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Role of Melatonin on Diabetes-Related Metabolic Disorders

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Role of Melatonin on Diabetes-Related Metabolic Disorders Online Submissions: http://www.wjgnet.com/1948-9358office World J Diabetes 2011 June 15; 2(6): 82-91 [email protected] ISSN 1948-9358 (online) doi:10.4239/wjd.v2.i6.82 © 2011 Baishideng. All rights reserved. GUIDELINES FOR BASIC RESEARCH Role of melatonin on diabetes-related metabolic disorders Javier Espino, José A Pariente, Ana B Rodríguez Javier Espino, José A Pariente, Ana B Rodríguez, Department be more sensitive to the actions of melatonin, thereby of Physiology, Neuroimmunophysiology and Chrononutrition leading to impaired insulin secretion. Therefore, block- Research Group, Faculty of Science, University of Extremadura, ing the melatonin-induced inhibition of insulin secretion Badajoz 06006, Spain may be a novel therapeutic avenue for type 2 diabetes. Author contributions: Espino J wrote the manuscript; Pariente JA and Rodríguez AB revised the manuscript critically for important © 2011 Baishideng. All rights reserved. intellectual content; and all authors approve the final version to be published. Supported by Ministry of Education (AP2009-0753, to Dr. Javier Key words: Melatonin; Circadian rhythm; Diabetes; In- Espino) sulin secretion; Pancreatic β-cell; Melatonin receptor Correspondence to: Javier Espino, MSc, Department of Physi- ology, Neuroimmunophysiology and Chrononutrition Research Peer reviewers: Fernando Guerrero-Romero, MD, PhD, FA- Group, Faculty of Science, University of Extremadura, 06006 CP, Medical Research Unit in Clinical Epidemiology of the Badajoz, Spain. [email protected] Mexican Social Security Institute, Siqueiros 225 esq. Casta_ Telephone: +34-924-289388 Fax: +34-924-289388 eda, 34000 Durango, Durango, México Received: February 14, 2011 Revised: May 20, 2011 Accepted: May 27, 2011 Espino J, Pariente JA, Rodríguez AB. Role of melatonin on Published online: June 15, 2011 diabetes-related metabolic disorders. World J Diabetes 2011; 2(6): 82-91 Available from: URL: http://www.wjgnet.com/1948-9358/ full/v2/i6/82.htm DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v2.i6.82 Abstract Melatonin is a circulating hormone that is mainly re- leased from the pineal gland. It is best known as a INTRODUCTION regulator of seasonal and circadian rhythms, its levels From a physiological perspective, all living organisms being high during the night and low during the day. In- have several common features, including a high level of terestingly, insulin levels are also adapted to day/night robustness against external and internal perturbations. changes through melatonin-dependent synchronization. Robustness is one of the fundamental organizational This regulation may be explained by the inhibiting ac- principles of biological systems, and the robust design tion of melatonin on insulin release, which is transmitted of biological systems mediates adaptation, survival through both the pertussis-toxin-sensitive membrane and reproduction. Metabolic diseases are viewed as a receptors MT1 and MT2 and the second messengers 3’,5’ breakdown of robustness in biological systems, with the -cyclic adenosine monophosphate, 3’,5’-cyclic guanosine disease becoming persistent if the damage cannot be monophosphate and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. Mela- repaired. Consequently, the concept of robustness can tonin may influence diabetes and associated metabolic disturbances not only by regulating insulin secretion, be defined as ‘continuous maintenance of physiological but also by providing protection against reactive oxygen functions’ despite external and internal perturbations. species, since pancreatic β-cells are very susceptible to Although the human genome has remained unchanged oxidative stress because they possess only low-antiox- over the last 10 000 years, our lifestyle has progressively di- idative capacity. On the other hand, in several genetic verged from that of our ancestors. Socially, we are people association studies, single nucleotide polymorphysms of of the twenty-first century, but genetically, we remain simi- the human MT2 receptor have been described as being lar to our early ancestors. In conjunction with this discor- causally linked to an elevated risk of developing type dance between our ancient, genetically-determined biology 2 diabetes. This suggests that these individuals may and the nutritional, cultural and activity patterns in contem- WJD|www.wjgnet.com 82 June 15, 2011|Volume 2|Issue 6| Espino J et al . Melatonin and diabetes porary Western populations, many diseases have emerged. gned in humans, a profound effect on both plasma insulin In fact, life style changes, such as nocturnality and overly and glucose levels, promoting glucose intolerance, is obser- rich diets, may increase the risk of metabolic diseases ved[4]. including diabetes