A POLITICAL CHRONOLOGY OF

A POLITICAL CHRONOLOGY OF AFRICA

FIRST EDITION

First Edition2001 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. "To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk." © Europa Publications Limited2001 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE, United Kingdom (A member of the Taylor & Francis Group) All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be photocopied, recorded, or otherwise reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

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zvv Foreword

This is the fourth title in a new six-volume series of Political Chronologies of the World. The previous volumes concerned Europe, Central, South and East Asia, and the Middle East; forthcoming titles will deal with South-East Asia and Oceania, and the Americas. Although the book includes greater coverage of more-recent events— particularly in countries with a recent history of political upheaval—it also provides invaluable detail on the early history of each nation. Each chronology begins at least as early as the emergence of an entity resembling the modern nation, and in many cases considerably earlier. In Sub-Saharan Africa, where many of the modern countries correspond to entities created by Europeans, the Editors have attempted to include an amount of pre-European history in each country’s chronology, although the focus remains on more-recent occurrences. In addition to coverage of purely political events, each title in the series also includes details of the principal economic, cultural and social landmarks in the history of each nation. Examples might include the adoption of new languages, alphabets, calendars or religions. This series aims to be the first point of reference for concise information on the history of each nation in the world. It is hoped that the volumes in the series will enable readers easily to locate self-contained entries on the period and area in which their interest lies. October 2001

Contents

Algeria 1 Angola 19 Benin 31 Botswana 38 Burkina Faso 44 Burundi 15 Cameroon 58 Cape Verde 64 Central African Republic 69 Chad 79 Comoros 91 Democratic Republic of the Congo 100 Republic of the Congo 114 Côte d’Ivoire 123 Djibouti 131 Egypt 137 Equatorial Guinea 160 Eritrea 165 Ethiopia 171 Gabon 181 The Gambia 187 Ghana 194 Guinea 202 Guinea-Bissau 208 Kenya 214 Lesotho 222 Liberia 228 235 Madagascar 258 Malawi 267 Mali 274 Mauritania 284 Mauritius 291 Morocco 297 Mozambique 311 Namibia 320 Niger 328 Nigeria 335 Rwanda 344 São Tomé and Príncipe 351 Senegal 357 Seychelles 365 Sierra Leone 369 Somalia 377 South Africa 389 Sudan 401 Swaziland 417 Tanzania 423 Togo 430 436 Uganda 451 Zambia 460 Zimbabwe 467

Abbreviations

AD anno Domini Adm. Admiral a.m. ante meridiem (before noon) BC before Christ Brig. Brigadier c. circa Cdre Commodore CIS Commonwealth of Independent States Cmdr Commander Col Colonel Dr Doctor EEC European Economic Community EU European Union etc. et cetera f. founded Gen. General HM His (or Her) Majesty kg kilogram(s) km kilometre(s) kW kilowatt(s) Lt Lieutenant m. million Maj. Major Mgr Monsignor MP Member of Parliament NATO North American Treaty Organization OAU Organization of African Unity OIC Organization of the Islamic Conference Prof. Professor St Saint UN United Nations UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees US United States USA United States of America USS United States Ship USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Algeria c.200 BC: The Numidian kingdom, which was allied with the Romans in opposition to the Carthaginians, occupied most of modern Algeria north of the Sahara, as well as territory now in other states (including Libya). 146 BC: was annexed to the Roman Empire by Julius Caesar. AD 146: The Numidian ruler, , died during the siege of Carthage. The Romans established a protectorate over Numidia which was divided between three of Masinissa’s sons. 364–75: Donatism, a schismatic Christian sect which had remained dominant in the region despite Roman suppression, revived during the reign of the Emperor Valentinian I. 429: North Africa, including Numidia, was conquered by the Vandals, a Germanic tribe that had migrated to Iberia before being expelled by the Goths. c.500: Three confederacies emerged among the Tamazight or Berber people, centred on Awras, al-Hudna and Oran. 535–47: Numerous Berber rebellions were suppressed. c.670: The Arabs, during their period of expansion under the Umayyad Caliphate, invaded North Africa. Berber resistance to Arab rule persisted, and a number of rebellions were suppressed. 8th century: Many of the of the converted to Kharijism, an extreme Shi‘a Muslim sect. 740: An uprising resulted in the loss of Arab control of the greater part of the Maghreb. 778: Ibadi rebels established a relatively egalitarian state, with its captial at Tahart. Abd al-Rahman bin Rustam became Imam of the Ibadiyya—upon his death, he was succeeded by his son, thus establishing the Rustamid dynasty of Imams. 9th century: The Ibadiyya defeated numerous rebellions and secessionist movements. 10th century: The Berbers resident in the territory of modern Algeria were divided between the Sinhaja in the east (who supported the Egyptian Fatimids) and the nomadic Zanata in the west (who supported the the Ummayads in

Spain). zv2 11th century: The Almoravids from Morocco conquered lands as far east as Algiers. These areas were now part of an Empire which included Muslim Spain. 1143: Abd al-Mumin, the Amir of the Almohad sect, led his forces north into the coastal areas of the Maghreb and challenged the Almoravids. March 1145: The Almohads captured Oran and established their dominance over the Maghreb and Muslim Spain. 1212: Almohad expansionism in Europe was halted by their defeat at Navas de A political chronology of Africa 2

