University of Nevada, Reno
The Educational Effectiveness of Gülen-inspired Schools: The Case of Nigeria
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Curriculum, Teaching, and Learning
by
HASAN AYDIN
Dr. Stephen Lafer/Dissertation Advisor
May, 2011
© by Hasan Aydin 2011 All Rights Reserved
THE GRADUATE SCHOOL
We recommend that the dissertation prepared under our supervision by
HASAN AYDIN entitled
The Educational Effectiveness of Gülen-inspired Schools: The Case of Nigeria
be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Stephen K. Lafer, Ph.D., Advisor
Jennifer Mahon, Ph.D., Committee Member
Michael Robinson, Ph.D., Committee Member
Susan Chandler, Ph.D., Committee Member
Murat Yuksel, Ph.D., Graduate School Representative
Marsha H. Read, Ph.D., Associate Dean, Graduate School
May, 2011 i
Abstract
This qualitative case study examined the perceptions of the efficacy of the Gülen educational initiative and provides an analysis of the educational viability of ―Gülen- inspired‖ schools in Nigeria using interviews of members of four groups of stakeholders in the Nigerian Turkish International Colleges (NTIC). This study employed a qualitative methodology with case study approach in which twenty-two individuals participated, among them three administrators, seven Nigerian/Turkish teachers, eight students, and four‘ parents. Interviews were conducted on a one-to-one basis and in small focus groups to elicit the lived experience of people involved with the schools. The interview questions concerned the effectiveness of Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria and their role positive educational change in this country. Data collection consisted beyond the interviews was collected through classroom observations, field notes, and engagement with school provided documents. After collection, data was coded using computer software to determine dominant themes occurring in the data. The categorized data was then analyzed to draw generalization regarding stakeholders‘ perceptions that were then considered in light of conclusions drawn from observations and field-notes.
Through content analyses, the researcher derived a sense of the elements of education that characterize NTIC schools and other schools founded on principles found in the philosophy of education supported by the Gülen Movement (Hizmet Movement).
An overview of NTIC schools, drawn primarily from interviews with the General
Director of NTIC schools, is offered and this is followed by discussion of the four major themes found in the data and the six sub-themes in found in the major themes. ii
The study finds that Gülenian education, as it is being implemented in Nigeria, according to the reflections of those involved with the institutions, does work to expose students to people of different geographical areas of Nigeria, people who often are of different ethnic, religious, and socioeconomic backgrounds. School organization and activities allow students to experience those different themselves in a safe setting resulting in their learning to appreciate one another.
The study concludes that NTIC schools are successful in promoting academic achievement in an environment that also teaches sound values and acceptance of others through curriculum, schools organization, and the quality of the people who work in the schools, people who are diligent, hardworking, giving, and dedicated to improving quality of life in Nigeria through education. Students, it appears, through adult examples of exemplary behavior grow to appreciate those who serve out of love and sense of humanity causing many students to consider career paths that involve service to country.
iii
Dedication
This work is dedicated to my parents, Sebiha and Abdulbaki, and also to my wife
Pinar, and my son Mustafa Ihsan. Without their love, patient, understanding, and support over the years I would not have been able to devote so much time and effort to my education. I appreciate with all my heart their support and prayers for my successful completion of this enormous project.
iv
Acknowledgments
The writing of this dissertation has been one of the most significant academic challenges I have ever had to face. I could not have completed this project without the aid of an extraordinary group of individuals who were patent while providing encouragement, support, and guidance.
First and foremost I want to acknowledge my advisor and chair, Dr. Lafer, also known to me as superman, who has been a good leader in my quest to complete this dissertation. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to him, for his guidance and his positive attitude. He created an excellent environment in which to do the research and the writing. His wisdom, knowledge and honesty, and his commitment to the highest standards inspired and motived me. I was fortunate to have the opportunity to travel to
Nigeria with Dr. Lafer to collect my dissertation data and his presence was incredibly inspirational to me. I appreciate his mentoring me during this amazing trip. Thank you
Dr. Lafer. You were a tough teacher and a good friend during my doctoral journey.
Dr. Lafer, along with his wife Ana, and their two daughters, Liz and Josie, helped with navigation throughout the entire process. It would be impossible for a learner not to sense the love of learning and commitment to the process they exhibit. Whether I was in the throes of writing or waiting for inspiration, I knew I had people in my corner cheering for me and doing all they could to encourage me to complete this work.
I am also very grateful to my dissertation committee members for their guidance and support throughout my doctoral program. Thanks Dr. Mahon and Dr. Chandler for v
leading me to the best resources on qualitative case study design and sharing your in depth knowledge on constructivist teaching and learning. They were wonderful supporters of qualitative design. They both helped me in the beginning to break free from numbers and embrace the richness of qualitative research. Their insightful comments made me look deeper into the meaning of the interviews, observations, field notes to find hints that connected and supported the interpretation of findings. Also their patience was phenomenal and pushed me to think deeply about what I had written. They both pushed me to be a better writer and researcher while providing the support I needed to plod ahead and complete the journey.
I am extremely thankful to Dr. Robinson for his valuable and timely feedback at every stage of this research. He has provided wonderful support throughout my graduate studies, not only as committee member, but also as a chair of the Department of
Curriculum, Teaching, and Learning. His passion, insight and commitment to my research and me helped to shape the study and my own growth as a researcher. I will forever credit you with introducing me to the wonderful field of action research.
I am also grateful to for Dr. Yuksel for being an extraordinary committee member for both M.A. and Ph.D. degrees who showed me the road and helped to get me started on the path to these degrees. His enthusiasm, encouragement, and faith in me throughout have been extremely helpful. He was always available for my questions and he was positive and gave generously of his time and vast knowledge. He always knew where to look for the answers to obstacles while leading me to the right source, theory, and perspective. vi
I am also very grateful to my colleagues and friends at the UNR for their guidance and support. First of all, thank you Dr. D‘Andrea for leading me to the best resources on qualitative study design and sharing your in depth knowledge on constructivist teaching and learning. I also would like to express my appreciation for Dr. Cheney for accepting me into the doctoral program. Her sense of humor and her wit provided the type understanding that I value. Thank you also to those special doctoral students who always showed me their support and their willingness to engage in collaboration, especially,
Heather Crawford, Stephanie Murphy, Zaddy Firmin Gnahore, Sudi Balimuttajjo,
Charles Assuah, Mokter Hossain, and Kazi Shahidullah. During my data collection, they transcribed my data, helped me when I analyzed my data, edited my chapters and made sure this document was satisfactory in form and content. Thank for you wonderful sense of humor as well as your skills your willingness to apply those editing pens. They provided the required foundation, the intellectual stimulation to feed my curiosity, and the challenge to develop the critical thinking necessary to complete this study. I thank them for their many contributions and their excellence.
I also want to special thanks to my dearest friends, Christopher Koch, Hakan
Kardes, Tarik Hasan Karaoglu, Mehmet Kameroglu, Ismail Ozdemir, Batyr Odeyev,
Mehmet Hadi Gunes, Kemal Aksoy, Huseyin Yildirim, Ahmet Dincer, and Mehmet Fatih
Yilmaz. You all are encouraged me, challenged me and helped me more than I can say and I am so glad to have you as friends. Also, my academic journey and this dissertation would not have been possible without the support and love of my dearest friends, vii
Kamuran and Nuran Kaya. Without their generous financial and emotional support, I wouldn‘t have been able to fully concentrate on my academic work.
I am tremendously grateful to my research participants who willingly shared their experiences with me, devoted their time, expertise, and knowledge to making this valuable contribution to take part in this study. My special thanks to the General Director,
Hasan Huseyin Aygun, Zafer Elen, Tamer Copurluoglu, Emin Godek, and Mrs.
Suleyman Kasim Jariyat. Last but not least, I would like to thank to the all principals, teachers, staff, students, and parents of Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs) who took time out of their busy days to accommodate my needs and also for the opportunity to conduct my research study at your schools site. Your flexibility and hospitality were very much appreciated, and I admire and am inspired by the good work I observe. I thank everyone for making that visit truly a wonderful one. You all have given me more than I can ever express.
This dissertation also would never have been completed without the encouragement and devotion of my family members. I would like to thank my family for supporting me in this journey. My parents, sisters, and brothers, have all made sacrifices so that I could complete this doctoral study. Their emotional support, words of encouragement, and guidance throughout the years has been critical in allowing me to accomplish my goals.
Finally, I am grateful to my wife, Pinar, for her continuous support and unconditional love. Without her blessing and sacrifice this journey would have never viii
been possible. Words cannot begin to express my gratitude. I have become a better educator and a better person because of her. Thank you!
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Table of Contents
Abstract ...... i Dedication ...... iii Acknowledgments...... iv Table of Contents ...... ix List of Tables ...... xii List of Figures ...... xiii Chapter One - Introduction ...... 1 Overview of the Study ...... 1 Background of the Study ...... ……………4 The Purpose of the Study ...... 11 Significant of the Study ...... 14 Research Questions ...... 19 Definition of Terms as Used in the Study ...... 21 Organization of the Study ...... 23 Chapter Two – Review of the Literature ...... 25 Overview- Nigeria ...... 25 History and Government of Nigeria ...... 29 History of Education ...... 32 Educational Development in Nigeria ...... 34 Theoretical Framework ...... 40 Organizational Behavior ...... 40 Social Network Theory ...... 46 Who is Gülen ...... 49 The Gülen Movement ...... 53 Historical Background of the Gülen Movement ...... 56 Message and Attraction ...... 58 Important Concepts of Gülen Movement ...... 61 Service: Hizmet ...... 61 Local Meeting: Sohbet ...... 50 Consulting:Istisare ...... 62 Senior Members: Mutevelli Heyeti ...... 63 Fund-rasing: Himmet ...... 63 The Gülen Educational Networks ...... 64 Gülen-inspired Schools ...... 66 Kyrgyzstan ...... 71 Turkmenistan ...... 72 Kazakhstan ...... 73 x
Cape Town, South Africa ...... 74 Gülen Educational Philosophy ...... 76 Gülen Motivation Makes Schools Attractive ...... 77 Summary ...... 80 Chapter Three - Methodology ...... 82 Overview ...... 82 Participants and Recruitment Procedures ...... 82 Setting of the Study ...... 85 Research Design and Methods ...... 88 Case Study Design ...... 90 Interview ...... 92 Documentation ...... 92 Observation ...... 93 Instrumentation ...... 94 Data Collection Procedure ...... 95 Research Questions ...... 98 Validity ...... 105 Positioning the Researcher ...... 106 Summary ...... 108 Chapter Four – Analysis of Data ...... 110 Overview ...... 110 Procedures for Data Collection and Analysis ...... 112 Overview of Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs) ...... 115 Mission and Historical Background of NTICs ...... 117 Summary of Research Responses ...... 121 Theme One: Love, Tolerance, and Peace ...... 123 Love ...... 124 Tolerance...... 111 Peace ...... 137 Theme Two: Teacher as a Model ...... 140 Dedication ...... 140 Ethical Behavior...... 142 Altruism ...... 142 Theme Three: Academic Achievement ...... 144 Theme Four: Building of a Modern Nation ...... 153 Education and Tolerance for Diversity ...... 154 Education and End of Violence ...... 159 Education and Love of Country ...... 162 Summary ...... 169 Chapter Five – Discussion and Conclusion ...... 171 Overview – Purpose of the Study ...... 171 Summary of the Study ...... 172 Discussions and Conclusions of Findings ...... 173 Criticisms ...... 185 xi
Issues ...... 187 Implications for Further Study ...... 190 Limitations of The Study ...... 193 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 196 References ...... 199 Appendix A – Interview Protocol………………………………………………………229 Appendix B – Demographic Characteristics……………………………………………235 Appendix C – Recruitment Script………………………………………………………236 Appendix D – Invitation Letter…………………………………………………………237 Appendix E – Telephone Call Script……………………………….…………………..238 Appendix F – Academic Achievement of NTICs……………………………………...240 Appendix G – Student Population of NTICs…………………………………………...247 Appendix H – Information Sheet……....……………………………………………….212 Appendix I – IRB Protocol………………………………………………..……………248
xii
List of Tables
Table 1 – Frequency Distribution for Gender Participants ...... 83
Table 2 – Frequency Distribution for the Age of Participants………………………… 83
Table 3 – Racial/Ethnic Representative of Participants in Sample in Schools ...... 84
Table 4 – Religion Representation of Participants in Sample in Schools ...... 85
Table 5 – Graduation Rate of NTIC Schools in Abuja, 12th Grade Students Entering
2004 and Graduating in 2009 ...... 149
Table 6 – Frequency Distribution of Graduated Students Who Return to Nigeria after
Completing their Degree Overseas ...... 165
Table 7 – Frequency Distribution of NTIC Schools‘ Graduate Students‘ Number and
Enrollment Location ...... 166
Table 8 – Frequency Distribution of NTIC Schools‘ Graduate According to their
Studies Area ...... 168
xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Map of the Federal Republic of Nigeria...... 26
Figure 2. Populations Demographic of Diversity in Nigeria ...... 27
Figure 3. Religious in Nigeria ...... 28
Figure 4. New Development of Federal Capital Territory for Education 2010-2013 ...... 37
Figure 5. The Logo of Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs) ...... 115
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the Study
A Turkish Islamic scholar, intellectual, philosopher, and educational activist,
Fethullah Gülen is internationally well-known for his widely lauded messages of tolerance, peace, intercultural dialogue, and mutual understanding. The Gülen Movement is a transnational civic society movement inspired Fethullah Gülen (Çetin, 2010; Clinton,
2008). Millions of people around the world, inspired by Gülen, act collectively to build schools, universities, dialogue centers, and charitable organizations under the title Hizmet
(service) (Ebough, 2010).
The millions are inspired by Gülen's educational philosophy which stresses teaching ―by example‖ and the cultivation of ―good behavior‖ (Aslandogan & Çetin,
2006; Park, 2008). Gülen‘s educational institutions, initially developed in Turkey in the early 1980s, spread to the countries that were once a part of the Soviet Union and then to
Asia, Europe, and Africa. Currently there are Hizmet inspired schools in140 countries and it is the global scale of the Gülen‘s Movement‘s outreach that has attracted attention.
These institutions have won high praise for the quality of education as students in these schools regularly achieve high scores in international and national scientific competitions
(Clement, 2007; Keles, 2007). Recently, there have been many scholarly studies about the Gülen Movement and Gülen-inspired schools including, Islam and Peacebuilding:
Gülen Movement Initiatives by Esposito & Yilmaz, (2010), The Gülen Movement: A
Sociological Analysis of a Civic Movement Rooted in Moderate Islam by Ebough, (2010),
The Gülen Movement: Civic Service without Borders by Çetin, (2010), The Gülen 2
Movement: 'Cultivating' A Generation Through Education by Özipek, (2010), Tradition
Witnessing Modern Age: An Analysis of the Gülen Movement by Ergene, (2008), and A
Dialogue of Civilizations: Gülen’s Islamic Ideals and Humanistic Discourse by Carroll,
(2007). Now, more than ever, knowledge and education are very important for humanity and good education makes for better lives (Lafer, 2004). Globally, people realize this and good numbers strive to become educated (Banks, 2004). Believing in the promise of a well-educated future generation, Gülen supporters aspire to create a society reflective of a truly developed civilization (Gülen, 2004a).
Today, almost all highly developed countries make large investments in education. They do so with the hope of increasing the possibility that an educated younger generation will be successful in the future (Gülen, 2000). In Turkey, in the
1980s, a shortage of high quality schools inspired the development of new educational institutions. These institutions were established by a new middle class with aspirations for higher education for its children. Under these conditions, Gülen associates opened their first two private high schools in Izmir and Istanbul, the two largest cities in Turkey
(Aslandogan, 2009). Even before the schools were opened, dormitories were built for the youth who came from out of town so they could attend the extant schools. This was followed by the creation of secondary schools for students in 9-12 grades. These schools, like their public and private counterparts, engaged in teaching the common school disciplines. They were successful in preparing students for university admission tests and for national and international science contests in mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, and computer science (Nilsen, 2005; Kalyoncu, 2008). Since then, groups of 3
people inspired by Gülen‘s education paradigm have opened educational institutions all over the world. In Turkey and in other countries, hundreds of Gülen-inspired schools, language centers, and universities, have been founded (Nilsen, 2005) predicated upon
Gülen‘s educational vision defined by Michel (2003) as integrating the insights and strengths found in the various education systems of the past and the present in order to bring about a ―marriage of mind and heart,‖ to raise the level of individual ―thought, action, and inspiration‖ (Kalyoncu, 2008, p. 13).
Gülen (2001) argues that the most important responsibility and purpose in human life is to seek and understand the importance of education. Gülen (2001) explains that
―the human factor lies at the base of all our problems, for all problems begin and end with people.‖ ―Education,‖ he argues, ―is the best vehicle for a defect-free (or almost defect- free) well-functioning social system and for a good life beyond the grave. In this respect, just as teaching is the most sacred profession, the best service to one's country or nation is education‖ (p. 14). In other words, people who want to guarantee a decent future cannot be indifferent to how their children are being educated. He also discusses how a nation's future depends on its youth. Parents who want to protect their nation‘s future should apply as much energy to educating their children as they devote to other aspects of parenting.
The reasons for both the educational deficiencies observed by some in today's generation, as well as the incompetence of public administrators, national leaders, and ills affecting many nations, lies in the prevailing conditions affecting education and the ways in which teachers have taught over many years (Çetin, 2009). Likewise, those who also 4
are charged with educating today's young people should understand themselves, at least in part, to be responsible for the way that youth will grow to affect societies. Those people who wish to foresee a nation's future can acceptably do so by analyzing the education and upbringing of its young people (Çetin, 2009). Gülen believes that those who neglect learning and teaching should be counted as "dead," for, as he argues, human beings were created to learn and communicate to others what they have learned (2006, p.
11).
Proper education, Gülen says, helps us build sensible opinions and acquire sensible view points on everything in life. Aslandogan (2006), referencing the Gülen philosophy argues that the purpose of education is to instil values, attitudes, and proper behavior in children, and prepare them for challenges and opportunities of life. To this regard Gay (2000) posits that education is important because it equips us with all that is needed to make our dreams come true. According to Aydin and Chandler (2010) and
Michel (2006), again echoing the Gülenian philosophy, education opens doors for career opportunities and healthy growth. Most employers today require employees to be well- educated, so education becomes an eligibility criterion for decent employment (Rumbaut
& Portes, 1997).
Background of the Study
Solberg (2005) explains that the Gülen-inspired schools are perceived to be institutions of effective practice by several states‘ authorities and members of the public in regions where Hizmet inspired schools exist. In part, success is due to the fact that they are private schools for which students are pre-selected on the basis of academic 5
performance, their test scores usually higher than the national average for their respective nations. But selectivity is but one of the reasons for the real and perceived success of these schools. First, most of the students stay in dormitories and, thus, spend all of their time on school campuses where they are tutored two-three hours daily or 10-15 hours a week beyond the time spent in their courses. In addition, teachers are available to help students with their homework at night in the dormitories. Students, then, are steeped in a culture of school activities for months at a time, in institutions where, according to Keles
(2007), approximately 50% of the students are preparing for the Academic Olympics, specifically in science, math, language and sports. The fact that students in the schools win many gold medals in national and international competitions further enriches the academic atmosphere. Students also know that graduates, because of the schools‘ reputations, earned through participation in the contest, are regularly accepted in to highly ranked universities in their own countries and many receive scholarships to study in nations with high standards for admission of foreign students such as Japan, Turkey, the USA, and the European countries.
Keles (2007) argues that the quality of education, together with the positive attitude of teachers towards students and parents makes Gülen schools successful.
Yesilova (2008) notes these Gülen schools have a good reputation because, for example,
Gülen students typically do not engage in negative aspects of youth culture such as drug use, alcohol abuse and immoral behaviour.
Gülen sees education as the primary solution to four problems that plague developing countries, namely ignorance, poverty, division of peoples along religious, 6
political, geographical, and socio-economic lines combined with a lack of concern for dealing with multicultural realities in meaningful ways (Aymaz, 2009; Banks & Banks,
2004; Carol, 2007; Aslandogan & Çetin, 2006; Michel, 2008; Unal & Williams, 2000).
In his speeches, Gülen always explains to his audience how education provides knowledge about the world, a requisite for abolition of the ―plague factors.‖ Ignorance, he argues, is the most serious problem, and it is eliminated through education (Çetin,
2005). According to Çetin (2005), Gülen‘s educational vision requires institutions that can help eliminate ignorance and endow people with essential knowledge of their environment, as well as a sense of purpose in life that will guide them in their relationship with their environment.
The second problem, poverty is eliminated through work and the possession of cultural capital, both dependent upon proper education. According to Michel (2006;
2008), the first decade of the new century has seen the creation of a Gülen Movement to combat the second greatest enemy, poverty, through benevolent works of mercy. He asserts relatively little has been written about the Hizmet sponsored struggle against poverty, perhaps the most pervasive of the enemies of modern societies identified by
Gülen. A major desire of the Gülen community is to combat poverty through aid and relief efforts and their founding of ―Kimse Yok Mu” (Is there anybody? or doesn‘t anybody care?) foundations, institutions dedicated to eradication of this problem. These institutions works toward conscientizing audiences to the plight of ―unfortunate, needy, unhappy, and hopeless people‖ (Michel, 2008, p. 3). 7
In order to minimize the third problem, divisions that exist between people and peoples, another important principle of the Gülen Movement is that of political non- partisanship (Michel, 2008). Gülen has always refused proposals to support any particular political party. The Movement always has had a comprehensive perspective in which every individual is seen as a potential and worthwhile future participant. The
Movement strives for cohesion and minimization of separation based on political party, social class, or any other human group variable.
Promotion of multicultural understanding, then, is an important aspect of the
Gülen philosophy and Hizmet sponsored projects. In the early 1990‘s Gülen encouraged his supporters to establish ―Dialogue Centers‖ and ―Multicultural Centers‖ to encourage understanding between cultures and religions. Gülen believes that these Dialogue
Centers can break down the barriers of misunderstanding and suspicion that so often characterize intergroup relations within nations and between nations.
Gülen maintains that to be effective, schools must be as perfect as possible with respect to their curricula, the conditions of the physical plant, and most particularly its teachers‘ in regard to their scientific and moral standards (Nilsen, 2005). In regard to educators, he says (Gülen, 1997) that many people can teach, but only a very few can educate because for education to succeed, ―students should first be equipped with an ideal, a love of their language and how to use it most effectively, good morals, and perennial human values‖ (p. 7). Their social identity must be built on these foundations and, thus, they need teachers who can inspire such. Individuals, who are devoid of such
―sublime‖ ideals, good manners, and proper human values, are understood to be ―rude‖ 8
individuals, people without loyalty in friendship or consistency in enmity (Hermansen,
2005). People who trust such people are always disappointed, and those who depend upon them are sooner or later left without support. The educator, then, cannot be rude
(Aslandogan & Çetin, 2006).
According to Mohamed (2007), speaking of preparation of those who will teach well, teacher training is important, not only for the sake of methodology, but also for nurturing the whole person. He emphasized that ―teachers should lead by example; otherwise they cannot hope to reform others‖ (p. 555). Gülen states that ―In order to bring others to the path of travelling to a better world, they must purify their inner worlds of hatred, rancour, and jealousy and adorn their outer world with all kinds of virtues‖
(Michel, 2003, p. 78). Service in education, Gülen believes, has always been the most important way for individuals to serve their community, country, and humanity and the effective teacher should combine the study of the science of education with character development. Success must be measured in terms of both scientific progress and moral progress. Material advancement without morality, Gülen and those devoted to the cause believe, will destroy humanity. Gülen always encourages his associates to be successful as both social and educational reformers. He points out that the purpose of learning lies in satisfying human and community needs and constructively and peacefully solving the problems of humanity. Those who are dedicated to the cause believe the movement has succeeded in introducing the community of educators to new perspectives, an educational paradigm that integrates scientific knowledge with spiritual values and constant positive activism supported by universal ethical values. For Gülen, both individuals and societies 9
need constant renewal through education and morally elevated actions. To achieve this depends heavily on the dedication and commitment of effective teachers (Aslandoğan &
Çetin, 2006).
Gülen‘s educational philosophy is based upon four distinct ―dimensions‖
(Aslandoğan & Çetin, 2006). The first dimension is related to a paradigm shift in perspectives. Educators must, the philosophy says, become accustomed to thinking systematically or working in accordance with a comprehensive tradition. In effect, they should avoid anarchy in thought or action, not allowing themselves to be dragged along by simple notions of ―change and development.‖ A teacher should not be attached to novelties introduced at random. Instead, he or she should evaluate all materials according to established and universally accepted norms and values. This does not mean that teachers should remain indifferent to new developments and methods. Teachers should be able to adapt themselves to effective paradigms. Gülen introduces the
―paradigm‖ in the framework of initiating and developing an appreciation of, and a positive attitude towards, the profession of teaching. He accepts education as the only durable solution to society‘s problems, and teachers are seen to be the primary force in bringing about solutions.
The second dimension in Gülen‘s educational paradigm is altruism, or the elimination of selfishness and the establishment of a community service spirit in education. People from every walk of life, from businessmen who contribute financially to the establishment of the educational institutions, to the teachers who take an active part in this venture, make significant sacrifices (Aslandogan, 2009; Ebaugh, 2010, Ebaugh & 10
Koc, 2007; Tekalan, 2005). Gülen reminds his audience that their efforts should initially start with a willingness to support youth who desire to attain good education for the sake of their futures. In this regard, he has gone to great lengths to motivate college students to choose education as their profession. Gülen also uses the valuing of altruism as central to the arguments that convinces business owners and entrepreneurs to sponsor educational projects. For example, Gülen says:
Today, a transcending responsibility that falls on our shoulders is to rekindle the
altruistic desire to let others live in the hearts of our fellow citizens… In such an
activism, there is a need to identify a set of shared values that will form the
trajectory of such a broad social action which will include all segments of the
society, the villager and the city dweller, the intellectual as well as the merchant,
the student, as well as the teacher, the lay person as well as the preacher (in
Ergene, 2006, p. 330).
Gülen (1996) defines altruism as ―an exalted human feeling, what generates it is love and whoever has the greatest share of this love is the greatest hero of humanity,
[one] who has been able to uproot any feelings of hatred and rancor [in] himself‖ (p. 1).
Several people, inspired by Gülen‘s teachings, have immigrated abroad to serve as volunteers in education. Michel (2003) states that these volunteers altruistically support
Gülen inspired institutions, using their own personal resources without expecting any financial return. Those who do not have financial resources contribute to the service- projects through their labor and/or ideas. This altruism and the hard work of volunteers have created trust. This is shared by many people in or outside of the Gülen movement 11
and it has become a substantial source of benefit for all participants (Aslandogan &
Çetin, 2006; Kuru, 2003).
The third dimension of the paradigm is the social dimension, which brings stakeholders and communities, as well as educators, parents, and sponsors, together in a tripartite relationship for the altruistic service for humanity through education. In
Gülen‘s estimation, improvement in education cannot be achieved in the hands of the political elite who are estranged from society. Instead, altruistic teachers who regard education as a noble profession are deemed essential, as the foundation of an educator- parent-sponsor triangle. Teachers, administrators, educational policy makers, parents, entrepreneurial sponsors, and civic leaders need to play roles in this grand social project
(Unal & Williams, 2000).
The fourth dimension regards education that comes of a synthesis of heart and the mind, tradition and modernity, the spiritual and the intellectual. These four dimensions serve as a frame for an approach to education that is at peace with science and technology, since it warmly embraces the culture and beliefs of society at large
(Aslandogan & Çetin, 2006; Michel, 2003). Based on these definitions of Gülen educational philosophies, successful schools are multidimensional, collaborative, altruistic, and extend their scope beyond basic academic skills.
The Purpose of the Study
This study investigated the educational practices in Gülen-inspired schools by focusing on perceptions of Gülen educators working in Nigeria, primarily in the capital city of Abuja. The purpose of this study was to provide researchers and students with 12
information regarding Gülen education as derived from individual and focus group interviews with people associated with the schools, classroom and school observations, and field-notes. This study is intended to contribute to the understanding of the efficacy of the Gülen educational initiative and provides an analysis of educational viability of
―Gülen-inspired‖ schools in Nigeria. Particularly, it is an exploration into the role the
Gülen-inspired schools play in the Nigerian education system. To this end, the study focuses on the contribution of schools to the development of students‘ character in regard to developmental traits commonly understood to be positive in nature such as honesty, tolerance, work ethic, responsibility, loyalty, patience, courage, and the ability to interact with and engage in activities involving students of diverse backgrounds, groups that commonly clash in Nigerian society.
The schools involved in this study are members of Nigerian Turkish International
College (here in referred to as the NTIC schools, the term ―college‖ signifying school in the British parlance) network, first established in Nigeria in 1998, with branches now operating in the states of Abuja, Kano, Lagos, Kaduna, Ogun, and Yobe, a total of seventeen schools in all with a population of three thousand two hundred students attending at the nursery, primary, secondary, and pre-university levels. NTIC schools are, according to institutional documents, science oriented schools with modern facilities that included projectors, electronic boards, and internet services in class rooms, laboratories and offices. Students at NTIC institutions, documents show, come from elite families as well as from middle and lower socioeconomic backgrounds. 13
NTICs select their students by entrance exams conducted once in a year. Each year seventy-six students who would not otherwise be able to afford to attend the schools are awarded scholarships. NTIC schools are selective being that they require tuition and base admission on exam scores. However, they are diverse in terms of student socio- economic background due to the presence of scholarship students, and intentionally diverse in regard to religious, tribal, and geographic background. NTICs exist in a climate of discord, Nigerian society regularly affected by violent clashes between peoples holding animosity against those unlike themselves in cultural origin and background.
NTIC schools are insolated from the world outside, the premises surrounded by tall walls topped with concertina wire, to allow students the peace of mind necessary to concentrate on academic studies. Many of the parents speak of their appreciation for the safe environment NTICs provide, particularly those whose children attend the NTIC boarding schools, living in these enclaves away from strife and violence. In addition, NTICs student, from wealthy and poor background alike are well fed, have access to medical care, and are able to participate in the numerous and varied social activities that are a part of life at the schools. In general, observations led the researcher to conclude that the campuses are good places to be and this is confirmed through informal interactions that took place between campus inhabitants and the researcher after school and into the evening on the basketball courts, in the dormitories and study areas, the lunch rooms, and lounges. Students were cheerful, relaxed, and, for the most part, full of positive things to say about their lives at the schools. 14
For this study, the researcher collected data primarily at the Abuja campus, located on six hectares of land donated by the Nigerian state on which NTIC operates a boarding school for boys, a boarding school for girls (both living accommodations and class rooms are single gender), a co-ed day school for secondary students and day primary and nursery schools for the younger children. Most of the work reported upon in this study involved the secondary level students in the two boarding schools. The study represents an attempt to develop a portrait of the Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria from the perspective of those directly involved in the schools and to create a robust understanding of life by those involved in Gülen inspired educational initiatives.
Significance of the Study
One of the main inducements for the study was the opportunity to study educational effectiveness of Gülen-inspired schools in a troubled nation such as Nigeria.
Although, the researcher had already heard good things about the Turkish international colleges world-wide, he wanted to see one for himself and, through connections, was able to obtain permission to visit the Abuja campus. He wanted to explore how the NTIC schools operated and how those who were involved with the schools—students, teachers, administrators, and parents—felt about their experiences with the schools. The visit allowed the researcher the opportunity to learn more about the participants‘ (students, teachers, parents, and administrators) understanding of Gülenian educational philosophy and key element of educational effectiveness of Gülen-inspired schools as they pertained to schools operating in the context of a troubled nation struggling to become a modern nation with democratic governance. 15
The setting was also inviting for purposes of research because one of the other problematic features of the Nigerian society is an educational system that is less than adequate to fulfill the needs of a society with aspirations to grow in positive ways toward democracy. Research before the study began in earnest indicated that the Nigerian educational initiative, while understood to be essential to progress in the social and economic realm, is terribly underfunded. This results in a lack of educational infrastructure, an insufficient numbers of classrooms, a paucity of teaching supplies
(projectors, computers, laboratories and libraries), a lack of quality teachers, and too often, schools residing spoiled ground, polluted, sometimes of a condition hazardous to health (Odia & Omofonmwan, 2007). Compounding the situation is the lack of access to education for many, with those who do attend receiving poor instruction in classrooms filled with up to 70 students (Awobuluyi, 1979; Adeyegbe, 1992; Aliu, 1997; World
Bank, 1994). Though UNESCO (2008) reports that there has been a noticeable improvement of educational facilities and a drop in illiteracy in recent years, still the
World Bank (2009) reports, the rate for adults was 35.9% in 2008 and, according to the
Federal Minister of Education (FME, 2008) still posts the highest illiteracy rate in sub-
Saharan Africa.
In addition, one of the major challenges facing the Nigerian nation over the years is corruption and its debilitating ancillaries – bribery, graft, fraud and nepotism (Dike,
2008). Dike (2008) and Goldenberg (2006) underline that corruption has become so deep-seated in Nigeria that it has stunted growth in all areas and has been the primary reason behind the country‘s inability to move along toward becoming a developed nation 16
despite residing on one of the most oil rich pieces of land on the planet. According to
Transparency International, an independent organization monitoring government corruption world wide, Nigeria is among the five most corrupt nations in the world (Dike,
2008). Due to leadership problems involving corrupt government practices, most
Nigerians suffer from poverty, lack of education, divisiveness that regularly leads to violence, and disease. During the time the researcher was in Nigeria, living comfortably in the NTIC, Abuja compound, a mile or two away from governmental headquarters surrounded by trash cans bearing signs reading ―End Corruption, a few hundred miles away, in Jos province, hundreds of people were being killed in ethnic and religious violence related to larger issues related to political and economic power.
