpule 254 yes hakawo (na) (na) 255 no (na) kai (na) aː 256 hard (na) (na) m̥ ʔ m̥ 257 soft (na) (na) uʃʷodɘge odəge 258 few (na) (na) uʃinapekpele onuŋ 259 (na) (na) gɛla gɛla 260 down (na) (na) up apane apane 261 wet (na) (na) ebuɾebu ilŭbu 262 dry (na) (na) okʲeunasominabale uʃuo 263 dirty (na) iluwe (na) okʲeohowo okʷa 264 all (na) nadidu (na) okʲe eleluwe 265 I imi (na) imi (na) nɛdidu 266 you (na) (na) 267 he (na) (na) iŋ̥ ʷũ iŋ̥ ʷũ 268 she (same as he) (na) (same as he) (na) eŋa eŋa 269 we (na) (na) 271 you inu (na) inu (na) ɛni ɛni 272 they ema (na) ema (na) 274 blow 275 whistle pɘ apə ope apə 275.5 sing piʃʷi, piçʷi apiʃʷi ɪʃʷi apiʃʷi 276 eat ojaja ajaja oja aija ataːte ataːte otaːte ataːte 276.01 I ate majaje (na) (na) 276.02 you ate (na) (na) maijə (same as you 276.03 you (f) ate ŭŋwajaje (na) ate)wajə (na) 276.04 he ate (na) (na) iŋʲajaje 276.05 she ate (na) (na) iŋʲajaje aijə 276.06 we ate (na) (na) iŋʲajaje aijə 276.08 they ate (na) (na) ɛnijaja ɛnːijə 276.10 imajajada (na) (na) imajɛjɛ aijə 276.11 he is eating asijaja (na) (na) you (pl) ate onaijə 276.12 he will eat (na) (na) asɛjə 276.13 he usually eat (na) ag (na) asiwʰalejaja asɛwʰalejə 276.14 he didn't eat (na) (na) agawʰaleja ajɛri asunijaːma aijamːə 48

276.5 do udu adu udu 277 dance ota ata ota ata ədu 278 279 smell õnjã play onɛne asenɛne onɛne anɛne 280 see ũnũ asiũnũ əŋuru 281 laugh akoro uʃĩ aʃĩ uʃĩ uʃi 282 say okoruʰ asekoruʰ okoruʰ 283 ask ununu anunu uluwe aluwe opɛɾe apɛɾe pɛre apɛɾe 284 beg owã awã owã awã 285 listen aseqõma 286 hear aseqoŋgo ɲaratu aɲaratu 287 bark ugbule agbule oqʷõ aqʷõ qʷo aqʷõ 288 shout qʷalebɪnijə aqʷaleabɪijə 289 cry ek�paʰ atsek͡ � pa ek�paʰ atɛkpa 290 fear ebata asiqu ebata ebata ucʷe atsicʷe͡ ucʷe acʷe 291 want uli alijo uli akʷebata 292 think əli 293 count okʷʰoᵏgehale asikʷugehalenã opalɛnewʰale apalɛnewʰale 294 know pa asepawo pa apa 295 teach ululo alulomi ululo alulo oza azawo oza aza 296 show 297 drink njɛnjimi amunjɛnjimi njɛnji anjɛnji 298 suck ʃʷa awʰaleʃʷago oʃʷa aʃʷa 300 vomit kulo akulo uhulo ohulo m̩ m u g o amˈmugo m̩ m u g o amˈmugo 301 302 a spit takpe atakpe akpe atak�pe 303 bite sneeze idɪʃa atidɪʃa idɪʃa tidɪʃa 304 numːə aˈnumːə unumːə aˈnumːə 305 sit sweep puna apunawo, apunago ozəre azare 306 stand tʃɛtʃa aitʃa tʃɛtʃa atʃɛtʃa 307 fight hwane ahwane hwane ahwane njinə ainjə njinə ainjə 308 lie down 309 yawn naᵘ aŋana onɪŋa anɪŋa 310 rest tulumu asetulumu tulumu atulumu ŋãŋu aseneŋaŋu ŋãŋu ãŋaŋũ 311 ona anona 312 wash sleep noŋaᵘ anoŋa 313 wash-clothes ukulo ukulo ukoʰ asiːkulo ukoʰ akulʊkonu 314 bathe asiːkuloke əkɪloke 315 steal e tʃam asɛtʃam tʃam at�ʃam 316 give õmã ãmã udʒe adʒe udʒe adʒ 317 hide maŋːa aˈmaŋːa jiɾi ajiɾi jiɾi ajiɾi 49

