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Vol 13 Iss 1 (/index.php/volume-13- 2020/180-vol-13-iss-1)

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 1/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13100_Cusanelli_2020_E_R.pdf) Using Technology for Productive, Creative Purpose

Mrs Leticia Nischang Cusanelli, The University of Newcastle, Australia.

Dr Deborah Trevallion, The University of Newcastle, Australia.

In this article, we explore how creativity is impacted, positively and negatively by educational technology, as fundamental constructs of 21st century education. Creativity is one of the most important and noted skills for success in the 21st century and it is essential to ensure its productivity. This article offers clear definitions of technology and creativity and suggest how ones creative productivity can be impacted upon due to a failure to recognise poorly developed technological skills. Students require time to learn the required technological skills and freely available software. Time must be devoted to learning the functions of the program application before developing creative solutions to problems. It is suggested that effective infusion of creativity and technology in education must begin with building technological skills before moving to a problem solving or a STEM approach to learning that builds creativity. This article provides practical implications with broad recommendations and builds discourse around infusion of creative thinking and technology in 21st century educational systems. Pages 1 to 12

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 2/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13100i_Shorthose_2020_E_R.pdf) Work, Wellbeing and Creativity: The Role of Social Infrastructure

Jim Shorthose, School of Design, University of Lincoln, United Kingdom

Discussions of the relationships between work and wellbeing has historically been coloured by managerialist concerns to integrate the individual into the pre-existing requirements of the work organization, and as such it has often led to a less than authentic concern with a full picture of what wellbeing might be for a fully rounded individual. After providing a critique of this inauthenticity, this article suggests that a consideration of the hallmarks of creative work might help one to arrive at this fuller picture. It goes on to discuss this against the context of imminent technological unemployment and the advent of universal income schemes. It contends that this context, along with the possibilities of developing broad social infrastructures to support creativity, hints at practically feasible possibilities for the expansion of wellbeing. Pages 13 to 32

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13101_Mutori_2020_E_R.pdf) Irritable Bowel Syndrome amongst Medical Students in Oman - A cross sectional study

Hamdi Saleh Al-Mutoria, Mazin Saleh Al- Rudainib, Faisal Moinc, Hamed Al Reesid, Ahmed F. Omare, Sultan Mohammed Al- Mazrouif, a,b,cAssistant professor, National University of Science and Technology, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Oman, dStudies and Research, Directorate of Planning and Studies-NBG, Ministry of Health, Oman, eSenior Specialist Gastroenterology, Department of General Medicine, Sohar Hospital, Ministry of Health, Oman, fMedical officer, OMSB, Oman,

Objectives: Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a globally common functional gastrointestinal disorder which mainly affects people with high levels of stress. Given that medical students are presumably exposed to higher levels of stress in comparison to others, this study aims to assess the prevalence of IBS in Medical students as well as possible associated risk factors. Method: A cross- sectional study was carried out at the https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 3/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13189_Firdaus_2020_E_R.pdf) Determinant of Employee's Satisfaction in Public Companies

Muhamad Azis Firdausa, Titing Suhartib, Diah Yudhawatic, a,b,cUniversitas Ibn Khaldun, Bogor, Indonesia, Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

This study aims to analyse the direct and indirect effects of antecedent variables on employee job satisfaction. This study included 272 respondents from two regional government-owned companies in the distribution of drinking water in the Bogor region. The study was conducted from April 2018, and until May 2019. The analysis was carried out using the Structural Equation Modelling Partial Least Square (SEMPLS) method on employee job satisfaction variables as endogenous variables, and organisational culture variables and work environment as exogenous variables. The results of the study show that the organisational culture variables, directly and indirectly, have a significant effect on the endogenous variables of employee job satisfaction. The endogenous variables of the work environment positively and significantly affect the employee job satisfaction variable. The limitations of this study are only using two exogenous variables to determine employee job satisfaction. The implications of the results of this study, suggest that companies need to develop the attributes of organisational culture and work environment that can improve employee job satisfaction. Employee satisfaction that is connected with the feelings of employees, requires a separate treatment from the leadership of the company. This can be done through creating a better working environment and building habits that lead to increased employee satisfaction. The novelty in this study is to explain the relationship between the exogenous and endogenous variables of employee job satisfaction using the variant-based SEM and research conducted in public companies. Pages 925 to 938

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 60/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13190_Endut_2020_E_R.pdf) Financial Reporting Quality among Non- Profit Organisations in Malaysia

Wan Anisah Enduta, Roshaiza Tahab*, Suraya Ismailc, Norsiah Ahmadd, Nurul Nurhidayatie Muhamad Alie, a,c,d,eFaculty of Business and Management, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Malaysia, bSchool of Maritime Business and Management, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia, Email: b*[email protected]