Violent conflicts in this part of Nigeria are not new and are often followed by heated arguments, inside the government and among citizens, regarding what happened and who was to blame. A good number of Nigerians, in government and outside government state directly that the main cause of these violent clashes is ignorance and the corruption that it allows. Ignorance leads to mistrust, particularly between the Christians and Muslims, but also between people from different tribal backgrounds and geographical areas. They blame each other for the poverty and the mishandling of the nation‘s wealth. At the same time, the majority of the people live in relative peace--most of the time and it is in peace they wish to live. Despite such wishes, the danger is ever present and education is understood to be the means by which peace and a corruption free society will be created. 17
Despite spending most of his time in the NTIC compound, the researcher did travel outside of Abuja and was able to observe some of the poverty, on streets and in villages. He saw many people who, no doubt, were suffering from hunger and disease.
And, on the streets, the researcher and his colleague were stopped on the streets by policeman for taking photos of things the authorities did not want the outside world to see. Nigerians, at the time, were also particularly upset by the United State‘s having declared Nigeria a terrorist nation because of Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab‘s attempt to detonate plastic explosives, hidden in his underwear, while on board an airliner traveling from Amsterdam to Detroit, a month before the researcher was to conduct his research.
During interviews with students, the researcher heard said that ―it is unfair to include
Nigeria on the US terrorist list because of one ignorant man‖ ―It is unfair to discriminate against over 150 million people because of the behavior of one person,‖ was the general consensus. The researcher and his colleague got to play the role of good-will ambassadors, mending the wounds inflicted by labeling Nigeria a the terrorist nation.
The researcher entered the study with the belief that the clashes, the strife, the corruption, and the violence are related to leadership problems and that these problems are related to poor education and the resulting illiteracy. Not so ironically, the problems schools face it appears, are directly related to the political corruption as monies allotted for education are regularly diverted from the schools by administrators on the take. The researcher, familiar with the Gülen educational principles, entered the study believing that the Gülen schools could serve the Nigerian society by educating students who would become the highly educated, principled people, able to take on leadership roles, who 18
would work to right the current wrongs of the society and build the modern Nigerian democracy.
The study, beyond providing information regarding the perceptions of those who are stakeholders in the schools, offered participants an opportunity to reflect on their experiences in and with Gülen-inspired schools. As a part of the research process, they were able to think, discuss, share, and argue about the schools, the quality of the education students are receiving, and the overall experience working within the contexts that define NTIC education. It was the researcher‘s hope that the participants would find their involvement in the study meaningful, finding through the discussions afforded, an opportunity to reflect on education in relation to self and society.
The researcher also believe that the study could detect the dynamic and the effect of education occurring in a multicultural environment by using an interview protocol that allowed participants to voice feelings indicative of their positive or negative effects of living in the multicultural environment that is the NTIC schools. In this environment students are not necessarily taught multicultural realities; the reality of the school environment is such that students from varied backgrounds do live together, share lives with one another and cannot help but be affected by the consequences of proximity.
Instead of studying about others different from themselves, students at these schools are, of necessity, involved in one another‘s lives. NTIC schools in Nigeria enroll students from 191 different tribal/ethnic backgrounds, Christians and Muslims, northerners and southerners, the rich and the poor, a variety of people in a nation in which the divisions are writ large and conflict is pretty much understood to be a way of life. The study, then, 19
provides a window into what seems to be successful multicultural education occurring within the worst of contexts.
Furthermore, this study investigated Gülen-inspired schools‘ educational methods, curriculum, and philosophy, highlighting progress made and problems encountered on the way through acquisition of data in the form of voice recordings of members of the four critical stakeholder groups involved with the school--administrators, teachers, students, and students‘ parents. Chapter two offers an overview of the contexts in which the voice impressions we are acquired, the setting, the curriculum, and the foundational principles that shape the NTIC experience. Notes taken during visits to classrooms, interviews with teachers and administrators regarding teaching methods and course content, a review of the Nigerian National curriculum, along with interviews of officials in the Nigerian Education Ministry all contribute to the portrait of NTIC presented here.
Research Questions
The research questions were fashioned to frame an investigation reliant on the perceptions of those involved with the schools under study. Participant perceptions, the researcher believed, serve as an excellent starting point for determinations regarding the culture of schools and the experiences and understandings that culture produces. Two broad research questions were used as follows:
1. What is the nature of Gülen education in Nigeria as experienced by those involved in
Movement schools?
This first question is then divided into the following sub-questions: 20
(a) How do participants in the schools--teachers, administrators, parents,
and students--embrace the Gülenian philosophy, and what do they
understand that philosophy to be?
(b) What is the participants‘ conception of the Gülenian philosophy in
action?
(c) Has the philosophy been enacted in these schools?
(d) What do participants in the Gülenian schools consider in determining
whether or not the schools are successful, and in what ways do they
consider the schools to be successful or unsuccessful?
2. In what ways do participants in Nigeria‘s Gülen-inspired schools consider the schools to be addressing the national educational problems of Nigeria?‖
This second question entails the following sub-questions:
(a) How do participants‘ experiences with the schools reflect the manner
in which the Gülen schools with which they are affiliated address the
ethnic, tribal, religious, geographical, and economic divisions that exist in
Nigerian society?
(b) Do participants‘ experiences with the Gülen schools indicate that the
schools are preparing students to affect positive change in Nigerian
society?
As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, the stated goal of Gülen, education is peaceful human existence amongst human beings (Gülen, 2004b), and, knowledge and the ability to think for bringing about such peaceful co-existence. The Nigerian 21
educational system currently in place; according to the literature and according to those who participate in the system at all levels and in all capacities, from students and parent to those working in the nation‘s educational ministries, to the press and President, is not working in such a way as to move the country toward its goals for becoming a modern nation governed by people participating in the democratic process. The research questions here are intended to elicit information related to the levels of success achieved by Gülen-inspired schools in providing the type of education Nigeria needs.
The dissertation represents an attempted to answer the research questions using qualitative methodology. Importantly, it is noted that the study is influenced by a literature that, for the for the most part, argues the claim that Gülen-inspired schools are successful in Turkey and abroad (Aslandogan & Çetin, 2006; Balci, 2003; Clement,
2007; Kalyoncu, 2008; Keles, 2007; Michel, 2003; Mohamed, 2007; Muzalevsky, 2009;
Nilsen, 2005). The research, then, begins with the researcher holding a positive orientation to the Gülen initiatives and the study was inspired by a desire to verify the claims that were being made. Participants were questioned on their views of Gülen schools in regard to their perception of whether the schools were succeeding in their mission and their sense of how the Gülen-inspired schools were addressing the national educational problems of Nigeria, and their sense of the efficacy of Gülen‘s educational philosophy, methods and curriculum for students in Nigeria.
Definition of Terms as Used in the Study
Altruism. The quality of unselfish concern for the welfare of others or an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have a moral obligation to help, serve, or benefit 22
others, if necessary, at the sacrifice of self-interest (Çetin, 2009). It is the consideration of others over self when doing a good deed. According to the moralists, altruism is giving precedence to the common interests of the community over one's own interests
(Gülen, 2007).
Gülen Movement. The Gülen Movement is a transnational civic society movement inspired by the teachings of Turkish Islamic scholar, Fethullah Gülen. It is voluntary service (hizmet) to promote mutual understanding, respect, tolerance, and peace.
Hizmet (service). A key term in Gülen‘s philosophy is hizmet, meaning service in the Gülen movement. Hizmet is provided through faith-inspired communities; it is the preferred term among participants in the Gülen Movement to describe their attitude and work (Çetin, 2009).
Gülen-inspired Schools. Gülen-inspired schools are quasi-secular private schools financed by tuition fees and donations of parents and entrepreneurs who pledged their support at school fundraisers that are held on a yearly basis. They are open to the public but tuition based with admittance based on qualification tests administered by the schools or other entities. For those who are well qualified but without adequate financial means, there are scholarships such as in the form of tuition waivers and stipends. Most students board at the schools (Ebaugh, 2010; Michel, 2003; Michel, 2006).
Indigenous Education. This refers to the type of education offered in the pre- literate era, within the community, by community members who possessed specialized skills or abilities in various fields of human endeavor. 23
Islamic Education. Education guided by Islamic tradition and a prominent type of education offered in some regions of Nigeria. The role of this type of education (referred to in places as Qur‘anic- education) has become increasingly significant in shaping the national education system in Nigeria. An estimated 30% of school-age children are in the
Quranic schools (UNESCO, 2008).
Multiculturalism. It is a philosophy that reflects appreciation for ethnic diversity within a society and that encourages people to learn from the contributions of those of diverse ethnic backgrounds (Banks, 1991; 2003; Nieto, 1996; 2003). It promotes acceptance of multiplicity of ethnic cultures, for practical reasons and/or for the sake of diversity.
Western-Type Education. This is the dominant form of education sponsored by the State in Nigeria, brought to the country by European Missionaries just before the middle of the nineteenth century (Awobuluyi, 1998).
Organization of the Study
This dissertation contains five chapters. Chapter one offers an overview of the study and its purpose, discussion of its significance, a description of the background for the study and the research questions that evolved, a definition of terms, and discussion of the organization of the study. It also provides an introductory overview of Nigeria and its educational problems.
Chapter two presents a review of the literature related to the study and covers topics such as a general overview of Nigeria, its history and governmental structure, a more in depth history of education and its significance for the current state of the system. 24
It also offers the theoretical framework for the study, a short biography of Fethullah
Gülen and the Gülen movement, its historical background, important concepts of Gülen
Movement, and Gülen commentary on attraction to the movement. The final section of the chapter considers how Gülen-inspired schools work in other countries and an explanation of the educational philosophy of Gülen.
Chapter three describes the selected research methodologies for this study along with their appropriateness in addressing research design, the methodological steps, sample selection, instrumentation, data collection procedures, the position of researcher, and validity. Emphasis and care will be given to data collection and information analysis procedures. The chapter will be used to relate each procedural step to the research question and it will explain the rationale for the process.
Chapter four will provide an analysis and interpretation of the data as it regards the research questions posed. Themes, tables and figures will be used to summarize the data. Each theme, table or graphical representation will be accompanied by a separate narrative explanation of the study's findings. Responses to the research questions in chapter four will lead to the conclusions and provide a summary of the findings in relationship to the literature review and outcomes reached by an analysis and synthesis of the findings.
Chapter five, the final chapter, will discuss the outcomes and closure to this study.
This chapter will be a summary of research findings, conclusions and, a report on the implication of the study, and suggestions for future research.
25
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Overview
This study focuses on perceptions of effectiveness of the Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria and their role in promoting education in this country. The study employs interviews, observation, field-notes, informal interaction, and a review of school documentation to develop a sense of the nature of schools and school programs as they are understood to be by those involved with them. The literature relevant to the Gülen
Movement, Movement inspired schools, and, in particular, Gülen-inspired schools in
Nigeria, is reviewed in this chapter. The review focuses on topics that include the nation of Nigeria, its governmental and economic history government and the development of its educational system. The review of literature also concerns the theoretical framework for the study, a short biography of Gülen and his educational philosophy and the influence of the philosophy on the Gülen Movement and Gülen-inspired schools.
Nigeria
Figure 1. Map of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 26
(Source: www.motherlandnigeria.com/geography.html )
The Federal Republic of Nigeria is a federal constitutional republic comprised of thirty-six states and one Federal Capital Territory (FCT). The country is located on the
Gulf of Guinea in West Africa and shares a border with the Republic of Benin to the west, Chad and Cameroon to the east, and Niger to the north. The capital city of Abuja lies roughly in the middle of the country and is designated to be the nation‘s ―the center of unity‖ (REVICA, 2009).
According to the World Bank (2009), Nigeria is the most populous state on the
African Continent with an official population of 151.3 million but more likely in excess of 200 million when all factors are considered. As such, Nigeria accounts for 47 percent of West Africa‘s population, the largest Black nation in the world. Although it is one- 27
tenth the physical size of the United States, its 357 thousand square miles make it one of the larger countries on the African continent.
Figure 2. Populations Demographic of Diversity in Nigeria
Nigeria‘s population is made up more than 250 different ethnic groups speaking
527 indigenous languages (Lewis, 2009; Stanley, 1993; World Bank, 2009). The largest and most influential ethnic groups are the Hausa-Fulani in the North, the Igbo in the
Southeast, and the Yoruba in the Southwest (Mustapha & House, 2003). The official national language is English with Hausa, Yoruba, Ibo, and Fulani, being the most widely used non-English languages.
28
Figure 3. Religious in Nigeria
According to the Encyclopedia of the Nations (2009), about 50% of the population is Muslim, the majority of these are Sunni Muslims, most of them live in the northern part of the country. Some 40% are Christians, and of those, the majorities are
Roman Catholic Ibos living in the east. About 10% of the population practices traditional
African religions or no religion at all.
According to the United Nations (2009), Nigeria is one of the ―Next Eleven‖ largest economies, one of eleven countries noted for having a high potential for becoming the world‘s largest economy in the 21st century and is a member of the Commonwealth of
Nations (Bellamy & Derouen, 2008). Nellor (2008) argues that the economy of Nigeria is one of the fastest growing in the world with the International Monetary Fund projecting a growth rate of 9% in 2008 and 8.4% in 2009. Nigeria is also the world's eighth largest oil producer and, thus, Africa's richest country deriving 90 percent of its total annual income from oil exports (IMF, 2008). Despite it possessing vast natural resources, the 29
majority of Nigerians remain impoverished and live on less than one dollar a day because most of the wealth ends up in the hands of a few because of gross corruption and mismanagement of both resources and the economy. According to Goldenberg (2006),
Nigeria does not provide adequate essential services nor has it built the essential social and physical infrastructure in large parts of the country necessary to ensure a minimum acceptable level of health, education, access to drinking water, and an adequate standard of living.
History and Government of Nigeria
Nigeria, historically, has been home to a number cultures and under the rule of several different empires, (History World, 2010; Ikoya, 2007). The borders of modern- day Nigeria were established in 1914 when the territory was under British colonial control (Falola & Heaton, 2008) and granted full independence in October 1960 under a constitution that provided for a parliamentary government. In October 1963 Nigeria proclaimed itself a Federal Republic, and former Governor General Nnamdi Azikiwe became the country‘s first president, at a time when religious and ethnic tensions were high primarily because of differences related to economic and educational equity issues that divided south and north. In part due to this and in part due to the disputed results of the 1965 election (there was alleged electoral fraud) civil war broke out. This civil war raged on until 1977, at which point a new constitution was created and a ―Second
Republic‖ was established. In 1983, the military, made up almost exclusively of southeastern Igbo tribes‘ people, overthrew the Second Republic and established a military regime that held power until 1999. After 16 years of military rule, democracy 30
reemerged (Falola & Heaton, 2008) and Olusegun Obasanjo became president of a country suffering economic stagnation and continuing deterioration of the democratic institutions still in place at the time. Obasanjo, a former general, was admired for his stand against the dictatorship of his predecessor, Sani Abacha, his desire to restore civilian governance, and his proclaimed wish for his government to represent all
Nigerians regardless of religion. The new President took over a country that faced many problems, including a dysfunctional bureaucracy, a collapsed infrastructure, and a military that wanted to be rewarded for returning quietly to the barracks.
However, The President moved quickly and retired hundreds of military officers holding political office, established a blue-ribbon panel to investigate human rights violations, released scores of prisoners held without charge, and rescinded numerous questionable licenses and contracts left by the previous regimes. The government also moved to recover millions of dollars in funds that had been secreted to overseas accounts.
According to the U.S Department of State (2009), most civil society leaders and the
Nigerian people witnessed marked improvements in human rights and freedom of the press under Obasanjo. However, problems still existed and continue to exist in the current era. As Nigeria works out representational democracy, conflicts persist between the executive and legislative branches over appropriations and other types of legislation
(Falola & Heaton, 2008). Furthermore, the push for a truer federalism has been increasing in force as evidenced by the growing visibility of state governors and the inherent friction between Abuja and the state capitals over resource allocation. 31
In the 2007 general election in Nigeria, Umaru Musa Yar‘Adua, who is of
Muslim background, and Goodluck Jonathan, who is from a Christian background, were elected President and Vice President, respectively. Both of these men were members of the People‘s Democratic Party (PDP), a centrist political party that favors a neoliberal economic stance. Yar‘Adua was elected, in what many observers deemed a terribly flawed poll, by a majority of votes to serve a period of four years. In the Nigerian system, the president is the ruling head of the nation and, as such, resides over all of the nation‘s states. He is granted supreme authority for bringing about changes in the government and implementing policies for the betterment of the nation, his power is tempered somewhat by authority granted to the Nigerian House of Representatives and the Senate.
The 2007 General Elections are viewed as a watershed moment in the political history of Nigeria as it represents the first successful civilian-to civilian hand-over of government in Nigerian history. This was predicated upon the conduct of a credible election by the Independent National Election Commission (INEC) at the local, state and federal levels (Adetula, 2008; Ashby, 2007; Omotola, 2009).
Today, Nigeria is a federal constitutional republic. This means that the government operates under law as dictated by the nation‘s constitution (Maps of World,
2010), a document always open to amendments. The Constitution of Nigeria dictates that
Nigeria remains a democratic nation with a federal government that respects the rights of nation‘s states. The country is divided into districts and provinces where local governments are at work but all the states as well as regional governments are ultimately answerable to the central Nigeria federal government. 32
History of Education
Education is free but not compulsory at present in Nigeria. According to
Theobald, Umar, Ochekpe, and Sanni (2007), the formal education system includes six years of primary school, three years of junior secondary school, three years of senior secondary school, and four years of university education leading to a bachelor‘s level degree in the majority of the subjects. The annual school terms in Nigeria are ten months long and are sectioned into three ten to twelve week periods each at the pre-primary, primary, junior and senior secondary stages (UNESCO, 2008). According to The
Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC, 2008), Nigerian education has evolved through a number of phases and the education system has been shaped by a number of influences such as the colonial influence, the influence of military rule, and finally the impact of independence and a new constitution (Ifedili & Ojogwu,
2007). The new constitution contains several provisions for the Federal Ministry of
Education (FME, 2004a). According to the FME, the constitution states that the FME should: control for quality of education, collect data for the purposes of educational planning and finance, formulate a national policy on education, develop curricula and syllabuses at the national level, set uniform standards of education throughout the country, and cooperate with other bodies on educational matters on an international scale
(http://www.fme.gov.ng/).
There are three main educational traditions in Nigeria. The first is indigenous education that is offered by community members who possess specialized skills or abilities necessary for everyday living, the main method of teaching is learning by doing 33
and storytelling employed to teach local history (Umar, 2001). Islamic forms of education comprise the second approach and date as far back as the 13th Century
(Fafunwa, 1974). Western-type education, introduced by European missionaries in the
1840s to spread Christianity (Bray, 1981; Magnus, 1999) predominates in contemporary
Nigeria and reflects the approach preferred by the state. These three types of education are known to have flourished at various times in Nigeria. Each type of education served the purposes of its purveyors and, in different ways, students, but each also was problematic in some ways in regard to the effectiveness of the education delivered in preparing students to deal effectively with the realities facing Nigerian society (Odia &
Omofonmwan, 2007).
Even now, with Western-Type education dominant, the Nigerian educational system is plagued with numerous problems despite the progress so far made (Mkpa, n.d.).
These problems include poor funding and, hence, weak educational infrastructure in terms of sufficient classrooms, teaching supplies (projectors, computers, laboratories, and libraries, for example), a paucity of quality teachers and poor and often polluted learning environments (Odia & Omofonmwan, 2007). Many lack access to education in Nigeria and for many who attend schools, their education is of poor quality (Awobuluyi, 1979;
Adeyegbe, 1992; Aliu, 1997; World Bank, 1994). And, while some positive changes have occurred, the quality of education in the country continues to slide, the result of corruption in Nigeria. Teachers often go without pay for months. In order to put food on the table for their families, they sometimes have to resort to other means for earning a living as funds intended to provide facilities for schools are embezzled by officials in 34
federal and state education ministries. Though policy makers in the educational sector have developed plans for a sound educational policy, these plans have yet to be implemented. The educational system in Nigeria has produced a population of, at best, semi-literate citizens, and, for this reason wealthy parents in Nigeria send their children to private schools or out of country.
UNESCO (2008) reports that there has been a noticeable improvement of educational facilities in Nigeria in recent years and a drop in illiteracy, World Bank
(2009) data showing that the rate for adults has dropped from was 35.9% in 2008 to
28.7% in 2009. Still, the Federal Minister of Education (FME) (2008) acknowledges that
Nigeria has the highest illiteracy rate in sub- Saharan Africa.
Educational Development in Nigeria
There has been noticeable positive development in the Nigerian educational sector in recent years (Nigeria Educational Commission, 2009). At present, there are a good number of Polytechnic Colleges and four institutions of Technology in the country, along with a number of state universities, colleges, and public schools.
According to the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO) (2008) the Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for the National
Policy on Education and liaises with the States Ministries of Education for the maintenance of uniform standards nationwide (FRN, 2004). The same agency collects data for the purpose of educational planning, finance and quality control and works to ensure co-operation, collaboration and coordination on educational matters at national and international levels. 35
The emerging needs and priorities of Nigeria‘s educational system led The
Yar‘Adua‘s government and (UNESCO) to develop the Nigerian Education Sector Plan
(2006-2015), and a long-term cooperation framework to support the implementation of this plan. UNESCO (2008) has identified four areas of cooperation for the period of
2006-2015, each related to the building of a strong Nigerian economy and the development of the nation‘s human resources through the promotion of quality education:
Building learning communities
Developing competencies in youth and adults to widen the pool of human
resources
Strengthening institutional capacity for ownership and sustainability
Advocacy and development coordination (p. 2).
The stated goal of the Nigerian education system is to support the overall national vision of Nigerians living in unity and harmony as one indivisible, indissoluble, democratic and sovereign nation founded on the principles of freedom, equality and justice. This goal is meant to be accomplished through the provision of universal access to quality education and a learning environment that provides Nigerians with equal access to opportunities that allow one to attain his or her full potential while contributing to national economic development (National Educational Policy on Education, 2004; Tsiga,
2006; UNESCO, 2008). This goal is to be realized through:
Ensuring a dynamic national policy for education
Inculcation of national values and positive attitudes for the growth of the
individual and Nigerian society 36
Enabling the acquisition of appropriate skills and the development of mental,
physical and social abilities that strengthen the individual‘s ability to
contribute to the community‘s development
Eradicating illiteracy in Nigeria by ensuring the acquisition of appropriate
levels of literacy and numeracy that serve as the foundation for life-long
learning
Providing effective oversight functions for policy and national standards and
incorporating such standards into curricula and syllabi
Improving and sustaining an enabling environment that includes among
others adequate funding, systemic reform, credible and up-to-date data for
improved management, and the development of legislative and institutional
frameworks
Providing trained and relevant manpower
Maintaining a balanced approach to investments among the various tiers and
levels of education; and
Facilitating effective mobilization of resources from the international
community and ensuring their effective utilization (UNESCO, 2008, pp. 38-
39).
Since the creation of the 2004 Federal Capital Territory (FCT) and the National
Policy on Education (NPE), the development of education in Nigeria has taken a turn for the better with the introduction of far-reaching sector wide reform (Maduagwu, 2009).
The Federal Minister of Education (2008), reports that the most significant step towards 37
comprehensive reform was the passing the Compulsory, Free Universal Basic Education
Act 2004 (Garuba, 2004). This legislation demonstrated the strong political will of the
Nigerian government to drive national development opportunities through education sector-wide reforms by first insuring universal access to educational opportunities at all levels. Moreover, Nigeria has set for itself a wide array of ambitious goals reflecting ideas drawn from several global and national frameworks that seek to promote inclusion and the fundamental right of citizens to quality education (Federal Minister of Education,
2004b; 2008). Additionally, the Federal Capital Territory (FCT, 2010) report on 2010-
2013 has developed strategies related to improving several important factors of education. The most important steps toward wide-ranging reforms are described in the figure below: (which can be applied not only to the FCT but to the nation as a whole):
Figure 4. New Development of Federal Capital Territory for Education 2010-2013
Development
Increase enrolment and retentions of school Educational funding, resources, age children and Adult Literacy by 2010 and services
Education FCT Education Targets 1 Targets 4
Increase examination pass Enhance the human capital rate in core subjects areas base of FCT through provision of access to quality tertiary education
Enhance development of Science, Education Technology and Vocational Education Targets 2 Education to increase middle level Targets 3 manpower in FCT
Source: Federal Capital Territory (2010) 38
As shown in figure 4, the goals are to increase enrollment and retention of school age children and adult learners and increase primary section students from 78% of children to 98%, junior secondary students (JSS) from 48% to 90%, senior secondary students (SSS) from 48% to 69%, and adult literacy (AL) from 50% of those eligible to
70% by 2013. At the same time, the nation aims to increase examination pass rate in core subject areas by 2012 within JSS, from a current 57.6% to 75% and SSS, from 53% to
65% while enhancing development of science technology and vocational education to increase middle level manpower in FCT. Enhancement of the human capital base of FCT through provision of access to quality of education (Federal Capital Territory, 2010) is a fourth goal.
Development strategies include expanding and rehabilitating facilities in the existing Educational of Capital program including primary, junior secondary, senior secondary schools and vocational training centers and establishing 467 new schools to reduce classroom populations from 71 to 40 with all classrooms presided over by well- trained teachers. Plans exist to establish a world quality technical and vocational institute in the FCT and the strengthening of administrative and institutional capacity to monitor and evaluate and to establish new girls‘ secondary schools along with 16 new SSS schools to accommodate JSS graduates, and convert nine rural day secondary schools to boarding schools by improving facilities at schools at all levels. Additionally, other strategies are as follows:
Award scholarships to indigent students in the FCT 39
Produce student textbooks in core subjects, supplementary readers,
teachers‘ guides and other instructional materials at all levels
Construct and equip laboratories, workshops and sporting facilities in all
basic, senior secondary and schools for the physically challenged
Strengthen community participation in quality assurance in schools
Strengthen education data base and strategic planning processes
Establish consultancy services to develop academic, administrative and
infrastructural briefs, including surveys, on the FCT University of Science
and Technology
Establishment of schools of Science and Technology
The ultimate goal of FCT and The National Policy on Education, the Education
Secretary and the Department of Education is to make education free at all levels. The main goals of Nigeria, endorsed as the necessary foundation for the National Policy on
Education (NPE), are the building of a free and democratic society, a just and egalitarian society, a great and dynamic economy, and a land opportunity for all citizens.
This study was designed to explore and contribute to understanding of the Gülen educational initiative and provide information useful to further research into the educational viability of ―Gülen-inspired‖ private schools in Nigeria. Gülen (2002a) a well-known author, scholar, educational and social activists argues that science and knowledge of all types help develop the mind and that development of the intellect has ethical implications. According to Gülen, a mind deprived of science and knowledge cannot reach right decisions, is always exposed to deception, and is often misled. He 40
believes that people can reach their potentials if educators are engaged in learning and teaching that inspires.
Education, according to Gülen, allows individuals to acquire knowledge and skills they can use in the labor market. In countries where natural resources are scarce, skills training and development provide individuals with a chance to participate in their country‘s economic growth. However, countries that do not have sufficient natural resources often do not provide high-quality education for their people. Hence, the human intellectual resource is not fully developed (Çetin, 2009). However, some individual in these countries gladly embrace the social changes that are necessary to ensure that the future is a brighter one than past generations have experienced (Aslandogan & Çetin,
2006; Gülen, 2006; Osman, 2007). Gülen sees improvement in education and social structure as a cure for poverty in poor countries.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework of this study is based on Mowday and Sutton‘s (1993)
Organizational Behavior and Felmlee‘s (2003) Social Network. The concept of organizational behavior and social network theories will be defined and discussed. The rest of this chapter will discuss several aspects of Gülen‘s educational perspective and consider their contribution to questions related to educational success.
Organizational Behavior
According to Lunenburg and Irby (2008), organizational behavior presents a micro view structure by emphasizing individuals and small groups; it focuses on behavior in organizations and a narrow set of employee behaviors such as employee productivity, 41
absenteeism, turnover, and job satisfaction (Robbins, 1990). This study concerns itself with both the employees, the teachers and administrators in the Nigerian Turkish
International College, and with those who partake of their services, the students and their parents. Organizational behavior can also be defined as the discipline that studies the structure and design of organizations, here, the Surat Educational Institutions in Nigeria, the NTIC campuses run by individuals invested in Gülen educational philosophy
(Robbins, 1990). Organizational theory of this type describes how organizations are actually structured and offers suggestions on how they can improve their effectiveness
(Hodge & Anthony, 1991; Miles, 1980; Robbins, 1990). In this study, the goal is to establish an overview of NTCI operations through the collection and analysis of participant perceptions of the institutions so that more systematic analysis of these and their achievements can one day be conducted.
In the early 1990s, several changes in thought occurred in the field of organizational behavior reflecting shifts in the way researchers construe organizational effectiveness. Mowday and Sutton (1993) provide a comprehensive review of these shifts in focus. The most common areas of investigation in organizational behavior are motivation, attitudes about work, job design, altruism and volunteerism, and work leadership (Mowday & Sutton, 1993). The research in these areas, starting in the 1970‘s, focuses on conceptual refinements and methodological issues (Mowday & Sutton, 1993).
Later, these issues were examined as products of the influence of context on individual and group behavior, and then as the result of cognitions of the organization members
(Mowday & Sutton, 1993). Another broader illustration of shift in focus on these topics 42
describes the change in research goals. Organizational effectiveness was first studied in terms of universal characteristics that bred high performance generalized to organizations as a category. Later, effectiveness was studied as a product of the particular operating conditions of the organization under consideration (Child, 1975).
According to Mowday and Sutton (1993), the ―interface‖ between organizational behavior and social psychology comes out of the obvious assumption that organization members ―do not think, feel, or behave in isolation‖ (p. 205), that any attitude or behavior is affected by the presence of and attitudes and behaviors of other members.
One of the major determinants of organizational behavior is the individual‘s social context, or how they are situated socially relative to other organization members, and much of the research in this area has focused on the prediction of behavior patterns based on similarity between members (Mowday & Sutton, 1993). Social psychological theories of attraction succeed in explaining the selection and attrition processes at work in organizations (Mowday & Sutton, 1993). Those inside the organization tend to attract and select other members like themselves, increasing homogeneity. Mowday and Sutton
(1993) also mention research suggesting that ―demographic similarity facilitates trust and communication‖ (p. 206) this resulting in higher productivity and employee satisfaction.
The context of the organization can also cause stress and emotion which influence individual performance, and in turn influences group organizational performance
(Mowday & Sutton, 1993). All of these variables contribute to an overall context, which according to some researchers, has been historically overlooked as a whole (Johns, 2006). 43
In Gülen-inspired institutions, a major value of organizational principle is altruism, the sharing of the participant‘s personal resources without expectation of tangible return. The giving can come in the form of financial contribution or through work in service-projects through contribution of labor or ideas (Aslandogan, 2009;
Ebaugh, 2010; Ebaugh & Koc, 2007; Michel, 2003). Altruism, selfless dedication, and hard-work without direct compensation is central to the organizational ethos of Gülen institutional theory. This ethos, adopted by the many, becomes a substantial source of
―credit,‖ the primary motivating factor for participants (Çetin, 2009). Members of the
Gülen Movement also are expected to and expect themselves to contribute to promotion of the ideals of tolerance, intercultural acceptance and friendship.
Another major determinant of organizational behavior is structure (Mowday &
Sutton, 1993). The social structure of an organization is often described in terms of a hierarchy in which, for instance, individuals with power may be located higher in the organizational hierarchy--managers in relation to employees, for example, or one may gain ranking just by being especially attractive to other members of the organization.
Researchers have posited that formally structured systems meant to dictate organizational policy and procedures only serve to produce red-tape which ―shape activities on the basis of precedence rather than new changing requirements‖ (Child, 1975, p. 13), this interfering with more organic evolution of structures. Structure can be viewed, in some cases, as something that leads to more problems than advantages in work situations. In this study, participant statements and observations conducted on the NTIC campus help to build a notion of the organizational structure that exists at the institution, the manner in 44
which the extant structures have come to be as they are, and participant perceptions of both the nature of organizational structure and its effect on those who interact with and within those structures.
Organizational success depends on the interaction of several factors. Child‘s
(1975) work on organizational performance based in contingency theory posits that successful performance in an environment in which there are high degrees of variability depends upon the capacity of the organization to intelligently adapt to changing circumstances. Schools, of course, are zones of high variability in regard to members of the organization and to the circumstances under which day to day activities occur.
Generally, the organizations that readily adapt to changing requirements are those that employ specialists who are able to process and react to information speedily, here, teachers and administrators responding to students, to parents, to authorities overseeing national school policy, and in a nations like Nigeria, the political realities of a volatile society somewhere in the process of nation building.
Those organizations able to avoid employment of rigid, formalized systems of organization, are often the most successful (Child, 1975). Organizations oftentimes doom themselves to unsuccessful performance by rewarding behaviors, directly or indirectly, that they wish to eradicate, competition that leads to cheating that inevitably cheats the organization. For example, Research in this area suggests that success is often found when organizations evaluate their reward systems so that they truly do reward behaviors that are ultimately beneficial to the group‘s cause (Kerr, 1975). Some organizations, for example, are now acknowledging the importance of team-building in 45
overcoming chaotic context variables, and these organizations are disassembling their hierarchies in favor of team systems which have been shown to enhance performance and effectiveness (Salas, Stagl, & Burke, 2004).