Tolosa in northern Spain; this is commonly perceived to be the beginning of Almohad decline. 1239: The ruler of Tlemcem and the central Maghreb, Abd al-Wad of the Zayanid dynasty’ declared his territory’s independence, establishing the Abd al- Wadid dynasty. 1248: The Almohad Caliph unsuccessfully besieged Tlemcem with the assistance of Christian troops, mostly drawn from Castille. 1276: Almohad rule of North Africa came to an end; the region came under control of a number of states, notably the Hafsids and the Zayanids. 1299–1301: The Marinids invaded from Morocco and besieged Tlemcem. 1313: The Zayanids annexed Algiers. 1317–18: Abu Bakr, the ruler of Bougie, invaded Tunis. 1389: The Marinids assumed suzerainty over the Zayanid lands. 1424–1500: The Zayanids severed their alliances with the Maranids and submitted to the Hafsids. 1492–94: Following the fall of Granada, the last Muslim kingdom in Spain, to Isabella and Ferdinand (the monarchs whose marriage united the two principal Spanish kingdoms), Spanish forces sought to remove Muslim influence from the Maghreb. 1505–10: Bougie, Marsa al-Qabur and Oran were captured by the Spanish. 1512–14: Two Turkish corsairs, the brothers Aruj and Khayr ad-Din (known as Barbarossa) began to assist in efforts to expel the Spanish from the Maghreb. Aruj raided Bougie several times and established relations with the tribes of the Kabyle. 1514: The Spanish attacked Algiers. 1516: Aruj moved to Algiers and was proclaimed Sultan. 1518: The Spanish besieged Aruj in Tlemcen; he was killed in the fighting. Khayr ad-Din Barbarossa obtained military aid from the Ottoman Empire by presenting the territories they had conquered to the Ottoman Sultan. 1519: Khayr ad-Din was expelled from Algiers by Spanish forces, supported by some Zayanid and Hafsid groups. 1525: With Ottoman support, Khayr ad-Din reconquered Algiers. 1533: Khayr ad-Din was appointed Kapudan Pasha or Admiral of the Ottoman

fleet. He installed beylerbeys (administrators) to maintain order in Algiers. zv3 1534–58: Under the Captain-General of Oran, Count Alcaudete, Spain renewed its expansionist policy, establishing a Spanish protectorate in western Algeria following its abandonment of Algiers in 1541. However, by 1554 Oran was under constant siege. 1546: Khayr ad-Din died; the governance of the Ottoman territories in the Maghreb became the responsibility of the Beylerbeys. 1556: The Janissaries (élite Ottoman forces) took control of the government of Algiers; the Spanish renewed their attacks on the city the following year, but all were repulsed. 1587: The administrators created by Khayr ad-Din were replaced by Ottoman Pashas, although the leader of the Janissaries was the governor of the city and Algeria 3 the leader of the corsairs controlled the affairs of the corsairs and the marines. 1671: The destruction of seven ships in the port of Algiers by a British squadron provoked a rebellion among the corsairs and the assassination of Agha Ali, the last of the Janissary chiefs. The corsairs chose an officer to exercise administrative power under the title of ‘dey’. The pasha appointed by Istanbul had ceremonial functions but no real authority. 1710: The title of pasha was assumed by the dey. 1775: A Spanish expedition to capture Algiers was unsuccessful. 1815–27: The French consul refused to discuss the debt owed by France to Algeria (France had not paid for Algerian wheat used to feed its armies in the 1790s), angering the dey. 29 April 1829: At a meeting concerning the French debts the dey struck the French consul with a fly-swatter. The dey was asked to make reparations for the insult, but refused. 16 June 1829: The French ordered a blockade of Algerian ports, although the corsairs were able to prevent France achieving a position whereby it was able to impose its demands on the dey. Various factions within France sought an invasion of Algiers. 5 July 1830: Algiers fell to a renewed French expedition; the dey and other Ottoman officials were exiled. The French proposed placing the decision on the country’s future in the gift of a European congress; however, following the usurpation of the French king, Charles X, this proposal was abandoned. 1832: In the western regions opposition to the French consolidated around the sheikh of the Qadiriyya sufis, Abd al-Kadir. 1834: The French decided upon further conquest and annexation and a governor-general was appointed. A programme of French immigration into Algeria subsequently began. 20 May 1837: The French signed the Treaty of Tafna with Abd al-Kadir redfining the boundaries between the territory held by each party. 13 October 1837: Constantine, the last Ottoman stronghold in Algeria, was

taken by the French. zv4 20 November 1839: Following a dispute over the limits of French authority and expansion, Abd al-Kadir declared war on France and advanced towards Algiers with support from both Arabs and Berbers, attacking European settlers en route. February 1841: France began a campaign, led by Gen. Bugeaud, to defeat Abd al-Kadir. He was the real architect of French rule in Algeria. 14 August 1844: Gen. Bugeaud defeated an army sent in support of Abd al- Kadir by the Sultan of Morocco. 10 September 1844: France and Morocco signed the Treaty of Tangiers, by which the Moroccan Government agreed to treat Abd al-Kadir as an outlaw. 21 July 1847: A decree was announced which defined lands not in use as vacant, and grazing lands as being ‘not in use’, enabling the land department to acquire large tracts of land. 1848: The influx of colonists from France and other European countries increased the colonizing population on the coastal plains. A political chronology of Africa 4