The rising numbers of public fund mismanagement and corruption cases reported in Malaysia require the organisations to provide quality and transparent financial reporting to hedge them from becoming part of the statistic. Thus, although it is not required by the standards, it is vital for Non- profit organisations (NPOs) to provide a quality financial report to give their stakeholders sufficient and accurate information about the organisations’ activities and financial performance. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to review the content of Zakat Institutions (ZI) annual reports to analyse the current practice. To accomplish this, we reviewed a sample of annual reports from 14 ZIs in Malaysia which are publicly available. Content and descriptive analysis methods were utilised in analysing these annual reports. Based on the analysis conducted, the major difference in the reporting practices of ZI’s annual reports is due to the inconsistency of information disclosed specifically regarding a financial matter. Pages 939 to 950

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13191_Areiqat_2020_E_R.pdf) The Concept of Governance in Universities: Reality and Ambition

Ahmad Yousef Areiqata, Ahmad. M. A. Zamilb, Ahmad Fathi Alheetc, May Mousa Mohammad Ahmadd, Hanan Mohammad Abushaare, aProfessor, Department of Business Administration, Business School, Al- Ahliyya Amman University. Amman Jordan, bAssociate Professor, Department of Marketing, College of Business Administration, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, 165 Al-Kharj 11942, Saudi Arabia, cAssociate professor, Department of Business Administration, Business School, Al-Ahliyya https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 61/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1 Amman University. Amman Jordan, dLecturer, Department of Business Administration, Business School, Al-Ahliyya Amman University. Amman Jordan, eLecturer, Department of Accounting, Business School, Al-Ahliyya Amman University. Amman Jordan, Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

This research addresses the governance aspect of universities in light of its importance in recent years in the global and local arena. There is now a definite need to enhance the competitive capacities, learning outputs and education quality of universities. The paper highlights the role of universities in governance, which are essential to achieve the basis and criteria of governance like greater transparency, participation, trust, reliability, and accountability. These aspects could help university administrators to play their role in addressing the challenges faced by them in the twenty-first century. There are a set of criteria that should be met in higher education institutions to conform to quality assurance, upgradation of education outcomes and gaining of international competitiveness. The paper also addresses aspects like strategic planning, governance, academic programs, human and financial resources, scientific research and services provided for students and the community as a whole. Governance in universities is responsible for helping tertiary education institutions to respond to other criteria in terms of accomplishing qualitative education outputs and performing their mission and vision competently and efficiently. Pages 951 to 969

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 62/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13192_Utomo_2020_E_R.pdf) The Management of Creative Industry in the Edhi Sunarso Studio, Yogyakarta

Kamsidjo Budi Utomoa*, Eko Haryantob, Mujiyonoc, a,b,cUniversitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia, Email: a*[email protected]

Edhi Sunarso, as one of the pioneers of the creative industry and a former soldier, managed a creative industry at Edhi Sunarso Studio in Yogyakarta. This study aims to describe the management of the creative industries in Edhi Sunarso Studio Yogyakarta, and its roles and contributions to the national economy. The research method is descriptive qualitative, data obtained through interviews, observation, and documentation. The results showed that the management of the creative industries at Edhi Sunarso Studio focussed on the amicable aspect. His historical diorama products have become a trend in diorama making in Indonesia and have a positive impact on community empowerment and national economic sectors. Pages 970 to 984

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 63/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13196_Susanti_2020_E_R.pdf) Gender Consciousness among Students of Higher Education

Emy Susantia*, Siti Mas’udahb, a,bDepartment of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Political Science, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia, Email: a*[email protected]

Gender equality and justice is a widely- discussed issue among various groups. Gender equality is an equal condition between men and women in terms of existence, empowerment and participation in all fields of life, both domestic and public. This study examined college students' knowledge and awareness of various gender inequality issues. A quantitative study was conducted with 256 respondents. The results of this study indicated that college students’ awareness on various gender issues is quite diverse. Gender knowledge and awareness of the issue of early marriage among girls, domestic violence, women's rights in the working industry, women's reproductive rights, sexual harassment on campus, cases of maternal and infant mortality, are quite high. A small number of students agree to polygamy marriage. They consider this issue as a serious problem that needs to be fought by student organisations to provide input to local government and national government policies. Students' knowledge of the practice of circumcision among girls is quite low, so they consider that this issue is not a serious problem that needs to be discussed. This shows the importance of gender education among college students. Pages 985 to 1006

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 64/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13197_Wirawan_2020_E_R.pdf) International Migration and Risk of Divorce in Families of Female Migrant Workers

Ida Bagus Wirawana, Siti Mas’udahb*, aDepartment of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia, bDepartment of Sociology, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia, Email: b*[email protected]