Gülen movement schools attempt to insert themselves comfortably into the localities in which they reside while cultivating circles of local supporters who hold authority and decision making power. Teachers, a number of whom are drawn from the local populations, as well as the Turkish teachers who become part of the NTIC community, are empowered within the NTIC paradigm, a true hierarchy of participants in the decision making processes of the organization difficult to discover. The altruistic elements of Movement philosophy and the buy-in of participants in the school organization is meant to instil in participants, from owner to administrators to teachers and students and parents a sense of shared responsibility for successful operation of the schools and success in achieving the outcomes the schools are designed to serve.
Decisions of individuals are understood to affect others and the organizational whole and belief in the efficacy of the project, in educational, societal, and moral terms, theoretically guides participation in planning and decision making processes and provides criterion for accountability that are derived from the overarching Movement philosophy based in the teachings of Gülen, the man himself being a powerful force in bringing people into the movement and its projects (Yilmaz et al., 2007).
The Gülen Movement, as much as possible, exists independent of any state or formal group. In fact, Gülen denies responsibility for the creation of a movement, others having taking his teachings and built the organizations that claim lineage with the 46
philosophy. Internally, the Movement does not have a hierarchical structure but exists as a loosely connected network of independent charitable foundations, educational institutions, private corporations, and media organizations (Celik, 2010; Yavuz &
Esposito, 2003). The common ground that holds the organization together is to be located in shared hopes and values.
While no formal membership in an organization exists for participants in the
Gülen Movement, its volunteers, as members of the Movement, have founded several highly functional institutions, the result of members’ philosophy-driven will to accomplish for the sake of the goodness and well-being of the Movement and those it serves. According to Movement people, the most important institutions the Movement has created are the schools (Aslandogan, 2009) that, it is claimed, use purely secular curricula and modern pedagogical methods while emphasizing universal human values such as respect for others, peace, and progress (Kalyoncu, 2008; Keles, 2007;
Mohammed, 2009). Aslandogan (2009) and Kalyoncu (2008b) explains that these schools appreciate both universal values and local cultures wherever they exist.
Social Network Theory
Social Network theory applies to a variety of levels of analysis, from small groups to entire global systems (Kadushin, 2004). I would argue that social network theory also provides a comprehensive framework for use in analysis of organizations such as the
Gülen Movement as far as local, regional and global networks, educational, families, communities, and media establishments are concerned. Ebaugh and Koc (2007) define the significance of the Gülen Movement as a social movement in modern Turkey that can 47
be understood best through social network theory given the status of Movement in the context of the Turkish democracy, the Turkish civil society, the civil-military relations that exist within the country, and concerns for the empowerment of citizens related to debates on the role of public sphere in the country.
Social network analysis is applied for examination of several phenomena including types and properties of ties that exist within organizations and in specialized networks like cliques (Felmlee, 2003). Individuals are considered ―structurally‖ equivalent when they have identical ties to everyone else in the network (Felmlee, 2003).
This concept is interesting because these actors can be structurally equivalent and not even have formal ties to each other, as in the example given in Felmlee (2003) where two third grade teachers are structurally equivalent because they have the same relationship with those in the social hierarchy above (administration) and below (students), but they do not necessarily have to know each other. However, an interesting point is that although they do not necessarily need to have actual ties to one another, a relationship would likely form easily if contact was made because of shared experiences and goals should the opportunities arise. Likewise, in the Gülen Movement, because all participants are considered to be equals, if the principle holds, ties are more likely to form because of the structural equality of all members, along with the shared goals of the members.
Felmlee (2003) finds two foundational theoretical concepts in social networks to be particularly interesting. The first concept is transitivity. Transitivity is the phenomenon where each member of a group has a tie with every other member of a 48
group. A triad is transitive if all three triad elements have a relationship with each of the other triad elements. Theories stemming from the composition of transitive triads are particularly interesting. For example, Heider‘s (1958) cognitive balance theory offers one reason why transitive triads are formed. When two individuals like each other and agree about their liking of a third person, then a cognitive balance occurs resulting in a pleasant cognitive state among the triad members. Cognitive balance theory similarly suggests that individuals avoid intransitive triads because they are cognitively stressful to the triad members. Researchers have found support for this theory demonstrating that intransitive triads occur less than chance would predict (Hallinan, 1974). Much of the discourse collected during the present study shows strong concern for and recognition of relationships between people as a critical factor related to the ethos and the feel of the
NTIC schools for those involved with these organizations.
A second theoretical concept of interest is weak ties. Weak ties refer to the strength of the relationship between/among group members. Weak ties may provide benefits such as opportunities for employment mobility and diffusion of information. For example, Granovetter (1973) found that individuals with close ties such as those found among family members are not likely to produce new information or mobility opportunities for individual family members. Rather, new information is more frequently passed between those sharing weak ties—those living at a distance from each other--to certain individual family members (Granovetter, 1973). Weak ties may be an important part of the Gülen Movement and foundation of its schools as well. For example, those interested in starting a school in their community might call upon the weak ties they have 49
to local businessmen in order to raise the appropriate funds, tapping those whose experiences and expertise are unlike those of caller but essential to the success of projects.
Social network analysis is a vital area of study because social networks form and change as the result of every social interaction, whether it be between friends, enemies or individuals just meeting for the first time. An individual‘s social network not only shapes his or her social life, as the behavior of one actor is dependent upon the behavior of the other (Felmlee, 2003), but also other aspects of the life as well including employment and cultural interests. Social networking theories could also potentially contribute to the study of other psychological and sociological phenomena such as recruitment to new religious movements or quasi-religious/spiritually instigated projects such as those undertaken by those whose motivation is derived from Gülen philosophy and the
Movement spawned by that philosophy. Likewise, social network theory can help explain how Gülen-inspired schools ingratiated their way into a community and draw supporters.
Who is Gülen?
The man I want to emphasize is the person, hocaefendi [Fethullah Gülen]... Once
a sociologist said... "What kind of man is this? He says a word in Istanbul and it
turns into a school in Africa! (Hendrick, 2009).
Fethullah Gülen, (‗Hocaefendi’- is a title of respect for men of knowledge or position) is a well-known Turkish Muslim scholar, philosopher, author, poet, educational activist, and preacher emeritus (Çetin, 2009; Ebaugh, 2010; Gülen, 1996, 2002b, 2004a; 50
Michel; 2003, Mitchell, 2008). He was born in Erzurum city, Turkey in 1938. He was known for his simple and rigorous lifestyle. His mother taught him how to recite the
Qur‘an when he was four and his father, Ramiz Gülen, was an imam who passed down his passion for the Muslim religion to his son (Erdogan, 2006). He gave his first sermon when he was 14. Gülen officially became a state licensed preacher in 1959. In 1966
Gülen was transferred to a post in İzmir and it was here that Gülen's interests in education, science, the economy and social justice began to come together and a base of followers began to expand. He traveled around the cities in Anatolia and gave sermons in mosques at town meetings and in coffee houses, among other places. From Izmir on, he gave a special emphasis to promulgating his ideas to high school and college students and indirectly recruiting them for what was to become known as the Gülen Movement
(Aslandogan, 2009).
Gülen is regarded as the initiator and an inspiration for the worldwide social movement dedicated to a set of human values known as the Hizmet (Service) Movement or the Gülen Movement (Hermansen, 2005). He is thought by his audience to be a living model of one possessing the higher values--wisdom, faith, love, passion, respect, sincerity, piety, sensitivity, and service to humanity (Celik, Kirk, & Alan, 2007; Yavuz &
Esposito, 2003). Gülen is considered among the most prominent intellectuals in modern
Turkey and around the globe, placing first on a list of the top 100 living public intellectuals in a survey organized by the British magazine Prospect and Foreign Policy in July 2008 (Çetin, 2008; FP, 2008; Wajahat, 2008). With over half a million people casting their votes in the survey, the majority chose Gülen (Jean-Louis, 2008). With over 51
60 books printed in 40 different languages it is easy to understand why Gülen was chosen. Gülen is a well-respected contemporary thinker, a democratic figure and social innovator who appeals to large numbers of people. According to Barton (2008) and Jean-
Louis (2008), Gülen can be truly said to be ―preaching by example‖ because he is on the frontlines of social activism and, in regard to the greater good, his example is one that speaks loudly, not just to the Muslim world, but also to the West. Gülen was recently awarded an honorary doctorate of education by Leeds Metropolitan University for his contribution to education, peace-making and intercultural dialogue. According to Özcan
Keleş, Executive Director of the London-based Dialogue Society, who accepted the degree on Gülen‘s behalf, ―The aim of Gülen‘s lifelong work and that of the movement he inspires is to contribute toward the development of a more civil society which is committed to the well-being of others‖ (Today’s Zaman 2010). Despite the high regard millions hold for him, Gülen only considers himself to be one of the volunteers of the civil society movement he helped to generate and denies being its leader (Aslandogan,
2008, 2009). According to Unal and Williams (2000), Gülen spends most of his time reading, writing, editing, worshiping, and receiving medical care.
Unal (2002) asserts that, by feeling sadness with the falling leaves and sharing the suffering of humans in every corner of the world, Gülen has always been known for his deep respect for and connection to all creation. ―Living to let others live‖ is the core principle of his understanding of service (Unal, 2002). His emphasis on dialogue, empathic acceptance, and harmonious coexistence can best be reflected in a comparison with Rumi, one of his sources of inspiration. While Rumi speaks of ―whirling,‖ saying 52
"Come, come, whoever you are; ours is not the caravan of despair," Gülen embraces walking, saying that "I am coming, whoever you are; is not ours the journey of hope?"
(Gülen, 1999, p. 1).
As a preacher emeritus, Gülen gave his most celebrated series of sermons between 1988 and 1991 in the biggest mosques in Turkey, packed with people in the early hours of the morning (Aslandogan, 2009). Due to health concerns, he retired from preaching but continued small conversation circles in his residence that often consisted of answering questions from members of the audience. Starting in 1994, Gülen pioneered a rejuvenation of the Interfaith Dialogue spirit in the Turkish-Muslim tradition, forgotten amidst the troublesome years of the early twentieth century. Gülen was chosen as the honorary president for a series of gatherings organized by the Foundation of Journalists and Writers that involved leaders of religious minorities in Turkey such as the Greek
Orthodox Patriarch, the Armenian Orthodox Patriarch, the Chief Rabbi of Turkey, the
Vatican‘s Representative to Turkey and others (Ashton & Balci, 2008; Aslandogan,
2009; Çetin, 2009; Maden, 2009; Park, 2007). Another platform, the ―Abant,‖ brought together leading intellectuals from all corners of the political spectrum including leftists, atheists, nationalists, religious, conservatives, and liberals, offering for the first time in recent Turkish history a place where such figures could freely debate about the common concerns of all citizens and society‘s pressing social problems.
The growing authority of Fethullah Gülen in Turkey and the significance, size and influence of the social movement Gülen helped to build threatened some in the country who benefited from a closed society with government-favored enterprises, a monopoly on 53
the intellectual life and an isolationist approach to foreign affairs (Dialoog Academie,
2010). Those in privileged positions accused him of having long-term political ambitions and eventually persuaded an ultra-nationalist prosecutor to bring charges against him.
While these charges were found to be baseless and eventually dismissed, the case caused a set-back in the interfaith and intercultural dialogue that Gülen helped to re-kindle.
Upon the recommendation of his doctors, Gülen moved to the U.S to stay away from the politically charged atmosphere of 1997 and to receive medical care for his diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and a host of other health problems (Aslandogan, 2009). He currently lives at a retreat facility in Pennsylvania together with a group of students, scholars and a few visitors who consider it a ―good‖ day in terms of his health if he is able to have a half-hour conversation answering their questions. He can now return to
Turkey with no legal obstacles to prevent him from doing so (Aslandogan, 2009).
Mindful that his return to Turkey may be taken advantage of by some political parties, to rally support for themselves, and also due to health reasons, he has decided not to return home.
The Gülen Movement
The Fethullah Gülen Movement is a faith-inspired civil society movement named after Fetullah Gülen, for ease of reference. Its participants, however, often call it hizmet, or the volunteer services (Movement) (Çetin, 2020; Ebough & Koc; 2007; Esposito &
Yilmaz, 2010; Yavuz & Esposito, 2003). As far as Gülen is concerned, he prefers to refer to it as ―the movement of humans united around high human values‖ (Muzalevsky,
2009, p. 1). The Movement originated in Turkey and conducts activities in 130 countries 54
and has established a particularly strong presence in Central Asia, Europe, and Africa.
Projects also can be found in the United States and other places around the globe
(Gülerce, 2009). Its‘ primary work is to promote tolerance and inter-faith and inter- cultural collaboration through secular educational institutions (Eldridge, 2007;
Muzalevsky, 2009). The exact number of supporters of the Gülen Movement is not known as there is no membership system, but estimates vary from the hundreds of thousands to as high as 10 million (Aslandogan, 2009; Fontenot & Fontenot, 2009).
Supporters of the movement have founded schools and universities, as well as charities, real estate trusts, lobbying groups, student organizations, radio and television stations, and newspapers (Esposito & Yilmaz, 2010).
The Movement consists primarily of students, teachers, businessman, journalists and other educated professionals (White, 2002), all loosely connected in a flexible organizational network (Agai, 2004; Kuru, 2003, 2005). Its schools and businesses organize locally and link into networks on an informal rather than legal basis (Balci,
2003). The Gülen Movement is mainly comprised of volunteers (Aydin, 2009; Esposito
& Yilmaz, 2010; Yilmaz, 2008).
According to Aslandogan (2009), the movement inspires certain moral and universal values such as love, respect for others, honesty, integrity, justice, equity, the rule of law, constitutional and participatory democracy, compassion, and human rights.
Many researchers, including (Aslandogan, 2009; Çetin & Aslandogan, 2006; Esposito &
Yilmaz, 2010; Michel, 2003; Saritoprak, 2003, & Yavuz and Esposito, 2003; Yilmaz,
2008) argue that Gülen Movement is not an Islamic or political movement in that it does 55
not intend to establish a religious or Islamic State (others, of course, have argued that the movement is indeed religiously inspired and religiously oriented). The key concept guiding the movement is said to be non-sectarian voluntary service (hizmet) (Aslandogan,
2009), a term regularly used by participants to identify projects within the movement
(Agai, 2003, 2004; Michel, 2003, 2008). Tekalan (2005) points out the participants‘ establish dialogue and cooperation with all regardless of their ethnic or religious backgrounds.
Aslandogan and Çetin (2006) state that the Gülen Movement is proactive, in the sense that it develops projects to eradicate ignorance and poverty to prevent political anarchy and the political, religious, economic, and social strife that follows before catastrophe strikes (chapter one). Instead of being oppositional, reactionary and confrontational, it promotes positive, altruistic, and peaceful action (Carol, 2007;
Özdalga, 2003; Turam, 2003; Tekalan, 2005). It also openly condemns racism, radicalism, extremism, and violence (Michel, 2003). It encourages education, moderation and reconciliation. Mogahed (2009) who is the first Muslim women to sit on the Obama administration White House Advisory Council, has said that
The Gülen Movement… is a model and inspiration for all those working for the
good of the society… Gülen Movement contributes to global peace, understating
of democracy and religious freedom because the Gülen Movement offers people a
model of what is possible if a dedicated group of people work together for the
good of the society (Yilmaz, 2009, p. A1). 56
Additionally, Mogahed (2009) explains that for the last two decades, the Gülen
Movement has been active in delivering humanitarian aid to various parts of the world, establishing trade relations between businessmen worldwide, opening healthcare institutions, and encouraging activities that promote dialogue between peoples of different cultural and religious backgrounds. However, its primary focus is on education.
Teachers and businessmen inspired by the teachings of Gülen, teachings emphasizing the importance of educating future generations to embrace the ideals of peaceful coexistence and mutual understanding, have opened education programs of various types, from language courses to elementary schools and universities in over 115 countries (Yilmaz,
2009).
The values of the principles espoused by Gülen and the movement have also been acknowledged by former U.S., President Clinton and his wife Hillary Rodham Clinton
(2008). In a video message addressed to the audience at the Third Annual Friendship
Dinner at New York, Mr. Clinton told the group that,
You are contributing to lasting peace and security at home and the world. You
are promoting [the ideals of] tolerance and interfaith dialogue inspired by
Fethullah Gülen and his transnational social Movement. Gülen‘s interfaith and
intercultural activities strengthen the common values of the world and encourage
the continuation of cultural and educational relations that interlink the world.
Historical Background of the Gülen Movement
The Gülen Movement started out as a Muslim oriented faith-based movement in the late 1960‘s in the city of Izmir sponsoring local service groups of students, teachers, 57
parents, and small business owners who were inspired by Gülen‘s teachings (Aslandogan,
2009; Çetin, 2009; Ebough, 2010; Eldridge, 2007). Aslandogan asserts that the movement grew from a handful of individuals in the late 1960s to millions in the first decade of the 21st century.
The first people to became involved with the movement were college students, local mosque-goers, and audiences who attended question and answer sessions, seminars, and cafe meetings (Aslandogan, 2009). The students at the Kestane Pazari dormitory/tutoring center in Izmir, where Gülen served as the director, were also very important during the early stages of the development of the movement. During that time, in addition to public speeches, Gülen attended conversation circles at which attendees discussed values and ideals such as promoting and investing in sound education and these discussions led to the establishment of the Gülen-inspired institutions.
Kuru (2005) argues that the Gülen Movement developed a pro-globalization view in the 1990s and, throughout the 1990s, the Gülen Movement benefited from the international opportunity structures shaped by globalization in a number of ways.
Globalization weakened state control over the social, cultural, and economic life in many countries (Kuru, 2005; Penaskovic, 2007) and this loosening of control allowed the institutional diffusion of the Gülen Movement in more than one hundred-fifteen countries. Gole (2008) also argues the movement has also taken advantage of the conceptual and legal frameworks established by transnational movements and globally positioned non-governmental organizations. 58
As a result, in Central Asia, educational initiatives were developed by the movement in the form of scholarships, K-12 schools, tutoring centers, and universities
(Muzalevsky, 2009). In the next stage, the development of media organizations was encouraged and several were established, media becoming an extention of the educational initiative for the masses. In the next stage, professional associations and intellectual/cultural organizations were formed in different locations by movement oriented individuals.
Message and Attraction
In the late 1960s, or early 1970s, Gülen‘s message of deep and practiced faith, altruism and action was being delivered against a backdrop of poverty, corruption and moral decay (Aslandogan, 2009; Çetin, 2010). In Turkey, governments were blocking democratic initiatives and restricting religious expression in public life. Political and ideological clashes were prevalent in the early 1970‘s. Aslandogan (2009) explains that the tensions among different ethnicities, such as the Sunni and Alevi, Turkish and
Kurdish, and practicing Muslim and citizens engaged in a secular life style were high.
Most importantly, politically and ideologically motivated armed clashes instigated by
―communists,‖ ―fascists‖ and radical religious elements resulted in the deaths of thousands of youth on the streets. In addition, tensions between modernity and tradition and a multitude of disagreements regarding the social, political, and religious orders besieged the educational system. What appealed to Gülen‘s early audiences was his comprehensive approach to the individual, society, the nation and humanity in general. 59
Gülen (1998) identified poverty, rivalries (schisms in Turkey), and lack of sound education as the main problems plaguing the nation.
Aslandogan (2009) explains that Gülen is guided by a set of principles, the first of which is the reformation of self to become a better believer and practitioner of faith.
Gülen‘s rhetoric focused on this aspect the most: serving something greater than yourself.
Do not simply care for your own interests, he advises, but strive toward a greater vision.
The second principle is education, the key solving of all of humanity‘s main problems-- ignorance, division of peoples, and poverty (Aslandogan, 2009; Carol, 2007;
Çetin & Aslandogan, 2006; Clement, 2007). The key to making education work for the better is to have teachers and administrators who ―represent‖ the values cherished by the people (temsil). Invest in education, he tells people, motivating his audiences by telling them that if one is young, able and willing, he or she should choose teaching as his or her profession. If a business person, he advises offering financial support for a school. If a parent, encourage sound education and, to that end, help build a school in your locality.
In short, everybody is encouraged to participate in education related projects.
The third principle encourages his people to expect less or little from government
(Aslandogan, 2009). Echoing John F. Kennedy‘s (1961) pronouncement that one ―ask not what your country can do for you, but ask what you can do for your country,‖ Gülen tells people to do things for themselves and not be depend on government. If a business person, form partnerships and holdings, become rich and give charitably, s/he should have no expectation of further reward for doing so. 60
The fourth principle relates to such things as outreach, inclusiveness, looking outward and integrationist action (Aslandogan, 2009). From community to the movement, from the transnational movement to the whole of humanity, Gülen advises people to accept all as they are. As for the success of the movement, certain factors play a key role: (a) the movement‘s participants understand themselves and are understood by others to be no different from the mainstream population in terms of ethnicity, culture, religion, social class, and attitudes toward violence. Entry and exit from the movement is unrestricted; anyone who wants to can become part of it or leave it. (b) Certain principles of the Movement participants are very attractive to the average citizen. These include,
(1) the emphasis on altruism and the absence of any self-interest. Gülen sets an example by not holding any wealth or property and even discouraging his relatives from pursuing wealth. (2) The movement acts in a trustworthy manner and maintains its independence.
As a result, there has never been a credible charges of financial self-interest, foreign influence or intervention in movement affairs, (3) the movement abides by the law and
(4) is respectful of the state and has no ambitions to harm the state and is dedicated to the preservation of democracy (Aslandogan, 2009; Gozaydin, 2009).
Another important principle of the Gülen Movement is non-partisanship. There is no allowance for division for any political reason (Çetin, 2009b; Yavuz & Esposito,
2003; Yilmaz, 2003). The movement has always had a comprehensive perspective in which every citizen is seen as a potential future participant. Gülen has regularly refused proposals that call for the support a particular political party or a candidate.
61
Important Concepts of Gülen Movement
In order to fully understand and appreciate the financial and structural features of
Gülen Movement projects, there are several concepts that should be emphasized. It is essential to locate contributions to the Movement within the Islamic concepts of hizmet, sohbet, istisare, muteveli heyeti, and himmet. These are the important principles that provide motivation for member contributions, including not only financial giving but also involvement of time, energy, and volunteer work on projects.
Service: Hizmet
The term of hizmet literally means ―service‖ and describes various activities organized by the movement in recent years to carry out educational and charitable deeds in a non-religious, secular manner (Barton, 2008; Ebaugh & Koc, 2007; Toguslu, 2008).
Hizmet, Gülen has argued, like all such Muslim religious duties also has secondary beneficial effects on the individual and the community. This is especially true for education which was always a primary concern and goal for Gülen. As he said in one of his sermons: ―Education is vital for both societies and individuals‖ (Unal & Williams,
2000, p. 306).
Local Meeting: Sohbet
Sohbet literally means conversation between local members. Members of the Gülen
Movement belong to local sohbet communities that meet on a daily basis for encouragement, fellowship, and philanthropic planning and sharing their individuals‘ ideas about projects (Barton, 2008). It is a structure where individuals find the opportunity to socialize and exchange ideas about their projects. Whether educational or 62
business-related, discussion of politics and other divisive subjects is discouraged at these meeting. The sohbet meetings adhere to the Gülen‘s Movement‘s philosophy and reflect the educational vision that permeates the practical projects that are discussed. The Gülen
Movement seeks to use the sohbet forum to cultivate a sense of community, address common needs and goals and communicate the necessity of hizmet--or service--for the good of others (Ebaugh & Koc, 2007). Participants often study passages from Gülen‘s works and relate them to needs in the community (Ebaugh & Koc, 2007; Özdalga, 2000).
Consulting: Istişare
Istişare is term used for the collective decision making process that occurs within the sohbets in regard to collective projects, a process that asks of each person that he or she take responsibility for making sure that the projects are funded and executed (Ebaugh
& Koc, 2007). It is this structure that enables the movement to operate horizontally rather than vertically or bureaucratically. Every institution that is established, whether in
Turkey or in the one hundred and fifteen other countries that now have Gülen schools, is a corporate nonprofit entity that is independent of the others and is managed by those people who are supporting the school. Tekalan (2005) emphasizes that the only connection among these institutions is the exchange of ideas that arise from a commitment to the same goals. In addition, the schools, the many other Gülen-inspired projects are organized on the same model of grassroots support from people in the Gülen
Movement. Typically, before the movement launches its educational and cultural activities in a new country, movement members identify and make contact with influential people in the locality--bureaucrats, civil servants, clerics, intellectuals, and 63
businessmen. The purpose of such visits is to solicit help from people who have an ability to mobilize their society and access resources, both human and financial. Also, these contacts build trust with the local authorities (Kalyoncu, 2007, 2008a).
Senior Members: Mutevelli Heyeti
The mutevelli heyeti is essentially a board of trustees or sponsors who have volunteered to take on additional responsibility, whether through overseeing more projects or donating more money (Ebaugh & Koc, 2007). Barton (2008) states that most of the these senior members of the hizmet, particularly those working for it in a full-time capacity, know each other well and regularly interact with one another at public and in private gatherings.
Fund-raising: Himmet
The Gülen Movement is financed by individual contributions from volunteers without any affiliation or direct support, tangible or intangible, from any local or foreign government or any other organizations (Cemen, 2010; Orhan, 2008; Tekalan, 2005).
According to Aslandogan (2009) and Cemen (2010), the movement has been very careful to reject any governmental help or financial contribution from foreign foundations to maintain independence. The main fund-raising mechanism of the movement is a meeting called ―himmet ,― meaning ―donation pledge‖ (p. 7). According to Ebaugh and Koc
(2007), himmet refers to ―one‘s personal commitment to carry out whatever needs to be done to better one‘s community‖ (p.549). In this sense, commitments of money, time or effort signifiy membership in the movement and participation in the project at hand. As
Ebaught (2010) emphasizes, himmet often turns into a passion for giving. Many who 64
have willingly taken on the responsibility not only to donate but also work to procure financial contribution from others.
Himmet is usually held during the month of Ramadan, a Muslim holiday during which it is believed that virtuous charitable acts become more valuable. Participants make a financial or in-kind contribution pledge to the movement foundations. There are other fund-raising mechanisms such as the cultural fundraising (called ‗kermes’) organized by women (Aslandogan, 2009; Aydin, 2009) and includes separate pledge drives for students scholarships. Every member of the movement donates time and money. For a businessman, a typical contribution is 10% of his or her income, for some amounting to perhaps a million dollars or more a year. In addition to the financial pledges, business people are encouraged to do outreach visits to other business people and introduce the movement projects. For a blue-collar worker, 5% of his or her income is seen as reasonable. No one is obliged or coerced to give. All donations or contributions are recorded records are kept at the institution to which the money was donated. When acted upon, the concepts provide the motivation for going above and beyond this minimum contribution, something that characterizes millions of people in the
Gülen Movement around the world.
The Gülen Educational Networks
According to Woodhall (2005) and Tekalan (2005), the business circles of the movement are the main sponsors of the schools, supporting them financially until they are able to raise their own revenues through school fees. Michel (2003) reports that the some of the schools are completely built and funded by businessmen and industrialists, 65
while some are partnerships between the state and the trusts set up by Gülen followers.
Woodhall, (2005) states that in some instances these partnerships provide buildings and utilities with the trusts providing funding for the teaching staff and all educational materials and resources. Some of the schools are eventually completely funded by student fees. These schools operate as ―non-profit companies or trusts, all profits incurred returned to the students in the form of educational investment (new teaching materials and resources such as books, computers, software; and facilities such as labs, gyms, hostels, residence halls, etc.)‖ Woodhall (2005, p.4). Every school has its own independent accountants and accountancy system and all are accountable to the local authorities (the state) and the trust‘s inspectors, and comply with the state and international law.
Michel (2002) asserts that it is important to be precise about the relationship of
Gülen to the schools. Gülen has tried to make clear that he has no schools of his own. ―I am tired of saying that I do not have any schools,‖ he is quoted as saying, this with a bit of exasperation (Webb, 2000, p. 106). While Gülen describes himself primarily as an educator (Michel, 2002), these schools have been established, without Gülen‘s participation, through individual agreements between the countries in which they are located and the educational institutions founded on the basis of the Gülen principles.
Each school is an independently run institution, most reliant on the services of Turkish companies to provide educational supplies and human resources (Michel, 2002; Webb,
2000). 66
The Gülen schools social network is impressive. Several researchers including
(Balci, 2003; Yilmaz, 2009) estimated that some 15.3 percent of Turkey‘s two million preparatory school students are enrolled in Gülen institutions. There are thousands of
Gülen related top-tier secondary schools, colleges, and student dormitories throughout
Turkey, as well as private universities, the largest being Fatih University in Istanbul. As noted earlier, outside Turkey the Gülen Movement runs hundreds of secondary schools and dozens of universities worldwide and English language centers, integration schools, and multicultural centers in European countries (Irvine, 2006).
According to Agai (2004), Gülen adherents are committed to modern, "non- religious" education and are active in building private, state-certified educational facilities with a central focus on science and technology subjects. Finally, Graskemper
(2007; 2008) states that due to the spread and popularity of Gülen schools, the movement has become more than just a faith-based movement concerned with local issues and become a world-wide educational movement that seeks to build a more peaceful world through dialogue and cooperation.
Gülen-inspired Schools
In the early 1980‘s Gülen and his associates began a zealous project to build educational institutions all over the world (Çetin, 2008; Nelson, 2005). These schools, for the most part, resemble other schools in terms of curriculum and materials.
Laboratory and computer equipment for ―science and language classes is up-to-date, the quality of education‖ is said by some to be excellent (Agai, 2003; Balci, 2003; Nelson,
2005; Özdalga, 2000; Yavuz & Esposito, 2003; Yildirim & Kirmizialtin, 2004). 67
According to Ugur (2007), Gülen schools achieve their long and short-term goals by involving the community and the different sectors of the society in projects aimed at building a ‗collective intellectual effort‘ and ‗civil response‘ to help improve the social conditions in the societies where these institutions exist (p. 152). Gülen schools stress the importance of character in nation building and the need of individuals to balance their personal issues with their socio-social duties (Mohamed, 2007), the emphasis derived from Gülen‘s understanding that society will only move forward as a strong entity if the individuals give up a part of themselves in order to make the bigger social entity a little better (Aslandogan, 2007).
The strong belief that knowledge is the answer to all the problems societies face in the modern era is not a novel concept, but Gülen and the Movement he initiated has pushed the notion considerably further. Focusing on the dissemination and distribution of knowledge, Gülen schools are touted by many to provide high quality education, particularly in the areas of science, math, and the humanities while integrating the teaching of social, moral, and ethical values with the academic. More importantly, several researchers report, Gülen schools have produced graduates who are concerned with the betterment of their nations and with maintaining their ethno-cultural and socio- political identities (Karpat, 2001).
Achievement in mathematics and the sciences are understood in the Gülen community to be the central measure student success, this predicated on the notion that success in these areas leads to success in other areas of academic pursuit. If more students become able to engage in higher order thinking skills required in math and 68
science subjects, Gülen educators believe, then the likelihood of students being prepared to take on roles of national leadership are increased.
Involving the parents and the communities in the education of students in Gülen schools is one of the major components of the movement (Aslandogan, 2007).
Aslandogan points out that the Gülen educational movement encourages parents to take seriously their responsibilities regarding child rearing. These responsibilities include (a) meeting the physical needs of children; (b) implementing age appropriate discipline and helping them develop good manners; (c) observance of fairness and equality in treatment among siblings; and (d) protecting the children from all kinds of harm that may threaten their security. Knowing that parents are capable of meeting these requirements, Gülen believed that what the school teaches the students will reinforce what the parents have shown the children in the family.
Likewise, if the community hopes to be able to entrust its future to the younger generation, the community has to do its part in showing the children what types of communities they will have to establish in the future. A collaborative effort exerted by various social stakeholders, according to Gülen, is necessary in order for the schools to become an effective tool in achieving a better, brighter, and more peaceful future for a number of countries. Nigeria is a particularly interesting case in that it has three different education systems. Thus, this study begins to explore the effectiveness of Gülen-inspired schools in the context of the broader Nigerian school system.
In line with observers notions of achievement in the schools, Michel (2003) notes that Gülen students‘ performance in academic competitions in the natural sciences, 69
information sciences, and languages is outstanding, and he considers them ―to be among the most dynamic and worthwhile educational enterprises in the world‖ (p. 70). Gülen- inspired schools, movement advocates argue, also outshine competitors in the moral character of their staff and teachers. For example, the Filipino-Turkish Tolerance School operates in a city where 50% of the population is Christian and 40% is Muslim, the remainder of differing religious and ethnic backgrounds. According to Michel (2003),
―the school provides more than a thousand students more positive ways to interact than through the violent example set by military and paramilitary forces‖ (as cited in Nelson,
2005, p. 7). He asserts that the school lives up to its name, providing a fortress of tolerance in an otherwise religiously polarized area of the Philippines, while maintaining excellent relations with the Christian institutions in the region. My own observations confirm the positive interaction that occurs between students from different religious backgrounds during my visit to two Filipino-Turkish schools in 2004.
Gülen‘s views on education, and, consequently, the work of the social movement that bears his name, have lead to the development of activities intended to promote a paradigm shift in educational practices by encouraging the growth of altruism leading to institutions that place emphasis on the social dimensions of growth--along with the academic—to elicit a particularly Gülenian epistemological dimension. While the work is focused mainly on education, it is easy to see how these principles accentuated in the educational system are also applicable to a larger social movement dedicated to bringing about significant social reforms. Given that others have shown the Gülenian approach to be of practical value and, based on the successful results the implementation Gülen 70
inspired projects have achieved over time, the question to be answered in this study is whether its application in the unique social, political, and educational situation of Nigeria leads to similar positive outcomes.
