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The Future of Bacterial Cellulose and Other Microbial Polysaccharides

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The Future of Bacterial Cellulose and Other Microbial Polysaccharides The Future of Bacterial Cellulose and Other Microbial Polysaccharides Eliane Trovatti* Institute of Chemistry, São Paulo State University, UNESP, CP 355, 14801-970 Araraquara-SP, Brazil Received October 15, 2012; Accepted October 23, 2012 ABSTRACT: Biobased polymers have been gaining the attention of society and industry because of concerns about the depletion of fossil fuels and growing environmental problems. Cellulose fi bers are one of the most promising biopolymers to be explored as a component of composite materials with emergent properties for new applications. Bacterial Cellulose (BC), a special kind of cellulose produced by microorganisms, is endowed with unique properties. In this context, this perspective offers an overview about the properties of BC that would enable it to become a commodity. This includes an appraisal of the current BC market, as compared with other available biopolymers. The steps of the biosynthesis and purifi cation of BC are also outlined, together with the diffi culties that may be responsible for its future development, including the needs for making its production process(es) more attractive to industry. Other microbial polysaccharides are also discussed. KEYWORDS: Bacterial Cellulose, market, biopolymers, other microbial polysaccharides 1 INTRODUCTION microorganism, resulting in a nano- and micro-fi brilar entangled tridimensional structure [3]. BC, with its Bacterial Cellulose (BC) is a fascinating exopolysac- pronounced hydrophilic character and the presence charide produced by bacteria, extruded to the external of water in its natural environment, is synthesized in environment and deposited over the bacterial colo- a highly hydrated state, with 98–99% (wt) of water, nies, as a protective membrane to ensure their survival adsorbed between the microfi brils. When cultivated in their natural habitat [1,2]. without agitation in this aqueous environment, the BC Cellulose is a homopolysaccharide of glucose mono- membrane is synthesized at the surface of the media mers linked by β-1,4 bonds, a chemical structure found [2]. Under a shaking culture, where the oxygen is dis- in all celluloses, from vegetal to microbial or animal persed into the water, the membranes are not formed source, (Fig. 1). Thus, at a molecular scale, all celluloses because the turbulence does not allow their assembly, have the same composition, but variable properties giving rise, instead, to pellets, which may differ in and morphologies, according to their sources. BC dis- form (long, circular, stellate) and size [4]. The aspect plays some intrinsic characteristics that differentiate it of dried BC membranes is similar to that of a sheet of from other forms of cellulose, such as its membranous paper, with a discrete surface gloss. Fig. 2 shows the character, composed of highly pure cellulose, unique BC at the surface of culture media before purifi cation in nature, and its tridimensional arrangement formed (A), after purifi cation (B) and after drying (C). by entangled nano- and micro-fi brils [2]. The BC mem- brane is weaved when the BC nano and microfi brils are synthesized and extruded to the external environ- 2 THE PRODUCTION OF BC ment by the pores at the surface of the bacterial cell wall. When they reach the external environment, while The microorganisms able to produce and secrete cel- still bonded to the bacteria, the extruded microfi brils lulose in high amounts belong to the Acetobacteriaceae fold onto each other due to the movements of the family, distributed worldwide, more frequently in tropical regions. In Southeast Asia, the cellulose pro- ducing microorganisms are easily found as the natural *Corresponding author: [email protected] fl ora of coconut water. Coconut water is an industrial residue produced in DOI: 10.7569/JRM.2012.634104 high volume by the coconut industry, one of the major 28 J. Renew. Mater., Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2013 © 2013 Scrivener Publishing LLC DOI: 10.7569/JRM.2012.634104 Eliane Trovatti: The Future of Bacterial Cellulose and Other Microbial Polysaccharides OH OH OH OH OH O O HO O HO O O HO O HO O OH OH OH OH n Figure 1 Chemical structure of cellulose. (a)(b)(c) Figure 2 Bacterial cellulose at the surface of the culture medium (A), as a purifi ed wet membrane (B), and as a dried membrane (C). pillars in employment generation and foreign exchange The volume of exports of NC from the Philippines earnings in the Phillippines and Indonesia [5]. It is rich increased from 200 MT in 1990 to 6,000 MT in 1997, in sugar and other nutrients, suffi cient to support the representing an average annual growth rate of 320%, growth and reproduction of microorganisms, which which reached a export value close to 6 FOB million secrete