The international migration of migrant workers is still highly demanded by women in rural areas in East Java. However, there are several impacts that have arisen in the family due to the shifting of power relations from husband to wife, within the scope of patriarchal culture. The situation of a husband and wife divorcing by using a lawyer has begun to enter the realm of the family in the agricultural sector. This research was conducted using qualitative methods, and successfully interviewed 15 informants who were selected purposively by name and address through divorce records in the Religious Affairs Office, in three districts in East Java. The results show a shift in gender roles related to the position and role of women in agrarian households in rural areas. The initiative and decision to divorce in a paternalistic agrarian family is no longer dominated by the husband. The control of economic resources by female migrants has become a strong basis in increasing their bargaining position, causing the husband's authority to be able to be "bought" by his wife (purchased local authority). The economic resource base of female migrants and a relatively long separation of husband and wife have triggered the divorce of migrant families in the area of origin. Pages 1007 to 1020

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 65/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13199_Sopamena_2020_E_R.pdf) The Domestication of Women’s Role on a Small Island: A Case Study of Women at Tnyafar on Selaru Island, Tanimbar Island Regency

Junianita Fridianova Sopamenaa, aSocial Economic Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Pattimura University Ambon, Email: [email protected]

Research about Tnyafar is still quite limited, and therefore, this research attempts to fill in the gap by investigating the domestication of the women’s role at Tnyafar. The method of research used is the qualitative approach with a case study. This research was conducted during May 2017. The informants include men and women who have activities at Tnyafar, with a total of 40 persons (31 women and nine men). The result research shows that women play significant roles, either inside the house or outside of it, and mainly in the farm or hamlet. The total timeframe of these activities ranges from 16 to 19 hours, with an average activity time of 17.5 hours. The break time ranges from five to eight hours, with an average break time of 6.5 hours. The women have more activities than the men, and it proves the domestication of the women’s role. There are so many activities that are done by women and all of them are considered as being trivial by the cultural context of the community where the women live. Pages 1021 to 1036

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 66/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13163_Wulandari_2020_E_R.pdf) Education as Predictor of the Knowledge of Pregnancy Danger Signs in Rural Indonesia

Ratna Dwi Wulandaria*, Agung Dwi Laksonob, aFaculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia. Campus C Mulyosari, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia, bNational Institute of Health Research and Development, Indonesia Ministry of Health. Percetakan Negara 29, Jakarta 10560, Indonesia, Email: a*ratna-d- [email protected]

The research aim was to analyse education as a predictor of knowledge of the pregnancy danger signs in rural Indonesia. There were 44,647 childbearing age women (15-49) used as a sample. The variables analysed included knowing the danger signs of pregnancy, education, age, employment, marital, wealth, and parity. Binary logistic regression tests were used to detect the predictors. Women with primary education were 1.973 times more likely to know the danger signs of pregnancy than women with no education. Women with secondary education were 3.355 times more likely to know the danger signs of pregnancy than women with no education. Women with higher education were 7.169 times more likely to know the danger signs of pregnancy than women with no education. The higher the education, the more knowledge of the danger signs of pregnancy. Age, employment, wealth, and parity were also found as predictors of the knowledge of the pregnancy danger signs. Employed women were likely 0.958 times to know the pregnancy danger signs than unemployed women. All wealth status categories were more likely to know the pregnancy danger signs than the poorest women. Multiparous and grand multiparous women were less likely to know the pregnancy danger signs than primiparous women. Education was a predictor of the knowledge of the pregnancy danger signs in rural Indonesia. Besides that, there were 4 other variables which were also predictors, namely age, employment, wealth, and parity. Pages 1037 to 1051

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 67/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13198_Dalimoenthe_2020_E_R.pdf) Psycho-Social Education (PSE) Model: Conceptualisation and Implementation of Empowerment Models for Families Evicted from Cities

Ikhlasiah Dalimoenthea*, Evy Clarab, Yenina Akmalc, Ahmad Tarmiji Alkhudrid, Bella Putri Andhynie, Iriani Dewi Sarwestrif, a,b,eSociology Departement, Faculty of Social science, State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia, cPAUD Departement, Faculty of Education, State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia, dState University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia, fGeography Departement, Faculty of Social Science, State University of Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia, Email: a*[email protected]

This study aims to examine the conceptualisation and implementation of psycho-social education empowerment models for victims of urban eviction in Jakarta, Indonesia. The results showed that the relocation of victims of eviction to Rusunawa, left psycho-social and economic problems, mostly experienced by women. This condition became the indicator of the presence of a psycho-social education (PSE) empowerment model. The results of expert validation on the 83.33 psycho-social education (PSE) empowerment model were stated to be good. The results of the expert assessment are in line with the results of the model implementation carried out on 36 empowered participants, of which 83 per cent considered empowering the psycho-social education model to reduce the trauma, depression, and socio-cultural problems of the families of evictees. Pages 1052 to 1072