In light of the purpose of this dissertation, it has been necessary to review the literature related to the efficacy of Gülen schools in other parts of the world and identify the key elements of the Gülen‘s philosophy, methods employed in the schools, and the curriculum employed in these schools to address the particular circumstances found in various countries, each with its own unique educational system and its own unique educational problems. So to, it is important to evaluate the social conditions that Gülen schools must deal with in order to succeed in different parts of the world. As Kalyoncu
(2008b) argues, ―the success of Gülen schools will be evaluated against the requirements presented for a Gülen-inspired school to succeed‖ (p. 603). In other words, the schools must be assessed with regard for the particular educational and societal needs of particular nations in which the schools reside. By looking at elements of Gülen schools in the context of the particular circumstances that characterize the Nigerian situation and, while considering the nature of Gülen education as applied elsewhere, the study attempts to provide insight into the adaptability of Gülen programs in unique cultural, political, and social settings.
As noted above, many of those who have attended Gülen inspired schools have shown high levels of achievement in mathematics, science, and other academic fields.
However, there are a number of factors relevant to Gülen educations that need to be considered when evaluating the successes of Gülen-inspired school systems (Agai, 2004). 71
Among these factors are the socio-political statuses of the country, the ethno-cultural conflicts that exist, issues related to religious affiliations of those living in the regions under study, as well as other elements that contribute to the success of existing and proposed school systems. Several researchers, including (Clement, 2007; Balci, 2003;
Keles, 2007; Michel, 2008; Mohamed, 2007; Muzalevsky, 2009; Solberg, 2005) emphasize the fact that graduates of schools based in Gülen‘s philosophy develop increased levels of pride in their ethno-cultural identities and their socio-political affiliations. Therefore, I examined various measures of success of Gülen schools, beyond test scores and the like, that reflect the achievements of Gülen-inspired schools around the world overall and particularly in respect to the Nigerian effort.
Kyrgyzstan
The positive contribution of education makes to progress and development in poor and emerging economies is undeniable. The same can be said of countries undergoing massive social reforms. Various researches have stressed the importance of education in nation development. Keles (2007) finds a strong positive impact as a result of the establishment of Sebat schools in Kyrgyzstan, both in the educational achievement of the students and the socio-economic performance of the country. Another research study assessed the effectiveness of using Gülen principles in the curriculum of South
African schools, particularly the Star International School in Cape Town (Mohamed,
2007) and found the schools to be a force of positive change in that nation. The findings of these studies, limited as they may be, suggest that Gülen-inspired schools in these countries, are successful when measured by achievement in international Science 72
Olympics activities and in regard to scores achieved on national university entrance exams and the evidence showing growth of students in regard to qualities essential to democratization and economic development.
Keles (2007) explains that Sebat schools have operated for more than 15 years in
Kyrgyzstan and the curricula used in these schools aims to educate Kyrgyz students on the importance of democratization and their role in helping their nation to becoming a player in the emerging global economy. Keles emphasizes the importance of having in place an educational framework that takes into account the effects of education on nation building and points to Sebat school students‘ growth in pride in and loyalty to country as indicators of the success of the schools. Not surprisingly, the Sebat schools in Kyrgyz followed the principles of education and social transformation that are promoted by
Gülen.
Establishing a school system that not only promotes academic excellence but also social awareness has, according to Keles, helped the Kyrgyz society in numerous ways.
As Keles (2007) puts it, Sebat schools contribute qualitatively to the Kyrgyz educational system by adding value to the high quality education already present in Kyrgyz schools.
Turkmenistan
The role played by education grounded in social consciousness related to social reform and politico-economical stability of Turkmenistan is said to also huge (Clement,
2007). With the need to reconstruct the Turkmenistan society after the Soviet educational system disintegrated and was replaced with low-quality educational approaches, the introduction of the Gülen-inspired educational movement, some have argued, was seen as 73
welcomed change. The formation of the Baskent Foundation schools, advocates say, allowed Turkmen students access to high quality education built on strong moral and social values that they would need in the future in order to rebuild their nation.
The Baskent Foundation, the originators of the Gülen schools in Turkmenistan, employed the principles put forward by Gülen in order to achieve its goals and objectives and claims to have meet them quite readily. With the end of communist rule came a high degree of educational degradation, for example, the lower level schools had relied mostly on Russian textbooks and communist curricula and had nothing with which to replace it when the Russians left. University level teachings relied on Russian language for instruction. With the establishment of Gülen schools and with the persistence of the people behind the movement, Turkmenistan students learned four languages in school, gained knowledge and skills in mathematics and science, and became internationally competitive in these fields. In fact, Clement (2007) reports that the Gülen Movement was able to achieve success despite the censure and the restrictions that were imposed by the
Turkmenistan government during the most troublesome part of the movement‘s existence in that country.
Kazakhstan
The existence of Gülen‘s Movement in Kazakhstan played an important role in creating strong ethnical politics in Central Asia, some observers say, as well as in preserving national pride and dignity for the younger generations (Turam, 2004). When
Kazakhstan was given its independence from the Soviet rule, the Islamic religion that had previously been banned was again taken up by those of the older generations. The 74
Kazakhs were elated with the freedom that they had acquired and, for a time, their elation led to inability to strongly adhere to the practices and beliefs of their nation and their religion. In fact, there was general confusion of regarding the roles science and mathematics should play in the culture in relation to religious teachings. The presence of
Gülen schools in Kazakhstan not only helped in nation building by providing Kazakh students with high quality education in terms of math and the sciences but also worked to create understandings that allowed the rational disciplines to co-exist with religion.
The Gülen schools made use of the fact that communal adherence translates to national advocacy. Hence, they were able to rekindle the passion of the youth they served by teaching the students why they should love their social and national identities and by showing them how to love their identities either by teaching them the national language or by persistently integrating nationalistic views in their daily interactions (a practice, of course, that some might find to be a negative rather than a positive).
According to Turam (2004), school administrators have expressed the need to teach
Kazakh students the Turkish language since this helps revive ethnic awareness, making them more conscious of their origins and making them understand the larger social group to which they belong.
Cape Town, South Africa
Mohamed (2007) attempted to understand the influence exerted by Gülen schools in South Africa, particularly the school‘s integration of moral and nationalistic values and pride in students. South African nations, as Mohamed observed, experience an educational dichotomy where religion is seen separately from science, this, in his 75
analysis, preventing South African students from seeing value in both. The religious see the secular approach to teaching as something that impedes moral development. On the other hand, the secular teaching pushed by newer policies and regulations on education devalues religion. The existence of Gülen schools in South Africa has worked to facilitate educational approaches that allows for teaching that incorporates elements of both science and religion.
The common social elements present in Kazakhstan, Cape Town (South Africa),
Turkmenistan, and Kyrgyzstan are (a) the need to mobilize social reform and (b) the need to re-establish cultural and ethnic identities. The presence of these social issues in the
Central Asian nations is brought about by the withdrawal of communist support and governance in these countries. When the Soviet Union left these countries on their own, establishing the country without external help took its toll on the government. The people were left in disarray and confusion. Their social identities, regardless of the massive movement to establish them, became a foreign experience to them as a whole.
With the disorientation and confusion going on in these countries, the need to re- educate the people, particularly the youth who will become the leaders of these nations, sound education becomes very important. Individuals need to be reminded of who they are, what they were, and what they need to become in order to establish their identities and achieve their goals. The importance of teaching the youth an internationally competitive curriculum in science and mathematics must be done side by side with moral and socio-social education (Mohamed, 2007).
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Gülen Educational Philosophies
Gülen‘s philosophy says that when a country is already suffering from various forms of division, education should remain as an island of unity. The virtuousness of educational projects should not be tainted by political ambitions or party political activism (Aslandogan & Çetin, 2006; Barton, 2005; Unal & Williams, 2000). Gülen‘s philosophy is focused on addressing issues related to peoples‘ knowledge deficiencies and concerned with the distribution and redistribution of knowledge as it affects distribution of power in the world (Levinskaya, 2007). He believes that providing the world with secular education will change how the world will be in the future. Gülen- inspired schools, through their teachers and teaching philosophies, those studying the schools report, are able to successfully integrate socio-cultural awareness into the curriculum. Park (2008) argues that Gülen‘s educational philosophy stresses teaching
"by example" to promote cultivation of "good behavior,‖ and does not use religion as the prod. According to Gülen (2001), knowledge should be combined with love. Knowledge in the province of the sciences provides students with the intellectual abilities to benefit others; but it will only benefit humanity if it is combined with love, which is a ―person's most essential element‖ (p. 41). Yavuz (2003) explains that love, as it pertains to education, entails the conviction to transform life on earth and, as such, love is the foundation of good pedagogy. Thus, not all teachers are educators and, Gülen (2004b, p.
208) says, ―Education is different from teaching. Most people can teach, but only a very few can educate‖ Teaching merely conveys information, but educating also offers moral guidance with the knowledge. 77
According to Nilsen (2005), ―Gülen educators most important role is, by being exemplars of love and knowledge, that can further the effectiveness of their modeling by engaging students in moral reasoning and in taking moral action‖ (p. 10). It is through interaction of students in an atmosphere of love and the students' autonomous practice of moral reasoning and intentional action that are seen as the means for achieving Gülen's transcendent vision of raising a ―Golden Generation‖ (Altin Nesil) (Gülen, 1991). This vision, Nilsen (2005) says, will usher in a world of peace and harmony.
In a world full of hatred, violence and evil, volunteers of the Gülen Movement wish to play an important role in the ―creation of an atmosphere of peace and tolerance and goodwill‖ (Tekalan, 2005, p. 5). Additionally, says Tekalam, those who are working in institutions established by the movement, see each student as a separate world and consider one-to-one interaction with individuals to be the basic tool of education, their altruism pushing them to allocate most of their time to their students.
Osman (2007) tell us that Gülen believes that it is through education that extremism will be curbed and tolerance promoted. Therefore, Gülen says, dialogue and tolerance must first start amongst educators who teach in effective educational institutions. It was this philosophy that motivated his audience to build schools in every country, for, as Osman (2007) and Barton (2007) note, intolerance occurs between different religious groups in multi-religious countries due to lack of education.
Gülen Motivation Makes Schools Attractive
It is a common belief that a teacher‘s motivation - strongly related to their desire to be involved in the educational process - is an essential component for classroom 78
effectiveness and improvement (Good & Brophy, 1994). The role of motivation in classroom learning and performance can affect both new learning and the performance of previously learned skills, strategies, and behaviors (Schunk, Pintrich & Meece, 2008).
The word motivation is a general term that can be related to a complex series of physical and mental behaviors. According to Green (2002), motivation is an internal state that activates, guides, and maintains behavior. Gagne (2004) considers it to be a condition that facilitates the development of high achievement. Wlodkowski and Jaynes (1990) define it as a value and a desire for learning and Kim (2000) as inner striving conditions, such as wishes, desires, and urges, which stimulate the interest of a person in an activity.
Motivation, therefore, is generally considered to be an inner state that stimulates and triggers behavior. Kleinginna and Kleinginna (1981) support this, defining it as an internal condition that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction. Thus, teacher motivation sets teachers in motion and makes them do things (which may or may not be worth doing), in order to reach their goals.
Among motivating factors, there are different types of motivational factors that influence teacher, parents, students, and sponsors of Gülen-inspired schools. Aslandogan and Çetin (2006) identified then as follows:
1. A satisfactory combination of tradition and modernity including science,
reason, and technology, and proven academic achievement in these fields.
2. The altruistic approach of the well-qualified and well-trained teachers and
educators, and the lack of profit-seeking. 79
3. Non-politicization of educational, scientific, and cultural issues, institution
and efforts (p. 47).
Gülen‘s successful motivation of teachers, parents and sponsors is believed, in part, to be due to his own ascetic life and altruism (Aslandogan & Çetin, 2006; Woodhall, 2005).
Gülen also motivates both students and teachers by saying that education is humanity‘s greatest service and that both teachers and students should be aware that they are doing the most honorable thing for society. Gülen‘s broader concept of ―teacher‖ includes not only traditional classroom teachers in public schools but also many other key personalities, from prophets to parents, from philosophers to spiritual guides, from lovers of wisdom to the honest government administrator. His message to all these teachers is simple: serving your fellow citizens and humanity in general through education is the responsibility of being a human and it fulfills the purpose of one‘s own creation
(Aslandoğan & Çetin, 2006). Gülen‘s philosophy has motivated many individuals not only within the profession of teaching but also the individuals outside the profession.
Teachers adopting Gülen‘s understanding aim to become the builders of the future, founders of a peaceful, harmonious, progressive and prosperous society, and constructors of human personality. This compensates for the low-paid, lack of appreciation, and low social status afforded teachers in some societies, factors that Maslow (1954) says discourage individuals from entering professions such as teaching (Aslandoğan & Çetin,
2006).
Gülen succinctly emphasizes the place and the weight of teachers and their dedication or motivation in building a better future, in actualizing true human potential 80
which lies dormant in many people, and in cultivating and spreading humane values through philosophical and social structures. For Gülen, freedom of ideas or thought and conscience is an indispensable and inalienable right. One cannot reach full actualization without the freedom of thinking, learning, and self-expression. To achieve such actualization, teachers are the most important means, conduits and agents that will engage students and improve performance at all levels, from elementary through postsecondary classrooms. Therefore, motivating teachers should be an essential part of any educational system, so that students can perform better and we, as the larger society, may attain a better future.
Summary
In a relatively short amount of time, the Gülen Movement has spread extensively throughout Turkey and around the world. Students of Gülen schools are said to not only exhibit remarkably high achievement in math, science, languages, and humanities, but also show strong moral and character development and desire to help their fellow man.
Nigeria is a country with many problems: political, religious, ethnic, social, economic, and educational. Because of the social climate that exists and because of
Gülen schools‘s success in nations with similar problems, it seems possible that the
Gülen Movement and its schools can lead the country to major improvements. The instability and poverty of the country at this time provide an ideal climate for the Gülen
Movement to take root and thrive, and, in turn, offer possibilities for changing the country for the better. This study therefore, examined whether or not participants in a particular Gülen school, to understand it the school is successful in achieving its goals in 81
Nigeria and the attitudes of stakeholders toward Gülen schools in Nigeria. It also begins to document features of the school and the response of participants to the school as it currently exists.
82
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Overview
This dissertation uses qualitative research to seek greater understanding of participants‘ perceptions of the educational programs sponsored by Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria. Current students, their parents and school alumni, teachers, and administrators from these schools were asked about their experiences with Gülen-inspired schools. This investigation looked into the experiences of participants, their understanding of educational philosophies that guide Gülen education, their stories, and their sense of elements they understand to be basic to Gülen-inspired schools‘ and their success.
Participants and Recruitment Procedures
Participants in this study were 22 adults, nine females and 13 males aged 16 to 61
(M= 28.9 representing four different groups; teachers, students, administrators, and students‘ parents, all involved with the Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTIC) in Abuja, Nigeria. Of the seven teachers participating, three were native Nigerians and four were Turkish. Three of the teachers were females, and four of them males. The second group was composed of eight students all, three females, and five males. Three school administrators, one female and two male, made up the third group and the last group, parents of students, involved two women and two men. One of the parents was the former Minister of Education of Nigeria and another was serving as the head of the school‘s parents and teachers association. Interviews were conducted at various places 83
including the head office of the NTICs in Abuja, at the homes of participants, and in other offices around the school.
Table 1 shows the demographic classification of participant by gender.
Table 1
Frequency Distribution for Gender of Participants
Stakeholder‘s Total number of Gender Sample Pool (%)
Participants (M/F)
Teachers 7 4/3 31.8
Students 8 5/3 36.4
Parents 4 2/2 18.2
Administrators 3 2/1 13.6
Total 22 13/9 100
Table 1 describes the gender breakdown of the sample population used in this study.
Table 2 shows the age classification of the study participants.
Table 2
Frequency Distribution of the Age of Participants
Stakeholder‘s Age Distribution Total Number Sample Pool (%)
Teachers 23-41 7 31.8
Students 16-25 8 36.4
Parents 40-61 4 18.2 84
Administrators 31-46 3 13.6
Average 28.9 - -
Total 22 100
Table 2 describes the age breakdown of the sample population used in this study and
Table 3, the Racial/Ethnic classification of the study participants.
Table 3
Racial/Ethnic Representation of Participants in Sample in Schools
Ethnicity/Nationality-Tribe Total Number of Percent
Participants Involved
Turkish 6 27.3
Hausa-Fulani 5 22.7
Yoruba 4 18.2
Igbo 3 13.6
Other 4 18.2
Total 22 100
The ethnicity of Nigeria is so varied that there is no definition of a Nigerian beyond that of someone who lives within the borders of the country (Ojogwu, 2008; Ukpo, 1977).
Nigeria is probably one of the most complicated countries in the world with over two- hundred fifty languages spoken and three main ethnic groups, none of which constitutes a majority of the population (Ogundiya, 2009; Onigu, 1990; Ukiwo, 2005).
85
Table 4 shows the religion classification of the study participants
Table 4
Religion Representation of Participants in Sample Schools
Total Number of Religion Percent Participants Involved
Muslim 12 54.6
Christian 7 31.8
African-religions 2 9.1
Other 1 4.5
Total 22 100
The fourth factor used to describe participant is their ‗religions background.
Religious affiliation in Nigeria is strongly related to ethnicity, with rather distinct regional divisions between ethnic groups. The northern states, dominated by the Hausa and Fulani groups, are predominantly Muslim while the southern states‘ ethnic groups have a large number of Christians. In the southwest, there is no predominant religion.
The Yoruba tribe, which is the majority ethnic group in the southwest, practices
Christianity, Islam, and/or the traditional Yoruba religion, which centers on the belief in a supreme god and several lesser deities (Encyclopedia of the Nations, 2008).
Setting of the Study
The participants were recruited by an outside source, the general director of
Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges in Nigeria, Mr. Hasan Huseyin Aygun who was 86
working at Nigerian Turkish International Colleges in Abuja during the Spring, of 2010.
The researcher provided Mr. Aygun with a brief description of the study and an information sheet and, using personal associations, he contacted potential participants of the four stakeholder groups and asked them if they might be interested in participating in a personal interview or focus group meeting. Members who expressed interest in participating were asked to leave their names with Mr. Aygun so that the researcher could contact them upon his arrival at the school.
In addition, Mr. Aygun was familiar with the study and all participants were able to address any questions regarding the study to him. The resulting group constituted a sample of convenience (Lonner & Berry, 1986). A snowball sampling method was used to recruit other participants. There are several different kinds of sampling, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. For this study, the researcher chose a snowball sampling method because it has a lot of advantages as opposed to other sampling methods, specifically for international research. A snowballing sampling entails selecting a few people who can identify other people who can identify still other people who might be good participants for a study (Lunenburg & Irby, 2008). According to Creswell
(2002), snowball sampling is an alternative way to grow a sample with informants suggesting others who may be of value to the study. This approach is most valuable when a study is carried on in a setting in which possible participants are scattered or not found in clusters (Heckathorn, 2002; Lunenburg & Irby, 2008; Snijders, 1992). In this case, the researcher lived at great distance from the research setting and knew no one who might be of use in providing useful data. Fraenkel and Wallen (2008) argue that a 87
snowball sample, aids an outsider in identifying those who might be particularly knowledgeable about the aspects of the topic under consideration for research and therefore useful sources. Due to time and location restrictions, the snowball sampling method was advantageous to this study because it allowed the researcher to effectively locate people essential to the study.
The participants were recruited from January 10 to January 23, 2010 in Abuja,
Nigeria through Mr. Aygun‘s network of professional and organizational contacts. Mr.
Aygun sent an email or made a phone call to members of this network. When potential participants agreed to participate in study, the researcher distributed information sheets to them before their focus group or interview took place. Participants of this study were informed that their participation was voluntary and that they might withdraw from the interview or focus group at any time without any penalty (Appendix H). During the interviews, participants were allowed to use pseudonyms so as not to be identified by name. The participants were interviewed for approximately sixty minutes each. Each interview, whether during a focus group or during one to one exchanges, began with a review of basic information provided to the interviewer on a sheet that was passed out before the interview (appendix A).
Although there are seventeen schools run by Surat Educational Institutions
Limited in five states in Nigeria, the study only focused on the Abuja campus. The sample schools on the Abuja campus (there are several) enroll students from a variety of socio-economic groups of differing cultural, religious, and linguistic backgrounds. This diversity was also represented in the composition of administration, faculty, and, of 88
course, parents. The primary purpose of this study was to examine participants‘ perception of Gülenian education and the factors understood to be essential to the success of Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria. As noted above, the researcher only collected the data at the Abuja campus, this due to limited time and restrictions on travel imposed by various agents and agencies because of perceived dangers for travellers in the country.
Three sections of the NTIC in Abuja were involved in the study, the boys‘ secondary boarding school, the girls‘ secondary boarding school, the co-ed secondary day school.
Some time was also spent in the nursery and primary sections but information collected from these visits plays only a minor role in the study as the basic criteria for choosing schools to include was access to information about the student population and the availability of students at least sixteen years of age. The fact that Abuja‘s schools were established earlier than others in the network allowed access to participants who had extended experiences with Gülen-education. Focus on a single campus also allowed for the collection of considerable amounts of data in the short time the researcher could spend in Nigeria.
Research Design and Methods
The methodology of this dissertation is grounded in the field of qualitative research. As described by Denzin and Lincoln (2005), qualitative research is characterized by a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. Such research describes the world through a series of representations, including field notes, focus group interviews, one-on one interviews, observations, conversations, recordings, and memos to the self. As such, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to 89
understanding the world. Qualitative investigators ―study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them‖ (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000, p. 3). According to Merriam (1998),
―Qualitative investigators are interested in understanding the meanings people have constructed, that is, how they make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world‖ (p. 6).
Qualitative research is a tool used for understanding and describing the world of human experience (Bernard, 1994; Myers, 2002). Most significantly, qualitative research offers the opportunity to explore the significance of participants‘ experiences and understandings and to gain insights into where these experiences and understandings may take them. The qualitative approach, importantly, allows the researcher to gain deeper understanding of the phenomena under study through participation and observation of interactions that occur during the study. ―Being open to any possibility can lead to serendipitous discoveries‖ (Merriam, 1998, p. 121). Denzin and Lincoln (2005) say that qualitative research explains the why and how of human behavior rather than focusing on numbers and statistics that try to explain only what it is that is taking place. As Denzin and Lincoln (2005) say, qualitative research seek(s), ―answers to questions that stress how social experience is created and given meaning‖ (p. 10). Guba and Lincoln (1994) explain that the ultimate aim of qualitative research is to offer a perspective of a situation and provide well-written research reports that reflect the researcher's ability to illustrate or describe the corresponding phenomenon. One of the greatest strengths of the qualitative approach is its potential for providing richness of exploration and description. 90
This qualitative study was based on the use of open-ended questions asked in unstructured focus groups and one-on-one interviews captured on audiotape. The group or individual interviews are essential qualitative data gathering techniques that find the interviewer/moderator directing the interaction and inquiry in a structured or unstructured manner, depending on the interviewer's purpose (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994).
In line with qualitative research tradition (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000;
Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2003), multiple data sources were utilized, here, organized into four sets the primary set made up of interview data, which was comprised of approximately four one-hour unstructured focus group interviews and several one-one interviews, all captured on an audio recorder. In order to enrich the data pool the researcher collected the following additional data sets:
o Participant artifacts (lesson plans, classroom materials, personal reflection
papers, personal stories, and student work), observations, and field notes
five, one-hour field-based observations)
o Teacher interviews, syllabi, audio-taped class sessions, school curriculum
and schools other coursework materials
o Other resources including copies of district and state lesson design
guidelines; and parent interviews, their experiences and stories about their
children and schools.
Case Study Design
This dissertation focused on qualitative case study research as defined by
(Merriam, 1998; Yin, 2003, 2006). Qualitative case study methodology provides tools 91
for researchers to study complex phenomena within their contexts using a variety of data sources (Baxter & Jack, 2008; Yin, 2003). Yin (2003) has provided more specific boundaries for case study.
It is an empirical inquiry that; investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its
real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and
context are not clearly evident; copes with the technically distinctive situation in
which there will be many more variables of interest than data points: and as one
result relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a
triangulating fashion; and as another result, benefits from the prior development
of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis. (p. 13-14).
This case study was bounded by several contexts, the four stakeholders themselves and their experiences about Gülen-inspired schools as students, teachers, administrators, and parents.
The study was situated within these interrelated contexts. The study was written in narrative form and was primarily concerned with providing the reader with insight into and understanding of the unique case or situation in Gülen-inspired schools, and according to Stake (1995), ―Qualitative research tries to establish an empathetic understanding for the reader, through description, sometimes thick description, conveying to the reader what the experience itself would convey‖ (p. 39). The outcome of a rich narrative data describing the experience of the participants was about Gülen‘s educational philosophy and the role of Gülen-inspired schools in Abuja, Nigeria.
92
Interview
The qualitative research interview seeks to describe and determine the meanings of central themes in the life-world of the subjects. The main task in interviewing is to understand the meaning of what the interviewees say (Kvale, 1996; McNamara, 1999).
Interviews, focus groups and observation are the most common methods of data collection used in qualitative research in education (Creswell, 2002; Denzin & Lincoln,
1994; Yin, 2009). Focus groups use group dynamics to generate qualitative data (Gill,
Steward, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008; Mischler, 1986). According to Morgan (1988), focus group research is based on facilitating an organized discussion with a group of individuals selected because they are believed to be representative of some class. The communication among focus group participants brings out differing perspectives through the language that is used by the discussants. Kreuger (1988) defines a focus group as a
―carefully planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions in a defined area of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment‖ (p. 18). The information obtained from the real experiences of participants about Gülen education, the researcher understood, would serve as a reliable data source for this research study.
Documentation
Documentation occurred through the collection of teachers‘ written lesson plans and students‘ paper work, in limited amounts, and in the form of records provided by school administrative officers and those made available by government offices. In addition, the researcher kept records of observations and made use of daily journal reports by a colleague accompanying him on the visit. Documents are a valuable source 93
in providing information for qualitative studies (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Therefore, observation memos, minutes, reports, lesson plans, and student notebooks were used in this study.
Observation
According to Gall, Borg, and Gall (2003), qualitative research expands the range of knowledge and understanding of the world beyond the researchers themselves.
Observation usually helps the researchers to see their interpretations, rather than just presenting a static description of phenomena. The typical form of data collection in naturalistic or qualitative research is observation of participants in the context of a natural setting (Bogdan & Biklen, 1982). Generally, ―observational data are used for the purpose of description of settings, activities, people, and the meanings of what is observed from the perspective of the participants‖ (Sours, 1997, p. 575). Patton (1990) explains that observation can lead to deeper understandings than interviews alone because it examines the context in which events occur and may enable the researcher to see things that participants themselves are not aware of or that they are unwilling to discuss.
Another advantage of observation in the study of educational settings is that it provides an opportunity to describe the "physical" structure of the schools, teachers‘ teaching styles, the interactions between students and teachers and the relationships that exist between the schools and parents. Observation also allows one to take note of what happens in space and time: the characters, the scenes, and the scheme. Observations also allow researchers to describe the themes, motifs, images, and metaphors that arise and the manner in which the researchers become involved (Patton, 2002). 94
For this study, the researcher took field notes on the interactions between students, teachers, and parents in the classroom, in school and out of the school, and wrote down what the classroom setting was, and described the teachers‘ role in the classroom and the nature of lessons taught. According to Yin (2009), observation is used to gather information about behaviors and environments. In this situation, observing the teaching process allowed the researcher to understand how teachers use lesson plans and to what extent a lesson plans is followed in the teaching process. This information was used to develop a sense of the regular practices of the teachers.
Physical artifacts were collected during the observation in school and classrooms.
Specifically, posters, signs, student work on the walls, and other physical artifacts were observed and collected for data purposes. Artifact collection is a relatively non- disruptive method of collecting data and allows for the collection of evidence that can be used to show corroboration or contradiction of other collected data (Merriam, 1998). The interview protocols and demographic characteristic (Appendix A, B), observations, and artifact collection were designed to explore further the central research questions as well as issues raised by the literature review, and finally, to facilitate data analysis.
Instrumentation
The primary instrument used in this study was unstructured, open-ended interviews, with 22 respondents from the four different stakeholder groups; observation and document collection and review also occurred. This study also collected information related to issues of demography (e.g., race/ethnicity, religion, age, years of experience, educational level) (Lunenburg & Irby, 2008). The individual and focus group interviews 95
were conducted using the Interview Protocol (Appendix, A). When lessons were observed, the researcher conducted interviews before and after the lessons were presented using the focus groups protocol with teachers and students and administrators and parents. These interviews were audio-taped and transcribed. Field notes were typed.
Data Collection Procedure
Data were collected through interviews, documentation, observation, and acquisition of physical artifacts. According to several researchers, including (Creswell,
1997) the interview is one of the major sources of data collection for qualitative studies.
(Creswell, 1997, 2002; LeCompte, Millroy, & Preissle, 1992; Merriam, 1998; Patton,
1990, 2002; Wolcott, 1992; Yin, 2009).
Raw data were collected from both focus group and one-on-one interviews. After collection, the interviews were transcribed. This provided a complete record of the discussion and facilitated data analysis. Next, the content of the interview was analyzed, first to discover major themes by sorting for key words, then by categorizing statements according to key words related to the themes. The purpose of this analysis was to look for trends and patterns that reappeared in either a single focus group or among and/or between various focus groups. Kreuger (1988) suggests that ―content analysis begins with a comparison of the words used in the answer‖ (p.109). The researcher needs to watch for the consistency of comments and the specificity of responses in follow up probes. The researcher also needs to have a clear understanding of historical and contextual material in order to position the subject within the larger trends in a society or in the culture. 96
Data collection occurred between January 10 and January 24, 2010 at Gülen- inspired schools in Abuja, Nigeria. All data gathered from participant resources were collected with explicit permission from the participants and in full compliance with
Institutional Review Board (IRB) of University of Nevada, Reno guidelines. Data collection consisted of four focus group interviews with teachers and students, seven individual interviews with parents and administrators using in-depth, open-ended questions for each individual interview and for focus group interviews.
Most sessions lasted an hour with time added to collect background information about the participants‘ experiences in education and their association with Gülen-inspired schools. The researcher‘s questions were developed to elicit responses concerning the key elements that some participants might understand to be factors in the success of these schools. The researcher tried to determine if, in fact, participants involved with the school held beliefs and attitudes consistent with the Gülen notions of multiculturalism
(acceptance of religious beliefs, culture, and traits of ethnicity), academic competence (in math, science, and language), practice of altruism (teachers and administration), and the quality and training of teachers. It was convenient that the researcher shared and understood a language used by students, teachers, administrators, and parents in Gülen- inspired schools in Nigeria, since English is the language of instruction in these schools.
The researcher was also able to converse with Turkish teachers and administrators in their native language, being that he is fluent in Turkish. Because the researchers could ask people about what they saw, thought, and felt, they were likely to tell him about experiences in the schools and the influence of schools on their lives. Questions were 97
asked that examined how participants viewed the schools, how they understood the success of students and the success of the schools. The participants also had the opportunity to discuss their experiences with students, administrators, teachers, and parents during focus group sessions.
Participants were asked to explain both their notion of success and their appraisal of the success of Gülen inspired schooling. Also, this study looked at the relationship between teachers and students (how they interacted with each other), teachers‘ teaching philosophy, the curriculum and educational program of schools (what kind of curriculum or programs do they use? Are the Gülen schools different from these typical of Nigerian schools or not?). The questions allowed student, administrator, and teacher to discuss their perceptions of the schools and the programs.
Interviews and observations were audio-taped and transcribed using digital media and provided to the participants for review and member checking. Member checking is generally considered an important method for verifying and validating information observed and / or transcribed by the investigator (Merriam, 1998; Mertens, 1998; Stake,
1995) and is meant as a check and critique of the data. The tape recorder was visible before the researcher set up the interview and was visible to all participants. Participants were encouraged to speak one at a time to avoid garbling into the tape. As Howe and
Lewis (1993) suggest, members of the group were asked to identify themselves before they spoke. Also, handwritten notes were taken during the interviews for the purposes of extending questions or as the researcher‘s personal notes for further investigation. 98
Morgan (1988) suggests that regardless of the method of data collection, the moderator should make field-notes during and after each session to facilitate data analysis.
Research Questions
Research questions were structured and unstructured interview questions, the open-ended questions allowing the researcher to collect data with multi-dimensional responses from the interviewees. Burgess (1984) says of the the unstructured interview,
―there may be just a single question that the interviewer asks and the interviewee is then allowed to respond freely, with the interviewer simply responding to points that seem worthy of being followed up‖ (p. 474). Initial questions were carefully developed and phrased in advance to elicit maximum information from all participants. In keeping with the suggestions of Stewart & Shamdasani (1990), questions used such probing words as
―why and ―how‖ in order encourage the interviewee to respond in more detail, and facilitate discussion (p. 65).
As stated in Chapter one, the purpose of the study was to develop a portrait of the
Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria from the perspective of those involved in the schools.
The study also was intended to develop a robust understanding of life lived in conjunction with Gülen education and to look at the effects of Gülen schools in relation to problems in the Nigerian society. Specifically, the following two research questions and interview questions were addressed:
2. What is the nature of Gülen education in Nigeria as experienced by those involved in
Movement schools?
This first question is then divided into the following sub-questions: 99
(a) How do participants in the schools--teachers, administrators, parents,
and students--embrace the Gülenian philosophy, and what do they
understand that philosophy to be?
(b) What is the participants‘ conception of the Gülenian philosophy in
action?
(c) Has the philosophy been enacted in these schools?
(d) What do participants in the Gülenian schools consider in determining
whether or not the schools are successful, and in what ways do they
consider the schools to be successful or unsuccessful?
2. In what ways do participants in Nigeria‘s Gülen-inspired schools consider the schools to be addressing the national educational problems of Nigeria?‖
This second question entails the following sub-questions:
(a) How do participants‘ experiences with the schools reflect the manner
in which the Gülen schools with which they are affiliated address the
ethnic, tribal, religious, geographical, and economic divisions that exist in
Nigerian society?