cellulose as their main by-product, known as US$ in 1997 [5]. “Nata de Coco” (NC). The NC obtained by natural Ten years later, the volume exported by the fermentation, under a non-controlled process, is pro- Philippines reached 4,500 MT in 2007 [7], with values duced by bacteria, which are part of a consortium of of 5,100, 6,000 and 5,300 MT in 2008, 2009 and 2010, microorganisms that also includes bacteria able to respectively, corresponding to export values of 5.45, produce weak acid (acetic acid, lactic acid and glu- 6.03 and 5.89 FOB million US$, respectively [8]. conic acid), and yeasts. The natural contamination of The volume of BC production is in fact low, possibly an industrial residue results in a benefi cial fermenta- because it is a biotechnological product generated by tion process generating this valuable product for the fermentation, that would need an optimized process food industries (diet food and dessert), which led to to reach good yields, as opposed to coconut oil (the the development of the process for BC production in main product of the coconut industry), coco cream Southeast Asia, two decades ago. powder and liquid coconut milk, extracted directly In 1989 the “Nata de Coco Technology” program from the coconut and sold as such [8]. was implemented in several cities of the Phillippines. After over a century since its discovery, description It was produced in a homemade manner as a source and characterization, in 1886, by Brown [9], NC has of livelihood, based on its easy technology, low initial recently attracted renewed attention, because of the capital investment and fast source of income. In this growing search for new renewable resources aimed case, the fermentation was performed in trays stacked at replacing fossil-based counterparts in the produc- on top of each other, without any control of such tion of chemicals and materials. Hence the consider- parameters as temperature and pH, giving neverthe- able increase in publications since 1993, related to BC less rise to large amounts of BC [6]. Although NC is production, characterization and uses, which tripled a non-traditional coconut product, representing 8,7% in the last fi ve years, as shown in Table 1. of the coconut derivatives, its volume of production These studies made it possible to transform the was accelerated in 1991, when countries in Southeast simple homemade process into controlled, easy and Asia lived through the “NC boom”, with a production quick laboratory approaches, which take into account reaching 22 tons/month [6]. The exportation to the the peculiarities of the microorganisms. These cellu- USA, and Japan, among other countries, substantially lose-producing microorganisms normally belong to increased then both in volume and value, where it was the well-known Acetobacteriaceae family, whose mem- used as a healthy food and for industrial applications. bers are non-fastidious microorganisms [10], able to J. Renew. Mater., Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2013 © 2013 Scrivener Publishing LLC 29 Eliane Trovatti: The Future of Bacterial Cellulose and Other Microbial Polysaccharides DOI: 10.7569/JRM.2012.634104 Table 1 Nanocelluloses citations in scientifi c papers in the last twenty years. Year BC MFC NC 1993–1997 121 11 0 1997–2002 230 12 0 2002–2007 327 19 12 2007–2012 1013 260 129 H3C CO OH HN O O O HO HO O NH OH OC Chitin n CH3 H3C CO OH OH HN NH O O 2 O HO O O HO O O HO O HO O NH NH OH 2 OH Chitosan OC 1-DA DA n CH3 Figure 3 Chitin and chitosan chemical structure. DA is the degree of acetylation, i.e. the percentage of residual acetylated units from chitin. grow from different carbon sources, glucose, fructose, Philippines. In conclusion, the edible Nata de Coco is sucrose and glycerol, among others [11–13]. The micro- the only established industry of BC that provides con- organism easily grows with low amounts of nitrogen solidated data on its production and market and offer source, such as in Kombucha tea [14], with around products at accessible costs. 0.7g/L of nitrogen, and coconut water, a poor nutri- The availability of any raw material on the market ent source that leads nevertheless to high BC yields. is fundamental to ensure the feasibility for the devel- Sugars such as sucrose, glucose and fructose are found opment of industrial processes and sustainable appli- in most of the industrial residues and can be used as cations, and this should precisely be the goal for the an economic nutrient source for cellulose producing production of BC. Given that BC is a material with microorganisms. For instance, coconut water, molas- outstanding properties and hence numerous potential ses from beet or sugar cane and glycerol from bio- applications, it is surprising that limitations associated diesel synthesis [15], lead to similar yields as synthetic with the low volumes available on the market, are media, thus helping to decrease BC costs. preventing its proper exploitation.
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