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 68/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13102_Handoyo_2020_E_R.pdf) The Impact of Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) on the Export of ASEAN+4

Rossanto Dwi Handoyoa, Wisnu Wibowob, Angga Erlandoc, Retno Putri Nurkumalasarid, a,b,c,dDepartment of Economics, Airlangga University, Surabaya, Indonesia, Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

This research aims to examine and analyse the impact of the trade agreement on the export of ASEAN member countries (Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam , Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam, Philippines and Myanmar) and four ASEAN dialogue partners (RRT, Republic of South Korea, Japan, and India) between 1984-2017, using the Poisson Pseudo- Maximum Likelihood (PPML) method. The result shows that the Trade Agreement has a significantly impact on export. Pages 1073 to 1088

https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 69/99 1/6/2021 IJICC - Vol 13 Iss 1

Pdf (/images/vol_13/13103_Mansour_2020_E_R.pdf) The Adoption of Social Media by PR Practitioners in the United Arab Emirates

Tahseen Mansoura, Ibrahim Ahmad Abu- Arqoubb, a,bAl-Ain University Faculty of Communication and Media United Arab Emirates, Email: [email protected], [email protected]

This study aims to identify the effect of constituent factors on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology in order to determine the factors most related to intentions, and to show the extent of their impact on the behaviour of the actual use of social media networks by the United Arab Emirates public relations practitioners in both private and public sectors. The findings indicate that the factors affecting the adoption of public relations practitioners of social networking include anticipating performance, availability of facilities, intention of usage, expected effort and social impact which are positively correlated with and significant to behavioural intention amongst PR professionals. Furthermore, PR practitioners are greatly aware of the importance of using social media in their work. A positive relationship exists between performance expectancy and behavioural intentions to adopt social media. Pages 1089 to 1100 Pdf (/images/vol_13/13105_Rahmah_2020_E_R.pdf) Halal Certification of Patented Medicines in Indonesia in the Digital Age: A Panacea for Pain?

Mas Rahmaha, Nurul Barizahb, a,bFaculty of Law, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia, Email: [email protected], [email protected]

The rapid growth of the Muslim population in Indonesia has led to a corresponding increase in the demand for halal medication. To ensure the halal status of medicines, Indonesia has adopted a regulatory framework for halal certification and labelling for all products marketed in the country. The new framework makes halal certification mandatory for all foods, beverages, medicines, cosmetics, chemicals (used for human consumption) sold in Indonesia by October 2019. However, the implementation of the new framework faces https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/ijicc-editions/33-volume-13-2020/180-vol-13-iss-1 70/99 1/6/2021 Editorial Board

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Professor of Education, Central Queensland University

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Professor DOU Qin

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Dr Eric F. Eshun

Senior Lecturer Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology Ghana

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Senior Lecturer, Social Work and Social Planning Flinders University SA

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Executive Northern Territory Department of Education

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Lecturer in Psychology University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia. FAB Prue Millear

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Senior Lecturer and Academic Development Advisor James Cook University

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Department of Education, Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, West Bengal

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School of Education, The University of Newcastle, Australia

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Queensland University of Technology, Australia

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Psychologist Academic Southern Cross University, Australia

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Adjunct Professor, James Cook University, Australia

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Associate Professor of Education Department of Social and Educational Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology

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Assistant Professor The Ethelyn R. Strong School of Social Work, Norfolk State university

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https://www.ijicc.net/index.php/about-us/editorial-board 13/13 International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net Volume 13, Issue 1, 2020

International Migration and Risk of Divorce in Families of Female Migrant Workers

Keywords: Divorce, Female migrant workers, Gender, Patriarchal culture, Purchased local authority.

Introduction

The National Board for the Placement and Protection of Indonesian Overseas Workers and the Bank Indonesia recorded the number of Indonesian workers as migrant workers in 2019, as being as many as 3,701 people. Meanwhile, the 2017 World Bank’s records reported that 1007

International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net Volume 13, Issue 1, 2020

Indonesia’s population was 264 million. Data collected by the 2015 Intercensal Population Survey (SUPAS) showed that the number of people from the Indonesian population migrating abroad was 2,767,316. In addition to migrating abroad, Indonesia’s population participates in urbanisation. The urbanisation rate of Indonesia’s population in the SUPAS 2015 was 52.60 per cent (Adam, 2010). The highest population growth due to urbanisation that is recorded in history was in 2005, in which 43 per cent of Indonesia’s population inhabited the city (Tang, 2012).