November 1848: Algeria was formally declared to be French territory; the expropriation of tribal lands by the French administration subsequently increased. 1857: An uprising in the Kabyle was suppressed. 1858–60: Algeria was governed directly from the French capital, Paris. 1860–1864: Napoleon III restored military government to Algeria, led by Marshal Pelissier. 1864: Marshal Mac-Mahon succeeded Marshal Pelissier. July 1865: Muslims and Jews were granted the right to adopt French nationality, provided that they agreed to be governed by French civil law and not their religious laws. 1868: Severe drought and cholera killed an estimated 300,000 people and approximately one-half of the cattle of the Algerian Muslims. 1870: The colonists rebelled and established the ‘commune’ of Algiers; French forces restored order. 1871–1900: There was increasing immigration into Algeria; however, in 1896 the number of Europeans born in Algeria, the pieds noirs, exceeded that of the immigrants for the first time. Although still the majority, the Muslim population had lost most of their lands and many farmers became share-croppers or agricultural labourers. Few Muslims lived in the cities. February 1871–June 1872: Following France’s defeat in its conflict with Germany, there was a rebellion by Muslims in Algiers and Constantine. The rebellion was suppressed, tribal lands were sequestrated and a war indemnity levied. The monies and land were used to expand colonization. 1900: Algeria secured financial and administrative autonomy administered through the so-called ‘Financial Delegations’ composed of two-thirds European and one-third Muslim members, which were empowered to set the annual

budget and raise loans. zv5 1918–1924: Frustration increased among the Muslim Algerian community, which had hoped to see its contribution to the First World War rewarded with full French citizenship; it was widely believed that European settlers had threatened to rule Algeria directly if citizenship was granted. 1920s: Migration by Muslims from the countryside into the towns as well as into France increased. 1926: Messali Hadj, then a member of the French Communist Party, founded a North African nationalist newspaper in France. 1931: The Association of the Ulama was founded; it aimed to reform Islam and promote the language and culture. 1936: Mesali Hadj returned to Algeria and became the leader of a nationalist movement. June 1936: An Islamic Congress was convened in Algiers; the conference’s demands included universal and equal suffrage. 1937: The Parti du Peuple Algérien (PPA) was established by Mesali Hadj; the party drew support chiefly from poorer Muslims. 1941: Ferhat Abbas, a French-educated Algerian, wrote to Marshal Pétain, the Algeria 5 leader of the Government of German-occupied France, demanding equality for all inhabitants of Algeria. December 1942: Following the Allied landings in North Africa a group led by Ferhat Abbas submitted a memorandum demanding the establishment of an Algerian consituent assembly elected by universal suffrage. February 1943: The Manifesto of the Algerian People demanded immediate reforms, the introduction of Arabic as an official language and the end of colonization. May 1943: Further proposals demanded the post-war creation of an Algerian state with a constitution determined by a constituent assembly and anticipating an eventual North African union of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. The Free French administration in Algiers categorically rejected all these proposals. 17 March 1944: Ferhat Abbas founded the Friends of the Manifesto of Freedom which aimed to establish an autonomous Algerian republic linked federally with France. The movement was supported mainly by middle-class Muslims, although it also attracted supporters of the PPA. 1945: Messali Hadj formed the Triumph of Democratic Liberties (MTLD). May 1945: Protests in favour of equality and independence in Setif escalated into rioting; the unrest was suppressed by the security forces and it was estimated that anywhere between 8,000 and 40,000 Muslims were killed. March 1946: Ferhat Abbas launched the Democratic Union of the Algerian Manifesto (UDMA) with a programme providing for the creation of an autonomous secular Algerian state within the French Union. Colonists were invited to join, although few did. September 1946: Although the UDMA had some success in elections to the French National Assembly it failed to achieve its objectives, eventually

withdrawing from the body. zv6 1947: The ‘Secret Organisation’ (OS) was formed by younger members of the MTLD and arms and money were collected and a network of cells organized throughout Algeria in preparation for armed insurrection and the establishment of a revolutionary government. 20 September 1947: The French Government introduced a new Constitution for Algeria, granting French citizenship to all Algerian citizens and recognizing Arabic as equal in status to French. A new Algerian Assembly was to be divided into two colleges each of 60 members, one to represent the 1.5m. resident Europeans and the other the 9m. Muslim Algerians. October 1947: Elections to the Algerian Assembly were marred by electoral malpractice—the M LTD had performed strongly in the municipal elections and it was believed that the authorities attempted to restrict the party’s level of support. April 1948: Only one-quarter of the candidates elected to the second college belonged to the MTLD or the UDMA; the remainder, known as the ‘Beni Oui Oui’, were nominally independent. 1949: The OS attacked the central post office in Oran. 1952: The organizer of the Oran attack, , escaped to Cairo A political chronology of Africa 6

(Egypt) after the OS was discovered and many of its leaders arrested. March 1954: Nine former members of the OS formed the Revolutionary Council for Unity and Action (CRUA) to prepare for an immediate revolt against French rule. March 1954: At a series of meetings of the CRUA in Switzerland plans were made for the administration of Algeria following a successful revolution against the French authorities. The country was to be divided into six wilaya (administrative districts) with a military commander appointed for each. 1 November 1954: The CRUA changed its name to the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN)—its armed forces were known as the Armée de Libération Nationale (ALN). The revolt was initiated in Aurès. 1955: The revolt against French rule had spread to Constantine, the Kabyle and the Moroccan frontier west of Oran. 1955: The ALN was active in all settled areas. April 1956: Ferhat Abbas and Ahmad Francis of the more moderate UDMA and religious leaders joined the FLN so that all sectors of Algerian nationalist feeling (with the exception of Messali Hadj’s Algerian National Movement) were integrated into a single movement. August 1956: A secret congress of the FLN convened at Soummam in the Kabyle established a central committee and formed the National Council of the Algerian Revolution. A socialist programme for the future Algerian republic and plans for a terrorist offensive in Algiers were also approved. September 1956–June 1957: Bombings by the FLN caused great loss of life. This terrorism was partially curtailed by repression of the Muslim population, including the use of internment, and allegations of torture were frequent.