318 take 319 hold ukoh akoh ŋãŋe aŋaŋe ŋãŋe aŋaŋe 320.1 buy ola ala ola ala kʊʰ akʊʰ 321.1 sell 322 give birth ukuʷo akuʷo ukuʷo akuʷo 323 marry av obale ava ubɘʰ abɘʰ ubɘʰ abɘʰ 324 die ova.naʃe a.naʃe 325 kill ukpo ɘkpo ukpo ɘkpo 326 fall tuwe palewo apalewo opale apale 327 fall over uvowu ɘtuwe okpa akpa 328 walk pʊwo okk�pagape akk�pagape 329 run usoŋ asoŋ usoŋ asoŋ 330 fly tamfo utoʰ atitoʰ utoʰ atoʰ 331 atamfoː ufuʷŏ afuʷŏ 332 swim owo awo owo awo jump sɛɾe asɛɾe tamfodosɛre atamfodosɛre 333 come ba aba ba aba 334 enter 335 exit njinə anjinə njinə anjinə 336 go sokum asokum sokum atum ɾowu aɾowŋa ɾu aɾuwuʰ 337 follow 338 send tumame atumame tʃame atʃame t�ʃa at�ʃe 339 cut awa awa tŭma atumːa 340 break o ⁿwa ⁱ ⁿwa 341 kabo akabo wʊɾaio awʊɾa wʊɾe awʊɾe 342 scratch split sʊɾawo asʊɾawo 343 cook okɪla akɪla okɪla akɪla 343.5 boil ofunu ufunowu funu asonufunu kɪnːa akɪnːawo kɪnːa akɪna 343.6 fry akãwo 344 hunt okãː okãŋ akãŋ 344.5 hunter (de) (de) igbʊri atigɛbiɾi igbʊri adigbɛɾi 345 hit labo alabo labo alabo ogbʊɾi ogbʊɾi 346 tie lo alo 347 sew lʊ alʊ 348 forge (de) (de) otũwə atũwə otũwə atũwə 348.5 blacksmith (de) (de) ojɪrə ojɪrə 349 burn otula (de) ufo (de) atʃuˈma aᵗkima 350 throw (de) (de) 351 (de) (de) doŋ doŋ 352 (de) (de) pour ʃeŋa uʃe 354 fill (de) kuma (de) pour out ŋũnaᵘ ŋũnaᵘ 355 (de) (de) kumaᵘ push zɛɾi zɛɾi 50

356 uwo (de) uwo (de) 357 (de) (de) pull 358 dig tum (de) tum (de) squeeze k�eɾa t�ʃuno 359 (de) (de) 361 harvest (de) (de) plant utʃo utʃo -m = my... Key otʊm ut�ʃunaijə

(none)=no plural form ̠' (de)=didn't elicit (na)=not applicable aso=present tense

ako=past tense Appendix D: Eneje of Kaduna Wordlist

Language village Eneje Barga Eneje Maiida Rafi, Ivlo Date 08 March 2011 09 March 2011 Given language name Eneje Eneje‐Check Given village name Barga Maiida Rafi, Ivlo LGA Kachia Kachia State Kaduna Kaduna Informant OJ BAS Age 13 20 Sex M M Reliability: good good Elicited by: CM CM Other Informanʦ: RB, 13, M; RJ 32, F; MA, 15, M MAS, 21, M

Language (village) Eneje (Barga) Eneje (Maiida Rafi, Ivlo) No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. 1 hair əsaɾɛcʷe onsaɾɛcʷe əsaɾɛcʷe onsaɾɛcʷe 2 head ecʷe acʷe ecʷe acʷe 3 forehead ɪmbɛke umbɛke ɪmbɛke umbɛke 4 ear otoʰ atoʰ otoʰ atoʰ 5 mouth oɲu oɲuonjuo:nju 6 tooth idʒi ɛdʒi idʒi ɛdʒi 7 tongue inu inu ino ino 8 saliva ekpe none ekpe none 9 sweat ondo none ondo none 10 chin otʃo otu otʃo otʃu 11 beard ɨnfoto unfotɾo ɨnfotɾo unfotɾo 12 nose ewɘ ewɘ ewɘ ewɘ 13 eye iɾidʒɾe iɾɛdʒɾe iɾidʒɾe iɾɛdʒɾe 15 tear drop ɛdʒɾi none ɛdʒɾi none 16 neck ontoʰ antoʰ ontoʰ antoʰ 17 shoulder utʃe ɛtɾe utʃe ɛtɾe 19 belly etĭjofo etijafo ɛtofo ɛto.ofo 20 navel ikʷo uŋku ikʷo uŋku 21 stomach umoːfo omaːfo umoːfo none 22 intestines ona ana ona ana 23 back etɾi etɾi etɾi etɾi 24 knee uŋbuŋ əŋbuŋu uŋbɪn ɛŋbɪŋo 25 leg ofɾe afɾe ofɾe afɾe

51 52

26 foot 27 shoes ompʰafɾe ampʰafɾe ompʰafɾe ɛɾɛmpfɾe 28 thigh okpulə akpulə okpulə akpulə 29 arm oːkɾo aːkɾo oːkɾo aːkɾo 31 finger õnʲe ãnʲe õnʲe ãnʲe 32 fingernail efa ɘɾenʲe ɘɾenʲe ɘɾenʲe ɘɾenʲe 33 skin eta eta eta eta oŋbɛfa ɛŋbɛfa oŋbɛfa 34 bone 35 blood e (none) (none) ukʷo okʷo uhʷo ohʷo 36 heart dʒi edʒi 38 liver ɛcʷɛikukulu ɛcʷɛkukulu icʷikulu ɛcʷɛkukulu 38.5 body ecʷe ecʷe ecʷe ecʷe 40 tree eki eki eki eki ɛgbɛnam ɛgbɛnam ɛgbɛnam agbɛnam 41 firewood oko eko oko eko 42 bush onum umonum onum onum 43 forest 44 bark ungɾi ŭmungɾi ɛngɾi ɛngɾi 46 root ona ana a juroko a juroko uŋbɾaki aŋbɾaki uŋbaĭkiⁱ aŋbaĭkiⁱ 47 branch 48 medicine oka eka oka eka ɨnu ɵnu ɨnu ɵnu 49 thorn 50 iwe iwe iwe iwe okɛn akɛn okɛn akɛn 51 basket rope 52 clothing uke eke uke eke ɛnze onze ɛnze onze 53 seed 54 ax õnfo õnfo eɻa eɻa eɻa eɻa 55 cutlass H H ɛ̃ nfo ɛ̃ nfo 56 hoe ocʷogbombo aŋcʷogbombo 57 and akăla (na)akăla akăla (na)akăla akăla ko 58 leaf akăla ka adda oŋcʷogbombo 59 ground nut (none) ozaʰ azaʰ ozaʰ azaʰ 60 bambura nut (none) (none) ecɾetɾa etɾa etɾa 61 guinea corn a (none) a ɛtɾaseⁱ ⁱ ɛtɾase ⁱ 62 locust bean tree (none) (none) ɛɾa jə jə jə 64 millet (none) eɾʷe eɾecʷe 65 ugbuwo (none) ugbuwo (none) ɛndoʰ ɛndoʰ erɛndoʰ 68 shea butter zobo leaf 69 mohogany ako ako ako ako ilɪge ilɪge ilɪge ilɪge 70 grass ombo ambo ombo ambo 71 grass, dry ombohoho ambohoho amboho (none) 72 weed otota (none) (none) (none) 53