The rural-urban population mobility is in line with Wilbur Zelinsky’s theory of population mobility transition, which states that there is a significant relationship between the type and level of geographical mobility with the modernisation phase of a society (Walii et al., 2012). Population movement is also related to the process of modernisation and industrialisation in urban areas (Basundoro, 2008). Gardner (2004) stated that modernisation is the power of urbanisation, where urbanisation is driven by growth in mobility.

In later developments, the distribution of cities in Indonesia tends to move towards an integrated urban system. The development of cities in Indonesia, especially in Java and Sumatra, tends to form "mega urban" areas. The "mega urban" process extends in terms of the economic growth of urban development which has expanded from the city centre to the periphery (Firman, 2016). The emergence of the Jakarta-Bogor-Depok-Tangerang-Bekasi (Jabodetabek) and Gresik-Bangkalan-Mojokerto-Surabaya-Sidoarjo-Lamongan (Gerbangkertosusila) areas is the impact of the development of cities (Douglass, 2010).

Economic pressure makes many people want a job, even though it may be far from their place of origin. One of the efforts is by migrating as international migrant workers, including female migrant workers (TKW). Ariani's study (2013) showed that many women choose to be migrant workers because of limited employment in the area of origin, and there is a desire to improve the family economy. Previous studies have shown the cause of women becoming migrant workers being because of a husband's insufficient income, in order to meet daily needs, thus they are forced to allow their wife to become a migrant worker (Kumalasari, 2008; Qiu et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2013).

Those women volunteered to separate from their families and children in order to obtain an income to meet family needs (Puspitawati et al., 2011). In addition to the feeling of loneliness when being separated from parents and children, this separation causes anxiety disorders (Maldini et al., 2016; Senaratna et al., 2011; Mazzucato et al., 2011). External factors, such as the success of neighbours or relatives who have migrated as migrant workers, become a benchmark so that they are interested in working as a migrant worker (Santoso, 2010; Wulandari, et al., 2016). The candidate migrant workers do not have the same fate, as some

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International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net Volume 13, Issue 1, 2020

are successful and earn a lot, but there are also those who are victims of violence by their employers (Dias et al., 2004; Jureidini, 2010).

Most candidate female migrant workers do not know much about the procedures of working abroad. There are candidates who complete the requirements according to the rules, but there are also those who do not know the procedures, so they work as illegal migrant workers (Nailurridha, 2017; Moreno et al., 2004). They only rely on the promise of the Indonesian Labour Services Company, which is frequently a fraud company.

The success of female migrant workers abroad also has an impact on their families in the area of origin. They can build houses, buy new vehicles, and various valuables to support the family's needs. In addition, the success they achieved due to working abroad also brings changes in lifestyle, socio-economic status, and consumptive behaviour (Djuwitaningsih, 2019).

The importance of the issue on the international migration of migrant workers is outlined as follows. Firstly, researchers focussing on the problem of international migration are still relatively new. On the other hand, international migrant workers are mostly uneducated workers (Novianti, 2010). Secondly, research on international migration in Indonesia, especially illegal ones, is still relatively rare by Indonesian researchers. Thirdly, migrations carried out by the Indonesian population are dominated by women, representing 70 per cent of the total number of migrants from Indonesia (Dewi, 2013). Fourthly, more rural women are coming out of the "patriarchal" zone, where women experience a double oppression and find it difficult to enter the public sphere (Asriani et al., 2014). This drives rural women to migrate abroad as workers. Fifth and finally, that the adverse effects of migrant women workers abroad have not been greatly studied, even though they have brought the consequences of divorce in their family.

Based on the facts and reasons, the risk of divorce between a husband and wife as a result of international migration by migrant workers, especially women from rural villages in East Java, was taken up as a study material. This issue is not only interesting to be criticised, but is also important to study due to a shift in the power relations between the roles of husband and wife in agrarian families, in which most still adhere to a patriarchal culture.

Method

To answer the problems raised in this study, this research employed a qualitative method. The study sites were selected in three districts, namely Blitar, Tulungagung, and Malang, which have become areas with the highest sending of international migrant workers in East Java, in the last ten years. The determination of informants was based on data recorded at the

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Religious Affairs Office, which records the events of divorce (Moslem) in each location. The total number of informants recorded in the divorce book at the Office in the three locations were 12 cases, but there were five informants who were successfully identified during the study, at the time of the Lebaran homecoming. Thus, the total number od informants interviewed were 15 informants. The data was collected through direct interviews with the informants and it was analysed qualitatively.