(b) Do participants‘ experiences with the Gülen schools indicate that the
schools are preparing students to affect positive change in Nigerian
society?
Some examples of general interview open-ended questions I used were:
100
For teachers:
Related to Question 1:
Tell us about your background (country of origin, religious, ethnic background,
teaching experience) and how you came to be affiliated with the Gülen schools in
Nigeria.
How would you characterize Gülen education as it exists at the school where you
teach? What principles and practices make it a Gülen school? Provide some
examples of practices that are consistent with your understanding of what makes a
school a Gülen school.
What constitutes success of Gülen schools in Nigeria and in what ways is your
school and/or in what ways are Nigerian Gülen schools succeeding?
Related to Question 2:
What are the particular educational needs of Nigeria and how do you see your
school addressing those needs?
What aspects of Gülen education are best suited for helping Nigeria and Nigerians
address the needs of the Nigerian nation and the Nigerian society?
Is the school where you work are the Nigerian Gülen schools effectively
addressing the educational needs of the Nigerian society? In what ways? What
about Gülen education allows the schools to succeed in Nigeria (if they are
succeeding)?
101
For students:
Related to Question 1:
Tell us about your background (country of origin, religion, ethnic background,
educational experience) and how you came to be affiliated with the Gülen schools
in Nigeria.
Tell us about yourself; your age, where you are from, your education so far
(where and what it has been like), when you arrived at your current school, and
how you came to be here.
Tell us about what it is like to be at this school and how it is—if it is—different
from other schools you have attended.
What have you learned at the school and what are you learning? What do you
think of the things you are learning? Do you think they are valuable?
Interesting?
Are you taught differently here than you were in other schools you have attended?
Can you describe how the teaching is like or unlike what you have experienced
before? Do the differences in the way things are taught cause you to learn
differently? Preferences?
Tell us your thoughts about the people you work with at this school, the
administrators, teachers, and your fellow students. Are they different in the way
they behave, act toward you and others than people outside this school?
102
Related to Question 2:
Do you see the education you are receiving at your school as helpful to you as a
person living in Nigeria? How?
Does the school help students prepare to help the country of Nigeria? If so, in
what ways? What will students who graduate from your school be able to offer
the nation?
Is the school you attend an effective school? How would you compare it to other
schools you know of in Nigeria? Society?
Have you learned important things about other people by attending this school,
people who are a part of the school and people outside the school? What kind of
things have you learned about people?
One of the goals of Gülen-inspired schools is to help student learn how to live
with people of different backgrounds—ethnic, cultural, religious, economic, etc.
Has your school helped you in this way? How?
For parents:
Related to Question 1:
Tell us about yourself (job, ethnicity, and religion etc).
How did you come to send your child to the Gülen-inspired school?
What do you understand to be the essential qualities that make a Gülen
inspired school different from other schools?
What has your child gained by attending a Gülen inspired school? Do you
believe that the choice of school was a good one? Please explain. 103
What changes have you seen in your child since he or she began attending the
Gülen –inspired school? Have you noticed any changes in the way in which
he or she regards people or cultural, economic, religious, and/or ethnic
background different from his or her own? How?
Were you and your child/children well treated during your association with
the Gülen inspired school? Were you treated fairly?
Related to Question 2:
What are the particular educational needs of Nigeria and do you see NTIC
addressing those needs? Please explain.
What aspects of Gülen education are best suited for helping Nigeria and Nigerians
address the needs of the Nigerian nation and Nigerian society?
Is the school your child/children attends effectively addressing the educational
needs of the Nigerian society? In what ways? If yes, what about aspects of Gülen
education allows the schools to succeed in Nigeria?
Has attendance at the school changed your child‘s study habits or goals? How?
What have you observed that makes Gülen education different from education in
other types of schools? How are Gülen educators—teachers and administrators—
different from educators you have encountered in other educational institutions?
Are there negative aspects to Gülen education as you have experienced it?
104
Administrators:
Related to Question 1:
Tell us the essence of your experience about Gülen-inspired schools? When and
how did you first become involved with Gülen education?
Please explain your relationship with the Nigerian Government in relation to the
work you do in the NTIC schools.
Can you tell us some of the obstacles you faced operating a school such as this
one in Nigeria?
How many students did the school initially enroll? How many students do you
have now?
o How many teachers did you have when the school opened and how many
teachers do you have currently?
o Tell us about the statistics related to students‘ success in the school.
o Do those numbers reflect all that students accomplish by attending a
school such as yours? Please explain.
o What is the percentage of students accepted to college?
o What percentages of your students go to overseas colleges?
o Discuss your students‘ participation and success in national and
international science and language Olympiads?
Describe how your school is different from other schools in Nigeria?
. Tell us about the economic and social backgrounds of your students
. Is there tuition support for students who need it? 105
. How does the course of study compare to that offered at other schools?
. Are there curricular differences? Methodological differences? Other
ways in which your school operates differently than other Nigerian
schools?
Related to Question 2:
What are the particular educational needs of Nigeria and how do you see your
school addressing those needs?
What aspects of Gülen education are best suited for helping Nigeria and Nigerians
address the needs of the Nigerian nation and the Nigerian society?
Is the school where you work are the Nigerian Gülen schools effectively
addressing the educational needs of Nigerian society? In what ways? What
about Gülen education allows the schools to succeed in Nigeria (if they are
succeeding)
One of the goals of Turkish sponsored schools such as the NTIC schools is
dialogue and the ability to live together in the world. Do you think that the NTIC
schools are able to accomplish such?
In which way were you and are you inspired by Gülen‘s ideas to become an
altruistic person? What does altruistic mean to you?
Validity
Social science research is reviewed for validity (Yin, 2009), so several tactics were used in the study to ensure the findings are valid. In this qualitative study, first, to maintain construct validity, meaning the data collection operation is correctly chosen for 106
the research, multiple sources of evidence were used to develop a chain of evidence. In this study, for reliability and validity, the researcher had several colleagues analyzed and code data separately from one another in order to avoid one analyst unduly influence another. Later, the analysts met together to discuss coding. A third, neutral coder was employed to settled any disagreements over coding of materials. Together, the data collection process and data analysis, coupled with the research design, lead to valid findings.
Positioning the Researcher
Stake (1995) mentions that ―all researchers have great privilege and obligation: the privilege to pay attention and the obligation to make conclusions drawn from those choices meaningful to colleagues and clients‖ (p. 49). Beyond Stake‘s assertion of paying attention and drawing conclusions, such privilege and obligation extends to the researcher disclosing positionality and conducting the research in an ethical manner
(Sullivan, 2007).
The researcher approached this dissertation study with having had previous experiences as a tutor for five years and as a teacher in Ulaanbaatar Mongolian-Turkish
High Schools for two years a private school with affiliation to the Gülen Movement. My interest in conducting this study was generated by what I perceived to be the success of the school in which I worked and to investigate whether or not the Gülen-inspired schools are successful in different geographic location.
I came to the USA in 2006 to begin my master‘s degree at the University of
Nevada, Reno (UNR). I graduated in December 2007 from the Department of 107
Educational Specialties specializing in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
(TESOL). In Reno, I met a couple of Turkish people. One Turkish student invited me to a dinner that was hosted by the Sierra Foundation. The Sierra Foundation was founded in
2004 by the Turkish-American Community of Northern Nevada, and is also inspired by
Gülen‘s ideas. Later, I worked with these people to attain a better understanding of the
Gülen Movement and what it is doing for the betterment of society.
I also conducted educational research in Romania during the summer of 2007. That year, I investigated how L2 learners develop pragmatic skills, particularly with requests and apologies. In the summer of 2008, I returned to Romania again to conduct research on the topic of cultural assimilation among first-generation Turkish adult immigrants living in Romania. At that time I found a school named International School of
Bucharest (ISB) which was founded by Gülen-inspired people. I was so surprised by the fact that these followers exist everywhere, all promoting intercultural dialogue. I found the people in Romania and Mongolia with whom I worked to be responsible, honest, hardworking, fair, and respectful of others.
In contemplating my role as a researcher, Stake‘s (1995) conception of the qualitative researcher as interpreter is most fitting. According to Stake (1995), the qualitative investigator recognizes and substantiates new meanings. A researcher has recognized a problem, puzzled over it and studied it, hoping to connect it better with known things. Finding new connections, the researcher finds ways to make them comprehensible to others (p. 97). 108
Given the inter-reliant nature of the work conducted by the researcher and nature of the participants, indeed, both the researcher and the participants are likely to be advocates for the schools and care about how the schools are represented to the community. The researcher has described ties and involvement with the schools that are the subject of this research. The researcher does claim to have proceeded by an ethical standard to be expected of one who is both professional and guided by moral principles.
As a result, this investigator has conducted the study with the utmost consideration for research ethics by respecting the participants, the research process and the outside community involved.
Beyond the collection and analysis of data, it is my hope that I will be able to develop new connections between Gülen-inspired schools around the world and between participants in the work of the schools, the administrators, teachers, students, and parents.
According to several researchers, Gülen- inspired schools are successful and there are many advantages to be attained through enrollment in these schools (Balci, 2003;
Clement, 2007; Keles, 2007; Sulberg, 2005; Yesilova, 2007). If these schools are indeed defined by their success, it would be beneficial for more students to enroll in these schools, and to incorporate methodologies utilized in these schools into the body of learning teaching theory and to apply these methods in a greater number of instructional situations.
Summary
To summarize, an embedded qualitative case study approach was utilized with eight students, seven teachers, four parents, and three school administrators from Gülen- 109
inspired schools in Abuja, Nigeria. Data was collected through individual interviews, focus groups interview, observation, field-notes, and physical artifacts. The data and the tape-recorded interviews and field-notes were transcribed and then subjected to a computer software program used for managing large, qualitative databases. Transcripts were systematically and analytically coded for patterns and themes. Additionally, in this chapter the focus was on five main sections. The first section discussed the participants of the study and setting. The second presented the qualitative approach and research design used for this study. The third section described the data collection procedures and instrumentation. The fourth section detailed the data analyses procedures. The last section detailed validity, and the position of the researcher. In next chapter, I will describe the findings of the study.
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CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS OF DATA
Overview
This study focuses on the effectiveness of the Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria and their role in promoting education in this country. Every country has its own educational systems, and some of them do not serve all students well (Farenga, 2000).
The Nigerian educational system, indirectly the subject of this dissertation, has, traditionally, been ineffective, this for several reasons including the effects of political manipulation and corruption, this leading to poor funding and implementation of ineffective instructional programs. Classrooms are typically inadequately equipped, instructional materials are scarce, and qualified teachers occupy relatively few classrooms (Dike, 2008; Moja, 2000; Odia & Omofonmwan, 2007). One approach to improving the situation has been developing alternative approaches to education such as those sponsored by the Nigerian Turkish International Colleges (NTICs). The NTICs are believed by many to be model schools, their design to be emulated by others desiring to build alternatives to the state sponsored system. This project begins to examine the NTIC schools by gathering the perspectives of those involved with the NTICs to better understand methods and curriculum employed in the NTICs in Abuja, Nigeria and various stake holders‘ sense the effectiveness of the schools and their value as an alternative to the schools in the public system.
The study attempts to build understanding of factors that differentiate schools guided by Gülen educational philosophy to create a description of Gülen inspired school programs, and how elements of Gülen education beyond curriculum and methods such as 111
teacher altruism and concentration on relationships between students and between students and teachers contribute to the results the schools achieve. In essence, the study helps to build understanding of the efficacy of the Gülenian educational initiative and provides analysis of its educational viability for schools operating in Nigeria.
The dissertation presents the results of the analysis of qualitative data collected in the Gülen-inspired schools in Abuja, Nigeria from participants involved in individual and focus group interviews, through classroom and campus observations, and in the field- notes collected by Stephen Lafer and Hasan Aydin in Spring 2010. For the study, twenty-two participants affiliated with the Abuja NTICs, representing four stakeholder categories (teachers, students, parents, and administrators) affiliated with the Abuja school, were queried while the researcher was in Nigeria. This chapter presents an analysis of the data collected using researcher-developed protocols that included open- ended and unstructured questions, observation, and review of pertinent documents. The two broad research questions that this study sought to answer are:
3. What is the nature of Gülen education in Nigeria as experienced by those involved in
Movement schools?
This first question is then divided into the following sub-questions:
(a) How do participants in the schools--teachers, administrators, parents,
and students--embrace the Gülenian philosophy, and what do they
understand that philosophy to be?
(b) What is the participants‘ conception of the Gülenian philosophy in
action? 112
(c) Has the philosophy been enacted in these schools?
(d) What do participants in the Gülenian schools consider in determining
whether or not the schools are successful, and in what ways do they
consider the schools to be successful or unsuccessful?
2. In what ways do participants in Nigeria‘s Gülen-inspired schools consider the schools to be addressing the national educational problems of Nigeria?‖
This second question entails the following sub-questions:
(a) How do participants‘ experiences with the schools reflect the manner
in which the Gülen schools with which they are affiliated address the
ethnic, tribal, religious, geographical, and economic divisions that exist in
Nigerian society?
(b) Do participants‘ experiences with the Gülen schools indicate that the
schools are preparing students to affect positive change in Nigerian
society?
Procedures for Data Collection and Analysis
To answer the two broad research questions the researcher gathered and analyzed a significant amount of data, as qualitative research demands. Because of the amounts, the collected information had to be maintained in an organized fashion (Denzin &
Lincoln, 2005; Huberman & Miles, 1983; Merriam, 1998; Stake, 1994, 1995; Yin, 2003).
All the individual and focus group interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim then filed in such a way as to reflect the means by which the material was collected and the order of collection. 113
As far as the data analysis is concerned, the researcher was cognizant of Patton
(2002), who, in describing the process of inductive analysis, advises that ―the patterns, themes and categories of analysis come from the data; they emerge out of the data rather than being imposed on them prior to data collection and analysis‖ (p. 390). This analysis process began after the first individual interviews were transcribed and the documentation reviewed. Marshall and Rossman (1989) argue that ―the phase of data analysis is the most difficult, complex, ambiguous, creative and fun‖ (p. 115) component of qualitative research. At the onset of analysis, the researcher began to make notes regarding the nature of the data and identify possible themes or trends from the initial transcriptions, field notes and documents.
After reading through the transcripts in search of ―underlying meaning,‖ as suggested by Creswell, (2003, p. 155), the researcher compared responses from the interviewed participants to discover themes that would emerge. These transcripts were then shared with peers in doctoral programs whose areas of inquiry are varied and different from that of the researcher in order to check the potential explanatory power of various emergent themes. Here, the researcher enrolled peers as ―debriefers‖ to provide
―an external check on the inquiry process,‖ this recommended by Lincoln and Guba
(1985, p. 301).
As the remaining individual and focus-group interviews were transcribed and read, the researcher began to make notes in the margins of the transcriptions to summarize the topics that participants discussed. At the same time, he began to generate a list of common ideas and possible themes that were repeated or appeared as patterns in 114
the interviews, observations and documents reviewed. Initially, the list of concepts and common ideas consisted of roughly 60 individual items. As these concepts surfaced in the interviews, the researcher began to look through the field notes and archived documents for information that supported the general concepts and ideas from the interviews.
The last step in the analysis process was the grouping of concepts and ideas into common themes and subthemes. The purpose of this procedure, according to Patton
(2002), is that it helps in ―developing some manageable classification or coding scheme‖ that can serve as ―the first step of analysis‖ (p. 463). The process of qualitative case analysis was applied to all of the twenty-two transcripts and the field notes before the themes were grouped and organized. Patton (2002) described this use of content analysis as a means for a ―data reduction and sense-making effort that takes a volume of qualitative material and attempts to identify core consistencies and meanings‖ (p. 453).
As these themes emerged, the researcher identified key events and processes within the schools as the best descriptors to aid in the organization of the data. Each major theme was given a color code and all transcripts were reread and color-coded by themes as suggested by Creswell (2003).
Four major themes and six sub-themes emerged from the data, all related to the two comprehensive research questions that overlap and feed one another. Using the peer debriefers mentioned above, the emergent themes were reviewed and discussed by colleagues. They reviewed all color-coded field notes, the interview transcripts, the 115
research observation field notes, and school documentation to ensure that the data fit correctly into the assigned categories.
Whenever discrepancies arose, the categories were further discussed and reorganized on the basis of consensus. Creswell (2003) suggests the use of another researcher to ―provide an 'audit trail' of the key decisions made during the research process and validate that the decisions were good decisions‖ (p. 158). When themes appeared clear and appropriate to colleagues and the researcher, the themes were analyzed in relation to the research questions.
Overview of Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs)
Figure 5. The Logo of Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs)
Source: From NTICs website, http://www.nticnigeria.com/
All the data for this study was collected on the NTIC campus in Abuja, Nigeria on which reside a group of Gülen-inspired schools. The initiative to build the schools 116
started in 1998 in a rented building with three students and thirteen teachers and only a boys‘ hostel. The schools are private institutions operating under an agreement with the
Nigerian Government under the name ―Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges‖ (NTICs) run by SURAT Educational Institutions Limited. SURAT operates several campuses around Nigeria and other parts of West Africa, with most campuses containing a pre- school, an elementary school, and one or more secondary schools. SURAT has also built a university in Abuja.
The organization currently operates seventeen colleges located in six different states, the one Abuja, Nigeria‘s capitol, and the others in Lagos, Kanu, Kaduna, Yobe, and Ponta states. Together, the schools enroll thirty-two hundred students, twenty-two hundreds of whom live and attend classes in single-sex boarding school environments
(Appendix G). According to the NTICs General Director, the schools are single gender because ―the Nigerian government likes single sex education in boarding schools because they have proved to be more successful compared to other schools.‖ NTICs, administration claims, are secular schools employing a science-oriented curriculum emphasizing science subjects and mathematics, this, it appears to the researcher, to the exclusion of a robust humanities element. When asked about this, the General Director,
Hasan Huseyin Aygun, said:
Of course, we teach social science classes too. Our schools are science-oriented
schools but in our curriculum we have all the subjects, government, history, social
sciences, languages [….] English, French, Turkish, Arabic, and major tribe
languages; Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba languages. 117
The schools, according to Mr. Aygun, have proven to be among the best schools in Nigeria and are receiving increased attention from the general public. Unlike the public schools in Nigeria, NTIC schools have modern facilities and equipment such as projectors, electronic (smart) boards, and internet access in their classrooms and are furnished with fully equipped laboratories in which courses in physics, chemistry, biology, and integrated science classes are taught. All campuses also have science resource centers, computer labs and rich library resources. In addition, the classes are small in size. In the secondary schools, for example, the maximum number of students is
24, allowing the teachers to give more attention to individuals. For the nursery and primary sections, the maximum is 12 students with one main teacher and one assistant in each classroom.
Mission and Historical Background of NTICs
The NTICs describe their mission and vision in their school handbook (2009) which reads as follows:
Our mission is to create a dynamic, favorable, and a modern, conducive
environment for teaching and learning, in order to produce intelligent, enlightened
and highly socialized human beings (youths) who are fit to pursue higher
education and become integrated, effective and productive members of the
society.
Our vision as educationists is to strive through provision of broad based,
appropriate and adequate curricular offerings, using the state of the art technology
to provide qualitative and functional science oriented education of international 118
standard to all our present and prospective students irrespective of nationality,
religion or tribe (p. 2).
As such, the schools are intended to serve both Nigeria and Turkey in several respects.
They are organized to promote academic excellence, particularly in the sciences (Onche,
2010) and, according to teachers and administrators, to encourage sound moral behavior and self-respect, the reason given for students being under very strict supervision. The schools also participate in international competitions and other activities meant to promote cooperation between Nigeria and other nations, particularly the Turkish nation, and to present to the world a Nigeria that is a dynamic country poised to take its place on the international stage. Like other developing countries, to be viable, it needs to build institutions that are recognized as being able to live up to global standards in the education of its citizens. Mr. Aygun had this to say about NTIC‘s contribution to the reputation of Nigeria educationally;
Before we opened the schools, Nigeria didn't have any medals from the science
Olympics, but when we [began competing in] the science Olympics, we had a lot
of (rewards) from other countries. They [Nigerians] had an Olympics committee
in the government but they had no experience with how to get awards in
international competitions. At first, when I came here, I visited them
[government leaders] and explained how to run national and international
Olympics, and I explained the experience I had from Turkey. I told them that
there are two hundred million people in this country and that I believed there to be
a lot of smart students here, so why then were they not running for international 119
Olympics? They told me that they had no experience with international or
national Olympics. So if you help us, we will be more than happy. And we
started altogether to prepare students for the international Olympics.
He continued, saying,
We agreed that when we opened the schools we would have entrance exams
nationwide and we would then select students [based on] the nationwide exam.
After that our teachers, who graduated from the highest ranked universities in
Turkey, would prepare the students for the international Olympics. Right now in
our schools we are celebrating an historic 11 years, and we have a lot of rewards
from the international Olympics, and we are very happy for that. Even the
president of the country, two years ago, invited us to his office where our students
were honored [for having been] rewarded in the international science Olympics,
so he congratulated us for our schools and students.
In addition to that, he mentioned that he had sponsored the National Mathematical
Competition, aimed at putting an end to what he called ―mathematics phobia‖ in the country. Mr. Aygun explained that the competition was meant to enlist qualified students to represent Nigeria in the International Mathematics Olympiad (Etim, 2010; Onche,
2010). In 2010, the seventh year of the national competition, students from 36 Nigerian states competed, more than 1,700 students from 4,000 schools. In the final stage, 36 successful candidates emerged to represent the six zones of the Federation. Eighty-seven of these students were rewarded with a scholarship covering 50 percent of their NTIC expenses, 36 of these receiving scholarships covering 100 percent of the cost of 120
attending. Through projects such as these, NTIC sees itself contributing to the improvement of the educational standards in Nigeria and in other countries where it has built schools. Aygun is garnering government support for such projects and hopes to substantially raise Nigerian achievement in mathematics in the years ahead. He highly praised the National Mathematical Centre (NMC) whose assistance and cooperation, he says, has been encouraging.
As an example of government cooperation in such endeavors, Mr. Aygun noted that ―the president of Nigeria thanked us, gave special rewards to our schools and gave individual gifts for each student. He also recommended us to collaborate with other private schools and help them in preparing students for the international Olympics.‖ He then explained that ―this [in 2009] was the first time a Nigerian student had won first prize [in an academic contest] on the continent. So when his name was announced, all the people came to hug the student and they were happy because it was the first time [one of] their [nation‘s] students had gotten first place. But for me it is regular because
Nigeria is the largest country on the continent, so it should be normal, it should be regular; but until last year they didn't have any rewards on the continent.‖
NTIC students have now won over 70 medals in national and international mathematics and science competitions including the Pan-African Mathematical
Olympiad, the African Informatics Olympiad, the International Mathematical Olympiad, the E-BIKO International ICT Olympiad, and the International Physics Olympiad as well as various other competitions within and outside of Nigeria. The NTICs programs, then, have come to be seen as indicators of the immense potential that resides in Nigerian 121
students and changing the way in which students and the nation view the future of education in the nation. Academic and international achievements of NTICs are presented in (Appendix F).
Encouraged by the achievements and the response they received, SURAT has build a university in Abuja (Onche, 2010) that has as its mission the development of intellectual potential in Nigeria for the purpose of bringing about social and economic change in the country and providing leaders who will be responsible for insuring a positive future for the nation. The Nigerian Turkish Nile University (NTNU) aims to nurture the growth of sensitive, tolerant, inventive, confident, and enterprising youth who are willing to face the problems of Nigeria, Africa and the world. Nigerian Turkish Nile
University describes its mission in its initial student handbook (2009) as follows:
The Mission of the [then] proposed Nigerian Turkish Nile University is to provide
students with opportunities of quality university education that will bring out the
best in them to make them stand tall through time and ready to face the challenges
of a globalized world (p.31).
Furthermore, the NTNU, through its medical programs, seeks to provide quality health care service to the country and, to this end, SURAT has also begun to build the
Nizamiye Turkish Nigerian Hospital in Abuja. The aim of this hospital is to provide medical services, free-of-charge, to all staff and students who work and study at NTICs and the NTNU hospital will bring Turkish doctors to Nigeria.
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Summary of Research Responses
The two broad research questions were designed to allow for examination of the perceptions and outlook of participants involved in Gülen-inspired schools in Abuja.
Interviewees, it should be said at the outset, almost all of them, indicated that they had positive attitude toward the Gülen philosophy and believed that the Gülen educational practices are a positive force in guiding the design of school programs. They also were aware of the fact that the schools are founded by volunteers inspired by Gülen‘s ideas and not by Gülen himself.
The Gülen influence was apparent from the beginning. Our first interviewee,
Hasan Huseyin Aygun, the General Director of Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges and owner of the schools in Abuja and several more in other states of Nigeria, indicated that he was responsible for all aspects of school operation including school administration, curriculum, teaching, and finance. In a three hour interview, he explained that it was the Gülen philosophy that pushed him to undertake the building of the schools.
While Gülen does not have much influence on the day to day operations of the schools,
Aygun said that,
Gülen‘s writings provide a philosophical foundation, a humane notion of how one
should comport oneself in this world as a single human being amongst many, all
worthy, all in need of certain basic things to live decently. These notions guide
those involved in the school in their treatment of others.
With the Gülenian emphasis always in mind, the analysis of the data produced many themes and focused in on the most frequently occurring ideas related to the two 123
comprehensive research concerns, the success of the schools and the manner in which the schools operate. Love, tolerance, and peace are often spoken of in Gülenian circles, and certainly when discussing the NTIC schools with those involved in the program. The second theme to emerge from the data analysis is that of service to others, the principles of service, along with dedication, ethical behavior, and altruism modeled by faculty and staff live through the manner in which they comport themselves and behave toward others. Another theme to have emerged is the strong emphasis on academic achievement and its critical importance to the NTIC mission. Lastly, the data pointed to a theme related to NTIC institutions involvement in the building of a modern nation. This final theme includes three subthemes; education and its role in creating tolerance for diversity, education as a means to end and prevent violence, and education and as a means for building love of country.
Theme One: Love, Tolerance, and Peace
The qualitatively derived body of data collected for this study suggests that the schools do operate as a secular alternative to the public schools and the other private schools that are more closely allied to particular religious and ethnic/tribal institutions.
As such, the NTIC schools appear to provide a means for breaking down barriers that prevent resolution of the ethno-religious differences that too often lead to clashes, some terribly violent, between Nigeria‘s Christians and Muslims, between tribes, and between people of the different geographical regions. The ethno-religious characters of the student bodies in the public schools generally reflect the segregated nature of the society.
Students attend schools where they rarely have the opportunity to meet others with 124
backgrounds different from their own. In the Gülen-inspired schools, however, there are
Muslims, Christians, non-believers and students from 191 different ethnic backgrounds and all of the geographical regions. All NTIC students receive the same education and live peacefully together in a setting that inspires understanding, tolerance, and, it seems, even love. As a result of their experiences in living and attending classes with those of different ethnic, religious, and geographical backgrounds, students come to know other students and appreciate others for who they really are. The Gülen philosophy‘s emphasis on love, tolerance, and peace is understood by those involved with the NTIC schools as essential for solving the terribly disruptive features of Nigerian society.
Love
Gülen (2004) defines love as an elixir; a human lives with love, is made happy by love and makes those around him or her happy with love for others and for all of humankind. During the interviews, the word ―love‖ was repeated 136 times by participants and it is clear that school people consciously make an effort to engage in a rhetoric of love to encourage students to love one another. A Nigerian male teacher said that Gülen always defines humanism as a doctrine of love and humanity and that humanistic message is consistently made clear to the students. One student confirmed the teacher‘s point, stating that,
People in this school teach us to LOVE our country. The idea of love goes
beyond that of simply loving one another. Not only should one love others and
share with others, but each individual should love the country of Nigeria.
Through the love of the country, each individual will work to help the country 125
and, therefore, will help to make the country better. The school is teaching its
students to love their country.
This focus on love is also highlighted by one of the NTICs administrators, who said that,
The idea that we have gotten from school is that we have to know that we are all
one family. We are all one family and we need to share ideas and we need to
share love. We need to share whatever we have with one another. We need not
be selfish with our ideas.
In other words, that means that the one to be considered as a family member is everyone in Nigeria, Turkey, even the world. The school, through Gülen‘s educational paradigm, is sending the message that people must all love each other. There must be an awareness of others and a love for them. To show our love we should share our ideas.
As one can see these three stakeholders, who are directly involved in the educational enterprise of NTICs, agree on the importance of the concept of love in the school programs. Another Nigerian male teacher points out that Gülen‘s philosophy is applied, in the name of love, to the ―brain drain‖ problem Nigeria faces, its intellectuals, too many of them, leaving the country to reside elsewhere.
Love of your country! Fethullah Gülen emphasizes ―love‖ many times in his
books. I think he means by ―love your country‖ for one to be patriotic. So, if we
are a patriotic, then we can do something for our nation. Actually, from the first
year (J-1) to the last year (S-3) of graduation, we are trying to enlighten students
about their country, to love their nation. Therefore, throughout Gülen‘s writings,
he encourages his volunteers to teach students about loving one another as a 126
human being and loving their country. Then they will help their country‘s
development, being arbiters in the future.
To counter the exodus, the students are being taught, throughout their education, about their country and patriotic values. The hope is that the students will want to help their country and will choose to stay in the country and those who go to another country to receive their education, once finished, will return to Nigeria.
In addition to infusing these patriotic values, based upon Gülen‘s notions of love, the school also emphasizes the related principles of peace and mutual understanding. A
Turkish female teacher, in describing her observations of students, said, ―Actually I saw peace and love in the students' eyes, to their teachers and, between, and among them. I saw peace.‖ She said this while explaining why she chose to teach at a school that embraced elements of the Gülen philosophy. Upon visiting the school she saw students acting in ways that demonstrated both love and peace. She felt that she could sense that love in the interactions occurring between the students and the teachers.
There are multiple statements captured during the interviews regarding this loving interaction between students and teachers, the students expressing loving respect for the teachers and the teachers building loving, caring relationships with the students. One student reports that many in his school consider their teachers to be their ―senior brothers.‖ He says,
OK! Here in NTICs, I have learnt a lot of change. Teachers are very respectful to
us both in classrooms and outside. They are always mentoring us to be a right
human being and they are not ignoring us when we need help. For example, 127
when a student falls in any danger s/he is easily picked out of it. Morally wise,
every week we have guardians who supervise us. They just act as our parents.
We even call them ―abi‖ which means senior brother in Turkish languages.
Students emphasize that the relationships that exist between students and teachers are so valuable that people looking at the school can tell that the students experiencing the
Gülen philosophy act differently than students in other schools. A teacher echoed this notion of visible love and concern for others saying,
I understand that if the students love the teacher, I think the teaching will be okay.
There is a strong belief held by the teachers that it is their responsibility to show
love to the students. This love may be shown in the extra work and dedication
they put into spending time with the students and building relationships with
students. This also motivates students to improve their academic achievement
because of mutual respect and understanding between teachers and students.
Love is understood to be a component of the school atmosphere that is related to academic achievement. As one student said,
Something I noticed about the quality of teachers‘ background is their allegiance
to teaching. For example, our biology teacher, he is very dedicated to teaching us.
We are enjoying his class because we learn a lot and he teaches from his heart.
He is so respectful to us. Whenever we ask questions, he responds very politely
and also, he makes a lot of jokes while he is teaching and answering our
questions. So when we see him outside we show him the proper respect, the due 128
respect, and we also have fun with him. We play with him and we know when it
is time to be serious and when it is time just to have fun.
Parents are quite happy with what happens to their children in schools that emphasize love and tolerance along with academic achievement. One of them even said openly that, ―this generation solves all the problems because of tolerance and peace and they will live by love.‖ There is a belief that the school is teaching the Gülen philosophy of love, peace and tolerance and that the students are embracing these ideas. The students, participants report, are learning to live by love. When the students grow up and live by love, they say, they will be able to solve the problems of Nigeria. As one
Nigerian administrator insisted,
The part [of Gülen education] that I think has been helpful to Nigerian education
and Nigerian society is the part of preaching peace and love…sharing love. You
know, of sharing love with others, with the poor, with the rich, seeing ourselves as
one. Then the other one is helping another one, not being a selfish person.
Whatever we have we should try to share it with others, and also encourage others
to share their belongings with the poor.
Already discussed above, but worthy of revisiting because of its importance to the future of the Nigerian nation is the topic of students‘ capacity, through love, to be willing and able to address the problems the country is confronting. A major goal of the NTIC program is to develop future leaders. A Nigerian female administrator at the NTIC Abuja campus addresses this facet of NTICs education saying that, ―through Gülen‘s influence in having schools teach about love, the schools have started to teach the specific skills of 129
showing love in ways such as helping those who are living with poverty. Through the act of helping the poor, you can help to save Nigeria.‖ A part of the Gülen philosophy is the rhetoric of love and, as Wright (2007) states, it is an inspirational philosophy whose essence is education in action, teaching love, tolerance, and mutual cultural respect.
Love is a part of the Gülen philosophy emphasized throughout school and love is modeled in the classrooms and understood to be important by most participants. Through love, participants stressed, people develop humane qualities, good behavior, love for others, enthusiasm for self-improvement, and an active desire to serve others, make a difference in the world, and to persevere this desire in the face of setbacks and failures.
Tolerance
Throughout the interviews, the word ―tolerance‖ was repeated 107 times by participants. In Gülen‘s writings, tolerance is said to be compassion and love. What tolerance means in this context is that the tolerant person simply allows others to exist without interference, in their own realms of thought, even if one disagrees with those thoughts. In Gülen‘s use of the term, tolerance means more than simply abiding by the ideas with which one agrees; it means accepting others with whom one disagrees, genuinely embracing those others‘ viewpoints. In accordance with the Gülen educational philosophy, NTICs uses a two pronged approach in teaching tolerance to the students.