73 flower ifugo umfugo ifuwo umfuwo 74 fruit 75 meat ekɾaki ɛkɾaki ekɾaki ɛkɾaki 76 fat (none) enəm enəm enəm enəm 77 egg epoʰ epoʰ ompoʰ 78 bean ido ido ekpa oŋkpa ekpa akpa 79 fufu ɨɾido iɾido 80 (none) (none) ɛʃije oʃije ɛʃe oŋʃe 81 cough ikulo (none) ikulo soup untʳi untʳi 82 olo (none) olo (none) uŋkulo 82.5 (none) pain 83 grave itu (none) itu (none) corpse okoʰ okʷo ɛkʷo 84 one (none) (none) 85 two (none) (none) izu izu 86 three eta (none) (none) epa ɛmpa 87 four (none) (none) ɛnta 88 five (none) (none) ɛne ɛne 89 six ike (none) ike (none) itoʰ itoʰ 90 seven (none) (none) 91 eight anane (none) anane (none) odupaʰ tumpaʰ 92 nine odune (none) odune (none) 93 ten (none) (none) 94 twelve (none) (none) okʷoʰ okʷoʰ 94.5 fifteen (none) (none) okʷoʰ lepa okʷoʰ lepa 95 twenty (none) (none) okʷoh litoʰ okʷoh litoʰ 96 hundred (none) (none) ekepah ɛkʷepah 97 woman ɛdɛɾi ɛdɛɾi 98 man eki eki anaʃe aʃe anaʃe aʃe 100 anda ada anda ada ɛnɛnki ɛnɛnki 102 wedding (none) person 102 father ekije ekijenji ekije ekije ulobɾa obɾa ebɾa 105 mother eja eja eje 106 child ejɪnji 107 brother awɛn awɛn awɛn awɛn 108 sister afugo afugom afuwo afuwo açe açe ewɛdʒi ewɛdʒi 111 chief ago agom ago agom 112 friend 113 stranger ɛnuse onusɛ ɛnuse onusɛ 114 God onum (none) onum (none) osoː osoː osoː osoː 115 name ontua antua ontua (none) 116 animal enum (none) enum enum 54

118 alede (H) elede (H) (none) 119 tail pig busuɾum 122 fly osunso utʃi ɛtʃi utʃi ɛtʃi 123 agje agje agje agje ɛnso ɛnso ɛsunso 124 mosquito spider 129 honeybee ɛvo ɛvo ɛvo ɛvo 130 honey (none) (none) ɛɸo ɛɸo ɛɸo ɛɾɛɸo 131 goat abo abo abo abo ɛtoʰ ɛtoʰ 132 horn antuwa antuwa 133 cow ɛtuwa ɛtuwa 134 ɛlːa ɛlːa ɛlːa ɛlːa 135 crocodile sheep atɛʰ atɛʰ atɛʰ atɛʰ 137 chicken ano ano ano ano ahʷo ahʷo ahʷo ahʷo 138 guinea fowl 139 bird eno arono eno arono oɸio aɸo oɸio aɸo 140 claw oju (eagle) oju (eagles) 141 wing ɛfaɸu ɛfaɸu 142 feather ufŭɾu ofŭɾu ufŭɾu ofŭɾu 143 snake ewe ewe ewe ewe ifũ ũfũ ifũ ũfũ 144 tortoise (none) 145 rat iki iki iki iki eːkɾu eːkɾu ekɾikɾu 146 ena ena 147 fish evo evo evo evo scorpion ɛna ɛna 148 toad aⁱbɪɾa, aⁱvɪɾa aⁱbɪɾa aⁱjuɾ aⁱjuɾ 150 buffalo ə ə 151 (none) ɛkuwa ɛkuɾwa ɛkuwa ɛkuɾwa 154 hyena elephant ɛnka ɛnka oŋka 155 dog ava ava ava ava ekɾo okɾo ekɾo okɾo 156 house/hut 157 room abɛh abɛh abɛh abɛh fence 158 uŋkoʰucʷi oŋkoʰacʷi uŋkoʰucʷi oŋkoʰacʷi 159 160 ugo ogo road/path ontɾe atɾe ontɾe ɛntɾe 161 farm (field) pit uk�po ok�po 162 at (na) (na) untɛʰ ɛntɛʰ untɛʰ ɛntɛʰ 163 door onjonko ɪnkomeʃa keʃa 164 chair/stool ʊnjunko ihʳuŋko ohʳuŋko 165 salt (none) (none) iŋkpokpu uŋkpokpu iŋkpokpu uŋkpokpu 166 broom atoʰ atoʰ 167 mortar ɛndʒe ondʒe ɛndɾe ondɾe 168 otʃo otʃo otʃo otʃo pestle aɾa aɾa aɾa aɾa 55