Results and Discussion

At the family and individual level of international migrant workers, various problems have been identified, including that these migrant workers do not have a strong bargaining position in dealing with wage discrimination, acts of violence, sexual harassment, human rights violations and violations of the law, and even death threats in the destination country. The results of this study have been corroborated by cases experienced by Wiwin Widaningsih (20 years old), who died in Saudi Arabia in 1999, due to lawlessness (Daulay, 2001). There are 15 more Indonesian migrant workers who are the victims of sexual violence, and there are a few of those who work or are employed in the service sectors that can lead to prostitution. In Kuwait, for example, six out of ten migrant workers who "run away" from their employers, work at the night club or "karaoke house" because the salary is far greater than being a domestic servant. Some of them are trapped in the prostitution business (Jawa Pos, March 21, 2004). There are some others who receive a date call, to become a mistress in the destination country. Furthermore, but a few of them are deliberately entered into the sex business with a higher income.

During the New Order era and until the reformation, the Government of Indonesia (Directorate General of Manpower Placement Development and Job Opportunity Extension), as well as worker placement companies (PJTKI) and the Association of Indonesian Labor Services Companies (Apjati), concretely did not provide much protection, either in the form of an MOU or legal provisions on the various problems affecting these female migrant workers in Malaysia (Jawa Pos, February 1, 2002). Although, on the other hand, the foreign exchange contribution made by migrant workers working in Malaysia, for East Java alone in 2001, was no less than USD $568,000 (Disnaker-East Java, 2001).

From a cultural perspective, there are actually restrictions and there is even a written prohibition for Indonesian female migrant workers to work abroad, known as fatwa haram. The Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI), at the end of July 2000, stated that: "it is unlawful for female migrant workers to go abroad without being accompanied by their muhrim" (Republika, 30 July 2000).

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Illegal migrant workers consist more of female workers. Data from the Ministry of Manpower records that 70 per cent of migrant workers consist of women (MoM, 2019). Of this amount, there are around 60 per cent of them who work in the informal sector, namely as domestic helpers or babysitters, and the like. The guaranteed protection for them is almost nothing. Female migrant workers are very vulnerable to the law in the destination country, due to being accused of a crime. One of them is the beheading law, which indicates that protection against migrant workers is very weak.

Figure 1. Placement of Indonesian migrant workers (2014–March 2019)

Source: Ministry of Manpower 2019

Historically, during the New Order era, the Indonesian Government had targeted 1.2 million Indonesian workers to be sent abroad. As of November 2019, the Indonesian Government has sent 21,560 people to become migrant workers. A total of 10,378 people occupies the formal sector, as well as 11,182 people in the informal sector, with the highest number of elementary and junior high school graduates (BNP2TKI, 2019). This shows the great interest of the population to work abroad, even though the risks they have to face are very high. One attraction and impact of international migration (short term) on migrant families is because of the success of "old" migrants in the destination country, which can be seen from the economic criteria (read: remittance) that they send to their home regions.

Another impact, which is classified as having a large influence on changes in the social values in the lives of agrarian societies, is the occurrence of divorce cases instigated by the 1011

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wife. In this case, migrant workers who have been successful abroad. Although this divorce is common in the village and quantitatively is not that significant (only 12 cases of divorce are found in this study), the cause that makes this divorce extraordinary, is that the wife used a lawyer in the divorce case. This phenomenon is certainly something new and surprising in the scope of rural areas. The divorce case data sourced from the Blitar Religious District Court Office provides such evidence.

Separated housewifery has constraints on the rarity of meetings and communication. Muawwanah’s study (2019) stated that miscommunication causes a great possibility of divorce, meaning, that a wife who has a job as a migrant worker has a higher tendency to file for divorce. Previous studies showed that divorce in migrant workers is caused by women being unable to accept lazy husband behaviour, husbands spending remittances from their wives, and cheating between the two (Silvey, 2006; Khoiriyah, 2016; Sowell et al., 2008,).

One such case is the case of Mujiati (24 years old), a resident of Sawentar Village in the Kanigoro District, Blitar Regency, who went to become a migrant worker in Taiwan through a worker placement company in Malang, in 2001/2002. When she first left, she was married, and her husband worked as an elementary school teacher. Over four years of working in Taiwan, she returned and was able to buy rice fields and build a new house that was quite large and luxurious. After only a few months of gathering with her husband, Mujiati then filed for divorce from her husband, and used the services of a lawyer from Malang. The case was decided by the Blitar Religious District Court on January 22, 2005.