On one hand, the students are taught about tolerance in their character/moral education classes. Students pointed out that they are learning from these courses how to tolerate others, whatever their backgrounds, to respect all points of view because they are the product of human thought. 130
On the other hand, tolerance is taught through the living conditions in the schools where the behavior of teacher and fellow students are based upon the knowledge and attitudes that allow one to live peacefully with those who are different from one‘s self. A student voiced a belief commonly repeated in the statement of others. ―As I have learned to accept people for who they are,‖ he said, ―because of this school filled with diverse students, diverse people with different tribes, and different backgrounds and different religions; we learn tolerance –and dialogue in this school.‖ And, as an NTIC graduate reported, ―this school helps us to learn how to live together peacefully with students from different backgrounds.‖
The data show in a convincing manner that participants are highly aware of the schools‘ emphasis on tolerance and its value in the programs. One parent stressed that,
Once the students learn about tolerance with their classmates who are black or
white and who come from different tribal and religious background in the
classroom, they practice being tolerant from their teachers, because they learn and
see how their teachers tolerate and help all students equally, those who are
children of presidents, governors, state officials, and those who are children from
very poor families. It does not matter because they receive the same education
from the same teachers and the same schools.
It is also clear that, amongst participants, there is an awareness that, in teaching tolerance, the schools are taking advantage of Gülen‘s ideas to address the problems of Nigeria.
The schools, it appears, are teaching the students to live together with students from different backgrounds and succeeding. This is evident in the ways former students talk 131
about how their experiences helped them to learn tolerance so that they were prepared to meet others when they went to college. One put it like this:
One of the Nigerian problems is a conflict related to geographical lines. For
example, Northern Nigeria is where most Christian live and Southern Nigeria is
where, dominantly, Muslims live and there is always a conflict between these
people. However, as NTICs offer education within a boarding school setting, so,
students from all over the country live and eat together at least six years at these
schools. This togetherness breaks geographical lines and will help future
Nigerian society.
The data also shows that, from the participants‘ perspective, Gülen‘s philosophy will surely be used by students when they leave the NTICs to create a better society, one based on geographical harmony and a populace alert to the importance of education and the pursuit of knowledge. The generation that is currently in the NTIC schools, the data suggests, is learning tolerance. They are learning how to interact with people of different ethnicities and religions. At the same time, within the NTIC community, there is awareness of the fact that parents, through their children, are learning of tolerance and, a part of this is tolerance for the ideas their children are learning in the schools. As one
Nigerian female teacher said,
You must respect your children, your child, anybody. You must respect their
feelings; because the same thing can happen to you. And like the current
generation, as I was saying, you can't be the way you were brought up; it is not 132
the same way that I was brought up and is not the same way you will bring up a
child that is just two years old. The generation is changing.
Parents are discovering that their children are learning things that are different from what they (the parents) were taught. Through their children, their attitudes are changed; they come to embrace the lessons in tolerance their children bring home. A Nigerian female teacher enthusiastically said, ―We tell them to respect everybody. You must respect everybody's feelings; you must respect everybody's religion even though your opinions are different from that person's opinions.‖ For some parents, such ideas may be difficult to accept, but they send their children to the schools and, thus, are given reason to tolerate others and ideas with which they may have difficulty agreeing.
The schools are, in overt ways, working to teach tolerance for everyone with the hope that such teaching will alleviate the animosities contributing to the strife that is now so much a part of life in Nigerian society. The tolerance being taught and demonstrated by teachers, this tolerance of others‘ religions and feelings, according to those involved with the schools, is good for the productivity of the schools and for the good of the country. A Turkish female teacher said ―…if you respect each other‘s religion and you respect your feelings, you tend to work together, not minding where such a person comes from and what such a person is doing. Just respect that person.‖ The guiding Gülenian philosophy tells one that the absence of tolerance is a lack of respect for the feelings of others. Time is wasted, and, therefore, effectiveness is undercut when a focus is on where a person is from or what his or her religious beliefs are rather than what that person can contribute to the good of the whole. 133
Participants in the study are aware that tolerance is promoted in the schools in ways other than through direct instruction. They regularly reported that tolerance permeates the culture of the schools. As one Turkish female teacher observed, ―all children are together; we don't separate them, we don‘t segregate, and we don't discriminate.‖ Tolerance at the NTICs is the way of life and the parents are keenly aware of this and almost all interviewed for the study had come to believe in the ethic. Said one,
The way I see people is the way they are being… the way they relate with
me…You may be a Christian and you are terrible and rubbish…you may be
Muslim…. So the important thing is the way you relate with me…that is the way,
the way I appraise… uh…people‘s religion. In fact it does not depend on whether
you are a Christian or Muslim.
There is growing understanding in the broader NTIC community that people can work together despite their different religious beliefs as long as they are tolerant of the differences that exist. Community members, be they students, teachers, administrators, or parent often express the belief that the lessons of tolerance taught by these Gülen influenced schools are relevant and important. The father of a NTIC student, the husband in a mixed religion couple, responded to the questions regarding the teachings of tolerance saying, ―I‘m a Muslim and she is [my wife] a Christian…there is tolerance and then…there is understanding… so is very relevant, and we are living together.‖ These parents have been able to be together and live together through tolerance and love.
Consequently, they feel that the school‘s message is very relevant. 134
Teachers consistently declare their personal buy-in to the Gülen belief in teaching tolerance. A Nigerian male teacher reports that,
There is no division problem; it is solved in this school by taking care of them and
showing tolerance. Teachers here in this school tolerate all students from
different ethnic backgrounds and promote mutual understanding between all
people – Turkish –white- black as well as other tribes. So this is also one of the
unique things about these schools.
They feel that the emphasis on tolerance is unique to the schools that are built around
Gülen beliefs. To this point, a Turkish male teacher said, ―I read a lot of Gülen‘s articles and books…He always talks about teaching with peace, tolerance, unity, and encouraging education that helps people tolerate other people through education.‖ They see the importance of education in their reading of Gülen. Their job of providing education, they say, is important because it promotes tolerance amongst their students. As a parent says,
―they are equal, no matter your – [ethnicity] - no matter your money, no matter the type of religion, and no matter your class - everybody is equal.‖
In Nigeria, as mentioned earlier, there is considerable strife resulting from religious differences. One student had this to say of the situation:
Actually among the average Muslim, average Christian, and average other
religions there are still conflicts (...) When we come here we are all under the
same umbrella; they make us understand that religion is between you and God. I
don't have to make her see things the way I see things, I just have to love her for 135
who she is; individually. Here they make you understand that you are all crystals
and you don't have to rub each other.
There is a difference between working with someone to help them grow intellectually and a need to convince others to join your religion. The school‘s tolerance teachings, according to the students, teach that you can have your religion without finding it necessary to convert others to your religion. The philosophy that guides school operations, as a parent reports, causes all who are a part of the schools to demonstrate tolerance.
You can see the president's child in the school but he is equal with the other ones
who are from a poor family. Elite students will enter the school's premises with
the same thing that other [poor] children are entering. So, SES disadvantaged
students will not be inferior in this school.
The students who have graduated from these schools talk about how the school prepared them to be tolerant of those from tribes different than their own. As one reported, ―…when I was here I didn't really pay attention to anybody's tribe, or religion, you know. I just got along with most of the students. And we used to go for picnics and discussions and all that; there was always a mix of people so I didn't really notice that difference.‖ In the schools students all work together and spend time together through involvement in social activities such as playing basketball and going on picnics. The administrators stress the value of such activities for fulfilling the mission described in
Gülen‘s philosophy of education. One Nigerian administrator at NTICs told the researcher that, 136
These are [Turkish] people who don‘t mind, whether you are black, whether you
are white, whether you are a Muslim, whether you are a Christian, all they want is
oneness, they want to put everyone together. To achieve one goal, so this is seen
as different from the school I am coming from because my previous school had
only Christians. Do you understand? I love work with rich diversity and
multiculturalism. So this is one of the reasons why I am here with them.
The social ―intermixing‖ in activities that promote cooperation and that illuminate the joy to be gained through such interaction with people of differing backgrounds greatly aids the quest for harmony.
The schools do not focus on the colors of the students‘ skin or their religions.
Many of the administrators interviewed told the researcher that they chose to work at these schools because they believed in the goal of teaching tolerance. Whether you are a
Muslim or a Christian, whether you are from the Yoruba tribe or the Hausa tribe; whether you are Turkish, black or white, they said, we all should learn to live together. ―This is the idea of the school and this is what I think the Nigerian education needs,‖ said one of the many Nigerians with an administrative role at the school. NTICs promoting tolerance between the tribes, they argue, is about changing the world. The sentiments of those involved with the Gülen schools in Nigeria are summed up in this statement by one of the administrators:
I love the environment because, you know, that after Ramadan, Christian kids let
other kids cut in line because they knew the Muslim kids had been fasting. So 137
that is incredible, because here is a person understanding somebody. And this
makes me doubt they would ever do harm to each other.
So these are Gülen ideas, to accept people whoever they are, where ever they come from, whatever their nationalities and whatever their religion. According to one teacher, ―Gülen says, ―the world is too big and it‘s enough for all of us to live. So these are the ideas we tell our students.‖ She continued, saying that,
To abide by peace, together with whomever you are with. I accept Gülen's ideas;
I think he is right, whatever he says about peace and about education. Whatever I
learn from him I also tell my students, tell my colleagues and tell my staff. I am a
Muslim and some people might think this is a Muslim school, but it is not. There
is nothing done here to teach students the Muslim religion and nothing to convert
students to Muslims, so it is not an issue in our schools.
Tolerance is a major tenet of the Gülen directed education. This is obvious in the manner in which students comport themselves and interact with one another. It appears that the schools‘ emphasis on tolerance is having the desired effect on students and everyone else who is associated with the schools.
Peace
Peace is the other dominant theme in the data. It was repeated 87 times by participants. Peace is the hoped result of the love and tolerance being taught. For a country like Nigeria, this is paramount because Nigeria experiences so much strife related to the religious, ethnic, regional, and socio-economic backgrounds of its people. The 138
NTIC schools are teaching a type of collaboration, where individuals do not fight with one another over their individual differences. As one of the parents emphasized:
I see NTICs as “Peace Islands” as they provide a safe harbor for our children
from all walks of life, and also following NTICs examples, the schools promote
respect for other cultures and thoughts of life. Throughout their education
students learn to appreciate other faiths and cultures as well as their own.
The notion of peace islands comes from Rumi, a philosopher who greatly influenced
Gülen. As the General Director, explained,
Gülen is following the thought of Rumi, a popular thinker and philosopher in
early 13th century. Gülen, like Rumi, promotes opening one‘s mind and heart to
all beliefs and cultures and have a seat in their heart for any person no matter what
the other‘s background is. Come, come, whoever you are, says Rumi.
―Gülen goes beyond that and encourages everyone to reach out to the other,‖ Aygun continued,
That is, even if they do not come to you, you take the first step, go to others and
establish a medium of dialogue. Following the examples of Rumi and Gülen, our
schools [NTICs] establish bridges or ―peace islands‖ closing the gap among
various ethnic identity nations and societies.
This response is directly related to NTICs desire to lead the country forward in a peaceful manner to insure a peaceful future for generations to come. This objective of teaching peace is also clearly stated by one Turkish teacher, who said, ―We prepare to teach our students and our children how to live in peace together because there are a lot of tribal 139
and religious clashes here and many non-educated people in Nigeria.‖ To one parent, the results are obvious. ―Actually, there is a peace in this school and this school brings to peace building within educational activities to our children.‖ She continued to say,
―When I visit this school campus, I see that the students are interacting and collaborating with each other as a brotherhood. So this is an environment that we want to see as
Nigerians.‖ This appears to be a direct consequence of the teachers‘ strong desire to implement Gülen principles through their teaching. As one Turkish male teacher explains, ―specifically, I read a lot of Gülen‘s articles and books. Basically, he always talks about teaching with peace, tolerance, unity, and encouraging for education that helps people become tolerant through education.‖
The teachers regularly discuss how Gülen is to be echoed through their teaching taking their reading of Gülen into consideration as they plan for teaching. A Nigerian male teacher noted that ―peace, love, and tolerance are playing a big role in this school.
So, at this school they have people, good people with good character, who can help each other and understand, and respect each other where ever you come from.‖ A Nigerian female teacher added that ―This is a very crucial step.‖ And a parent further emphasized the importance of the peace focus in the development of a country such as Nigeria.
―NTIC schools,‖ she said, ―they are teaching our children peace so love and peace are developing in Nigeria.‖
Through tolerance and love, participants agreed, peace can happen and change can take place. People know of the struggles of Nigeria because strife and civil war are elements of recent history. The schools, according to those involved with them, exist to 140
create good people to change Nigeria and promote peace in the country. The generation that is currently in school has much pressure put on it. They are being raised to be the generation that solves the problems of Nigeria. The schools have taken on the role of training this generation to live in peace and promote peace for the country in adulthood.
It is assumed that by teaching students to love others and tolerate ideas different from one‘s own, students will learn how to live in peace with one another and, in adulthood, they will be able to live serve as leaders who promote positive change for
Nigeria. The school sees its role to be that of change agent, an institution that teaches students about love and tolerance to promote peace and positive change. Through the education system built on Gülen‘s ideas, the school, those involved with it, will change
Nigeria into a peaceful place.
Theme Two: Teacher as a Model
The second theme that arises from the data analysis is that of the teacher as a role model. The teachers, who work in the schools, as reported earlier, are influenced by
Gülenian ideals. Their belief in Gülenian principles of education encourages them to demonstrate the altruistic behaviors that they hope for students to emulate. The teachers act as role models through their giving to each other and to students, by being altruistic themselves. They serve as examples when they, for example, provide tutoring services after school without charge. Teachers also spend portions of their own teaching salaries on gifts and food for students. They act as models to be imitated, in terms of dedication, ethics and altruism. One teacher reported that his reason for coming to the NTIC schools was to be a role model for students – to lead by setting examples. One Nigerian female 141
teacher went so far as to say that the NTIC teachers‘ behavior differed greatly from the teachers students in the public schools experienced. ―In the public schools in Nigeria,‖ she said,
…the teachers don't seem to come to school all the time, because nobody will be
there to supervise their activities there, so they just leave school. It's for the
government - at the end of the month I'll get what I'm supposed to earn. They
don't really put the interest of the students first.
In the schools that are Gülenian inspired, the ethos of the place is insistent that teachers care about the students and put the interests of the students before their own.
This attitude is highly appreciated by the parents who see teachers work long hours and stay after at the end of the school day. One of them joyfully acknowledged that,
One thing I noticed is that Nigerian-Turkish will not take money for overtime on
these children – that is what I noticed. But while my children were in other
schools, we were paying for after school lessons.
Parents can also see the ethical nature of teachers, another parent telling the researcher that, ―You cannot bribe a teacher. You just can‘t.‖ This comment reflects the integrity of the teachers who operate under the influence of the Gülenian belief system. Their lack of concern for monetary compensation is reflected in the following comment:
The salary is not higher and what-so-ever. If you are dealing with children there
are a whole lot of blessings that come from children and especially the
educational system. You can't dictate for all that you are doing, believe me you
can't dictate it. What you get, do your best, do your work and I think it goes a 142
long way. You cannot dictate, even if they happen to give you all the work, all
the money, do you really think you'll be paid for the work that you'll be paid for,
the work that you've done? You taught someone and he is the president and
yourself, you are not the president; that person is the president. You've not
gained, so I won't say that they can pay you for all that you have been doing.
Nobody can really pay you for what you are doing.
Furthermore, they implicitly teach students the importance of punctuality and hard work by being on time themselves and staying late after the official working hours. As a
Turkish male teacher states:
Teaching by example, I have to let you know. We always come to class before
students so, if I come late in class, how can I say that the students should not
come late? When I say something to class they know that I am serious about what
I am talking about it. So, you need to be serious first if not you can‘t manage the
class. You should be serious in class and show it by your teaching methods but
also you should be friendly outside with students so they can understand your
teaching method. This is a kind of management in classroom. So this is a
qualification for a teacher for teaching well in classroom with all subjects.
In regard to altruism, the teachers, respondents report, are striking examples to imitate because they cooperate among themselves, offer financial support and extra free hours to their students. Gülenian philosophy, participants say, urges them, as one administrator pointed out, to function on the basis of ―oneness.‖ ―The idea of oneness,‖ 143
said an interviewee, ―is being one and the idea of wanting for each other. What you want for yourself, you want it for me. What I want for myself I should want it for you.‖
This concept is what administrators and teachers say they bring to the classroom and promote throughout the school. This is demonstrated through the way the teachers interact among themselves, as reported by one Turkish teacher:
All teachers in this school are like brothers and helping each other as they are
helping to students. Teachers are very respectful when talk and interact each
other. So, when students can see the relationship and collaboration between
teachers they are following their teachers as an ―example.‖ This behavior of the
teacher effects on students in a positive way and this is very important for
students‘ life.
The parents, it appears, are impressed with the way that teachers demonstrate their altruistic Gülenian ideals and a Turkish administrator said that sharing with the others is,
The best way to help our society is to share our belongings and knowledge with
others who has limited or do not have it. We should not be a selfish with our own
things. For example, if Gülen has not been shared his knowledge, idea and if he
did not encourage us to help other people how could we come here to help
Nigerian society.
In response to the Turkish administrator‘s comment, one student said;
We learn to give our stuff to our friends from our teachers. For example, one of
my teachers told me that, if I do not have anything to give my friends, I can smile
at them when I talk with them. He said that smiling is like a charity if you have a 144
smile for others. Another idea that we learn from this school is that we are all one
family, and we need to share ideas that we have. We need to share whatever we
have with one another. We need not to be selfish with our ideas and with our
things.
As participants‘ see things, teachers do what they preach because their ultimate ideal is to be models of dedication, ethical behavior and altruism to help their students learn to be generous and learn to live together. If these values are adhered to as key values, students are likely to help in precipitating change for the good of Nigeria.
Theme Three: Academic Achievement
The third theme that the data indicated to be worthy of discussion was the academic achievement of the students. The levels of achievement attained, participants said, is a result of the effect of actions taken in accordance with the principles of education reflected in the two previous themes. As a matter of fact, the NTIC schools, informants reported, have succeeded in engaging students in high-level academic studies while, in the process, changing the way students see themselves and in how they interact with others. Success in academic competition was mentioned repeatedly by participants as an important aspect of NTIC culture. Because of their successes and the reputation success has wrought, the schools are amongst the most prestigious in the country and consistently attract students whose parents are members of the both Nigerian elite and poor families. The majority of the participants emphasized that the NTIC schools are also receiving considerable attention from the government because of their achievement, in particular their high graduation rates. Pride in achievement and willingness to do what 145
is necessary to maintain high levels of achievement are evident in many of the comments collected for the study.
To be more specific, in terms of students‘ behaviors and skill acquisition, most participants involved in the study were impressed to witness the changes that take place in students once they become students in the NTIC schools. For instance, one parent told the interviewer that,
In interaction, social interaction…you can see how these children interact
socially. Mr. Aygun can bear witness to this when they travel to Turkey…my
children have been to Turkey now, two times. And there…they were staying with
different parents. There was a parent, if I can repeat the story, who wrote a letter
that one of my sons behaved extremely wonderful…you know. So, at the
domestic level…even in the social, and every other the they …they appraised of
their behavior--very well and…I gave the letter to Mr. Huseyin to interpret for me
what the parents had said…the parents wanted me to be a friend to that family.
Another parent had this to say:
What I can say [is that there have been] changes in the eloquence of speech, the
intelligence, the discussion level. The children can discuss with you at any level,
you know the content…the content at their level: they are so good in it, yes.
Some parents were anxious to report upon how differently their children behave now as opposed to behavior observed when these students attended the state run schools.
Behavior changes, they say, help students to increase their academic achievement. One told the researcher that, 146
The quality of the education at this school is the emphasis on language. Because,
when my son entered in this school after a year, I realized that he could speak
fluently and confidently in English and also in other tribal languages too.
However, when he was at his previous school, he was so shy he could not even
speak with us. So, I am very happy to see my child is growing up with self-
confidence.
Another says that she feels the schools‘ adherence to Gülen‘s philosophy is responsible for many major and positive changes in her child.
In addition, to perception of changes in behavior and attitude toward academic subjects, many reported that the schools succeed in giving students a desire to study and develop understanding of the concepts being taught, in part because the schools help them to get over their fear of such subjects as mathematics and science by helping them understand that they are capable of mastering them. One parent, laughing, considered her experiences with math in contrast to how her child is experiencing the subject. She said,
Children hate mathematics in Nigeria. Like me, when I was in secondary school -
though I was a bit good in mathematics...not much - but whenever a mathematics
teacher was coming, some of them [fellow students] would just go through the
window. But my children, anytime they are going for Math Olympiad, they call
me ‗mommy, mommy come and pray for us - we are going for Olympiad
mathematics competition.‘ So look at how children are even rushing for
mathematics. I am very happy that my children like mathematics a lot. 147
Furthermore, the NTICs students are, in general, conscious of the value of the education they get from the NTICs. This is clearly voiced by a student from a focus group.
―Comparing [myself] to students who came from public schools, we were better off… but then - yes I'd say they definitely gave us what we needed to start off in the university.‖
Students believe that they are receiving a better education than the students who are attending the public schools and other private schools. They feel that they are better prepared for universities than those who attend schools that are not a part of the Gülen education network. In addition, they are hoping that education will change people in the future because, as one of students said;
It is more the illiterates that do that kind of thing [act in violent ways]. Well, in
the educated environment, where there is education, all those things can't be
happening. It is more [prevalent] where people just go to religious schools. They
never went to a school where they teach math or English. They just go for
Islamic studies; some go for their Christian studies. So it happens mainly
amongst those kinds of people.
Graduating students recognize the quality of their preparation and what it has done for them. They also are aware of the schools‘ reputations and the value of that reputation for further endeavors. A NTIC graduate said,
So, to get admitted to universities in Nigeria and abroad is hard but we are
prepared here. Our [NTIC] school organized additional classes for preparation for
the Nigerian university nation-wide exam, TOEFL, GRE, and others. Therefore, 148
we passed all tests easily. I think we were so lucky that we graduated from this
school.
The Gülen-inspired schools, the graduates interviewed agreed, prepared them for higher education and they emphasized that they were lucky because of theirs and their school‘s accomplishments.
Recognition of the quality of education provided in NTIC schools rises to the highest levels of Nigerian society. Documents provided to the researcher showed, for example, that former Nigerian president (2008) Musa Yara‘dua was very much aware of the work of the NTICs and praised them for the kind of science and math education provided and for helping children, from a young age, succeed at the international level against students from other countries in academic competitions. Recognition is also evident on the website allAfica.com which commends the schools for the education offered students in ―training them to grow up as global citizens in line with globalization.‖ The commendation from Yara‘dua extended beyond achievement to recognition for opportunity provided to students from all parts of Nigeria, from all religious backgrounds, and socio-economic conditions, in part by keeping fees low.
Almost all of students who are finishing primary school at the NTCI are progressing on to secondary school, something not typical of schools in Nigeria (see
Table 5). 149
Table 5
Graduation Rate of NTIC Schools in Abuja, 12th Grade Students Entering 2004 and
Graduating in 2009
Academic Year Total Number of Total Number of 12th Percent
Students entering grade
NTICs in grades 6-12 Students Graduated
2004 58 58 100
2005 65 64 98
2006 59 59 100
2007 75 75 100
2008 70 68 97
2009 92 92 100
Total 419 419 99.2
Source: Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs) Handbook (2009)
As table 5 shows NTICs 12th grade students‘ average graduation rate from 2004-2009 is
99 percent. It appears that students enrolled in the NTIC schools by the 6th grade in
Abuja are very likely to complete their high school educations, something not so common in the state run schools. In addition, data collected from NTIC administrators and certified by the state accreditation agencies show that senior secondary (SS3) level students at the schools in Abuja all passed the first Junior Secondary Certificate
Examination (JSCE) examination administered by the Educational Research Committee
(ERC) in Abuja. This 100% success rate is maintained in the following year when 150
students take the Senior Secondary Certificate Examination (SSCE), conducted by
National Examination Council (NECO). This holds true for the years 2002, 2003 and
2004. This is, at least in part, due to the fact that the NTICs provide considerable help for students who need it through supplementary lessons offered on Saturdays in the major subjects. As Onche (2010) reports, by their tenth year of operation in Nigeria, NTICs are one of the most renowned and respected colleges in Nigeria. A Nigerian who teaches for
NTIC reported that one of the greatest achievements of the schools is that even people who are not involved with them are aware of their accomplishments.
If we bring one of the students from another school to our school just for 2-3
hours, s/he will recognize immediately a positive environment and s/he will learn
something from our students‘ even if there for only a short time. Students from
outside will recognize the differences between NTICs and their schools.
Teachers regularly emphasized, as the teacher above did, that the contribution of the teaching and learning environment at NTICs is noticeable by other people outside the schools.
One factor in the success of the schools is having the majority of students living on campus in dormitories (hostel). A student told the researcher that one important goal, achieved through taking on the responsibilities of living away from home in the presence of others who are not members of their immediate families, is the attainment of independence, growth in the knowledge that one must take care of one‘s self while at the same time considering the needs of others. 151
One of key element of our success is hostel, because students from boy and girls
sections live in hostels. There are a lot of advantages to living there; first, they
have tutoring time every day from Monday to Friday and each class has two tutors
to help us with our homework and also prepare us for the next day‘s classes.
Second, we learn how live independently like without family so, it will help when
we go to universities in other countries. Third, we also learn that there is no
differentiation between poor and wealthy students, different ethnic and religious
backgrounds etc.
As the student reports, the residential setting allows for students to have access to tutors everyday and live in a more independent manner in relation to how they live when home. Students, no matter what their background is, live in the same setting with the same amenities. This equity in living conditions allows for students from different socio- economic and religious backgrounds to cohabitate in a way that diminishes emphasis on differences between students and leads to better understanding between people that could not otherwise be achieved, a factor in academic success on university campuses with diverse student populations. NTICs boarding facilities provide students with a comfortable home that leads to responsible behavior and important kinds of socialization.
Throughout the researcher‘s stay on the NTICs campuses, individuals from all participant groups mentioned with regularity the value of the boarding school environment. The benefits of NTICs boarding schools can be enumerated as follows: 152
They provide students a comfortable living environment in which to study while
surrounded by others deeply involved in academic activities, something not true
of the home environments of most.
The family of boarders is made up of people from different backgrounds and this
allows for discussions that included multiple perspectives, a key to growth of
critical thinking ability. Researcher observations in the dorms and on dormitory
grounds confirmed reports from many that boarders truly enjoy each other‘s
company and benefit from the sharing of ideas that take place, a wonderful sight
to see in a divided nation.
Students who board regularly visit students from other NTICs campuses across
Nigeria and from this learn of life in places different from their own, again, a
factor in widening of perspective, in developing increasingly sophisticated
notions of the nation and the world. It was clear that the visits occurred
frequently enough to allow students on different campuses to know one another
so well as to be on a first name basis with those they visited.
The NTICs boarding program includes travel to recreational and educational sites
around the country, to regional and national parks, to museums and historical
sites. For many, these are experiences they would not have if they lived at home.
The campus houses well-equipped sports facilities for basketball, football
(soccer), table tennis and such. Health and intellectual growth are understood to
go hand in hand. 153
Living in these family-like learning environments helps the students with time
management since they have an organized hostel schedule. They are taught to
use time wisely and they have immediate access to school materials.
One of the students noted how the residential realities cultivate a strong version of multicultural understanding, again a factor related in important ways to academic growth.
He told the researcher that ―Students from very poor families and from the villages live here with President of country‘s kid, so it is a unique place. Also, there are a lot of sport activities…every weekend. I like it very much and I think there are a lot of advantages to live in hostel.‖
Beyond the living conditions and the Math Olympics, it is also worth mentioning, as a Nigerian male teacher reported, the role played by the parents and teachers from different cultural and socio-economic backgrounds who come together to support the schools that support their children. The collaboration of parents, teachers, and students make these schools successful. For example, the Parent and Teachers association (PTA) meets once a month to discuss students‘ needs and other aspects of school and its work.
This engagement motivates both parents and teachers to work hard for students‘ achievement.
Theme Four: The Building of a Modern Nation
The first three themes, (1) love, tolerance and peace, (2) teachers as role models, and (3) academic achievement, all work in support of the fourth theme, the building of a modern nation. This theme, is divided into three smaller subthemes based on the critical relationships that exist between education and tolerance of diversity, education and the 154
end of violence, and education and patriotic concern for the betterment of the creation of a modern Nigerian nation. Because of this, each of the three subthemes will be discussed in relation to the two comprehensive research questions.
The country of Nigeria, most involved in the study report, is faced with many problems. Addressing these problems is understood by some to be a critical goal of the private education system that exists in Nigeria. Amongst the most critical problems is the shocking lack of education amongst the people, which leads to high rates of illiteracy.
Some also believe that lack of education is a major cause for conflict and war so prevalent in the nation‘s history, because people are ignorant of the plight of others and unable or unwilling to deal with difference in a civil society. In addition, some argue, it is lack of education that leads to illicit and harmful drug use and the proliferation of sexually transmitted diseases.
Education and Tolerance for Diversity
The hope for a better future may reside in the private schools that exist in the country. These schools are promoting changes in the way Nigerian‘s are educated, serving as models for change in the public school system and providing the means to educate a generation that is literate and capable of building a better Nigeria. The Gülen schools are thought by many to be at the forefront of the movement to build an educational system that helps students grow academically while developing character traits and moral understandings that goes beyond religion to instill values that are essential for a civil society. In the NTIC schools, those who were interviewed would argue that the schools are addressing issues of intolerance and violence by teaching 155
students how to be respectful of self and others and how to live honest lives. This character education is supported by the diversity experienced in the schools. The students are living peacefully with students from different socio-economic, religious, ethnic, and geographical backgrounds. In their everyday lives, in their daily routines, they are given the opportunity to put into action the lessons aimed at living peacefully with people who are different from themselves.
People who have not had experiences with those who are different from themselves are unable to live harmoniously in settings punctuated by a diversity of people. Stereotypes and lack of education have led to much violence and fear within the country. But through character education students are learning how to live peacefully with others. Through living with students of different religions, ethnicities, and SES, students are learning the lesson. They live, play, and learn with people who are different from themselves and carry what they learned into the social situations in which they find themselves. Amidst the challenges of living in a country fraught with tension played out in deadly clashes between members of different religious sects, parents report that the
NTIC schools succeed in bringing students to see one another as fellow human beings of equal value despite differences in faith. The parents appear to agree that it is beneficial to ignore the differences so that common ground can be discovered on which all can live in relative harmony. As the General Director said,
My schools help out the people from different backgrounds to understand
each other. Then in the boarding schools I am running, people live
together, have showers together, and eat together, and study together in the 156
same class together, and this helps the Nigerian generation in the future.
The Director went on to explain that having a residential program where the children live on campus allows them to get to know each other through proximity. He is confident that by learning to embrace diversity in their school, they are better equipped to be the future leaders of the country. Testimony from a graduate of NTIC in one of the student focus groups mirrors the thoughts of the administrator:
Here you get to meet a lot of people from the different parts of the country, so
when you go to university you are exposed to different kinds of people. So if you
already have an idea of how to relate with them... you don‘t have a lot of
problems, you can enjoy the diversity.
Another NTIC administrator, a Nigerian national, told the researcher that,
Our schools in Nigeria are very diverse because we have students from
191 different tribes, and we have students from Ghana, Turkey, India,
Pakistan, and other African countries. So these students from different
backgrounds learn how live together, respect each other. I think this is a
very unique issue for Nigerian society as well as for global world.
A current 12th grade student‘s comment echoed what the administrator said:
They don‘t teach you how... to be a Christian, like in my former school,
but rather how to tolerate other religions. It is a mixture of Christians,
Muslims and other religions. They teach you how to accept other people
with their religions because in this school there are a lot of internationals
and maybe their behaviors might be different but you can see that we are 157
all together in this school. They show us how to cope with one another.
The students learn about diversity through both the diverse nature of the school population and the residential system, and also through travel. As noted above, the school arranges trips for students to encounter life outside Nigeria in places such as
Ghana, North Africa and Turkey. This travel is believed to help them learn how to relate to other people who live in different geographical locations. From what the NTIC‘s students told us, it appears that they do learn to accept each other as human beings and do have mutual respect for one another. In regard to socioeconomic background, a Nigerian administrator said,
We have the students from very wealthy families—the richest families in
the country and the poorest families in the country—and they live in
dormitories, they live together, eat together, share the same classroom, and
receive the same education. And the most important thing is that they
understand each other.
The diversity experience doesn‘t end with students learning how to live and work with others of different ethnicities and religions, but also teaches them how to live and work with others of different socioeconomic status. As one student highlighted, ―It‘s actually a mixed school... where you can relate no matter where you are from, who you are, what you or who you believe in, whatsoever.‖ An 11th grade female student, asked if the school changed the way she understood others said,
Yes, because when I was here I didn‘t really pay attention to anybody‘s
tribe or religion, you know, I just got along with most of the students. 158
And we used to go for picnics and discussions and all that, there was
always a mix of people so I didn‘t really notice that difference.
Students talked about how the diverse living experience works to accomplish the goals that are set forth by the administration. They report they have learned not to take into consideration such things as tribe and religion when socializing with others at their school events and this was truly evident in the interaction the researcher observed in classrooms, hallways, during assemblies, on field trips, and on the sports courts. This indicates that the attitudes that the teachers and the administration are attempting to inculcate in students are being internalized. Another Turkish administrator said, There are a lot of good students from the poor families who cannot send their kids here. So this
[is] one shortcoming.‖ In order to accomplish the goal of diversifying the student population, students of low socioeconomic status are provided with scholarships to attend the school. A Turkish administrator said,
We are not only supporting poor and outstanding students. Some states‘
governors also support four or five poor students every year.