Electrified barriers were erected along the borders with Morocco and Tunisia. zv7 June 1957: The French legislature rejected measures proposed by the new administration to link Algeria indissolubly with France. October 1957: FLN leaders began negotiations in Morocco towards the establishment of a North African federation, linked with France—the proposal having been announced jointly by Morocco and Tunisia. 22 October 1957: Ben Bella and several companions were seized en route from Morocco to Tunisia when their aircraft was forced to land at Algiers. The French authorities denied knowledge of any attempt to detain Ben Bella; however, presented with a fait accompli, they arrested the detainees and interned them in France. 1958: In the ‘Battle of Algiers’, French forces claimed to have arrested the remaining FLN cells in Algiers, and thereby ended the rebellion—attacks continued, however. 8 February 1958: The Tunisian border village of Skhiet Sidi Youssif was bombed by French aircraft, without the authority of the French Government, which had prohibited air attacks on Tunisian territory. May 1958: The European colonists, only about one-half of whom were of French origin, rebelled and installed committees of public safety in the major Algerian towns. Supported by the army and exploiting the widespread fear of Algeria 7 civil war, the colonists prompted the overthrow of the discredited Fourth French Republic and Gen. de Gaulle’s return to power. Gen. de Gaulle intensified the military action against the FLN. August 1958: The FLN established the Provisional Government of Algeria in Tunis, led by Ferhat Abbas and including Ben Bella and other leaders who had been interned in France. 1 August 1963: A new, presidential constitution was published; it was endorsed by popular referendum in September. 14 August 1963: Abbas resigned as President of the Assembly in protest at the proposed changes to the Constitution. 13 September 1963: Ben Bella was elected President. 1 October 1963: Algeria nationalized French-owned land. 14 October 1963: Algeria claimed a border attack by Morocco. 20 February 1964: The settlement of the Algero-Moroccan border dispute was announced after intervention by the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). 13 March 1964: A secret meeting of Ben Bella and President de Gaulle took place in France. 15 June 1964: The last French troops left Algeria. 17 October 1964: Hussein ait Ahmed, who had led an armed opposition against the Government, was detained. 26–28 November 1964: The Maghreb Economic Ministers discussed economic co-ordination of the Maghreb countries. 20–21 March 1965: The first meeting of the Maghreb Permanent Consultative Committee took place in Algeria.

5 June 1965: The National Revolutionary Council was established in Algiers. zv8 19 June 1965: President Ben Bella was overthrown in a bloodless coup d’état by the Minister of Defence, Col Houari Boumedienne. 10 July 1965: A new cabinet was formed by Col Boumedienne, in which he retained the defence portfolio and assumed the premiership. 6 June 1967: The United Kingdom and the USA were accused by President Nasser of the UAR and King Hussein of Jordan of military collusion with Israel; 10 Arab states imposed an embargo on petroleum supplies to the two countries. Diplomatic relations with the USA were suspended by Algeria, Iraq, Sudan, Syria, the UAR and Yemen; Iraq, Syria and the UAR terminated relations with the United Kingdom. 14–16 December 1967: The Government defeated an attempted insurrection. 31 January 1968: French forces completed their evacuation from the Mers-el- Kébir base. 10 April 1968: Algeria, Mali and Mauritania all resumed diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom (relations had been suspended following the ‘Six-Day War’—see chapter on Egypt). 15 May 1968: Algeria nationalized all foreign companies marketing petroleum and natural gas; a week later 27 French companies in the mechanical, electrical, building-material and fertilizer industries were also nationalized. 1–10 October 1969: Severe floods covered large areas of Algeria and Tunisia. A political chronology of Africa 8

17 December 1969: Algeria and Tunisia signed a 20-year friendship treaty, which included a settlement of a long-standing border dispute. 5–6 August 1970: The foreign and defence ministers of Jordan, Libya, Sudan, Syria and the UAR met in (Libya); Algeria and Iraq refused to send delegations. 1971: Boumedienne initiated reforms, known as the Agrarian Revolution, which included the reallocation of state- and foreign-owned land and the redistribution of private estates. In the same year the FLN was reorganized and a plan to develop workers’ control in industry was developed. 2 April 1971: An agreement was reached in Tripoli between international petroleum companies and the Libyan Government (which was also acting on behalf of Algeria, Iraq and Saudi Arabia); the posted price for Libyan crude petroleum was increased by US $0.90. 15 December 1971: The Government reached a final agreement with the French petroleum company, Elf-ERAP, whose assets had been nationalized several years previously. May 1973: An agreement demarcating the Algerian-Moroccan border was ratified by Algeria, although not by Morocco. 1974: Full diplomatic relations were restored with the USA, despite disagreements over the conflict in Viet Nam and over Arab-Israeli relations. April 1975: Valéry Giscard d’Estaing became the first French President to visit

Algeria since the country’s independence. zv9 May 1975: Algeria appealed for genuine self-determination for the people of Spanish (now Western) Sahara (then administered by Spain, now claimed by Morocco) at the International Court of Justice and denied any self-interest in the matter. June 1975: Boumedienne announced that elections for a National Assembly and a President would be held and a ‘National Charter’ was to be drafted to provide the state with the basis for a new constitution. November 1975: Spain agreed to cede Western Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania. Boumedienne protested and promised full support for the pro- independence movement, the Polisario Front. 1976: Confrontations between the Moroccan and Algerian forces inside Western Sahara increased in intensity. March 1976: Algeria recognized the Sahrawi Arab Democratic republic proclaimed by the Polisario Front. Morocco and Mauritania severed diplomatic relations with Algeria in response. March 1976: A manifesto signed by, among others, Ferhat Abbas and Ben Khedda, criticized Boumedienne for his perceived totalitarian and personal rule. The signatories were reportedly placed under house arrest. June 1976: The National Charter received the approval of 98.5% of the voters at a referendum. The document’s provisions included the commitment of Algeria to socialism and the pre-eminence of the FLN; it also accorded official status to Islam. November 1976: A new Constitution embodying the principals of the National Algeria 9