169 fire ola ela ola ela 170 smoke (none) unsoh (none) 171 ashes õnto (none) õnto (none) usoʰ 172 stick abba abba abba abba 173 stone 174 cave ɛtɾɪntɾa otɾɪntɾa ɛntra otɾɪntɾa 175 mountain otɛh atɛh otɛh atɛh 176 earth, ground ebo (none) ebo (none) oŋko aŋko oŋko aŋko 177 mud (de) (de) itom (none) (same as 178 clay ground) (none) itom (none) 179 sand 180 dust (none) (none) ɨɾiʃe ɨɾiʃe ɛresa ɛresa 181 money (none) (none) oɾeikɪli ore,ikɪli uncʷi 182 iron (none) 184 market (none) oŋkeɪɾə oŋkeɪɾə oŋkeɪɾə 185 wind (none) (none) ize ize ize 186 cloud (none) uɾu uɾu 187 rain (none) ev (none) umɛn umɛn amɛn 188 rainy season (none) evɾa ɾa 189 dry season (none) õwo ɛkulo ɛkulo oŋkulo 190 dew (none) (none) ewoʰ ewoʰ 191 stream omoʷoh omoʷoh 192 river ank̩ʷᶦɛʰ ank̩ʷᶦɛʰ aʰʷʳɛ aʰʷʳɛ 193 canoe (none) (none) udʒʷi ɛdʒʷi udʒʷi ɛdʒʷi 194 bridge (none) utok�poʰ otok�poʰ 195 water (none) (none) eʈa edɾa ondɾa 196 lake ambɾe ambɾe 197 sky umk�po oŋk�po umk�po oŋk�po 198 moon (none) umɛn amɛn imɛn.apɛn umɛn.apɛn 199 star opɾe ɛpɾe opɾe 200 sun onum (none) onum (none) ɪnkɛn ɨɾɪnkɛn ɪnkɛn ɨɾɪnkɛn 201 year ame ame ame ame 202 morning (none) (none) 203 afternoon a e (none) a e (none) otuɾumbuⁱʝ otuɾumbuⁱʝ 204.1 evening anle (none) anle (none) 205.1 night otu otu otu otu 206 yesterday (none) (none) 207 tomorrow ombu (none) ombu (none) oⁿle oⁿle 208 knife 208.1 my bow otam (na) otam (na) ɛnʷe oncʷe ɛnʷe oncʷe 208.2 your (na) (na)

otaʰ otaŋ 56

208.3 his otaga (na) (na) 208.4 her (na) (na) otaŋ 208.5 our (na) (na) otaŋ 208.6 otajowa (na) (na) otanjiə ⁱ otanjiə 208.7 their otajanda ja (na) (na) your (pl) əⁱ ɛtaŋji 209 bow ota eta ota eta ɛtawa 210 arrow 211 quiver ukum okum ukum okum ɛcɾa acɾa ɛcɾa acɾa 212 (de) (de) 213 war one one spear ohʷʳr ohʷʳe 214 who? ɛne ɛne 215 whose? ɛ ŋ n̩ a ? ɛŋn̩ɪnja? ɛ ŋ n̩ a ? ɛŋn̩ɪnja? 216 what? unse? unsemi? wɛŋa? ɛʃeɪnaakɛn? ɪnakɛnow? ɛʃeɪnaakɛn? 217 when? ulubo? abauululbo? ilitur? unsʷa? unsʷamɛn? 218 where? ituɾu? 219 here ɛkʲia? ɛkʲiaᵘso? ɛkʲia? ɛkjiausoːle?� 220 how? ja? ja? ohwɛn? ohwɛnuso? ohwɛn? õhwɛnkowʰɛn 221 why? dom? unsuwa? jaᵘotuwaᵘ? jaᵘotuwaᵘ? 222 (na) (na) domunsoɪmba? unsuwasoɪmoba? 223 rotten (na) (na) ripe ovɾo obɾɛ 224 hungry ewo (na) ewo (na) oŋʃa oŋʃa 225 hot (na) ola (na) 226 cold/cool (na) (na) ocʷe 227 cold (na) (na) ambɾo.aŋ oɾaŋ 228 smooth (na) (na) oraŋ oraŋ 229 white i (na) ikiki (na) lɛdɛɾ lɛdɛɾ 230 black (na) (na) uçuk 231 dark (na) itum (na) utʃutʃe utʃutʃe 232 red ususo (na) isisu (na) lobop̚ 233 (na) (na) 234 dull (na) (na) sharp onɛh ɛnɛh 235 evil (na) (na) undʒisogasɛhwo ɛsawunewə 236 good (na) (na) unhɾo ɛcʳeɸiɸᵛi 237 many (na) (na) uʃuʃi uʃuʃi 238 wide (na) (na) ukukɾe ɘkʳe 239 narrow omam (na) omam (na) upɾupɾe upɾupɾe 240 straight laⁱɛte (na) laⁱɛte (na) 241 crooked ⁱjo (na) ugum (na) 243 long (na) (na) upa 244 short ugbubulu (na) ugbubulu (na) ogbogbɾe ogbogbɾe 246 thick (na) muⁱ (na) loŋkpom 57