and obesity[1]. Likewise, disorders of circadian rhythms have been reported as correlating with the development of metabolic diseases[2,3] and promoting SYNTHESIS AND FUNCTION OF glucose intolerance in humans[4]. Therefore, it is possible MELATONIN that the control of seasonal and circadian rhythms may be Melatonin is an integral part of the homeostatic mechani- important in the prevention of diabetes. sm in the body. It signals whether light or dark prevails. Me- latonin, like the neurotransmitter serotonin, is an indolea- CHRONOBIOLOGY, METABOLIC mine. It is converted in two steps from the amino acid tryptophan into serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT), CONTROL AND DISEASE and then acetylated by arylalkylamine N-acetyltransferase It was realised as far back as the eighteenth century that (AA-NAT), the rate-limiting step in melatonin biosynthe- organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular, exhibit sis, before finally being converted into melatonin by hydro- inherent rhythms. Such rhythmicity plays an important xyindole-O-methyltransferase (HIOMT)[8]. role in the temporal control of a wide range of biological The indoleamine is mainly secreted by endocrine cells processes in the body, the most notable of which is meta- (pinealocytes) in the pineal gland, which is located in the bolism[3]. midline of the brain, just above the posterior commissure The most important and well-known biological rhythm at the dorsal edge of the third ventricle. Melatonin remains is the circadian rhythm, which is defined as the roughly 24 detectable after pinealectomy in some species[9], and subse- h cycle that characterises virtually all organisms on Earth. quent investigations have revealed that the hormone is also It is an adaptation to the periodicity at which our planet produced by neurendocrine cells in the retina, Harderian moves around its axis, which determines day length. In glands, gastrointestinal tract and pancreas[10]. Melatonin is addition to circadian rhythms, there are ultradian rhythms, also produced by numerous non-endocrine cells, e.g., im- which are shorter than 24 h, and infradian rhythms, which mune cells. Hence, while the pineal gland quantitatively extend beyond 24 h. To be considered a circadian rhythm, accounts for the circulating pool of the hormone, substan- three major criteria must be fulfilled: (1) it should persist tial local synthesis also occurs in retinal and peripheral under constant external conditions, i.e. be endogenously tissues such as the gastrointestinal tract. generated; (2) it should be temperature-insensitive; and (3) From a physiological perspective, the most well-known it can be reset by an external stimulus, i.e. entrainment. role of melatonin is that as a chronobiotic factor or zeitgeber, Tremendous advances have been made in recent years adjusting the timing or reinforcing oscillations of the bio- in the understanding of how circadian rhythms are control- logical clock, i.e., entrainment[11]. As such, it is thought to led[2]. A complex of transcriptional factors referred to as participate in the control of seasonal as well as circadian circadian locomotor output cycles kaput (CLOCK) and rhythms. This is based on the fact that the secretion of me- brain and muscle aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear trans- latonin reflects ambient light and normally exhibits a tight- locator (ARNT)-like 1 (BMAL1) controls the Period (PER) ly regulated diurnal pattern. For this reason, melatonin genes. This offsets oscillating feedback loops of transcri- is sometimes called ‘the hormone of darkness’. Disrup- ption and translation, which generate waves of gene expre- tions may occur in individuals deprived of light, e.g., shift ssion with a periodicity of 24 h. While this machinery is workers or travellers across time zones. On a daily basis, endogenously generated, it is entrained by external stimuli, melatonin has a small modulatory effect on the pacemarker of which light is perhaps the most critical one. It is also activity of the circadian clock in the suprachiasmatic sensitive to signals from metabolism, e.g. cellular redox nucleus. On a seasonal basis, the varying lengths of the state has been shown to affect CLOCK activity[5]. The sys- peaks and troughs of the circulating levels of melatonin tem is hierarchical, the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hy- follow the changes in the duration of daylight. The sea- pothalamus being the ‘master clock’, with additional clock sonal regulation of the nocturnal secretory duration is activities in numerous peripheral tissues. In fact, there is the primary cue regulating the reproductive function in some evidence for a circadian rhythm in pancreatic islets[6]. mammals that breed seasonally. The peripheral clocks are all thought to signal back to the Melatonin also affects the cardiovascular system[12] and ‘master clock’ in the
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