Charter was approved by referendum. December 1976: Boumedienne was elected unopposed as President, receiving 99% of the votes cast. February 1977: The National People’s Assembly of 261 members was elected from among 783 candidates selected by a committee of the FLN. December 1977: Algeria was a signatory to the Declaration of Tripoli opposing the attempt made by the President of Egypt, Anwar Sadat, to negotiate a peace settlement with Israel. 28 December 1978: President Boumedienne died. As an interim measure during his preceding illness government was assumed by the Council of the Revolution, which by now consisted of only eight members. After Boumedienne’s death Rabah Bitat, the President of the National People’s Assembly, assumed the office of head of state for a 45-day period. 1979: The FLN central committee announced that Algeria would reduce its dependence on foreign financial and technical assistance, diversify its range of economic partners and decrease its hydrocarbon exports in order to conserve resources. The industrialization programme was to be reduced and large state companies were to be reorganized. January 1979: The FLN congress, delayed owing to Boumedienne’s illness and death, was convened with the additional task of choosing a presidential candidate. New statutes on party structure were adopted, whereby a Central

Committee of 120–160 members and 30–40 advisory members meeting at least zv10 twice a year was to be elected by Congress and form the highest policy-making body of the party and of the country. The Committee would select a party secretary-general, who would automatically become the FLN (and, thus, the sole) presidential candidate. Col Ben Djedid Chadli, the commander of the Oran military district, was elected to the new post of FLN Secretary-General. 9 February 1979: Chadli was inaugurated as President, having been endorsed in a referendum. He declared that he would uphold the polices of Boumedienne. June 1979: The National People’s Assembly adopted amendments to the Constitution which made the appointment of a Prime Minister obligatory and reduced the President’s term of office from six to five years, to coincide with the FLN’s five-yearly party congresses. Some of Boumedienne’s political opponents were released from prison and Ben Bella was placed under a less stringent form of house arrest. Exit visas were abolished, income tax was reduced and restrictions on property ownership were eased. August 1979: Mauritania signed a treaty withdrawing its claims to Western Sahara and resuming diplomatic relations with Algeria. September 1979: A ‘clean-up’ campaign, initially intended to improve the appearance of Algiers and other cities in preparation for the 25th anniversary of the Revolution, was extended to include the arrest and imprisonment of numerous so-called ‘social parasites’ and a campaign against inefficiency and corruption. 1980–1981: The ‘clean-up’ campaign was extended to the highest levels of state organizations; numerous senior officials were arrested and tried on charges of A political chronology of Africa 10 financial mismanagement. May 1980: Following student criticism earlier in the year the FLN Central Committee announced that a co-ordinating body was to be established to encourage the use of Arabic, and that official newspapers should be published in Arabic only. September 1980: Algeria and France reached agreement over the repatriation of some 800,000 Algerian nationals living in France. Algeria released bank assets which had been ‘frozen’ since independence. October 1980: Ben Bella was freed from all restrictions that had been placed on him. 1981: Following increased protest against the suppression of the Berber language a cultural charter was proposed which made provisions for the Berber culture as part of Algeria’s national heritage; however discussions were abandoned following outbreaks of violence. September 1981: The tension in the Kabyle was alleviated by the announcement that departments of popular literature and dialect were to be established at four universities. February 1982: A dispute over natural-gas exports to France was settled. December 1982: Chadli made the first official visit to France by an Algerian

head of state since independence. zv11 February 1983: President Chadli and King Hassan of Morocco held a meeting on the countries’ border; it was subsequently disclosed that a series of such meetings had been held in secret since Chadli’s election. March 1983: Algeria and Tunisia signed the Maghreb Fraternity and Co- operation Treaty, providing a framework for the creation of a union known as the Great Arab Maghreb. The two countries also signed a treaty delineating their common border, thus settling a 20-year dispute. April 1983: Representatives from Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia met and agreed that further conferences would be held on Maghreb unity, which Libya and Mauritania would be welcome to attend; Mauritania signed the Treaty in December. August 1984: Algeria’s relations with Libya were strained, following the signing of a treaty on mutual co-operation by Libya and Morocco. April 1985: Chadli made the first official visit to the USA by an Algerian head of state since independence; Algeria was removed from the list of countries deemed ‘ineligible’ to purchase US military equipment. June 1985: Yahia Abennour, President of the unauthorized Algerian League of Human Rights (ALHR) was arrested and imprisoned for 11 months for forming an illegal organization; arrests of members of the ALHR and other illegal organizations continued throughout 1985. July 1985: Morocco accused Algeria of training ‘Moroccan terrorists’ for operations against its Government. November 1985: Clashes occurred in Oizi-Ouzou between public order forces and members of the proscribed Association of the Sons of Chouhada who were protesting against the arrests of fellow members. Algeria 11