247 thin arare (na) (na) 248 heavy ululo (na) ululo (na) lɛpuᵉ 249 light (na) (na) 250 old (na) (na) ofɛɾere usulahaᵘ 251 new (na) (na) aɾacbe okŏlo 252 left (na) (na) opɾopɾa opɾa 253 right eja (na) eja (na) ipɾe ipɾe 254 yes (na) (na) 255 no (na) ka (na) eː eː ⁱ 256 hard uso.odo (na) (na) oʔo 257 soft (na) (na) leŋbo 258 few (na) (na) ok�pekpəle ekpəle 259 (na) (na) k�paʃɛɾe lacʷe 260 down (na) (na) up apɛn apɛn 261 wet olola (na) ola (na) iːlu iːlu 262 dry (na) (na) 263 dirty iluwe (na) iluwe (na) ohɾombɾa ohɾokɾo 264 all ididu (na) ididu (na) 265 I (na) imi (na) 266 you imi (na) (na) oŋŋo 267 he (na) (na) iŋi 268 she (na) (na) ɛŋŋa ɛŋŋa 269 we (na) (na) aŋuŋʃe aŋuŋʃe 271 you onu, unu (na) unu (na) ɪnji ɪnji 272 they ema (na) ema (na) 274 blow 275 whistle opʰe apʰe opo apʰe 275.5 sing otante atante ante atante iɸu apiɸu iɸu apiɸu 276 eat oja aⁱ oja aⁱ 276.01 I ate (na) (na) jə jə 276.02 you ate a (na) õ (na) mijəⁱ ɛ̃ jaⁱ (same as you (same as you 276.03 you (f) ate ate)jə (na) ate)jə (na) (same as you 276.04 he ate ate) (na) aⁱ (na) (same as you 276.05 she ate ate) (na) (samejə as he ate) (na) 276.06 we ate (na) (na) (same as you 276.08 they ate ate)ɛnnʲə (na) (sameɛnnʲə as he ate) (na) 276.10 (na) (na) 276.11 he is eating (na) (na) you (pl) ate unujə ɛmːaijə akᶢojə akᶢojə 58

276.12 he will eat asoⁱ (na) asaⁱ (na) 276.13 he usually eat aka (na) a j kebit u (na) ⁱjə ⁱ ə jə ɾ 276.14 he didn't eat (na) (na) jə 276.5 do okudu odu odu adu asojawə asojawə 277 dance ota ata ota ata 278 279 smell onjã akonjã unjun anjun play onɛh anɛh onɛh anɛh 280 see 281 laugh uʃi ɛʃi uʃi aʃi 282 say õkɾõ akɾõ õkɾõ akɾõ 283 ask uluwe eluwe uluwe aluwe utoʰ otoʰ toʰ atoʰ 284 beg 285 listen owɛn awɛn owɛn awɛn 286 hear ko onko ãko njɛnato aŋnjɛnato ɛnkʷo aŋnjɛnato 287 bark ana akana ugbe ogbe ɛ̃ ko 288 shout 289 cry ɛkpa atɛkpa ɛkpa atɛkpa 290 fear okibu akibu okibu akibu ocʷe ecʷe ocʷe ecʷe 291 want uni eni uni eni 292 think e) 293 count oɾɛ(ʳʷfɾ aɾɛ luɛphɾe aluɛphɾe 294 know opaʰ akopaʰ opaʰ apaʰ 295 teach oza aza oza aza 296 show ulɛn elɪn ulɛl alɛ 297 drink unjɪn enjɪn unjɪn enjɪn 298 suck oʃʷa aʃʷa oʃʷa aʃʷa 300 vomit oʃom aʃom oʃom aʃom 301 uhʷon ohʷon uhʷon ahʷon 302 spit otakpe atakpe ekpɛ atakpe 303 bite sneeze adiʃa atadiʃa adiʃa atadiʃa 304 nŭwa anŭwa nŭwa anŭwa 305 sit sweep oze aze oze aze 306 stand cʳitɾa acʳitɾa ʃɪʃɾa aʃɪʃɾa 307 fight tăga atɪga okʲe akʲe 308 lie down owɛn awʰɛn owɛn awʰɛn 309 yawn nɛnaʲ anɛnaʲ nɛnaʲ anɛnaʲ 310 rest onjanʲu anjanʲu onjanʲu anjanʲu 311 nona anona utuɾum otuɾum utuɾum atuɾum 312 wash sleep nɛne anɛne 313 wash-clothes ukɾo okɾo ukɾo okɾo 314 bathe m kɾonkje okɾonkje kɾonkje akɾonkejə otʃɔm atʃɔm otʃɔm atʃɔ 59

315 steal utuwo utuwo 316 give ma amma oma amma edʒe edʒe 317 hide da ada oda ada 318 take gbo agba gbo agba 319 hold go ogo ugo ogo 320.1 buy alo alo 321.1 sell lə lə 322 give birth ukɾo okɾo ukɾo akɾo 323 marry a udʒʝo odʒʝo udʒʝo adʒjo 324 die obɾa kobɾa ok�paʃe ak�paʃe 325 kill uk�po okpu uk�po ak�pu 326 fall opɾe apɾe opɾe apɾe 327 fall over tɪːge etɪːge ok�pom ak�pa 328 walk ok�pa ak�pa ok�pa.apɾe ak�pa.apɾe 329 run utoh otoh utu atu usoŋ osoŋ usoŋ asoŋ 330 fly 331 fɾo ofɾo fɾo ofɾo 332 swim udom odom owo awo jump otamfɾo atamfɾo fɪ̆ɾu afɪ̆ɾu 333 come ba ba 334 enter abːa abːa 335 exit njɪre anjɪre njɪre anjɪre 336 go ɾo oɾo oɾu aɾu 337 follow re re sokaŋ ok�poka kaŋ aːka 338 send otuwa atuwa otuwa atuwa ɛre ɛre 339 cut wa awa wa awa 340 break we awe we awe 341 342 scratch split osaʰ asaʰ osaʰ asaʰ 343 cook okɪla akɪla kɪla akɪla 343.5 boil okɪre akɪre kɛre akɪre 343.6 fry ufɪn ukufɪn cʷa acʷa 344 hunt igbe odigbe igbe atigbe okʳe akʳe okʳe akʳe 344.5 hunter e (na) (na) 345 hit la la ŋgbe eŋgbe 346 tie lo olo lo alo aːla aːla 347 sew 348 forge (de) (de) otuwə atuwə otuwə atuwə 348.5 blacksmith ak (na) ak (na) ojɪ̆rəⁱᵘ ojɪ̆rəⁱᵘ 349 burn ufo (de) afu (de) ə ə 350 throw ota (de) ta (de) 351 (de) (de)