The reason proposed by Mujiati was because the husband never provided material support, especially fulfilling her biological needs. However, the real reason (according to neighbouring gossip), was that she felt it was no longer appropriate to marry a low-income, naive-looking, and shabby villager. Some of Mujiati's neighbours even hinted that she already had another dream man (from Ponorogo), who also worked as a migrant worker in one of the electronics goods assembly industries in Taiwan. On the other hand, Mujiati's mother-in-law felt Mujiati's treatment of her son was unacceptable, who was judged to have a "violated nature" as a wife. Even so, her mother-in-law could not do much in the case of suing for her son's divorce.

The second case is the divorce of Siti Jaiyah (25 years old), a resident of Sawentar in the Kanigoro District, Blitar Regency. Siti’s appearance does not reflect a villager, but resembles a celebrity — she looks pretty, is yellow skinned with dyed blonde hair, and looks elegant when talking. Early in 2001, she left for Japan to become a migrant worker, leaving a two- year-old child and working in one of the entertainment clubs in Kyoto City. In this city, she met a native Japanese engineer who was still single. It was not clear what Siti was told about the process, but Siti admitted that she was often annoyed when she was seduced by the man

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who eventually became her second husband. She only explained that far from her husband and children, she often felt lonely. However, the "struggle" of the Japanese engineer, according to Siti, was that he was very persistent, sincere, and earnest. Siti became interested in his personality and occupation, and then decided to marry the Japanese man, even though she realised she was married and had a toddler. After three years working in Japan, she returned to Blitar without her second husband.

However, three months after she was home, her husband from Japan followed her to Denpasar in Bali, to a place that she gave to her new "husband". Siti rushed to Surabaya and boarded a flight to Bali to meet her "husband" in Denpasar, Bali. During the course of one- month while this (Japanese) husband was in Bali, Siti often went back and forth to Denpasar, Blitar. Consequently, her first husband began to get suspicious, and this suspicion often developed into violent fights. During her last time in Bali, her first husband followed Siti to Denpasar. As she was caught red-handed, Siti finally confessed, and she filed for divorce from her husband. Her husband, who felt insulted, accepted Siti's suit but on the condition that he asked for a new Panther car, and Rp. 200 million in cash. It turned out that Siti preferred to divorce and fulfill all the demands of her first husband, rather than maintaining her marriage. The Blitar Religious District Court finally decided on the divorce suit for Siti Jaiyah on December 10, 2004.

Related to the central theme of this study, the divorce cases among migrant workers is interesting to discuss because it turns out that in the village — where authority in the agrarian family has been in the hands of men (husbands) — it can readily be bought with money by his wife through an international migration event, as a migrant worker. In cases like this, the concept of "purchased local authority" seems very appropriate to show changes in the values in the agrarian family (farmers).

The third divorce case is the LL divorce case (26 years old) from the Tanggul Turus Village in the Besuki District, Tulungagung Regency. This case is very similar to the 'purchased authority' case above. LL worked in Saudi Arabia, but she does not look like most migrant workers. She has a yellowish skin tone, and is clean and tall, as if she was a bank directors' secretary or a commercial flight attendant with a blazer and a white silk scarf wrapped around her neck (during the interview). When she went to Saudi Arabia to become a migrant worker, she was married and had two toddlers.

In Saudi Arabia, LL worked for a wealthy family (commercial pilot) for three years. Since the first year she worked abroad, LL was often seduced by her employer's younger brother who had just returned from the United States. Initially, she was not interested at all and admitted openly to being a woman who was married. However, sometimes while sleeping at night, she often felt lonely. In the end, LL finally liked her employer's younger brother who

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worked as an entrepreneur. During her third year of work, LL returned to Tulungagung, but she was accompanied by her employer's younger brother. The husband's family at first felt flattered by the arrival of an Arab man who was mistaken for being LL’s employer. A few weeks later, many parties were suspicious of their relationship. After seeing their behaviour (LL and her employer’s younger brother) had begun to go "beyond the limits" of fairness and politeness, LL’s in-law’s family started to lose respect with both of them. The husband and wife’s fighting, and the interference from LL's in-laws could not be avoided. Yet, LL, who felt that she had raised the family economy (including her in-laws), did not accept the attitude and treatment of her husband and in-laws. The peak of family tension occurred when the Arab man asked LL to divorce her husband with certain compensation.

Almost similar with the case of Siti Jaiyah, LL then divorced her husband with compensation of Rp 190 million in cash, plus a plot of rice fields and a new motorcycle. For almost three months, this "new" husband lived in Tulungagung. LL then built a migrant worker placement company on the main road into Desa Tanggul Turus. As her "new" husband did not have a residence permit, and he had a business in Saudi Arabia, the Arabian man returned to Saudi Arabia. For one year, she never heard any news from her new husband, and LL then decided to marry with another man (one of her employees), who was from West Java.