Additionally, one of the Turkish businessmen who does business in
Nigeria is also supporting twenty students each year too. Therefore, in
total we have 400 students with scholarship out of 1,600 students in our
schools. Our students [are] from very poor family and very wealthy
family but they live together, eat the same food, share the same class, and
learn the same stuff.
A Nigerian male teacher reported that ―The uniqueness of our school is being a diverse, 159
multicultural school. Our students and teachers are from Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, Igbo and other tribes, Indian, Turkish and Pakistani and so on. Also our staff are Christians,
Muslim, and of indigenous religions.‖ Although academic results are important, and a major tenant of Gülen education, a very important part of this educational system, is the diversity that exists among teachers and students in each school and the understandings such proximity develops.
Education and the End of Violence
Informants claimed with regularity that it is mainly the illiterate who are eager to use violence. Several interviewees said much the same thing as this student, from a focus group, who told the researcher that,
The problem in Nigeria is a high illiteracy. People in Nigeria are divided into
three different education systems which don‘t work at all. In Muslim schools they
teach about the Muslim religion, in Christian schools they teach Christianity, and
the indigenous schools teach their own tribal beliefs. These segregated schools do
not emphasize math or English. They just teach basic things and religious study.
Through the schools segregation, students do not learn about other ethnic and
religious backgrounds. So, these cause more problems. Our main problems in the
country are ignorance and clashes between different ethnic and religious groups.
It is clear from the statements collected that many teachers and administrators also appear to think that, while public schools have their share of problems, the religious private schools do not help to address the problems that divide the country, often emphasizing 160
differences rather than teaching for mutual understanding between religions and ethnic groups.
If concepts such as love, peace, tolerance, and ethics are not introduced through education, according to the participants, Nigeria will have a tragic future. Students at the
NTICs warned the researcher about this saying,
Lot of countries run terrorist organizations and spend a lot of money on war. For
example, some countries make nuclear bombs. And I believe that America is not
happy to be in Iraq or Afghanistan. That might be the government position but I
believe the American people are not happy with that because they spend billions
and billions of money. But I also understand them because they worry about Iraq
and Afghanistan becoming big problems so they try to solve the problems but in a
wrong way. Right now Iran is building chemical bombs and tomorrow we don't
know what to expect Iran is going to do. And Turkey is border with Iran. Maybe
they are going to bomb Turkey first.
Countries all over the world experience problems with war and violence and much money is spent on war in the oil rich Islamic countries. Consequently, the Nigerian students are afraid the connection between religion, oil and war will influence the future of Nigeria. What is happening in these other countries is likely to happen in Nigeria too since it is religious leaders in these countries who have an impact on political decisions and, the religious schools, by teaching divisiveness rather than solidarity. This could push the balance of things in the wrong direction. Unfortunately, as one student pointed out, 161
There are a lot of ignorant imams [preachers] interpreting holy books, like the
Qu‘ran. Imagine that? If you really an illiterate person and even cannot speak
English picking up a book like the Qu‘ran read to people. So, this is one of the
big issues [problems] in our country. Illiterate people trying to educate [others];
how could it be? There are a lot of teachers or imams around the country who
even cannot speak English or know nothing about religions but they teach.
Unfortunately, many people obey them whatever they say so, this brings problems
between ethnic and religious groups.
As another student argued, ―It is only education that will help them to learn the right information and tell people the truth.‖ This point of view is shared by one of the parents:
Well, for some people who are not educated…but for the people who are well
educated…like I can say I‘m well educated…I‘m a Muslim, she is a
Christian…there is tolerance and then…there is mutual-understanding between
her and me. So, NTIC is a unique example having students from all of the states,
also from different ethnics and religious background. Therefore, if we have a lot
of schools such as NTICs that will be minimize problems in our country.
Moreover, a student who understood both Gülen‘s principles and the Qu‘ran stated that,
Gülen says all these problems can only be solved by education. For example,
people who say because of my religion I am going to light bombs and explode the
people in mosque or churches, in religion there is no where they tell people to go
and kill people. In the Muslim religion there is nothing in the verses (Hadith)
from the holy book that says go and kill people, or explode people, or explode 162
yourself - put the bombs on your body and kill people. There is no way in
religion. If they do such stupid things it is because of ignorance and lack of
education. So, because of lack of education these people from terrorist
organization they kill themselves or kill other people.
With education people can learn about their religion and about the religions of others and, with this information, they can learn to be tolerant and learn to avoid mistakes such as killing people out of ignorance. Consequently, teachers have a very crucial role to play, and fortunately, they are aware of this.
Education and Love of Country
The last theme is related to the issue of the educated leaving the country, something that the schools try to deal with by promoting love of country. As one student told the researcher, there is a need in Nigeria for educated people in many fields:
In Nigeria, we have a lot of problems, such as petroleum, health problems,
educational needs, political corruption, and lack of technologies. Awareness of
the problems of Nigeria leads NTICs to focus on both science and social science
to educate future leaders to solve these concerns. Our teachers always encourage
us to choose such jobs related to Nigerian problems, such as medical doctors,
teachers, engineers, and politicians. Also, they are always keep saying that
wherever you go to college, you have to come back your country and find job and
work here.
Thus, students are aware that, beyond the mere needs for education, literacy, and ways to address violence and disease, there is a need for a trained human power. There is the 163
need for people in the country to become educated and serve Nigeria. The assumption in the NTICs is that the students who are taking classes today are growing up to be the future leaders of Nigeria. Through the education they receive, students are learning to lead the country in a peaceful, tolerant, educated manner as they move into the future.
However, this goal will not be achieved if the educated people do not stay in
Nigeria. This need in clearly on the minds of parents, one of whom said, ―…there is need for Nigerians to be united, that there is need for them to be entrepreneurs – that there is need for them to work here in Nigeria, and not to go and work in London and UK and forget their parents.‖ The parents want the schools to encourage their children to stay in
Nigeria and not forget their origins. Their children are aware of this situation, and, as one student from the focus group reported, the schools have even developed a strategy to motivate them to come back:
The idea that we learn from our school is to be a patriotic. Our Vice Principal
(VP) who is also a general consultant for character education classes always
reminds us go to colleges abroad and come back. He said even if you go to
China, or Yale University at the United States, Turkey and EU countries, you
have to come back and find a job work here for you nation. Though his
motivation and encouragement and our countries problems, we have to come back
to solve our concerns.
This indicates that the goals expressed by the teachers, administrators, and parents of keeping the educated people in Nigeria are being heard by the students. 164
It is true, that because of their academic abilities, many of the students do go abroad for further education, but, as a Turkish administrator points out, they know they are needed in their own country:
Most of our students go to overseas to receive a good education but whenever
they complete their education they are coming back because, here, there are a lot
of job opportunities and they know their country needs them as they have learned
from charter education classes.
Students, from a young age, are taught that their country needs them and, therefore, they should return with their education to better their own nation. Consequently, most of the students interviewed said they really have some kind of dedication to help their country.
According to one NTIC teacher,
Besides being a teacher, I am also a counselor at all 17 (NTIC) schools in Nigeria.
I do keep track of students who have already graduated from our schools.
Approximately, 54% of our students go to England, Turkey, the USA, Malaysia,
and Canada etc., to complete their education. And most of them get scholarships
because of high GPA and passed international tests. Sometimes, I go to these
countries and visited them once a year. I am very happy that almost 82.1% of our
students are coming back and finding a job here.
The numbers cited here indicate that a high percentage of students do return to
Nigeria after they get their post-secondary education. This is an indication it could be of the success of the character education programs, which teach the importance of returning 165
to Nigeria and the schools. Table 6 shows the number of students who return to Nigeria after receiving their education from another country.
Table 6
Frequency Distribution of Graduated Students Who Return to Nigeria after Completing their Degree Overseas
Academic Total Number Total Number Total Number Percent
Year of students of Students of
graduated who went Students who
Overseas return to
Nigeria
2004 58 39 32 82
2005 108 60 48 80
2006 114 53 44 83
Total 280 151 124 82.1
Source: Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs) Handbook, (2009).
As one can see from Table 6, 280 students graduated from NTIC schools, at Abuja campus from 2004 to 2006. Of these 129 of the students (46%) enrolled in Nigerian universities and 151 students (54%) went to many different countries with scholarships to receive their education. Students who went to other countries, 82.1% have returned to work in Nigeria. Table 7 shows the number of students who admitted to Nigerian universities and the number of students who were admitted to overseas universities.
166
Table 7
Frequency Distribution of NTIC Schools’ Graduate Students’ Number and Enrollment
Location
Source: Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs) Handbook (2009).
One graduate student had this to say to the researcher:
I received my BA at the University of Leeds in UK. And now, I am planning to
go back to London to do my Master's degree; but after that I might work there for
a bit, maybe a couple of years to get some experience, but then, I will come back
here. Here, in Nigeria, there are a lot of job positions for me.
This is another graduate student who is expressing these internalized values of students returning to their country to help and work for Nigeria. They receive a quality education at the distinguished universities in the world and they also work in a host country to get some experience and then plan on using their experience when they return to the country.
As a Nigerian male teacher, proud of the schools‘ achievement, reported: 167
As you know Nigerian education is not working well because of a lot of reasons.
So, we encourage our students to become teachers, although the teachers get low
salaries. Thirty-five of or graduates from last year who went to different
educational programs at the outstanding universities at the abroad…[became
teachers] We are so proud of them because this is a kind of altruistic aspect to be
a teacher and help their people.
This idea of returning to help one‘s country after furthering one‘s education is proof of love of one‘s country, patriotism. It is an indication of being altruistic and wanting to give back to your country. The students are taught to be self-sacrificing for the good of others, and these lessons are being lived out in the lives of many students who want to help their own people.
Table 8
Frequency Distribution of NTIC Schools’ Graduates According to their Studies Area
Source: Nigerian-Turkish International Colleges (NTICs) Handbook (2009). 168
In analyzing the data by graduates‘ areas of study, it appears that students pick areas of study important to solving the important problems Nigeria faces. The areas in which there is the greatest need are engineering, medicine, education, and business.
From the participants‘ view, they are taught through character education, to focus on these fields, which will help to focus on Nigerian problems. In addition to that, one
Nigerian female teacher told the researcher that,
I have been saying this, that we are the young generation and we are the leaders of
tomorrow. It is just a saying but I think it goes a long way. As you lay your bed
so you lie on it. If by telling them [student] all those things but especially to be a
part, their mind is being prepared towards crystallization. Students always expect
an encouragement and motivation from their teachers. So, we should tell them
what to do at time by time. They are all well aware of these suggestions from us.
The students are well aware of the lessons from their teachers. As one of them said, referring to his experience, they are being taught to highly regard the altruistic goal of returning to the country after receiving an education:
It is a good thing that the Turkish schools are here. Because there are several of
them around the country now, and I think there are plans for more. So given the
whole picture, the Turkish schools provide the positive energy in Nigeria. Just
from my experience because I was in London for 5 years I could stay there after
completing my degree but I am here. So this is a proof, right? 169
This returning student also discussed his choice to return to help with the schools, aware in his opinion that the schools are good for the country and he wanted to be a part of the change. That will be his contribution towards the building of modern Nigeria.
Summary
To answer two broad research questions, this study began by describing the qualitative procedures for the data collection and analysis, gave an overview of the
Nigerian Turkish International Colleges (NTICs), recalled their mission and historical background and concluded with a summary of the research responses that the researcher gathered around the four main themes.
These four themes, which overlap and feed in to one another, show that the NTIC schools in Nigeria are encouraged by and inspired by the writings of Gülen. Data indicates, first regarding the first theme, students were motivated to show love, tolerance, and peace in their interactions with their classmates from different ethnic groups and social classes
Second, the findings have indicated that, in short, teachers do what they preach and serve as role models for their students. If students take from their teachers what is offered and adopt their teachers‘ values, they may be more likely to help to precipitate change for the good of Nigeria.
In addition, the NTIC schools, according to what participants said and school records show, do promote the kind of academic achievement Gülen schools are intended to encourage. The outcomes may seem obvious to those involved with the schools and may be highly appreciated both by the students and their parents. Therefore, in the last 170
section of the dissertation, it is suggested that NTIC schools should serve as a model for the educational system in Nigeria.
Finally, there is reason to believe that most NTICs graduates will return to work in Nigeria and are aware of the fact that the schools are good for the country and that education is a critical component for the nation‘s modernization. NTICs students expressed the desire to contribute to the building of the modern Nigeria.
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CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Overview: Purpose of the Study
This study was designed to explore the efficacy of the Gülen educational initiative and provide an analysis of the educational viability of ―Gülen-inspired‖ schools in
Nigeria as understood by those involved with the Nigerian Turkish International Colleges in Abuja. This was achieved by collecting data that would allow the researcher to understand the experiences of the administrators, teachers, students, and parents. Using a qualitative study approach, the researcher sought to gain deeper insight into the schools from their inception to the present day. Participants‘ focus-group responses, interviews with individuals, observations, field notes, and a review of documentation were utilized to describe, analyze, and examine the schools as a case study.
Chapter three presented information on the data collection and analysis process.
Chapter four offered the findings that were derived from analysis of the twenty-two interviews and other materials collected allowing for a detailed discussion of themes and subthemes that surfaced through the multiple levels of analysis. This chapter is a summary of research findings, conclusions and, a report on the implication of the study, the limitations of the study, and suggestions for future research. The discussion of the emergent themes and subthemes are presented in reference to the research questions that guided the study; namely:
1. What is the nature of Gülen education in Nigeria as experienced by those
involved in Movement schools? 172
2. In what ways do participants in Nigeria‘s Gülen-inspired schools consider the
schools to be addressing the national educational problems of Nigeria?
Summary of the Study
This study aimed to investigate participants‘ perceptions of the educational programs sponsored by Gülen-inspired schools, particularly those in Nigeria. Current students, their parents, state officials, school alumni, teachers, and administrators from the Nigerian Turkish International College (NTIC) in Abuja were asked about their experiences with Gülen‘s philosophy and its application in these schools.
Exploring the experiences of the participants was intended to provide understanding of the practices and processes that many believe make the schools successful. After receiving the approval from the University of Nevada, Reno,
Institutional Review Board (IRB), the recruitment of the participants was done through a purposeful snowball sampling technique. Twenty-two participants were interviewed for the study. In addition, the study included observations, field-notes, and a review of school documents gathered during the data collection process. Moreover, once the consent to participate was established, the interviews were conducted using a protocol consisting of an open-ended discussion format where participants shared their experiences about the school. The interviews were audio taped and transcribed verbatim.
Furthermore, the transcripts were analyzed, reviewed by participants for their accuracy and coded for emergent themes and subthemes. Peer reviewers shared in the coding process offering insight and input. Finally, the analysis of the themes involved dividing 173
the collected data from all four sources into the theme and subtheme categories and relating them to the research questions.
Discussion and Conclusions of Findings
Through the use of qualitative case design and multiple sources of the data as well as multiple levels of analysis, four major themes and six sub-themes emerged. They were then organized on the basis of the key events and processes related to the effectiveness of the school. The themes that were most prominent are: Love, Tolerance, and Peace;
Teachers as a Role Model; Academic Achievement; and Building of a Modern Nation.
Theme One: Love, Tolerance, and Peace
The first major theme that emerged from the research was love, tolerance, and peace. This theme received mention from all stakeholder groups. The general consensus appears to be that, while Nigeria is a nation deeply divided along religious, ethnic, and class lines, at NTIC schools, Christian, Muslim, and other NTIC students live and study side by side and, in the process, build a culture of dialogue and respect while engaged in a program that leads to high levels of academic achievement.
A related notion, held to be true by most involved in the study, is that the focus on love, peace, and tolerance is important to the development of a new and unified Nigeria.
From their inception, NTIC‘s commitment to improving conditions in Nigeria has, according to those involved with NTIC programs in Nigeria, distinguished them from other international schools and this has brought positive attention from Nigerian officials and parents. For instance, a Nigerian female administrator at the NTIC in Abuja was attracted by the Gülen-inspired schools‘ philosophy of non-discrimination and peace. 174
She said, ―I think the Gülen philosophy has really helped the Nigerian society. These are people who don‘t mind whether you are black, whether you are white, whether you are a
Muslim, whether you are a Christian. All they want is oneness.‖ The philosophy of inclusion extended itself to everyday life, she concluded.
The stated goal of these schools is to empower youth through the promotion of education for economic prosperity, tolerance, altruism, love and peace. Such goals reflect the Gülen Movement‘s notion of the role school programs, such as those offered in the
NTICs in developing nations such as Nigeria, can and should play in promoting tolerance, unity, economic prosperity, stability and the establishment of civil society based upon democratic principles of governance by focusing on multiculturalism
(tolerance) as it deals with the educational system of an African nation (Aydin, Lafer, &
Mahon, 2010).
The participants in the study emphasized that the NTIC schools‘ practice is to accept students of all religious backgrounds. While religious courses are offered, they are optional or elective. The schools most important tool for teaching tolerance is allowing students from different religious backgrounds to live together in a safe and pleasant environment where proximity leads to tolerance of diversity. Typical of students who had spent time in the NTIC schools, recent graduate, when asked in a student focus group if he had learned to deal with diversity as a student, responded by saying, ―yes, because when I was here I didn‘t really pay attention to anybody‘s tribe or religion, you know. I just got along with most of the students. And we used to go for picnics and discussions, and there was always a mixture of people. So I didn‘t really notice that 175
difference.‖ Another student said, ―I have learned to accept people for who they are because this school is full of diverse students—diverse people from different tribes and different backgrounds and different religions. We learn tolerance–and dialogue.‖
Participants emphasized the fact that Nigeria has had conflicts for many decades between people of different backgrounds. Therefore, love, tolerance, and peace are important factors for Nigerian society to prevent conflicts (Aydin & Chandler, 2010).
Theme Two: Teachers as a Role Model
The second theme to emerge from the research was that of teachers as role models. They, according to participant testimony, act as role models to be imitated in terms of dedication, ethics and altruism. Many noted the dedication of teachers who work extra hours to help their students improve. In the schools studied, participants regularly mentioned that teachers take care of students as if they are their own children.
This attitude is highly appreciated by the parents and students. Ethics, participants report, is something that are valued and reflected in the fact that teachers at the NTIC schools, unlike teachers at other Nigerian institutions, do not take bribes from parents and the students. This was understood to reflect the integrity of the teachers who operate under the influence of the Gülenian educational principles. Another regularly reported sign of teacher integrity and ethical behavior is teachers even handed treatment of students whether they be black or white, Christian or Muslim, Hausa, Yoruba, and Igbo, Southern or Northern, poor or wealthy.
Altruism was another dominant theme in the data. Participants in all the four stakeholder groups observed that NTIC schools serve to teach, and that students learn 176
altruism as an important value. Altruism is communicated to students through the behavior of teachers who give of their time, talent, and financial resources to help
Nigerian students solve the problems of the Nigerian society.
Çetin (2006) says that altruism ―is an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have an ethical obligation to help, serve, or benefit others, if necessary, at the sacrifice of self-interest‖ (p. 5). The teachers who work in the schools are encouraged by the
Gülenian ideal and adherence to the Gülenian ideals causes teachers to demonstrate altruism to students through the manner in which they comport themselves. Students reported that their teachers do act as role models and share with each other and the students and this demonstrates to others the value of altruistic behavior. Teachers serve as examples by providing tutoring services after school without charging the students and spend their own money on gifts and food for students. The students and the parents are clearly aware of the teachers‘ dedication and willingness to give. The belief that in seeing this behavior the students learn to be altruistic, this notion was repeated throughout the interviews. A good number of respondents stated the belief that students who have learned to value altruism will serve the Nigerian nation by working in Nigeria after finishing their educations to help precipitate change for the good of the country.
According to Gülen, individuals and societies benefit from constant renewal through education and morally elevated actions, but this depends greatly on the dedication of effective teachers (Aslandogan & Çetin, 2006) who promote the values that lead others to dedicate their lives to good causes.
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Theme Three: Academic Achievement
The third theme to emerge from the study involved academic achievement. The schools that are built upon the Gülen‘s ideals are, according to documents and testimony
(some from sources in the Nigerian government) experiencing success in academic achievement, the primary indicator of this NTIC schools success in academic competitions. Consequently, the schools are places where people in the higher echelons of Nigerian society want their own children to be educated. In addition, a majority of participants were eager to report that the schools are receiving attention from the government for their performance and high graduation rates. For example, the NTIC schools in Nigeria are amongst the highest achieving in math and science on the African continent (Onche, 2010). Nigerians are very proud of NTICs‘ accomplishments and are thanking the schools for the accomplishments in both the math and science Olympics. Of course, the type of instruction that leads to high achievements in competitions does not necessarily signal development of skills, understandings, and dispositions assumed to correlated with independent thinking and effective decision making. However, participants in the study, those attached to the schools and those holding office in the education ministries, do not seem to be focused on such outcomes and consistently refer to accomplishment in competitions as the standard for academic success.
The NTICs have been touted for their educational quality and high standards for the last 10 years within the Gülen community. NTICs students have won over 70 medals in national and international mathematics and science Olympiads (see Appendix F).
Another indicator of success for those attached to the NTIC schools is the fact that 178
graduates continue their studies in the most prestigious universities of the world with fifty-four percent of NTICs graduates studying abroad in places such as the U.S., the
United Kingdom, Turkey, and EU countries. There are many of reasons why NTICs have become, according to particular sets of standards, efficient and successful educational establishments. Students reported that one of the most important reasons of such success is hidden in the so-called ‗teacher factor,‘ more precisely, a community ethos that has teachers interacting for sustained periods of time with students. Those participating in the study, emphasized that their teachers were exemplary individuals, well educated, intelligent, caring and, some brave enough and willing to leave their home countries to serve people in Nigeria.
Success in academics after graduation is also attributed to the fact that NTIC schools teach languages such as Turkish, French, Arabic, and the three largest tribal languages. Data showed that multilingual education by professional teachers made it possible for many students to continue their education in distinguished universities abroad because of their facility with languages other than their native language.
Instruction in foreign languages helps students to get admitted to universities where they want to study. In addition, students emphasized that having teachers from foreign countries provided opportunities for learning how to deal with and respect people from different backgrounds and cultures.
The participants emphasized that the method of teaching in NTICs is based on giving high value to the academic progress of each student. This is possible, in part, because average classes in NTIC schools are much smaller in size than those in Nigeria‘s 179
regular schools so that teachers usually have more opportunities to interact closely with each student. One graduate student said that, ―during the five years I studied in this school I always felt that our teachers perceived their task of educating as not only a job, but also as personal duty and responsibility.‖ So, dedication combined with the ability to work with small groups of students, is understood to be an important part of the formula for success. A student in one of the focus groups mentioned that ―teachers expected us to show the best academic progress we could and they were working hard to constantly increase our learning capacity.‖ Students, participants said, were expected to work much harder than those in regular schools and, as one student said, true success is unlikely to come without hard work. Students stressed that whenever students needed help, teachers were ready to work extra hours until nobody had any problems in understanding the material. The importance that teachers gave to their work resulted in the fact that students started to feel a desire and obligation to be the best they could be. It deserves mention that teachers in the public schools in Nigeria often work in classrooms of seventy or more students. This study cannot be used, then, to compare teachers‘ abilities or dedication, but only can report that in the NTIC schools and state officials, such factors contribute to the perceived success of students in the schools.
Besides the academic achievement, parents reported positive behavioral changes in their children. To be more specific, in terms of students‘ behaviors and acquisition of skills, most participants involved in the study were impressed by the changes that take place in students once they become students in the NTIC schools. Parents saw changes in their children‘s speech, honesty, intelligence and knowledge. Some parents did go so far 180
as to point out differences they saw in their children‘s behavior when attending public schools and when in the NTIC schools. For example, the former minister of education of
Nigeria stated that, ―students at NTICs have a high level of English proficiency and speak with confidence.‖ He also said that ―students learn how to tolerate other students and also, they learn equality even if they are coming from different SES, but they receive the same education from one school. This situation will help them to be a fair and a righteous person as leaders of future.‖ The parents, state officials, teachers, administrators, students, and general outside population saw the differences in the students who attended NTICs.
Theme Four: Building a Modern Nation
The fourth theme to emerge from the study was the building of a modern nation through improved education in the country. The education sector in Nigeria, unfortunately, is faced with many problems including poor funding, inadequate technology, a paucity of quality teachers and classroom and school environments that would tax even the most capable of educators (Odia & Omofonmwan, 2007). In addition, UNESCO (2008) reported that there has been a noticeable improvement of educational facilities in Nigeria in the recent years, and the illiteracy rate for adults, according to the World Bank (2009), has dropped from 38% in 2008 to 35.9% in 2009 but still, the Federal Minister of Education (FME, 2008) acknowledged Nigeria has the lowest literacy rate in sub-Saharan Africa (see Chapter one). It is believed that the high illiteracy rate in Nigeria is, in part caused by religious, ethnic, and tribal differences that cause strife that has led to thousands of Nigerians killed in conflicts between Muslims 181
and Christians. Those involved in the study consistently stressed the fact that Gülen attaches considerable importance to education. He describes education as the key solution to common problems that cut across developing countries. For him, establishing order and harmony in one‘s personal and social life, and even preparing for a better life beyond the grave, will only be possible through education (Turgut, 1998) and such education is essential to peace and harmony. In Nigerian Gülen-inspired schools, Muslim and Christian students and teachers, work and study side by side, building a culture of dialogue that participants greatly prize.
The findings from this study indicated that the belief is strong among participants that education received in the NTIC schools will help graduates lead the country in a peaceful, tolerant, and educated manner as it moves into the future. This goal, of course, will only be achieved if educated people stay in Nigeria. Therefore, the goal of preventing a brain drain is a major concern and the usefulness of the NTIC schools in the development of a strong educated class dedicated to that future was noted on many an occasion during the researcher‘s visit to Abuja.
Education and Tolerance for Diversity
The NTIC schools, participants report, address issues of intolerance and violence by teaching students how to be respectful of themselves and others and how to live honest lives. This character education is supported by the diversity experienced in the schools. In addition to direct teaching of character education, NTIC schools integrate academics with extracurricular activities focusing on global social skills and ethical values like integrity, sincerity, respect for elders, the need to be humble, to not tell lies, to 182
avoid drinking alcohol and smoking, and to be humane, and so on. Ebaugh (2010) points out that Gülen repeatedly stresses the importance of teaching students sound ethical and moral values – and measures success in terms of both scientific and moral progress.
Students explained that every week in the NTIC schools, organized seminars take place for discussion of moral values such as how to be a good person, how to make one‘s life better in the future, and how to respect elders and people from different backgrounds.
They emphasized that they learn how to live together as human beings. Also, students stated that the seminars ―[motivate us] to choose our future careers and learn how to help our country.‖ The classes seemed to be popular with the students, most of whom spoke of them with affection.
Education and the End of Violence
Most participants shared stories related to the educational problems in Nigeria.
They generally had positive feelings about the way that NTIC schools are addressing these problems. Informants claimed with regularity that it is mainly the illiterate and ignorant who are eager to use violence. Participants reported that ignorance is Nigeria‘s major problem. Lack of education, they report, fuels these conflicts. The NTIC schools, participants explained, promote peace, dialogue, and mutual understanding and contribute to a peaceful coexistence for adherents of different faiths, cultures, ethnicities and races.
Gülen (1998) says that ignorance is a serious problem and it is an enemy of all human beings and it is only eliminated through the education.
What the NTIC schools do best to engender hope that graduates will, at some point in their lives, contribute to peace, harmony, and the elimination of the societal 183
realities that cause discord and violence is not the curriculum nor the teaching methods, necessarily, but the way in which students are engaged in a life on campus that brings people of different background together for the common purpose of becoming educated.
Beyond Gülen philosophy, it is the interaction between people that promotes the understandings that come to override preconceived notions that lead to hatred and strife.
At the same time it must be noted that, despite harmony on campus, education in
NTIC schools tends to ignore, quite purposefully it seems, the very causes of the discontent that undermine attempts at bringing about national unity. In Nigeria, despite the massive wealth generated by the exploitation of the oil resource, only a few benefit because ruling elites control the operation of government and use government to benefit themselves at the expense of the masses. NTIC schools are cautious in regard to how they deal with those in powers in the country, this necessary, perhaps, if NTIC is to continue operations in Nigeria. However, such caution and the desire to remain politically neutral probably prevents students from developing a realistic notion of what it is that troubles their nation and, because of this, may undermine the ability of graduates to bring about the kind of substantial change needed to put Nigeria on the course to authentic democracy and the creation of institutions that are truly by, for, and of the people.
Education and Love of Country
Keeping the educated people in Nigeria is also one of the most essential goals of the NTIC schools, hence the necessity for discussing the issue of brain drain mentioned earlier in conjunction with the sub-theme of altruism. The participants were aware that 184
the educated people have to stay in country in order to promote a better future for Nigeria and that conditions in Nigeria often lead to flight from the country of its educated. They reported that many Nigerian students go abroad for their education but they do not come back to their country because of the condition of life in Nigeria. Two hundred and eighty students graduated from NTIC schools from 2004 to 2006. Of these, 128 enrolled in
Nigerian universities, and 152 students studied abroad in many different countries, almost always with scholarships. The Vice Counselor of NTICs reported that out of the students who went to other countries, 82.1% of them had returned to Nigeria for some period of time and found jobs considered to be in the interest of the development of the country.
The teachers report that they are proud of this record because this idea of returning to help one‘s country after furthering one‘s education is understood to be a part of good character. It may be an indication of altruism and the desire to give back to one‘s country.
Many participants attributed such an outcome to the fact that students are taught to give of themselves for the good of others, and these lessons are being lived out in the lives of many students who want to help their own people. Speculative as this may be, the researcher sincerely hopes for it to be true as the Nigerian nation needs people so motivated. On the other hand, it is understandable that people who experience a better kind of existence in places beyond Nigerian borders would want to remain where the opportunities for such a life exist. Altruism and self- sacrifice are powerful in that they require an incredible amount of dedication, resolve, and, probably, a high degree of hope that one‘s contribution can make a difference. Whether students who graduate from the 185
NTIC schools will remain in Nigeria to share the benefits of their countrymen is something that should be monitored.
Criticisms
Gülen Movement and Gülen-inspired schools do have their critics, many of whom are Western scholars. Gülen Movement adherents claim that most criticism derives from secularist Turks‘ suspicions regarding the Gülen and Hizmet Movement, the nature of
Gülen education and its ability to develop critically astute participants for democratic societies. Park (2008) dismisses concerns as conspiracy theories that abound in Turkey regarding both the source and level of the movement's funding and the nature of its ultimate ambitions. It is often alleged that the Gülen Movement receives funding, either alternatively or simultaneously, from the CIA, Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the Turkish state
(cited in Park, 2008).
However, the General Director of the NTIC schools and participants in Nigeria testified that Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria are not supported by any covert agencies or by particular governments. The schools, they say, are private schools financed by tuition fees and donations of local businessmen who pledged their support at school fundraisers. The researcher, admittedly an advocate for the schools, did review the documents provided by SURAT, such as tuition fees, and donation lists of those who pledged financial support. NTICs administration claims financial transparency and this is supported in Gülen Movement literature (Ebaugh & Koc, 2007; Ebough, 2010). The major sources of funds for Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria, according to SURAT officials, are tuition and monies delivered through the Nigerian government‘s educational 186
funding system. The full range of requirements for attaining such government funding and it is clear that the Gülen-inspired schools have received some host governmental support, especially initially, in terms of land and buildings donated by the local governments to encourage the establishment of such schools in the country. As Mr.
Aygun reported, the former president of Nigeria gave 113 hectares of land to establish the
Nigerian-Turkish Nile University (NTNU). He added that the governor of Punta state also established a school with all the latest technology for NTIC to open a school in his state.
Another criticism of the schools (some claim the source of such criticism to be
Turkish secularists) is that Gülen-inspired schools only serve the children of elite minorities in the countries in which they operate (Balci, 2003). However, the researcher was shown documents and obtained testimony that supported claims that Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria utilize a fee structure by which parents who can afford to do so pay tuition while business owners, NTICs administrators, and some Nigerian state governments support others students who come from economically disadvantaged backgrounds. Scholarships, school officials say, fund 25 to 40 percent of the students attending NTIC. Some of the fees that financially able parents pay go to help students from poorer families and so do donations by other school sponsors (government and businesses). The requirements for scholarships include high scores on various examinations.
Another criticism leveled by several researchers including (Balci, 2003;
Muzalevsky, 2009; & Park, 2008) is that Gülen-inspired schools are established based on 187
religious principles. Gülen, in fact, was a preacher in his early days and worked as an imam for The Turkish state for a long time, the General Director said. Certainly, any organizations based on principles that derive from a religious leader are bound to exhibit some sort of reverence for religion if not for the philosopher‘s particular religion.
Participants in this study did argue that religion is not stressed in classes at the NTIC schools, and that Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria are not based on the teachings of any religion or religious sect. They are said to be secular private schools inspected by state authorities and sponsored by generous entrepreneurs, altruistic educators and dedicated parents. They do adhere to a secular, state-prescribed curriculum, and school courses of study are approved by state officials. Whether religion guides the thought and actions of those involved in NTICs education is difficult to document, but it is clear that most who work on the campus are adherents of one or another religion and that elements of religious belief are reflected in the overt behaviors of adults on campus through such things as dress and the manner in which they lead their daily lives, the rituals in which they participate, for example, the types of food they eat, and the way the deal with issues of gender and child rearing. So, while the NTICs campus cannot be said to be that of a religious school, religion does seem to play a role on campus because of students from different religious backgrounds.