December 1985: Some of Ben Bella’s alleged supporters were imprisoned on charges of threatening state security. January 1986: Following an improvement in the countries’ mutual relations, President Chadli met the Libyan leader, Col Muammar al-Qaddafi. They reiterated their commitment to Maghreb unity and deplored the conflict over Western Sahara, demanding self-determination for the Sahrawi people. January 1986: In a referendum on the new National Charter, 95.6% of the eligible population participated and 98.4% of the votes cast supported its adoption. December 1986: The ALHR became affiliated to the International League for Human Rights; however, the group’s leaders were arrested and exiled to the south of the country. 1987: Spanish concerns as to Algeria’s attitude towards terrorism and organized crime were exacerbated when a senior member of the Basque separatist movement ETA was killed in a road accident near Algiers. January 1987: Mustafa Bouiali, the leader of an Islamist group considered responsible for the theft of weapons from a military position at Souma in 1985,

was killed by security forces. zv12 26 February 1987: In the general election 87.9% of the electorate voted for FLN candidates. The newly elected Assembly included increased numbers of younger, ‘liberal’ deputies. March 1987: The leaders of the ALHR were among 22 people released from internal exile. April 1987: The Algerian League for the Defence of Human Rights (ALDHR) was formed, with government authorization, as a rival to the illegal ALHR. Further detainees were released. April 1987: The Algerian Government released the assets of former French settlers and subsequently agreed to purchase land from all remaining French property-owners. May 1987: President Chadli met King Hassan of Morocco on the countries’ border under the auspices of King Fahd of Saudi Arabia. The resultant joint communiqué stated that consultations to resolve bilateral differences would continue. June 1987: In response to an increase in social unrest a new Minister of the Interior was appointed and the senior ranks of the military reorganized. July 1987: As part of its policy of liberalization the Government introduced legislation which permitted the formation of local organizations without prior consent from the authorities, except where these were deemed to threaten Algeria’s security or the policies of the new National Charter. The National People’s Assembly began to consider removing various state controls from agricultural co-operatives and public enterprises. July 1987: The trial of 202 defendants accused of involvement in the activities of Bouiali’s Islamist group took place. Four people were sentenced to death following their conviction on charges of conspiracy against the state, murder, armed attacks and robbery. A political chronology of Africa 12

August 1987: An agreement was reached with Spain allowing for Algerian security officials to be stationed in Spain to monitor the activities of Algerian dissidents and closer supervision of ETA members in Algeria. August 1987: For the commemoration of the 25th anniversary of Algerian independence a series of amnesties were granted and the death sentences imposed on the four Islamists convicted in July were commuted to life imprisonment. October 1987: Several countries, most notably the USA, expressed concern when it was revealed that Algeria had agreed, in principle, to establish a political union with Libya. However there was also opposition from within the Algerian Government based on the argument that the Maghreb Fraternity and Co- operation Treaty already provided a framework for a new relationship between the two states. November 1987: President Chadli received the Moroccan Minister of Foreign Affairs and they discussed means of accelerating the development of the ‘Great

Arab Maghreb’ and of resolving the Western Sahara conflict. zv13 November 1987: Chadli abolished the Ministry of Planning, which had previously controlled every aspect of Algeria’s economy, and introduced limited liberalization, giving more freedom to the private sector and to public-sector managers. A Ministry of Training and Education was created. December 1987: The President announced a series of reforms intended to improve the efficiency of the country’s administrative structures. December 1987: At a meeting between the Algerian, Mauritanian and Tunisian foreign ministers hopes were again expressed that Libya might sign the Maghreb Fraternity and Co-operation Treaty. January 1988: At a meeting in Tunis President Chadli and the Tunisian President, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali, issued directives to intensify bilateral co- operation, demanded a just resolution of the Western Sahara conflict and pledged to work for regional stability and to hasten the creation of the ‘Great Arab Maghreb’. May 1988: Algeria and Morocco announced the restoration of diplomatic relations at ambassadorial level. June 1988: The border with Morocco was reopened prior to a ‘summit’ of the Arab League leaders in Algiers. June 1988: President Chadli reorganized the public-sector economy by creating state-sponsored Trust Companies to which managers were to be accountable. June 1988: The first meeting of the heads of state of the Maghreb countries was held in Algiers, following the conclusion of the Arab League meeting there. The five leaders issued a joint communiqué which announced the creation of a Maghreb commission, comprising a delegation from each of the five countries, whose responsibility was to focus on the establishment of a semi-legislative semi-consultative council to align legislation in the region, and to prepare joint economic projects. July 1988: Algeria and Morocco signed a co-operation agreement and announced plans to harmonize their railway, postal and telecommunications Algeria 13 systems. July 1988: A series of strikes took place in protest at the reduction in imports, 70% of which were foodstuffs, and the consequent food shortages. October 1988: President Chadli proposed that non-party candidates be allowed to contest elections, that the Prime Minister be responsible to the National People’s Assembly and that the offices of President and Secretary-General of the FLN be separated; the reforms were approved in a referendum in November. 5 October 1988: Widespread rioting and looting occurred and government buildings in Algiers were attacked. A group named the Movement for Algerian Renewal claimed responsibility for the unrest, which it stated was a protest against high unemployment and the Government’s education reforms. 6 October 1988: A state of emergency was declared and a curfew imposed in Algiers. The Army was deployed to suppress the disturbances. 10 October 1988: President Chadli promised to present a programme of reforms for debate when the violence, which had spread to Oran, Annaba and other