pour ʃe ʃe 60

352 (de) (de) 354 fill agwa (de) (de) pour out ʃebo ʃekŭbo 355 (de) (de) ogʷa 356 (de) (de) push zeː zeː 357 utun (gather) (de) ke (de) pull woʰ woʰ 358 dig utu (de) utu (de) squeeze 359 (de) (de) 361 harvest (de) ora (de) plant utʃuwo utʃuwo -m = my... Key aɾa

(none)=no plural form ̠' (de)=didn't elicit (na)=not applicable aso=present tense

ako=past tense Appendix E: Adja of Kaduna Wordlist

Language village Adja Tudu Iburu Date 15 March 2011 Given language name Adja Given village name Tudu Iburu LGA Kajuru State Kaduna Informant EM Age 51 Sex M Reliability: good, but elicitor was voiceless Elicited by: CM Other Informanʦ: JMM, 32, M; LDA, 45, M Language (village) Adja (Tudu Iburu) No. English Gloss Sg. Pl. / 3rd sg. 1 hair efaɾɛkwi ufaɾɛkwi 2 head aⁱɾɪkwe acʷe 3 forehead ibɛte ubɛte 4 ear oto ato 5 mouth ə̃nu ə̃nu 6 tooth ɪɾijɪri əjɪri 7 tongue ɛɾɛɖɛme aɖɛme 8 saliva akpʷe none 9 sweat odo none 10 chin udoŋu none 11 beard odoŋu none 12 nose ewɛɾɛ ewɛɾɛ 13 eye iça aça 15 tear drop aⁱjɪri none 16 neck omo ɛɾemo 17 shoulder ovoʰ avoʰ 19 belly atɪrafu none 20 navel ɪriku none 21 stomach idəfo none 22 intestines ɪrinuŋ none 23 back əbu əbu 24 knee ubulŭgo əbulŭgo 25 leg ifʷifʷijə ufʷifʷijə 26 foot epɪfijə none

61 62

27 shoes 28 thigh ak�po ak�po 29 arm okk�pe akk�pe 31 finger aʃijavo aʃijavo 32 fingernail ofo afo anijɛvo anːoɾovo 33 skin 34 bone ugbohu agbohu idɛɾ idɛɾ 35 blood aji (none) 36 heart 38 liver ibɪcʷi ibɪcʷi 38.5 body imɪdəfo umɪdəfo 40 tree ɛɾənumə anumə 41 firewood oʃe aʃe 42 bush anɪʃe ɪʃe 43 forest əgɾumu əgɾumu 44 bark utɪ̆ri atɪ̆ri 46 root ok owijəoʃi awijanaʃi 47 branch anaga uŋ akuŋaʃi 48 medicine anarăganăʃi 49 thorn okaŋ ikaŋ 50 ikŭra ikŭra 51 basket ikwo okwo rope unːi iɾɪnːi 52 clothing igba ogba 53 seed 54 ax eɾoʰ eroʰ 55 cutlass akːpɛ̆ri irikːpɛ̆ri 56 hoe imolɛɾobu omolɛɾobu 57 and (na) ihʷurə ohʷorə 58 leaf o a ihʷurəⁱ kɪnə imolɛrobu ⁱ 59 ground nut (none) jə jə 60 bambura nut (none) iᵗ�ʃi 61 guinea corn isadʒijə 62 locust bean tree iɾigu əgu 64 millet ikiwʰijə ikiwʰijə 65 a k o a jik o iɾɪt�ʃeⁱ ʲ at�ʃeⁱ ʲ 68 shea butter i zobo leaf 69 mohogany oho aho ikiɹo kiɹo 70 grass obololo 71 grass, dry obo ohoho abolɛlo 72 weed (none) (none) ɛbo ɛhweho 73 flower

ifŭru ufŭru 63

74 fruit ikulo 75 meat ikulonaʃi 76 fat (none) enumə enumə 77 egg a r kk asɛraⁱ ɛ ͡ 78 bean age pa akpa 79 fufu rike ake ɪrige 80 ane ɪ 81 cough soup ɛrɪne 82 olo (none) ukk�po əkk�pu 82.5 oko iko pain 83 grave corpse 84 one (na) alːo alːo 85 two (na) i̟rije ⁱ 86 three (na) ɛrəpaⁱ 87 four (na) ɛɾəta 88 five (na) ɛrənaɾi 89 six (na) ɛɾəto 90 seven la (na) ɛritɪn 91 eight (na) ɛritɪnsɛ 92 nine (na) ɛrinanːare 93 ten osona ki (na) ɛrilosoⁱ 94 twelve ⁱ (na) 94.5 fifteen (na) osonɛrɪkpa 95 twenty (na) osomɛrɪtoⁱ 96 hundred (na) iʃepa 97 woman a ji a ji aradʒiⁱ ⁱ 98 man 100 aɬɪmi aɬɪmi 102 wedding person adʒijə adʒijə 102 father ate ate ulubijə uluwibijə 105 mother 106 child anõ anõ əju əju 107 brother 108 sister afo afo anəju anəju 111 chief agom agumu 112 friend aⁱ aⁱ 113 stranger a ke ⁱcᵘ cᵘ 114 God õnõ (none) əke 115 name (none) 116 animal ik ot�ʃa 118 H H ɪnːə ikɪnːə pig 64