Issues
One concern of some is that most NTIC students attend schools that separate the genders, female students confined to one school and males to another at the secondary level. Two female students in a focus group did offer a complaint, this being one of the 188
few things any participants found to we wrong at NTIC. They did not like the single- gender education idea and they offered a most interesting reason returning to how the schools operated before boys and girls were separated. They reported that they worked harder in the co-ed setting because they didn‘t want the boys to think they were better than the girls were, an academic reason for a social change. There may be a broader reason for concern here as the schools claim their mandate to be helping students to accept differences that exist between people. Proximity to other who are different is claimed to be a major means of building understanding and tolerance yet male and female students rarely, if ever, are given the opportunity to interact. This is an issue that the schools need to address and there is a good opportunity to do this in the secondary day school which is integrated gender-wise. The researcher strongly recommends that this issue be given further study.
One other concern worthy of consideration regards the difficulty some have in understanding the English of the Turkish teachers. Then, too, many of them had difficulty understanding the American who accompanied the researcher because his accent was so different from those with whom they were familiar. However, the
American was not acting in the capacity of a teacher. A student who does not understand what a teacher is saying cannot benefit by the teaching. How this problem, a serious one, is to be solved is something the NTIC schools must consider as most teachers are of
Turkish background. Perhaps English language proficiency should be a qualification for teaching at the NTIC schools. This is particularly critical as the NTICs methodology heavily favors direct instruction with a good portion of instruction delivered through 189
lecture and demonstration. The researcher recommends that the efficacy of such methodology be investigated in regard to the kind of learning it produces. The hope is that NTIC schools are dedicated to promoting critical thinking and creativity.
Lecture/demonstration based methodologies are not the best means of achieving such outcomes and the hope is that change will come at some point.
Another critical concern of the researcher was a profoundly obvious lack of discussion of current problems in the Nigerian state, problems that are a significant part of Nigerian daily news. These include political corruption which is a persistent concern of those dedicated to an equitable, fair, and democratic society. Other issues of immediate concern to knowledgeable Nigerians are those related to oil—pollution, environmental degradation, loss of clean water sources, land degraded and no longer useful in the production of food, the taking of oil revenues by the few, and the poverty of those whose livelihoods have been destroyed by oil production activities. The NTIC schools, it seems from observation and the conversations held with NTICs participants, step lightly around such topics and this is understandable considering the fact that these
Turkish institutions are permitted by the Nigerian government to exist in Nigeria.
Though avoidance of the topics might be polite and political, the negation of consideration of these critical topics diminishes the potential of the schools to develop awareness critical to solving the critical problems facing the Nigerian nation. In addition, science based environmental problems could be addressed in science classes.
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Implications of the Study
The results of this study have possible implications not only to researchers in the field of multicultural education, but also for different social science fields. The research generated information regarding many aspects of Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria that can be utilized to inform practice and improve schools. Multiple audiences can benefit from the findings of this study.
First and foremost, this research reinforces the importance of teacher dedication, ethics, and altruistic beliefs for motivating students and growing their desire and sense of obligation to be the best they can be. The research hints at the existence of a correlation between teacher behavior (as role models) and student achievement, at least as it is reflected here in student performance on national examinations, admittance to selective universities world-wide, and NTIC schools performance in national and international competitions. Furthermore, the modeling of effective approaches to education, as reflected in the NTIC schools, if properly adapted for use in the Nigerian school system, could help Nigeria grow as a society based on equality and democratic principles.
Conversations with education officials in the Nigerian government caused the researcher to believe that the model is being observed and NTIC practices are being considered for use in the Nigerian public school system.
Beyond Nigeria, in nations around the world, the results of this study might be used to build multicultural and intercultural relationships through new school configurations that allow for direct interaction between members of diverse cultural groups. The researcher believes, after careful analysis of the data collected, that the 191
NTIC schools demonstrate the efficacy of the Gülenian philosophy of education, especially in conflict-ridden nations such as Nigeria because, if those participating in the study are right, it can help reduce poverty, promote positive human development, promote peace, aid in conflict resolution, and improve educational opportunities. These elements may offer the possibility to decrease religious and tribal violence and address the consequences of exclusivist agendas operating in these countries.
Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria enroll students from 191 different ethnicities and tribes, from varied cultural, religious, linguistic backgrounds, and different geographical, and socio-economical backgrounds. The success of the schools in regard to students learning to value others, including those different from themselves, may cause other schools to emulate NTICs practices. Again, it is important to note that the NTIC schools do have advantages over others because of their ability to be very selective in whom they allow to attend. NTICs students are culled from the best and brightest, at least as best and brightest are identified through examinations. Public schools cannot be so selective and do not have the resources available to NTICs. NTICs, in fact, may attain the results it does in large part because of such factors, selectivity and resources. Future research should attend carefully to the effect of these variables in determining the factors as that differentiate NTIC schools from others. Then too, measures of success, particularly those upon which declarations of academic success are based, need to be a wider variety to determine the kinds of understanding student acquire as well as to determine whether NTICs education aids development of higher cognitive abilities such as reasoning and critical thinking. 192
Throughout the history of the schools, teachers and staff with specific qualifications, training and beliefs have been selected to work for NTICs. It is important to note that because the school is based on an alternative educational model, all of the staff were apprised of the program and expectations and joined willingly. Physical environment, it must be noted, plays an important role in teaching and learning. NTIC schools hold advantage over the public schools in Nigeria in regard to facilities, private funding allowing for buildings that provide excellent spaces in which to learn, including rooms, furnishings, and equipment.
In regards to the teaching environment, the nature of the work, it is crucial that teachers have a voice in the shaping it. Participants in the study valued the environment in which they worked because they were allowed to collaborate and they were respected and challenged. How much they were allowed to challenge is something upon which future studies might focus. NTIC claims to provide a variety of opportunities for family involvement in the educational process, thus widening the range of conversation between stakeholders in the institutions. Volunteer opportunities, educational experiences such as family outings, family meetings and school wide events should continue because it‘s one of the NTIC successes. NTIC schools are at an advantage in this as parents tend to be, in general, of the wealthy classes and, therefore in possession of greater discretionary time and money to participate in such activities.
Intercultural Trips are a tradition at NTICs. As a part of NTICs multicultural vision, they believe that visiting different countries and becoming familiar with different cultures worldwide will promote in Nigerian students‘ deeper understanding of all people. 193
This, again, is an aspect of NTICs education that is probably not possible for the public schools to provide. More important is the boarding school approach because it allows students from different, religious, ethnicities, tribal difference, SES, and geographical lines to live together side by side. While the researcher would like to advocate for the boarding school approach because of what appears to be its many advantages, he recommends that NTICs do a comparative study of the boarding schools and the day schools, one of which exists on the Abuja campus.
Limitation of the Study
In General, since qualitative studies have a small sample size, the findings are not generalizable. Though the researcher believes the findings of this study to be suggestive of the value of certain NTICs practices, one should be aware of the fact that it is limited to the age group of the participants, the size of the population, and the limited variety of the interviewees, particularly in regard to their relationship to the schools studied. In regard to the age of the participants, the researcher interviewed only senior students and students who had graduated from the schools. Consequently, the respondents were limited to a specific age range, mostly adults. Some discussion took place with younger students but only in an informal manner through visits to classrooms and encounters on the school grounds.
Furthermore, the numbers of classes that the researcher observed were limited with only a few classes visited during the data collection period because of time restrictions. Therefore, the study may not have produced data that allows for a complete picture of what occurs in the classrooms. 194
A critical limitation on the kind of data that could be collected results from the method used to identify and contact participants. The ―snowball‖ process necessitates that willing participants suggest others who might participate. Participants, then, are limited to those acquainted with others who are already participating. In this case, almost all of those interviewed are associated with the NTIC schools, as students, parents of students, teachers, and school administrators. Very few involved in the study were not directly involved with the NTIC schools, and most of those had a continuing affiliation with the schools, a factor that could have a biasing effect on the data.
Third, the generalizability of this study is impacted by its small sample size and three week research period. While every effort was made to gather multiple data in the form of interviews, observations, and field-notes of data to enhance the possibility of drawing valid and legitimate generalizations, research on the NTIC schools needs to be done over a longer period of time with a larger sample of schools, such as the NTIC schools in other states in Nigeria as well as schools not in the NTIC network. Because of travel and time limitations, this study only examined the schools at Abuja campus of
NTIC schools. Participants may have had limited experience with educational models other than the approach offered by NTICs.
The fourth limitation is related to the academic achievement of students at NTICs.
The researcher did not have a chance to see actual student work. For the most part, data on achievement was provided to the researcher through the NTIC administration.
Additional information regarding academic achievement was made available by the state education department of Abuja. All information showed students to be doing quite well 195
on the skills and knowledge assessed. The researcher is therefore limited in his understanding of academic achievement to standardized forms of assessment provided by these sources. In regard to post-graduation achievement, the researcher did not have access to evidence regarding the performance of NTICs graduate once they matriculated to higher levels of education. Many were, records show, admitted to prestigious universities around the world but only anecdotal information about how they fared once in these institutions was available.
The fifth limitation was that the researcher did not have an opportunity to see or observe students interact with one another outside of the NTICs campus or with others who were not affiliated with the NTICs. Therefore, it is not possible to know for certain if the demonstrated ability of students at the NTICs to get along with others of backgrounds different from their own carried over into life beyond the life lived at the schools.
A sixth possible limitation is related to question two and involves the data collection at the governmental schools. A primary purpose of this research was to compare academic achievement differences that might exist between Gülen-inspired schools and government schools. The study, however, was limited by the fact that the researcher was not allowed access to the public schools. In fact, when attempting to gain access to a public school the researcher was told to leave the campus and to not contact students or teacher at the institution. Thus, the researcher did not chance to compare instructional approaches as they might differ in Gülen-inspired schools and public schools. It was clear from data collected by both the government and the NTIC schools 196
that academic achievement, on the variables for which data was collected, that NTICs students showed higher levels of achievement.
As mentioned above, in certain ways, the population to which the researcher had access was homogeneous in nature. The researcher had little access to those who may have been critical of the schools. This was due, in part, to the ―snowball process‖ (see discussion above) and to the limited number and types of sites accessible to the researcher. Most everyone interviewed were directly involved with or affiliated with the
NTIC schools. So too, the validity of the results is affected, to some degree by the limitations of the researcher in analyzing and drawing conclusions from the data. As with any study, the results were filtered through the lens of the investigator. Also, the researcher had, in the past, affiliation with Gülen-inspired schools and a strong belief in the efficacy of the teachings of Gülen. Although efforts were made to minimize subjectivity and provide evidence to support the inferences made from the data, there is bound to be researcher bias involved. However, it was hoped that the limitations were minimized through the multiple analysis of the data.
Recommendations for Future Research
These limitations lead the researcher to make recommendations regarding how the findings here can be built upon to extend understanding of the efficacy of the Gülen educational initiative. First, future research should include follow-up work in Gülen- inspired schools to determine if the effect discussed here is sustained over time (Onche,
2010), and to discover if the strategies reported continue to be part of the approach. Also, 197
research is needed to determine whether Gülen-inspired schools are efficacious in different cultural and national contexts and in different geographical locations.
This study focused almost exclusively on NTIC secondary schools, schools where the emphasis is primarily on science and mathematics education. Additional studies focusing on the Gülen educational paradigm could look into whether such a concentration, coupled with limited emphasis on other disciplines, affects the nature of the education students at the schools receive and whether inclusion of the other disciplines, such as the humanities disciplines and the arts, might affect the education students receive, particularly in regard to how the curriculum prepares students for the leadership positions the programs hope to prepare students to fill. Also, since this study focused only on the NTIC schools in Nigeria, primarily those in Abuja, more research is needed to shed light on different methods and models used in Gülen-inspired schools and the academic achievement these institutions produce within the context of their different frameworks. Further research may also use a quantitative research design to answer the questions or to confirm validity.
Previously, the researcher noted that the schools studied in Abuja were single sex schools and questioned whether the separation of male and female students is a variable that deserves investigation. The researcher suggests that comparative research to determine the positive and negative effects of single-sex should be undertaken to see if there is effect on academic achievement and the manner in which individuals are able to deal with the opposite sex. 198
The aforementioned questions are related to a fourth suggested area for future research, to find out the success of NTIC graduates rate currently pursuing their education in both Nigeria and abroad and to discover if graduates of NTICs are seeking work in national service rather than in private companies, a possible measure of the effectiveness of the altruism emphasis in the schools.
In addition, the study needs to be replicated with a larger sample, perhaps in other
NTIC schools such as those in Kano, Kaduna, Logos, and Yobe states of Nigeria, to determine if the results are similar to the ones in this study which was limited to Abuja.
It is important to note that Abuja, the nation‘s capital, is different from other parts of the country in relations to wealth and issues of security. Also, more of both quantitative and qualitative data is needed to compare the NTIC schools with other private schools and with government schools throughout Nigeria.
199
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Appendices
Appendix A
Interview Questions
For teachers:
Tell us about your background (country of origin, religious. Ethnic background,
teaching experience) and how you came to be affiliated with the Gülen schools in
Nigeria.
How would you characterize Gülen education as it exists at the school where you
teach? What principles and practices make it a Gülen school? Provide some
examples of practices that are consistent with your understanding of what makes a
school a Gülen school.
What constitutes success of Gülen schools in Nigeria and in what ways is your
school and/or in what ways are Nigerian Gülen schools succeeding?
What are the particular educational needs of Nigeria and how do you see your
school addressing those needs?
What aspects of Gülen education are best suited for helping Nigeria and Nigerians
address the needs of the Nigerian nation and the Nigerian society?
Is the school where you work and/or are the Nigerian Gülen schools effectively
addressing the educational needs of the Nigerian society? In what ways? What 230
about Gülen education allows the schools to succeed in Nigeria (if they are
succeeding)
For students:
Tell us about your background (country of origin, religious. Ethnic background,
teaching experience) and how you came to be affiliated with the Gülen schools in
Nigeria.
Tell us about yourself; your age, where you are from, your education so far
(where and what it has been like), when you arrived at your current school, and
how you came to be here.
Tell us about what it is like to be at this school and how it is—if it is—different
from other schools you have attended.
What have you learned at the school and what are you learning? What do you
think of the things you are learning? Do you think they are valuable?
Interesting?
Are you taught differently here than you were in other schools you have attended?
Can you describe how the teaching is like or unlike what you have experienced
before? Do the differences in the way things are taught cause you to learn
differently? Preferences?
Tell us your thoughts about the people you work with at this school, the
administrators, teachers, and your fellow students. Are they different in the way
they behave, act toward you and others than people outside this school? 231
Do you see the education you are receiving at your school as helpful to your as a
person living in Nigeria? How so?
Does the school help students prepare to help the country of Nigeria? If so, in
what ways? What will students who graduate from your school be able to offer
the nation?
Is the school you attend an effective school? How would you compare it to other
schools you know of in Nigeria? Society?
Have you learned important things about other people by attending this school,
people who are a part of the school and people outside the school? What kind of
things have you learned about people?
One of the goals of Turkish schools is to help student learn how to live with
people of different backgrounds—ethnic, cultural, religious, economic, etc. Has
your school helped you in this way? How so?
For parents:
Tell us about yourself (job, ethnicity, and religion etc).
How did you come to send your child to Gülen-inspired school?
What do you understand to be the essential qualities that make a Gülen
inspired school different from other schools?
What has your child gained by attending a Gülen inspired school? Do you
believe that the choice of school was a good one? Please explain.
What changes have you seen in your child since he or she began attending the
Gülen –inspired school? Have you noticed any changes in the way in which 232
he or she regards people of cultural, economic, religious, and/or ethnic
background different from his or her own? How so?
Were you and your child/children well treated during your association with
the Gülen inspired school? Were you treated fairly?
What are the particular educational needs of Nigeria and do you see NTIC
addressing those needs? Please explain.
What aspects of Gülen education are best suited for helping Nigeria and
Nigerians address the needs of the Nigerian nation and the Nigerian society?
Is the school your child/children attends effectively addressing the educational
needs of the Nigerian society? In what ways? If yes, what about aspects of
Gülen education allows the schools to succeed in Nigeria?
Has attendance at the school changed your child‘s study habits or goals? How
so?
What have you observed that makes Gülen education different from education
in other types of schools? How are Gülen educators—teachers and
administrators—different from educators you have encountered in other
educational institutions?
Are their negative aspects to Gülen education as you have experienced it?
233
Administrators:
Tell us your essence of experience about Gülen-inspired schools? When and
how did you first become involved with Gülen education?
Please explain your relationship with the Nigerian Government as you
participated in opening an international school in the country?
Can you tell us some of the obstacles you faced in opening a school such as
this in Nigeria?
How many students did the school initially enroll? And how many students do
you have now?
o How many teachers did you have when the school open and how many
teachers do you have currently?
o Tell us about the statistics related to students‘ success in the school
o Do those numbers reflect all that students accomplish by attending a
school such as yours? Please explain.
o What is the percentage of students accepted to college?
o What percentages of your students go to overseas colleges?
o Discuss your students‘ participation in national and international science
and language Olympiads?
Describe how your school is different from other schools in Nigeria?
. Tell us about the economic and social backgrounds of your
students 234
. Is there tuition support for students who need it?
. How does the course of study compare to that offered at other
schools?
. Are there curricular differences? Methodological differences?
Other ways in which your school‘s operates differently than other
Nigerian schools?
What are the particular educational needs of Nigeria and how do you see your
school addressing those needs?
What aspects of Gülen education are best suited for helping Nigeria and Nigerians
address the needs of the Nigerian nation and the Nigerian society?
Is the school where you work and/or are the Nigerian Gülen schools effectively
addressing the educational needs of the Nigerian society? In what ways? What
about Gülen education allows the schools to succeed in Nigeria (if they are
succeeding)
One of the goals of Turkish schools is dialogue and the ability to live together in
the world. Do you think that the NTIC schools are able to accomplish that?
In which way you inspired from Gülen‘s idea to become an altruistic person?
What does altruistic mean to you?
235
Appendix B
Demographic Characteristics
Size of School (Number Students) ______
Percentage of Gender in NTIC
Male------% Female------% Percentage of Ethnic/Minority Students in NTIC____%
Number of Instructional Staff in NTIC ______
Percentage of ethnic/minority instructional staff in NTIC------%
Percentage of ethnic/minority non-instructional staff members in your school
Percentage of religions ------%
Muslim------% Christian------% Other------% Percentage of student setting in NTIC
Urban------% Exurban------% Suburban------% Rural------% Percentage of students passed in high school graduation test (GSHGT) for the university ------%
236
Appendix C
Gülen -inspired Schools in Nigeria
Recruitment Script:
Dear administrators, teachers, students and parents:
You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Hasan Aydin. The purpose of the study is educational success of Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria.
If you decide to, you will be asked to participate in an interview for 60-90 minutes.
What you say will be kept in confidence.
You are not obligated to participate in this study and you can withdraw at any time without any penalty.
I would be glad to answer any questions you have about the study at this time or as you exited here. Please feel free to take the reminder of your schedule time to read through the information sheet.
Sincerely,
Hasan Huseyin Aygun
237
Appendix D
Invitation Letter
238
Appendix E
Telephone Call Script:
Hi Mr. /Mrs. My name is Hasan Aydin and I am a PhD student working under the supervision of Dr. Stephen Lafer from the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning
Department at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA. I am contacting you because you recently provided your name and contact details through the researcher mailing box at
NTIC and indicated you would be interested in being contacted about our studies needing participants. The reason I'm calling is that we are conducting a study that investigate
Gülen-Inspired schools in Nigeria. We are currently seeking volunteers from the NTIC as participants in this study and I wondered if you would be interested in hearing more about it.
[IF NO] Thank you for your time. Good-bye.
[IF YES] Continue
If you choose to participate, you will take part in an interview or small group. It will last
30-90 minutes and will be audio-taped so that we can be sure to record your words accurately. The focus group or interview will take place in a private room at the NTIC or another location convenient to you. The interview of focus group will be conducted by
Mr. Hasan Aydin. We will ask you about your experience with the Nigerian Turkish
International Colleges. Additionally, I would like to assure you that this study has been 239
reviewed and approved by University of Nevada, Reno, Social Behavioral Institutional
Review Board
However, the final decision about participation is yours.
Would you be interested in participating?‖
[If NO] Thank you for your time. Good-bye.
[IF YES] Thank you; we appreciate your interest in our research!
(Schedule a mutually agreeable time to come to NTIC.)
―The day before your session, I will phone you to make sure that you are still able to make it. If you have to cancel your appointment, you can mail me @ [email protected]
I look forward to meeting you on [day and time of appointment]. Thank you very much for helping us with our research!‖
240
Appendix F
Academic Achievement of NTICs
Name of the
No Student Name of the Competition Year Position
Abdulmalik GOLD
1 Ajenikuja African Infomatirix Olympiads 2009 MEDAL
Bashi Sadiq GOLD
2 Yaradua Expo-3i, Canada 2009 MEDAL
7th International Turkish Language GOLD
3 Halliru Faruk Olympiad, Turkiye 2009 MEDAL
7th International Turkish Language GOLD
4 Mukhtar Zanna Olympiad, Turkiye 2009 MEDAL
7th International Turkish Language GOLD
5 Nasiru Sabo Olympiad, Turkiye 2009 MEDAL
GOLD
6 Abdulmalik Yusuf Young Inventor, Georgia 2008 MEDAL
Aminu D. GOLD
7 Mohammed Young Inventor, Georgia 2008 MEDAL 241
Name of the
No Student Name of the Competition Year Position
Unyime Ifon International Children's Festival, 1ST
8 Stephen Turkiye 2008 POSITION
17th Pan African Mathematical GOLD
9 Uchendu Ndubisi Olympiad, Nigeria 2007 MEDAL
E-BIKO International ICT GOLD
10 Allwell Worgu Olympiad, Turkiye 2007 MEDAL
E-BIKO International ICT GOLD
11 Daisy Isibor Olympiad, Turkiye 2007 MEDAL
E-BIKO International ICT GOLD
12 Musa Mujtaba Olympiad, Turkiye 2007 MEDAL
International Environment Project GOLD
13 Farida Salihu Comp., Azerbaijan 2007 MEDAL
International Environment Project GOLD
14 Halima Abba Comp., Azerbaijan 2007 MEDAL
15 Jerry Ufiapgu 2006 4th International Turkish Language GOLD 242
Name of the
No Student Name of the Competition Year Position
Olympiad, Turkiye MEDAL
Samuel 7th International Mathematics GOLD
16 Chukwuma Project Comp., Kazakhstan 2005 MEDAL
International Computer Project GOLD
17 Daniel Oluwaseun Olympiad, Turkmenistan 2004 MEDAL
1ST
18 Chika Chime International Art Comp., USA 2003 POSITION
7th International Turkish Language SILVER
19 Nadia A. Yusuf Olympiad, Turkiye 2009 MEDAL
7th International Turkish Language SILVER
20 Sadiq Safiyanu Olympiad, Turkiye 2009 MEDAL
International Computer Project SILVER
21 Salim Isa M. Asiru Olympiad, Turkmenistan 2008 MEDAL
International Computer Project SILVER
22 Tomi Shittu Olympiad, Turkmenistan 2008 MEDAL
23 Muhammed Bukar 2008 6th International Turkish Language SILVER 243
Name of the
No Student Name of the Competition Year Position
Olympiad, Turkiye MEDAL
Musa Umar International Environment Project SILVER
24 Yar'adua Comp., Azerbaijan 2008 MEDAL
International Environment Project SILVER
25 Aminu Muhammed Comp., Azerbaijan 2008 MEDAL
SILVER
26 Shehu Yaradua ISWEEP, USA 2008 MEDAL
SILVER
27 Murtala M. Ali ISWEEP, USA 2008 MEDAL
SILVER
28 Ahmadou Traore ISWEEP, USA 2008 MEDAL
International Physics Project Comp., SILVER
29 Mustapha Bala Bosnia & Herzegovina 2007 MEDAL
International Physics Project Comp., SILVER
30 Abdullahi Adamu Bosnia & Herzegovina 2007 MEDAL
31 Uchendu Ndubisi 2006 16th Pan African Mathematical SILVER 244
Name of the
No Student Name of the Competition Year Position
Olympiad, Senegal MEDAL
Abubakir Sadik 4th Infomatrix International Com. SILVER
32 Aliyu Project Comp., Romania 2006 MEDAL
4th Infomatrix International Com. SILVER
33 Chinemelu Ezeh Project Comp., Romania 2006 MEDAL
6th International Mathematics SILVER
34 Mahmood Umar Project Comp., Kazakhstan 2004 MEDAL
Abdullahi Baba- 6th International Mathematics SILVER
35 Ari Project Comp., Kazakhstan 2004 MEDAL
19th Pan African Mathematical BRONZE
36 Damilola Durajoiye Olympiad, South Africa 2009 MEDAL
Amobi Mark- 19th Pan African Mathematical BRONZE
37 Donald Olympiad, South Africa 2009 MEDAL
7th International Turkish Language BRONZE
38 Umut Demirkol Olympiad, Turkiye 2009 MEDAL
39 2009 NT IC Folklore 7th International Turkish Language BRONZE 245
Name of the
No Student Name of the Competition Year Position
Team Olympiad, Turkiye MEDAL
Abdulmalik 6th International Turkish Language BRONZE
40 Ajenikuja Olympiad, Turkiye 2008 MEDAL
E-BIKO International ICT BRONZE
41 Auwal Mohammed Olympiad, Turkiye 2008 MEDAL
Abdulkadir S. E-BIKO International ICT BRONZE
42 Njiddah Olympiad, Turkiye 2008 MEDAL
E-BIKO International ICT BRONZE
43 Ado Umar Bello Olympiad, Turkiye 2008 MEDAL
Abubakar Adamu BRONZE
44 Isa ISWEEP, USA 2008 MEDAL
Abdulhaq I. BRONZE
45 Shekarau ISWEEP, USA 2008 MEDAL
17th Pan African Mathematical BRONZE
46 Efunbajo Oyewole Olympiad, Nigeria 2007 MEDAL
47 2007 Abubakir Sadik 4th International B. Science and BRONZE 246
Name of the
No Student Name of the Competition Year Position
Aliyu Engineering Fair, Turkiye MEDAL
4th International B. Science and BRONZE
48 Chinemelu Ezeh Engineering Fair, Turkiye 2007 MEDAL
5th International Turkish Language BRONZE
49 Michael Ayodele Olympiad, Turkiye 2007 MEDAL
3rd International Junior Science BRONZE
50 Ifeanhi Aniubuze Olympiad, Brazil 2006 MEDAL
4th International Turkish Language BRONZE
51 Kabir Othman Olympiad, Turkiye 2006 MEDAL
Mustapha 3rd International Turkish Language BRONZE
52 Abubakar Olympiad, Turkiye 2005 MEDAL
7th International Mathematics BRONZE
53 Faruk Tongo Project Comp., Kazakhstan 2005 MEDAL
4th International Mathematics BRONZE
54 Adeniyi Afolabi Project Comp., Kazakhstan 2002 MEDAL
55 Segun Ariyibi 2002 4th International Mathematics BRONZE 247
Name of the
No Student Name of the Competition Year Position
Project Comp., Kazakhstan MEDAL
248
Appendix G
Student Population of NTICs
The number of The Number of Year of students in 2009- Name of the institution Students When Establishment 2010 Academic it started first Session
1. Abuja Day Co-Education 1998 3 423
2. Abuja Boys Boarding 2008 140 262
3. Abuja Girls Boarding 2008 80 154
4. Abuja Nursery-Primary 2005 46 374
5. Abuja University Preparation Classes 2008 54 148
6. Pro. Nigerian Turkish Nile 2005 60 163 University
7. Kano Boys Boarding 1999 8 320
8. Kano Girls Boarding 1999 12 191
9. Kano Nursery-Primary 2008 9 45
10. Ogun Boys Boarding 2000 11 208
11. Lagos Girls Boarding 2000 14 140
12. Lagos Nursery-Primary 2008 4 9
13. Kaduna Boys Boarding 2002 15 342
14. Kaduna Girls Boarding 2002 12 278
15. Kaduna Nursery-Primary 2007 25 87
16. Yobe Boys Boarding 2008 96 146
17. Yobe Girls Boarding 2008 48 98
Total 588 3225
Source: NTICs Handbook (2009) 249
Appendix H UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA, RENO SOCIAL BEHAVIORAL INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD INFORMATION SHEET TO PARTICIPATE IN A RESEARCH STUDY TITLE OF STUDY: GÜLEN-INSPIRED SCHOOLS IN NIGERIA INVESTIGATOR(S): Stephen Lafer, Ph.D. ([email protected]) and Hasan Aydin, M.A. ([email protected]) PROTOCOL #: SB09/10-037
PURPOSE: You are being asked to participate in a research study. The purpose of the study will attempt to develop portrait of the Gülen-inspired schools in Nigeria from the perspective of those involved in a schools. Also the study will intent is to develop of robust understanding of life lived in conjunction whit Gülen education and the study is also to gather information from stakeholders in "Gülen-inspired" schools in Nigeria: administrators, teachers, students, and students‘ parents, as these relate to their teaching and learning experiences, and for parents, their child‘s experience, in these schools.
PARTICIPANTS: You are being asked to participate because you are a teacher, student or parent of a student of the Nigerian Turkish International Colleges. Researchers wish to interview 3-4 school administrators, 4-6 parents; 10-15 students, and 8-10 teachers. Approximately 40 participants are expected to take part in this study. The interview will be conducted with focus group interviews and individual interviews with participants who are at least 18 years of age.
PROCEDURES: If you choose to participate, you will take part in an interview or a small focus group. It will last 30-90 minutes and will be audio-taped to insure that your words are captured accurately. The focus group or interview will take place in a private room at the Nigerian Turkish International Colleges or in another location convenient to you. The focus group interviews will be conducted by Mr. Hasan Aydin. I will ask you about your experience with the Nigerian Turkish International Colleges. 250
Interview questions will explore the following areas:
Teachers:
(If Turkish) Can you tell us something about your life in Turkey and why you decided to come to Nigeria? What were your circumstances when you left Turkey? What does your family think of your decision? (If Nigerian) Tell us of your earlier life and why you decided to apply for a job at Nigerian Turkish International Colleges (NTIC)? Where were you previously employed? What is your affiliation with the Gülen philosophy and why do you teach his philosophy? What constitutes success of Gülen schools in Nigeria and in what ways is your school and/or in what ways are Nigerian Gülen schools succeeding? Is the school where you work and/or are the Nigerian Gülen schools effectively addressing the educational needs of the Nigerian society? In what ways? What about Gülen education allows the schools to succeed in Nigeria (if they are succeeding) Students:
Tell us about yourself; your age, where you are from, your education so far (where and what it has been like), when you arrived at your current school, and how you came to be here? How did you come to enroll this school? What differences do you see between this school and your previous school? Are you satisfied with the school? Explain. Do you feel happy to be here? Why? What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a student at NTIC? What‘s your opinion of the teachers here? Do you notice any difference between the Turkish and Nigerian teachers? Are you taught differently here than you were in other schools you have attended? Can you describe how the teaching is like or unlike what you have experienced 251
before? Do the differences in the way things are taught cause you to learn differently? Preferences? Parents:
Why did you decide to send your student to NTIC? How did you learn about these schools? Have you noticed any changes (academically) in your child? Are there any differences in your child‘s study habits or goals? What do your friends and neighbors think of NTIC and NTIC students? What do you understand to be the essential qualities that make a Gülen inspired school different from other schools? Are you satisfied with your decision to send your child to NTIC? Administrators:
Tell us your essence of experience about Gülen-inspired schools? When and how did you first come here? And please tell us the policy of Nigerian Government regarding the opening of international schools in the country? Can you tell us some of the obstacles you faced when you first arrived here? How many students did the school initially enroll? And how many students do you have now? o How many teachers did you have when the school open and how many teachers do you have currently? o Tell us about the statistics related to students‘ success in the school o What is the percentage of college acceptance? o What percentages of your students go to overseas colleges? o Discuss your students‘ participation in national and international science and language Olympiads? Describe how your school is different from other schools in Nigeria? . Tell us about the economic and social backgrounds of your students . Is there tuition support for students who need it? 252
RISKS: The study poses minimal risk to participants.
BENEFITS: The benefits are that society, educators and social scientists may better understand Gülen-inspired education and how it is affecting Nigeria.
CONFIDENTIALITY: Your identity will be protected to the extent allowed by law. We will not use your name or anything that will identify you as a participant in the study, unless you want us to. The only people who will have access to the data from this study are Stephen Lafer, Ph.D., Hasan Aydin, M.A., and the University of Nevada, Reno, Social Behavioral Institutional Review Board. NTIC administrations will not know who participated in the study. All data, including the audiotapes, will be stored securely under lock and key for five years and then destroyed.
COSTS/COMPENSATION: There will be no cost to you nor will you be compensated for participating in this study.
RIGHT TO REFUSE OR WITHDRAW: You may refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at any time without penalty. If the study design or use of the data is to be changed, you will be so informed and your consent re-obtained. You will be told of any significant new findings developed during the course of this study which may relate to your willingness to continue participation.
QUESTIONS: If you have any questions please contact Stephen Lafer, Ph.D., ([email protected]) and Hasan Aydin,([email protected]) or at (775) 682-9068. You may ask about your rights as a human subject or you may report (anonymously, if you so choose) any comments, concerns, or complaints to the University of Nevada, Reno, Social Behavioral Institutional Review Board at (775) 327-2368 or by addressing a letter to Chair of the Board; UNR Office of Human Research Protection; 205 Ross Hall/331; University of Nevada, Reno; Reno, NV 89557.
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Appendix I
IRB Protocol
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