towns, subsided. zv14 12 October 1988: The Army’s tanks were withdrawn from the streets of Algiers. Official estimates stated that 159 people had been killed during the disturbances, although unofficial estimates indicated the total to be at least 500. November 1988: Diplomatic relations with Egypt, which were suspended in 1979, were restored. December 1988: In response to criticism of the military for its suppression of the unrest in October, President Chadli reorganized the army. 22 December 1988: Chadli was elected to a third term of office as President, having obtained 81% of the votes cast in the presidential election. February 1989: A new draft constitution was published. The document formalized the separation of the state from the FLN and the separation of executive, legislative and judicial functions, permitted the ‘creation of associations of a political nature’ with certain restrictions, abandoned the ‘irreversible commitment to socialism’ of the Constitution then in force and detailed further reforms of the military. The document was regarded as a radical alteration of Algeria’s political orientation, away from socialism and towards Western ideologies. 17 February 1989: The treaty creating the Union de Maghreb Arabe (UAM) was signed in Marrakesh (Morocco), by the leaders of Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia. Modelled on the European Communities (EC—the precursor of the European Union, EU), the UAM was formed principally to enable its members to negotiate with that body after it formally declared a single European market at the end of 1992. March 1989: Senior army officers asked to be relived of their duties as members of the FLN Central Committee, claiming that the army should be concerned exclusively with ‘the defence of superior interests of the nation’. April 1989: There were demonstrations against sharp increases in food prices. May 1989: There were strikes and riots in protest against the slow pace of reform and the corrupt practices of local officials; sporadic rioting against poor A political chronology of Africa 14 living conditions continued throughout the year. June 1989: The five nations of the UAM formed a joint parliament and agreed a defence clause which prohibited aggression between the states. July 1989: The National People’s Assembly approved a law on associations, revoking the ban on the formation of political parties; the legislature subsequently adopted legislation permitting opposition political parties. August 1989: President Chadli mediated a settlement of the dispute between Chad and Libya over the Aozou strip and also attempted to allay US concerns about an alleged chemical weapons factory at Rabta in Libya. 9 September 1989: was replaced as Prime Minister by , and the Government was reorganized. 12 June 1990: Algeria’s Front Islamique du Salut (FIS) won control of a majority of local and provincial assemblies.

25 July 1990: The Council of Ministers was reorganized. zv15 9 September 1990: The Governments of Algeria, Libya, Mali and Niger agreed to the implementation of border controls to facilitate the repatriation of refugees. 12–13 March 1991: A general strike was held in Algeria. 3 April 1991: Multi-party elections were scheduled to be held in June 1991. 25 May 1991: The FIS called an indefinite general strike in protest at new electoral laws which, it claimed, discriminated against it. 5 June 1991: Hamrouche resigned after violent disturbances in Algiers. The general election was postponed and a ‘state of siege’ imposed. 18 June 1991: A new ‘transitional’ Government was appointed. 1 July 1991: The leaders of the FIS were placed under arrest. 30 July 1991: A multi-party conference to discuss Algeria’s political crisis commenced. 29 September 1991: The ‘state of siege’ declared in June was lifted. 13 October 1991: The National People’s Assembly approved the new electoral law. 26 December 1991: The FIS appeared likely to gain a majority of seats in the National People’s Assembly after the first round of voting in a general election. 4 January 1992: The National People’s Assembly was dissolved. 11 January 1992: President Chadli resigned. 12 January 1992: The second round of voting in the general election was cancelled, amid fears of a significant majority for the FIS. 14 January 1992: The High Council of State assumed power, as a five-member acting presidency. 4 March 1992: The Court of Appeal formally dissolved the FIS. 27 June 1992: The trial of the leaders of the FIS, Abbasi Madani and Ali Belhadj, commenced. Proceedings were suspended the same day. 29 June 1992: Muhammad Boudiaf, Chairman of the High Council of State, was assassinated. Ali Khafi was appointed to succeed him in early July. 8 July 1992: The Prime Minister, Sid-Ahmad Ghozali, resigned, and was replaced by Belaid Abd es-Salam. 12 July 1992: The trial of the FIS leaders resumed—proceedings concluded on Algeria 15

15 July with each being sentenced to 12 years’ imprisonment. 19 July 1992: A new Council of Ministers was appointed. 7 February 1993: The state of emergency imposed during the election campaign was extended indefinitely. 8 May 1993: The High Council of State announced a decision to hold a referendum on the country’s future; later in the month it was announced that the body favoured a return to democracy. 21 August 1993: was appointed Prime Minister. The former Prime Minister, Merbah, was assassinated.

4 September 1993: A new Council of Ministers was announced. zv16 27 January 1994: Gen. was appointed President. 19 March 1994: Political dialogue began in Algeria. 11 April 1994: was appointed Prime Minister, leading a new Council of Ministers. 13 May 1994: A National Transition Council was appointed to oversee the return to democracy. 21 August 1994: Talks were held between President Zéroual and opposition leaders. 13 September 1994: The detained FIS leaders were transferred from prison to house arrest. 20 September 1994: Talks began between government representatives and FIS leaders. 31 October 1994: President Zéroual announced that elections for his successor would take place before the end of 1995. 13 January 1995: Opposition groups announced their peace proposals at a conference in Rome, Italy. 18 March 1995: Government forces launched an offensive against the Group Islamique Armée (GIA). 11 July 1995: Talks between the Government and the FIS collapsed. Violence intensified throughout the country, and both sides were accused of numerous atrocities. 18 August 1995: The Government announced that a presidential election would take place on 16 November 1995. 19 September 1995: President Zéroual announced his candidacy for the forthcoming presidential election. 16 November 1995: Algeria held its first multi-party presidential election since independence. Zéroual won 61.0% of the valid votes cast; an estimated 75% of the electorate participated. 27 November 1995: Liamine Zéroual was sworn in as . 31 December 1995: was appointed Prime Minister, leading a reorganized cabinet. 28 November 1996: A referendum was held on proposed amendments to the 1989 Constitution, the most significant of which provided for a ban on political parties based on religion, and granted the President (whose tenure was limited to two terms) increased executive powers. Of the participating electorate, 85.8% A political chronology of Africa 16 voted in favour of the amendments. 10 June 1997: Ouyahia tendered his Government’s resignation; he was subsequently invited to form a new administration. 23 September 1997: A violent attack on civilians at Bentahla, near the Baraki suburb of Algiers, resulted in the deaths of 85,200 civilians (including women and children), variously attributed to the GIA, the armed forces and government