119 tail 122 fly a ge a ge apŏroⁱ apŏroⁱ 123 aⁱjətɪ̆ri 124 mosquito avo avo spider ototĭɾi 129 honeybee 130 honey ɪʃi ɪʃi 131 goat ɛɾɪtoʰ atoʰ 132 horn anɪmə anɪɾənəmə 133 cow ɛɾɪtimə atɪmə 134 a iːna iːna 135 crocodile ojo a jo sheep anatɛmi naratɛmiⁱ 137 chicken anaranu 138 guinea fowl oso aso anənu 139 bird aninu 140 claw afornurinu anuɾunu 141 wing oso aso ofʷoninu 142 feather 143 snake ijo ijo iʃi iʃɪnŭrŭnu 144 tortoise 145 rat ik�pi ik�pi 146 s itʷi itʷi 147 fish corpion ɛna ɛnot�ʃɪ̆ru 148 toad iːtəgbu iːtəgbu 150 buffalo ihʷe uhʷe 151 ikuwə ikuwə 154 hyena elephant ekə ikə 155 dog iwʰijə owʰijə 156 house/hut ona anavə anaravəⁱ 157 room odobo idabolo ɛra nə 158 fence owijə awijə 159 160 ohwo road/path otijə itijə 161 farm (field) pit əhwo 162 at (na) idʒə odʒə 163 door asikat�ʃa 164 chair/stool ənʲubo ənʲuabo 165 salt (none) iːgʷo oːgʷo 166 broom oŋjo 167 mortar usoh ejaɾe ɪrijare 168 anusoh ɪrisoh 169 fire pestle anɪrisoh oɻijə ɪɻijə 65

170 smoke uke (none) 171 ashes (none) 172 stick agat�ʃurijə 173 stone oti ati anoʃe anaɾaʃe 174 cave 175 mountain ofopa afapa 176 earth, ground abo opa apa 177 mud ɛrɛbo 178 clay irɛɬaᵘ ariɬaᵘ 179 sand ikje (none) ɛrɪtoŋ atoŋ 180 dust (none) 181 money (none) atofe͡ʃo 182 iron 184 market impoʰ omopoʰ 185 wind (none) okobɛrə.omə okobɛrə.omə 186 cloud a (none) uʷuⁱ 187 rain (none) jirimoʰ 188 rainy season avijə 189 dry season awo ɛɾɛkpɛɾe akpɛre 190 dew omo amo ɛɾɛwo 191 stream anavo 192 river avo avo anaɾavo 193 canoe 194 bridge ogbŭlo agbŭlo 195 water (none) idoʰ odoʰ 196 lake ənisum 197 sky a j rimu (none) obijəⁱ ɛ abijə 198 moon (none) 199 star opi 200 sun õnõ ejɛre ejɛre 201 year anji anji ẽnõ 202 morning (none) 203 afternoon atono (none) itʷɛti 204.1 evening (none) 205.1 night (none) ojɾɛ 206 yesterday (none) əti 207 tomorrow (none) amuʃɛ 208 knife ecʷa 208.1 my bow otami (na) ekːumə okːɪmə 208.2 your (na) 208.3 his otango (na) otãŋa 66

208.4 her otango (na) 208.5 our otabaⁱjo (na) 208.6 otanako (na) 208.7 their otabako (na) your (pl) 209 bow ota eta 210 arrow 211 quiver ɛɾɛɮa aɮa 212 ufʷo ifʷo 213 war spear okə̆ ro akə̆ro 214 who? okə̆ ro ɛkə̆ ro 215 whose? (na) ɪŋo.udu? ɪŋo.udurən? 216 what? oŋɪŋawɛn 217 when? kagbawe abakabawe ɪkʲumbo ɪkʲumbɛrɛ 218 where? kubi 219 here okawe owekoke kiɲaᵘ 220 how? 221 why? ikjumbo ikumbosana.oba ɲuɲji ĭjotinane 222 (na) 223 rotten (na) ripe obijə 224 hungry (na) uvŭru 225 hot (na) idŭfo 226 cold/cool (na) ot�ʃe 227 cold (na) iɾiwʰe 228 smooth (na) oɽije 229 white (na) odɛdɛɾi 230 black isisu (na) ɪfifu 231 dark iti (na) 232 red (na) 233 (na) isiːse 234 dull (na) sharp ɛrɛla 235 evil (na) isɪnəkpe 236 good (na) aɾoloʃe̠ 237 many (na) ododomə 238 wide (na) opam 239 narrow (na) ojojə 240 straight (na) osəname 241 crooked (na) odəm 243 long (na) əgəgəɾ 244 short ububulu (na) ogbo.ɪbaŋ 246 thick (na) 247 thin (na) ukk�pum ozoze 67

248 heavy (na) 249 light (na) opotoro 250 old a (na) osɪnafʷo 251 new (na) nakpe 252 left (na) esiəsa 253 right ela (na) epuma 254 yes (na) 255 no ka (na) eː ⁱ 256 hard (na) 257 soft (na) ɛɾɛt�ʃo 258 few (na) okpɛpɛle 259 a ja (na) nazeⁱ ⁱ 260 down atata (na) up jə 261 wet ole (na) 262 dry ohoho (na) 263 dirty (na) 264 all na didu (na) iɾileⁱ 265 I (na) 266 you (na) ɛmɛ 267 he (na) oŋʷo 268 she (na) aŋa 269 we a jo (na) aŋaⁱ 271 you unu (na) 272 they abo (na) 274 blow 275 whistle opɛn apɛni 275.5 sing ate atate iwəli atewəli 276 eat ola ala 276.01 I ate mela (na) 276.02 you ate (na) 276.03 you (f) ate (na) oŋ̩ ŋola 276.04 he ate (na) oŋ̩ ŋola 276.05 she ate ala (na) iŋala 276.06 we ate aⁱ (na) 276.08 they ate ala (na) jolə 276.10 aⁱ (na) 276.11 he is eating asola (na) you (pl) ate jolə 276.12 he will eat akila (na) 276.13 he usually eat akila (na) 276.14 he didn't eat (na) 276.5 do atalabə ud� ʒu əd� ʒu 68