The rural-urban population mobility is actually in line with the theory of population mobility shift from Wilbur Zelinsky, which states that there is a significant relationship between the type and level of geographical mobility with the modernisation phase of a society. In the community at the location of this study, being a migrant worker is one solution to improve their standard of living. The lifestyle of migrant families in the area of origin changes when their family members become migrant workers abroad (Mas'udah, 2019). In addition to lifestyle changes, the separation of family members, including between a husband and wife because one of them works as a migrant worker, carries its own consequences and risks. A study conducted by Anshor (2016) explained that female migrant workers who feel successful from their work abroad have a poor relationship with their husband because the husband does not provide a living, while the wife has freedom.

There are not many cases of tension in the families of migrant workers who are not yet married. However, there are two cases that are caused by a negative impact of the separation of the future wife (who is a migrant worker abroad) from the future husband (who is not a migrant worker). The cases are of Sumiarsih (22 years old), and Fatimah (23 years old) who are both from the Malang Regency.

Sumiarsih was officially asked by her future husband's family, from the Dampit District, before becoming a migrant worker and two years before leaving. After successfully becoming a migrant worker in Korea, she seemed to be the main foundation of her family's

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economy. A new and large house, as well as a car, are the new attributes of Sumiarsih. Due to her significant influence in her family (any wishes of his father and mother or younger siblings are always waiting for her approval), in a short time, she has become a "determinant" of almost everything in her family and is very powerful. The condition turned out to have an impact on the relationship between Sumiarsih and her future husband. Sumiarsih's future husband seemed to start to keep his distance because he knew that Sumiarsih was economically more "powerful". He started to feel inferior, seeing Sumiarsih as always being accompanied by a driver in her car, while he was only an ice cube factory employee who rode a bike every day when working or visiting her home.

Different from Sumiarsih, Fatimah (23 years old) reneged on the initial commitment with her future husband, who was still considered as her own relative. The family of her future husband felt displeased with Fatimah's treatment of their son, who positioned him as a household assistant compared to his position as a future husband or member of her own relations. This hurt the parents of her future husband, who chose to cut ties with Fatimah. The marriage plan then failed because her future husband's family felt offended and humiliated, like domestic servants.

The impact of the temporary migration of the wife (or future wife) abroad, in addition to reducing the intensity of husband-wife relations, has led to a shift in authority. This occurs because the wife suddenly has "power" as a logical consequence of a high salary that she earns abroad. Consequently, because she has a lot of money, so she also has "power". Further, because she has power, she suddenly makes every important decision in her family, and even tends to fulfil a dominant role. This is one of the impacts of migration that is interesting enough to be studied more deeply.

It is undeniable that when a woman has her own income, she also has power. In working women, there is a change in the role of the wife and the relationship between the husband and wife, from being initially vertical to becoming more egalitarian (Nurhamida, 2013). Previous studies explained that working women have power in controlling the household, as they have entered the realm of work that is usually done by their husbands and make decisions (Kusumawati, 2012; De Moor et al., 2010; Fernandez, 2007).

Connell (1985), in his theory of gender and power, suggests that the core of the power structure in a patriarchal society is masculinity. A patriarchal culture that is still strongly attached to society influences decision-making in the family. The economic conditions that have changed, especially on the part of women, have resulted in an unbalanced socio- economic status. The conditions in which men, as 'leaders', feel threatened due to an increase in the status of women as an international labour force, makes men agree to divorce or not get married, rather than living under the domination of women. The extended family of the man

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also influences the decisions made. They assume it is better not to marry a disobedient woman than letting their male family members be dominated by women.

Conclusion

This divorce story drama, although not that much, has been interesting to study because it has far deeper implications than just an ordinary divorce case. The involvement of lawyer services in cases of family divorce in rural areas also seems unusual, especially when viewed from the lifestyle that is still strongly influenced with agrarian characteristics, and is associated with the impact of the temporary separation (celibacy) of the husband and wife, after the wife works abroad.

There have been shifts in the nature of women towards woman emancipation in gender relations (in the context of cultural values, read: male authority) among migrant workers' families, particularly in making the important decisions of agrarian families in rural areas today. In addition, differences in the rationality that underlies the decision to temporarily migrate abroad (becoming a migrant worker) before leaving and after returning from abroad. In summary, this study has found that the position and role of women in agrarian households in rural areas has began to shift. Over the past few decades, the role of rural women has been very insignificant, especially as it relates to important family decision-making, including one's own decision to work abroad. The initiatives and decisions to divorce in paternalistic agrarian families are no longer dominated by the husband. The control of economic resources by female migrant workers has become a strong basis in increasing their bargaining position, thus causing the husband's authority to be able to be bought by his wife (purchased local authority). The economic resource base of female migrants, and a relatively long separation of the husband and wife, have triggered the divorce of migrant families.

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