factions. zv17 25 December 1997: An electoral college selected members for two-thirds of the seats in Algeria’s new upper chamber, the Council of the Nation, from regional and municipal councils elected earlier in the month. The remaining 48 members were nominated by President Zéroual. 22 April 1998: A new Constitutional Council was installed. 1 October 1998: A cease-fire was declared by the Armée Islamique du Salut, an armed opposition Islamist group. 14 December 1998: Ahmed Ouyahia resigned as Prime Minister. 15 December 1998: was appointed Prime Minister and announced a new Government on 19 December. 15 April 1999: A presidential election was held as scheduled. However, six candidates withdrew their participation the day before the poll, following allegations of irregularities in favour of , who commanded the support of the FLN, numerous other parties, and (it was believed) the military. President Zéroual refused to cancel the election or to amend the ballot paper, and no official boycott was imposed. Bouteflika received 73.8% of the votes cast and was elected to the presidency, despite doubts cast on the validity of the results by his opponents. 27 April 1999: Bouteflika was inaugurated as President amid violent unrest among opposition supporters. 16 September 1999: Some 98.6% of voters at a national referendum indicated their approval of President Bouteflika’s attempts to restore peace and civil concord in Algeria. 1 November 1999: President Bouteflika ordered the release of 5,000 detainees, many of them members of Islamist organizations, on the occasion of the 45th anniversary of the commencement of the war of independence. 23 December 1999: was appointed Prime Minister; a new Council of Ministers was announced the following day. 19 January 2000: The Algerian Government announced that 80% of members of armed groups had surrendered under the terms of the Law on Civil Concord. 14 May 2000: Talks in London, United Kingdom, on Western Sahara, hosted by the Special Representative of the UN Secretary-General, James Baker, and attended by representatives of Morocco, the Polisario Front, Algeria and Mauritania, ended without progress. 14–18 June 2000: President Bouteflika made the first full state visit by an Algerian President to France. 26 August 2000: A new Council of Ministers was formed, under the premiership of , following the resignation of Ahmed Benbitour. Algeria 17

5 October 2000: Growing concern was expressed that Islamic militants had regrouped and renewed their campaign. 11 October 2000: It was reported that at least 24 people were killed in attacks

by Islamic militants and the response by government forces. zv18 13 December 2000: Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Kuwait, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Syria and Tunisia signed the UN Convention Against Organized Crime, which provided for co-ordination between national crime-fighting bodies, the protection of witnesses, measures to combat money-laundering and the acceleration of extradition proceedings. 16 December 2000: An attack on a school in Médéa attributed to Islamist fundamentalists resulted in 16 deaths; some 300 people were killed during December as violence escalated. 30 December 2000: The RND retained its majority in elections held to renew half of the seats in the upper chamber, the Conseil de la Nation. 12 January 2001: Algeria and Iran formally restored diplomatic relations after an eight-year hiatus. 12 February 2001: Suspected Islamic militants killed 26 people in an area some 100 km south of Algiers. March–July 2001: The member states of the OAU agreed to establish the African Union at the Organization’s fifth extraordinary ‘summit’ in Sirte, Libya. The Union would be deemed to have been created after two-thirds of the member states (i.e. 36 states) had ratified the Union’s Constitutive Act. The 36th ratification took place on 26 April. The Assembly of the Heads of State of the OAU agreed in July that the Union would become operational after a transitional period of one year, during which time the Union’s institutions were to be established. 22 April 2001: Violent clashes erupted between security forces and protesters in the Kabyle region, following the death of a school pupil who was being held in police custody. 28 April 2001: Official reports stated that 40 members of the Algerian security forces had been killed by suspected rebels. 1 May 2001: The Berber Rassemblement pour la culture et la démocratie announced it was to withdraw from the coalition Government in protest at the violent repression by the security forces of disturbances in the Kabyle. 31 May 2001: The President reorganized the Council of Ministers. 17 June 2001: Two Algerian parliamentarians stepped down in protest at the way the Government was handling the Berber protests. 19 June 2001: A further 13 soldiers were reported to have been killed by Islamic militants. 28 July 2001: An independent inquiry commissioned by the Government into the recent violence in the Kabyle region accused paramilitary gendarmes of insubordination and asserted that the gendarmerie had acted illegally in firing on protesters. 18 September 2001: The army reported that it had killed at least 28 Islamist rebels; this followed a series of recent attacks, in which many civilians were A political chronology of Africa 18

killed. zv19 20 September 2001: The government intelligence agency provided the US Government with a list of 350 Islamist militants, whom it believed to have links with the Saudi-born dissident, Osama bin Laden; bin Laden was suspected by the USA of ordering terrorist attacks on the US cities of New York and Washington, DC, earlier in the month, in which an estimated 6,500 people died. 25 September 2001: Berber leaders said an offer by President Bouteflika to consider their list of 15 demands for social and political changes had come too late and they would continue with planned demonstrations.