277 dance oⁱ aⁱ 278 jə jə 279 smell play okk�pelə akk�pelə 280 see unu anu anjə akuŋju 281 laugh 282 say osɛrə akasɛrə 283 ask uvulu atɪ̆rə aŋatɪrə 284 beg əvulu 285 listen ako ako osŏro asə̆ ro 286 hear ko ako 287 bark 288 shout ugbɛli agbɛli 289 cry takpa atakpa 290 fear ut�ʃi ət�ʃi 291 want ɛɾɛbata akatɛɾɛbata 292 think a an kw ri awaŋⁱʃˡ ɛ ɛ awaŋgo 293 count akpase 294 know uje aje opɪ̆lə apɪlə̆ 295 teach ome ame 296 show 297 drink osa asa ujɛni ajɛni 298 suck 300 vomit əmu akəmu 301 ukuʷu akəku 302 spit atukpo akatukpo 303 bite sneeze idiʃə akatidiʃə 304 oɻʷa akɻʷa 305 sit a a a sweep ojɛrɛ akajɛrokaⁱʃɬ 306 stand otaj a ʃɬe ⁱ 307 fight suŋ 308 lie down akŏro akakŏro 309 yawn oɲiɲe aɲiɲe 310 rest ojumŏ akajumŏ 311 umo amo uʷuː akaʷu 312 wash sleep 313 wash-clothes (same as wash) (de) uɸuɾu akaɸuɾu 314 bathe 315 steal uji a ji osəmo akasəmoⁱ 316 give ama akama 317 hide aso akaso 318 take aⁱjɪɾ ijɪ̆ɾə ə 69

319 hold 320.1 buy ukoʰ akoʰ 321.1 sell oɬe aɬe 322 give birth og�bɪrə ag�bɪɾə 323 marry əd� ʒi akadʒɪɹi 324 die ogbijə akjog�bijə 325 kill ukk�po əkk�po 326 fall api akapɪli 327 fall over okpa akpa 328 walk uke ovijaᵘ ovijəkpaᵘ 329 run ote akate akəke 330 fly ofunu akafunu 331 332 swim udom akadom jump agəna akagəna 333 come aba 334 enter m̩ b a 335 exit ukunu akakunu ɣɛlə aɣɛlə 336 go 337 follow kiji akiji kikʲəŋ asəŋŋə 338 send 339 cut owa awa tʊma atʊma 340 break 341 oʷɾa awoɾaᵘ 342 scratch split osɨjə asɨjə 343 cook ugəru akəguru 343.5 boil ot�ʃo akat�ʃo 343.6 fry oka akaka opa akapa 344 hunt 344.5 hunter agbe (na) ɪrɪgbe asʊɪrɪgbe 345 hit akata 346 tie ulo ədʒo 347 sew uwe əlo 348 forge akəwe 348.5 blacksmith (na) opoʰ akapoʰ 349 burn ufuru (de) akʲɪmə 350 throw (de) 351 (de) ofɛni 352 anawo (de) pour uʃi 354 fill otijo (de) pour out 355 (de) 356 awa (de) push okəma pull 70

357 sque (de) 358 dig utumu (de) eze uɾujiə 359 (de) 361 harvest (de) plant opɪlə -m = my... Key okpa

(none)=no plural form ̠' (de)=didn't elicit (na)=not applicable aso=present tense

ako=past tense References

Blair, Frank. 1990. Survey on a shoestring: A manual for small-scale language surveys. Dallas and Arlington: Summer Institute of Linguistics and the University of Texas at Arlington Publications in Linguistics 96. Casad, Eugene H. (1974) 1987. Dialect intelligibility testing. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Crozier, David H., and Roger M. Blench. 1992. An index of Nigerian languages. Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Dancy, Paul, and Ian Gray. 1966. Kadara survey report. Ms. Jos: NBTT Archives. Federal Republic of Nigeria. 2007. Legal notice on publication of the details of the breakdown of the national and state provisional totals 2006 census, Statutory Instrument No. 23, Extraordinary Gazette No. 24 of 15th May, 2007, Vol. 94. Lagos: Federal Government Printer. Gunn, Harold D. 1956. Pagan people of the central area of Northern Nigeria. London: International African Institute. Maikarfi, Alex. 2006. Wordlist of Adara. Ms. SIL Nigeria archives. Radloff, Carla F. 1993. Reported dialect similarities and word list counts. Paper presented at the Second SIL International Language Assessment Conference. SIL. 1991. Language assessment criteria. Notes on Literature in Use and Language Programs 28:44–48. Spradley, James P. 1980. Participant observation. London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers. Temple, Olive. 1919. Kadara. In Charles L. Temple (ed.), Notes on the tribes, provinces, emirates and states of the northern provinces of Nigeria. Cape Town: Argus. Williamson, Kay. 1973. Benue Congo comparative wordlist, vol. 2. Ibadan, Nigeria: West African Linguistic Society, University of Ibadan. Yoder, Zachariah. 2014. The reliability of recorded text test scores. M.A. thesis. Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics. Dallas, TX. http://www.gial.edu/documents/Theses/Yoder_Zach-thesis.pdf.

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